科技英语教案

第一篇：科技英语教案

科技英语教案

I.Teaching Plan(180 minutes)

1.Warm-up(10 minutes)

2.Detailed Study(145 minutes)

3.Translating skills of nominalization(24 minutes)

4.Assignment(1 minute)

II.Teaching Steps

1.Warm-up:(10 minutes)

1).Have you ever watched the movie A Beautiful Mind? What is the story about?

2).What are the basic elements of games and what is the goal of the participants in the game?

3).In order to win in a game, what kind of approach or strategy should be applied?

2.Detailed Study(145 minutes)

Step1.Text Organization

Part One: paras.1-3

Game theory can be defined as the science of strategy which studies both pure conflicts(zero-sum games)and conflicts in cooperative forms.Part Two: paras.4-11

There are two distinct types of strategic imterdependence;sequential move game and simultaneous-move game.Part Three: paras: 12-19

The typical examples of game theory are given as basic principles such as prisoners’ dilemma, mixing moves, strategic moves, bargaining, concealing and revealing information.Part Four: para.20

The research of game theory has succeeded in illustrating strategies in situations of conflict and cooperation and it will focus on the design of successful strategy in future.Step 2.Detailed study of part one

Terms: game theory, zero-sum game，Words and phrases:

1)outcome: The outcome of an activity, process, or situation is the situation that exists at the end of it

E.g:

Mr.Singh said he was pleased with the outcome...辛格先生说他对这一结果感到满意。

2)rear: v.bring up and educate children rear a family 养家

I was reared in east Texas.我在得克萨斯州东部长大。

n.[the rear] the back part 后部、背后、后面 a kitchen in the rear of the house

3)takeover: n.公司的接收或并购

The economy of Hong Kong goes well after its ～.4)implement: 1.V.履行;实施 N-COUNT 可数名词工具;器具;用具

e.g We need money to implement the program.～ plans, policies, a program of reforms

knives and other useful implements.刀子和其他有用工具

5)jointly: in collaboration or cooperation adv.共同地，联合地，连带地

e.g The two boys owned the boat jointly.joint: n.关节，连接处 adj.共有的，共同的

6)fight back: When an animal is under attack, it can run away or fight back.抵抗，反击，强忍住

e.g If he hit you, why didn't you fight back?

7)cut down: 削减;减少使用

e.g If you spend more than your income, can you try to cut down?

如果你入不敷出，可以试着减少开支吗?

Content questions:

1.What kind of games did early game theory mathematicians emphasize? What is the current research focus?

2.Are game strategies different from decisions made in a neutral environment? Why or why not?

Step 3.Detailed study of part two

1)When thinking about how others will respond, one must put oneself in their shoes, and think as they would;one should not impose one’s own reasoning on them.• 在考虑其他博弈者会如何应对时，博弈者必须能设身处地地换位思考，而不能把自己的主观判断强加于人。

2)In contrast to the linear chain of reasoning for sequential games, a game with simultaneous moves involves a logical circle.• Paraphrase: A game with simultaneous move requires a logical circular thinking, which is totally different from the linear chain of reasoning for sequential games

• 与连续策略博弈的线性思维不同，联立策略的博弈涉及逻辑循环。

3)square: v.与…一致，符合

• That explanation squares with the facts, doesn't it...那个解释和事实相符，不是吗?

• Square the circle: to attempt sth.impossible 做(似乎是)不可能的事情

4)When we say that an outcome is an equilibrium, there is no presumption that each person’s privately best choice will lead to a collectively optimal result.• 当我们把博弈的结果表述为一种均衡的时候，并不能假定博弈的每个参与者的个人最佳策略将带来共同的最优化结果。

collectively: adv.全体的，共同的

e.g.All members of the Cabinet are collectively responsible for decisions taken.• 所有内阁成员对所作决定集体负责。

optimal: a.best or most favorable 最佳的

e.g.Aim to do some physical activity three times a week for optimal health.• 为了达到最佳的健康状况，要力争每周进行3次身体锻炼。

Content questions:

1).What is the essence of the game?

2).In a sequential-move game, what do the players do? While in a simultaneous game, what do the players do?

3).What is the general principle for players in the simultaneous game?

4).Can you describe the concept of Nash equilibrium? How is it used in circular reasoning of games?

Step 4.Detailed study of part three and part four

1).confess: v.①confesses to sth/doing sth 承认，供认坦白(自己做错的事)

• She finally confessed to having stolen the money.②confess sth to sb(向神父)忏悔，告解

• You just go to the church and confess your sins...你干脆去教堂忏悔自己的罪过吧。

2).outweigh: v.be greater in weight, value or importance than sth

e.g The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages.利远大于弊

• out-为前缀,意为exceeds, go beyond

3).Prisoners’ dilemma : in game theory, the prisoners’ dilemma is a type of non-zero game in which two players can cooperate with or defect the other player.4)Game theory quantifies this insight and details the right proportions of such mixtures.• 博弈论为提高洞察力和掌握混合性策略恰当的火候提供了参考。

5).deter: v.～sb.from doing sth.使某人决定不做某事

e.g Failure did not deter him from making another attempt.他并未因失败而畏缩不前。

6).credible: adj.可信的，可靠的

incredible: adj.不可思议的;惊人的;难以置信的;credibility: n.可靠性，可信性;确实性

7).renege: v.fail to keep a promise, one’s word 食言，背信

If someone reneged on a deal, they could never trade here again.谁要是违背了约定，就永远不能再在这里进行交易。

8).commit to: 对…作出承诺, 担负责任;致力于…;把…固定在

e.g.He has committed himself to the cause of education.他已决心献身教育事业。

9).monopoly: n.①专卖权，专利权 gain a ～

• In some countries, tobacco is a government～专卖品

Content questions:

1).In tennis why is it crucial for players to mix their moves?

2).What is brinkmanship strategy in games of conflict?

3).What is the process of bargaining for players? What agreement can be reached?

3.The translating skills——nominalization(24 minutes)

Nominalization(名词化结构)

1)单纯名词化结构：指由一个或多个名词修饰一个中心名词构成的名词化结构。

water purification system

该结构的中心名词是system，purification 修饰water，因此该结构相当于a system for the purification of water

2)复合名词化结构：指由一个中心名词和形容词、名词、副词、分词及介词短语等多个前置或后置修饰语构成。

acute bacterial peritonitis 急性细菌性腹膜炎

将名词化结构译为动词

All substances will permit the passage of some electric current, provided the potential difference is high enough.这里的名词passage在翻译时要译为动词“通过”。

全句译为：只要有足够的电位差，电流便可通过任何物体。

将名词化结构译为动宾关系

As a small-scale illustration of the artificial modification of physical weather processes, take the frost prevention in an orchard.划线部分的名词化结构译为“对天气的物理过程进行人工影响”

全句译为：我们可举果园中防霜作为说明对天气的物理过程进行小尺度人工影响的例子。

4.Assignment(1 minute)

Do the exercises of multiple choice, blank filling, cloze.

第二篇：科技英语教案

科技英语

王潇芹

机电学院热能与动力工程系 Unit 1 Engineering and Engineer

第一单元工程和工程师

1.1 Engineering 1.1 工程

Most simply, engineering is the art of directing the great source of power in nature for the use and the convenience of man.In its modern form, engineering involves men, money, materials, machines, and energy.It is differentiated from science because it is primarily concerned with how to direct to useful and economical ends the natural phenomena which scientists discover and formulate into acceptable theories.Engineering therefore requires above all the creative imagination to find useful applications of natural phenomena.It is always dissatisfied with present methods and equipment.It seeks newer, cheaper, better means of using natural sources of energy and materials to improve man’s standard of living and to diminish toil.最简单地说，工程是为了人类的应用与方便而对自然界存在的巨大自然力进行引导操纵的技术。在其现代形式中，工程包括人力、金钱、材料、机械和能量。工程与科学的不同在与工程主要关注如何有效的经济的支配自然现象，而科学家则发现这些自然现象并将他们明确的表述为公认的理论。因此工程首先要求具有创造性的想象力来找出有效利用自然现象的方法。工程通常不满足于现有的方法和设备，它总是寻求更新、更廉价、更好的方法来利用自然能源和材料，从而提高人们的生活水平，减小苦力。

Traditionally there were two divisions or disciplines, military engineering and civil engineering.As man’s knowledge of natural phenomena grew and the potential civil applications became more complex, the civil engineering discipline tended to become more and more specialized.The practicing engineer began to restrict his operations to narrower channels.For instance, civil engineering came to be concerned primarily with static structures, such as dams, bridges, and buildings, whereas mechanical engineering split off to concentrate on dynamic structures, such as machinery and engines.Similarly, mining engineering became concerned with the discovery of , and removal from, geological structures of metalliferous ore bodies, whereas metallurgical engineering involved extraction and refinement of the metal from the ores.From the practical applications of electricity and chemistry, electrical and chemical engineering arouse.按照惯例，工程通常划分为两类或称之为两个部门，即军事工程和民用工程。随着人类对自然现象了解的增长和潜在的民用设施的复杂化，民用工程部门趋向于越来越专业化。当今的工程师开始将其业务限制在更为狭窄的渠道内，比如，土木工程学开始主要关注于静态建筑，诸如水坝、桥梁和楼房；然而机械工程学则分裂出来开始关注动态结构，诸如机器和发动机。类似的，采矿工程学开始关注探寻含金属矿体的地质结构，并从此地质结构中开采含金属的矿体，而冶金工学则更多关注从矿石中提取和精炼金属。基于实际应用电器和化学的电气工程和化学工程也出现了。

This splintering process continued as narrower specialization became more prevalent.Civil engineers has more specialized training as structural engineers, dam engineers, water-power engineers, bridge engineers;mechanical engineers machine-design engineers，industrial engineers, motive-power engineers;electrical engineers as power and communication engineers(and the latter divided eventually into telegraph, telephone, radio, television, and radar engineers);mining engineers as metallic-ore mining engineers and fossil-fuel mining engineers(the latter divided into coal and petroleum engineers).随着专业细化的更加盛行这种分离过程也在继续。土木工程师有更专业化的系列诸如结构工程师、筑坝工程师、水利工程师和桥梁工程师。机械工程师细分为机械设计工程师，工业工程师和动力工程师。电气工程师细分为电力工程师和通信工程师（后者最终划分为电报工程师、电话工程师、无线电通信工程师、电视工程师和雷达工程师）；采矿工程师细分为金属矿物采矿工程师和矿物燃料工程师（后者划分为煤炭工程师和石油工程师）。

As a result of this ever-increasing utilization of technology, mankind and his environment have been affected in various ways--some good, some bad.Sanitary engineering has been expanded from treating the waste products of humans to also treating the effluents from technological processes.The increasing complexity of specialized machines and their integrated utilization in automated processes has resulted in physical and mental problems for the operating personnel.This has led to the development of bioengineering, concerned with the physical effects upon man, and management engineering, concerned with the mental effects.随着技术利用的不断增长，其结果之一就是人类与环境在各个方面均受到了影响—有些是好的，有些则是坏的。卫生工程师从起初只处理人类废品扩大到开始处理工艺过程产生的废水。专业化机械以及它们在自动化过程中的集成应用均变得日益复杂，这导致运行人员身体和精神方面都出现了一些问题，这就引起了生物工程和管理工程的发展，前者关注于对人类身体产生的影响，后者关注于对精神的影响。

1.2 Mechanical Engineering

1.2 机械工程

Engineering is an applied science.The engineer has a knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences by study, experience, and practice which is applied to develop ways to utilize, economically, the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind.The engineer is a problem solver, using knowledge and ability to devise or improve the solution to technological problems.The engineer is concerned with learning why a system or concept operates and how it might be directed toward useful, beneficial products.工程是一门应用科学。工程师通过学习、体验和实践来获得数学和自然科学知识，它们被用来开发出对人类有益的更经济有效的利用自然材料和能量的途径。工程师是问题的解决者，他们应用知识和才能设计或改进技术问题的解决方案。工程师关注于研究规律或原理为什么运作以及如何将其引导使之产生有用有益的产品。

Perhaps the broadest of the engineering disciplines, mechanical engineering is concerned with the application of science and technology in the solution of the numerous problems facing our increasingly complex world.机械工程也许是工程学科中内容最广的一门科学，它关注的是如何应用科学技术来解决我们面对的日益复杂的世界中的众多问题。

Mechanical engineers are innovators, developing devices and systems to perform useful services.They are involved in the conception, planning, design, analysis, testing, production, and utilization of facilities, systems, and machines.They are concerned with the production and use of energy, with combustion processes, environmental control, industrial pollution, materials processing and handling, the design of transportation vehicles and propulsion systems, and the safety of products.The field of mechanical engineering may be divided into two major areas: thermosciences and design.机械工程师是改革创新者，他们不断研制各种装臵与系统来完成有用的工作；他们致力于设施、体系和机器的概念、规划、设计、分析、测试、产品和应用；他们关注于能量的产品和应用，还关注于燃烧过程、环境的控制、工业污染、材料加工和处理，运输车辆和推进系统的设计以及产品的安全性。机械工程领域可以划分为两大主要方面：热学和设计。

In the thermosciences area, the mechanical engineer is concerned with thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer—the behavior of solids, liquids, and gases—in engineering applications.Emphasis is placed on energy conversion systems, energy analyses, the design and development of engines and propulsion systems, and the use of energy.在热学领域，机械工程师关注的是热力学、流体力学和传热学（即固体、液体和气体的性质）在工程中的应用。重点研究的是能量的转换系统、能量分析，发动机和推进系统的设计和研制以及能量的利用。

In the design area, mechanical engineers are concerned with the development of new and improved laborsaving devices and machines.They work toward the development of devices to transmit and control mechanical power for useful purposes.Emphasis is placed on machine design, mechanisms, kinematics, and automatic controls.Mechanical engineers, for example, have had a hand in the design of a great variety of commodities.They have also been instrumental in the development of machines to produce these commodities.在设计领域，机械工程师关注的是改进、开发新型可节省劳动力的装臵与机器，他们工作的目标是研制出能够传递并控制机械动力至实际用途的装臵。重点研究的是机器的设计、机构、运动学和自动控制。比如说，机械工程师们参与了许许多多各种各样商品的设计，并且在研制生产这些商品的机器中也发挥着作用。1.3 The Main Tasks of an Engineer

1.3 工程师的主要任务

There are many types of industries active today.All industries require a great deal of engineering to keep new ideas and developments coming and to refine and improve manufacturing techniques.现今活跃于社会中的行业多种多样。各个行业都要求大量的工程研究以保持新观念和发展趋势，并改善和提高生产技术

As we know, these are the main tasks of an engineer: to explore new ways, invent new solutions to problems, and design new devices.In the research stage of a project, the engineer usually has found a new way of doing a job and is analyzing it(using mathematics and computers)to see how feasible the idea is and how well it will work.The development stage then follows.Here the idea is carried out in the laboratory.The processes vary among different projects, but the basic point is the same: turn the idea into a working reality.The development stage lasts as long as it needs to, until the working device has been constructed and tested.Then the manufacturing stage begins, during which it may be necessary to change some plans in the light of practical manufacturing conditions.正如我们所知，工程师的主要任务是：探索新的途径、找出解决问题的新方法和设计新的装臵。在一个项目的研究阶段，工程师通常在发现了一个作某项工作的新方法之后对其进行分析（用数学和计算机）以了解其可行性如何以及其工作的成效如何，接下来是开发阶段，在此阶段想法在实验室得以实现。对于不同的项目其过程也不尽相同，但基本的目的是一致的：即将想法转变为可工作的现实，研发阶段的持续时间依其需要而定，直到工作装臵被建成并通过测试。接下来开始的是生产阶段，在此阶段通常需要根据实际生产条件对原方案作一些改动。

Following the development of a new device or product, it must be manufactured, usually in large quantities.In the last few decades a whole field of automated manufacturing techniques has been developed, requiring new engineering skills to invent and improve machines that automatically construct other machines efficiently and reliably.新装臵或产品在研发之后就要进行生产，通常是大规模的。在最近几十年内自动化生产技术已经全面地发展起来，它要求新的工程技术来发明和改进能高效可靠的自动生产其它机器的机器。

During production and at the end of the assembly line, a product must be carefully tested to determine if it will perform its job properly and reliably.Frequently this testing procedure must be done automatically as well.Engineers are now developing procedures and machines to carry out what can be a very complicated sequence of tests.For example, consider the enormous problem of testing a large computer to see if it will perform all its tasks correctly.在生产过程中以及在装配线的最后阶段，产品必须进行仔细地检测以确定其是否能正确有效地执行作业。通常这种检测过程也需要自动执行。工程师目前正在研发可执行非常复杂的系列测试的程序和机器，比如考虑一个大型的问题来检测大型计算机，看其是否能正确的执行其全部任务。

In a large-scale production operation, be it identical small items such as radios of cars or a single item such as an oil refinery, there are many problems for an engineer to deal with.In an industrial environment the engineer’s basic job is to plan the sequence of steps necessary for the successful completion of a task at minimum cost.在大规模生产中，不论是批量生产同一小产品如汽车用收音机或是建设单个项目如炼油厂，都有许多问题等待工程师解决。在工业环境下，工程师的基本工作是设计出能以最小的成本成功地完成任务所必需的一系列步骤。Unit 2 Computer Knowledge 第二单元计算机知识

2.1 Computer 2.1 计算机

A computer is an electronic machine that performs calculations and processes data automatically at high speed according to a prescribed sequence of operations.Broadly speaking, the term can refer not only to an electronic machine but also to one of a mechanical, analog, or other variety.Although all these types are used, computers usually mean electronic digital machines because electronic digital machines have many advantages and are widely used.Computers vary greatly in size;the smallest can be incorporated into a wristwatch, while the largest may fill an entire room.The electronic components of computers enable them to perform operations at high speeds.The fastest computer is able to perform billions of calculations per second.Computes are used to solve numerous problems, such as payroll calculations, inventory records, bank account transactions, airline reservations, and scientific and engineering computations.For each problem, the user must supply the necessary data and prepare an appropriate program(sequence of operations)by which the computer can process the data to produce the desired output.计算机是一种电子机器，它能够按照规定的运行顺序以高速进行自动计算和数据处理。一般说来，该术语不仅仅指电子机器，也可指机械式的、模拟的或其它类型的。虽然这些种类都在使用，但计算机通常指的是电子数字机器，因为电子数字机器有许多优点并且得到了广泛的应用。计算机在体积上差别很大，最小的可以嵌入一块表内，而最大的则可以占据整个房间。计算机的电子元件可以使其以高速运行。最快的计算机每秒钟可以进行几十亿次运算。人们应用计算机解决众多问题如工资表计算、库存资产记录、银行账目交易、航班预定以及科技与工程方面的运算。对每个问题，使用者都必须提供必需的数据并预先编好正确的程序（一系列指令），计算机通过程序处理数据并给出期望的结果。

Owing to the tremendous progress in the micro-miniaturization of the transistor(the basic element of computers)since the late 1960s, inexpensive and small computers have become widely available, proliferating in virtually every sector of society.Industrialized countries have become dependent on computers to assist in daily life, for they are used in countless activities, such as manufacturing, transportation, communication, education, and business.Compared with other important technological products, computers are used in home and office by far more people, including those with little or no technical background.Thus, a solid working knowledge of computers is beneficial to most people.自20世纪60年代后期，由于晶体管（计算机的基本元件）在微型化方面取得的巨大进展，廉价的小型计算机在社会的各个部门都得到了广泛的应用。发达国家已经依靠计算机来确保日产生活的正常运行，因为它们已被应用于无数活动中，比如生产、运输、通信、教育和商业。同其他重大科技产品相比，计算机可被更多的用户在家中和办公室中所使用，其中包括那些只有很少或根本没有专业背景的人。因此扎实的计算机操作知识对大多数人都是有用的。

A computer can be represented in block diagram form as shown in Fig.2-1.It consists of five functional blocks: memory, input, output, control and arithmetic and logic unit.计算机可以表示为图2-1所示的方框图形式，它由存储器、输入设备、输出设备、控制器及算术逻辑单元五个功能块所组成。

The memory is used to store instructions and data which are processed by the arithmetic and logic unit.The control unit coordinates the operations of the computer and most of the control resides in a central unit which, since it normally also contains the arithmetic and logic unit, is known as the central processing unit(CPU), namely the central processing unit(CPU)consists of a control unit and an arithmetic and logic unit.In a simple microcomputer system, integrated circuits often correspond to this functional division of computer systems.The main method of communication between the various component parts of a computer is by the use of one or more buses.A bus consists of a group of signal lines used to carry information.The CPU is organized around a bus structure.存储器用来存储算术逻辑单元的指令和数据。控制器用来协调计算机的操作，并且绝大多数控制器被设臵于中央单元内，由于中央单元一般也包含算术逻辑单元，因而它被称作中央处理器（CPU），即中央处理器（CPU）由控制器和算术逻辑单元组成。在一个简单的微型计算机系统中，集成电路的布臵通常与计算机系统的这种划分相适应。计算机中各个部分之间通信的主要方法是利用一条或多条总线。总线包括一组用来传输信息的信号线。CPU的周围布满了总线。

The parts of the computer which are involved in the transfer of data to and from the outside world are know as peripheral devices and can be categorized as follows:(1)Input: devices used to transfer information into the computer.(2)Output: devices used to transfer information out from the computer to the outside world.(3)Input/Output: devices which can be used for both the input and the output of data.计算机中用来和外界进行数据传输交换的部分被称为外部设备，可以划分为以下几类：

1）输入设备：用来向计算机输入信息的设备。2）输出设备：用来将信息从计算机向外传输的设备。3）输入/输出（I/O）：可同时用来进行数据输入和输出的设备。2.2 Programming Languages

2.2 程序设计语言

Programming languages are the languages in which a programmer writes the instructions that the computer will ultimately execute.The earliest programming languages were assembly languages, not far removed from the binary-encoded instructions directly executed by the machine hardware.Users soon(beginning in the mid-1950s)invented more convenient languages.The early language FORTRAN(Formula Translation)was originally much like assembly language;however, it allowed programmers to write algebraic expressions instead of coded instructions for arithmetic operations.COBOL(Common business-Oriented Language)was developed to handle records, files, and the operations necessary for simple business applications.The trend since then has been toward developing increasingly abstract languages, allowing the programmer to think and communicate with the machine at a level ever more remote from machine code.程序设计语言是程序员用来编写计算机最终能执行的指令的语言。最早的程序设计语言是汇编语言，它与计算机硬件能直接执行的二进制编码指令差别不大。使用者很快发明出了更方便的语言（开始于20世纪50年代中期）。早期Fortran语言（意为公式翻译）开始时与汇编语言很相似，但是它允许程序员在编写代数运算时可以用代数表达式代替编码指令。COBOL（面向商业的通用语言）被用来处理简单商业应用所必需的记录、文件和运算。从那时开始趋向于发展日益抽象的语言，允许程序员在远离机器代码的水平上进行思考并与计算机交流。

COBOL, FORTRAN, and their descendants such as PASCAL and C are know as imperative languages, since, they specify as a sequence of explicit commands how the machine is to go about solving the problem at hand;this is not very different from what takes place at the machine level.Other languages are functional, in the sense that programming is done by calling(i.e., invoking)functions or procedures, which are sections of code executed within a program.The best-known language of this type is LISP(from List Processing), in which all computation is expressed as an application of a function to one or more “objects”.Since LISP objects may be other functions as well as individual data items(variables, in mathematical terminology)or data structures, a programmer can create functions at the appropriate level of abstraction to solve the problem at hand.This feature has made LISP a popular language for artificial intelligence applications, although it has been somewhat superseded by logic programming languages such as PROLOG(from Programming in Logic).These are termed nonprocedural, or declarative, languages in the sense that the programmer specifies what goals are to be accomplished but not how specific methods are to be applied to attain those goals.COBOL，FORTRAN及它们的后继者，如PASCAL与C，均被称为命令式语言，因为它们将机器如何着手解决手头的问题规定为一显式指令序列，这与发生在机器语言中的情况没有很大的不同。而从下述意义上说其他语言都是函数型的，即编制程序是通过调用（即援引）作为程序内可执行编码段的函数或过程来进行的。这种类型的语言最著名的是LISP（来自于“表处理”的意思），它将所有的计算都表达成一个或多个对象的函数式。既然LISP的对象可以是单个的数据项（用数学术语描述即为变量）或数据结构，也可以是其它的函程数，因此程序员就可以在适当的抽象水平上创造出解决手头问题的程序。LISP的这一特点使其成为人工智能应用方面最受欢迎的语言之一，虽然它有些被逻辑编程语言PROLOG（来自“逻辑程序设计”的意思）所取代。只需程序员说明要实现的目标而不需给出实现这些目标的具体方法的语言称之为非过程化语言或描述性语言。

Computer programs written in any language other than machine language must be either interpreted or compiled.An interpreter is software that examines a user program one instruction at a time and calls on code to execute the operations required by that instruction.This is a rather slow process.A compiler is software that translates a user program as a whole into machine code that is saved for subsequent execution whenever desired.Much work has been done on making both the compilation process and the compiled code as efficient as possible.When a new language is developed, it is usually at first interpreted.If the language becomes popular, it becomes important to write compilers for it, although this may be a task of considerable difficulty.用机器语言以外的任何语言编写的计算机程序都必须经过解释或编译方可执行。解释程序是一种软件，它在逐一检查应用程序每条指令的同时将其译成代码，并执行该指令要求的运算。这是一个相当缓慢的过程。编译程序是一种将应用程序整体翻译成机器代码的软件，编译后的程序被储存起来在需要的时候再执行。为使编译过程和生成代码尽可能的有效已作了大量的工作。当一种新的语言被开发出时，它通常采取解释的方式执行。如果这门语言变得普及，对其开发编译程序就变得很重要，尽管这将是一项相当艰巨的工作。

2.3 Computer Viruses 2.3 计算机病毒

The computer virus is an outcome of the computer overgrowth in the 1980s.The cause of the term “computer virus” is the likeness between the biological virus and the evil program infected with computers.The origin of this term came from an American science fiction “The adolescence of P-1” written by Thomas J.Ryan, published in 1977.Human Viruses invade a living cell and turn it into a factory for manufacturing viruses.However, computer viruses are small programs.They replicate themselves and attach their copies to another program.计算机病毒是20世纪80年代计算机飞速发展的产物。“计算机病毒”这一名词起因于计算机上传染的有害程序与生物学中病毒的相似性。该名词最早出现于美国作家Thomas J.Ryan于1977年发表的科幻小说“P-1的青春期”。人体病毒侵入生命细胞并将其变为病毒的“生产工厂”。然而，计算机病毒则是一些小的程序，它们可以自我复制并将其粘贴于其它程序之中。

Once attached to the host program, the viruses then look for other programs to “infect”.In this way, the virus can speed quickly throughout a hard disk, or an entire organization when it infects a LAN or a multi-user system.At some point, determined by how the virus was programmed, the virus attacks.The timing of the attack can be linked to a number of situations, including a certain time or date, the presence of a particular file, the security privilege level of the user, and the number of times a file is used.Likewise, the mode of attack varies.So-called “benign” viruses might simply display a message, like the one that infected IBM’s main compute system last Christmas with a season’s greeting;while malignant viruses are designed to damage the system, the attack is to wipe out data, to delete files, or to format the hard disk.只要一粘附于宿主程序，病毒就会寻找其它的程序将其感染。通过这种方式，当一个局域网或一个多用户系统受到感染之后，计算机病毒会迅速扩散到整个硬盘甚至整个组织。病毒程序的设计决定了它们只有在某个点上才会发作。发作的时间选择通常与一些环境条件有关，如确定的时间或日期，某个特定文件的存在，使用者的安全优先等级或文件被使用的次数等。同样，病毒发作的方式也不尽相同。所谓的“良性病毒”可能仅仅是显示一条信息，比如上个圣诞节IBM的主机系统感染的病毒，它只是一个节日的问候。然而恶性病毒的设计却能破坏系统，这种病毒发作会毁掉数据、删除文件或者将硬盘格式化。

There are four main types of viruses: shell, intrusive, operating system and source code.病毒主要有四种类型：外壳型病毒，嵌入式病毒，操作系统型病毒和源码型病毒。

Shell viruses wrap themselves around a host program and do not modify the original program.Shell programs are easy to write, which is why about half of viruses are of this type.外壳型病毒将其自身隐藏于宿主程序附近但并不修改原文件。外壳型病毒很容易编写，这也是为什么病毒中有一半属于这种类型的原因。

Intrusive viruses invade an existing program and actually insert a portion of themselves into the host program.Intrusive viruses are hard to write and very difficult to remove without damaging the host file.嵌入式病毒会侵入已有程序，并将自身的一部分插入到宿主程序中。嵌入式病毒很难编写，而且在不损害主文件的前提下很难去除。

Shell and intrusive viruses most commonly attack executable program files—those with a.com or.exe extension, although data files are also at some risk.外壳型病毒和嵌入性病毒主要侵犯可执行文件—即那些以.com或.exe做扩展名的文件，尽管它有时也会危及到数据文件。

Operating system viruses work by replacing parts of the operating system with their own logic.It is very difficult to write operating system viruses and these viruses have the ability, once booted up, to take total control of your system.For example, some operating system viruses have hidden large amounts of attack logic in falsely marked bad disk sectors.操作系统型病毒则通过用自身代码取代部分操作系统程序来发作。操作系统型病毒也很难编写，这种病毒一旦被导入，就有控制整个系统的能力。比如，某些操作系统病毒会在错误标记的坏扇区隐藏大量的攻击性代码。

Source code viruses are intrusive programs and they are also inserted into a source program such as those written in PASCAL prior to the program being compiled.They are the least-common viruses because they are not only hard to write, but also have a limited number of hosts compared to the other types.源码型病毒是嵌入式程序，它们也会在诸如PASCAL之类语言编写的源程序被编译之前就插入到其中。它们是最不常见的一种病毒，因为它们不仅难于编写，而且与其它类型病毒相比，所能附着的宿主程序也是极为有限的。Unit 3 Mechanics Foundation

第三单元力学基础 3.1 Basic Concepts in Mechanics

3.1 力学中的基本概念

The branch of scientific analysis which deals with motions, time, and forces is called mechanics and is made up of two parts, statics and dynamics.Statics deals with the analysis of stationary systems, i.e., those in which time is not a factor, and dynamics deals with systems which change with time.研究运动、时间和力的关系的学科称为“力学”，它由两部分组成：静力学和动力学。静力学对静止系统作分析研究，也就是说在这些系统中时间并不是一个变量；动力学则研究随时间而变的系统。

Forces are transmitted into machine members through mating surfaces, e.g., from a gear to a shaft or from one gear through meshing teeth to another gear, from a connecting rod through a bearing to a lever, from a V belt to a pulley, or from a cam to a follower.It is necessary to know the magnitudes of these forces for a variety of reasons.The distribution of the forces at the boundaries or mating surfaces must be reasonable, and their intensities must be within the working limits of the materials composing the surfaces.For example, if the force operating on a sleeve bearing becomes too high, it will squeeze out the oil film and cause metal-to-metal contact, overheating, and rapid failure of the bearing.If the forces between gear teeth are too large, the oil film may be squeezed out from between them.This could result in flaking and spalling of the metal, noise, rough motion, and eventual failure.In the study of dynamics we are principally interested in determining the magnitude, direction, and location of the forces.力在机械零件之间通过配合表面来传递，比如，从齿轮传至轴或从一对齿轮通过啮合齿对传至另一个齿轮，从连杆通过轴承传至摇杆，从V带传至带轮，或从凸轮传至从动杆等等。有很多原因促使我们必须明确这些力的大小。力在边界处和配合表面处的分布必须是合理的，而且其密度必须在组成表面的材料所允许的工作范围之内。比如说，如果作用于一滑动轴承上的力升的太高，润滑油膜将会被挤出而导致金属与金属的直接接触，从而引起过热和轴承的迅速破坏。如果齿轮啮齿之间的力过大，其间的润滑油膜也会被挤出。这可能会导致金属出现剥落与裂纹，产生噪声，运动平稳性变差并造成最终的断裂。在动力学的研究中，我们主要关注的是如何确定力的大小、方向和位臵。

Some of the terms used in this phase of our studies are defined below.我们本文所研究的一些术语定义如下：

Force

Our earliest ideas concerning forces arose because of our desire to push, lift, or pull various objects.So force is the action of one body acting on another.Our intuitive concept of force includes such ideas as place of application, direction, and magnitude, and these are called the characteristics of a force.力：我们对力最初的概念来源于我们推、提或拉物体的需要。因此力是一个物体对另一个物体的作用。我们对力直观的概念包括这样一些要素：即力的作用点、方向和大小，这些称之为力的特性。

Matter

Matter is any material or substance;if it is completely enclosed, it is called a body.物质：物质可以是任何材料或物品，如果它是完全封闭的，则称为物体。Mass Newton defined mass as the quantity of matter of a body as measured by its volume and density.This is not a very satisfactory definition because density is the mass of a unit volume.We can excuse Newton by surmising that he perhaps did not mean it to be a definition.Nevertheless, he recognized the fact that all bodies possess some inherent property that is different from weight.Thus, a moon rock has a certain constant amount of substance, even though its moon weight is different from its earth weight.This constant amount of substance, or quantity of matter, is called the mass of the rock.质量：牛顿将质量定义为物体所包含的物质的数量，用体积和密度的乘积来度量。这并不是一个令人满意的定义，因为密度本身是单位体积的质量。我们不必责怪牛顿，也许他并未将此视作定义。然而，他认识到所有物体都拥有一些与重力无关的内在性质这一事实。因此，一块月球上的石块拥有确定不变的物质的数量，尽管它在月球上的重量与在地球上不同。这个确定的材料的多少或物质的数量，即为这块石头的质量。

Inertia Inertia is the property of mass that causes it to resist any effort to change its motion.惯性：惯性是质量所具有的抵抗任何外力改变其本身运动状态的性质。Weight

Weight is the force of gravity acting upon a mass.重量：重量是重力作用于质量上的力。

Particle

A particle is a body whose dimensions are so small that they may be neglected.质点：质点是这样的一个物体，即其尺寸小到可以忽略不计。Rigid Body

All bodies are either elastic or plastic and will be deformed if acted upon by forces.When the deformation of such bodies is small, they are frequently assumed to be rigid, i.e., incapable of deformation, in order to simplify the analysis.刚体：所有的物体都是弹性的或塑性的，在作用有外力时会发生形变。当物体的形变很小时，它们通常被认为是刚性的，也就是说，为了简化分析认为是不可变形的。

Deformable Body

The rigid-body assumption cannot be used when internal stresses and strains due to the applied forces are to be analyzed.Thus we consider the body to be capable of deforming.Such analysis is frequently called elastic-body analysis, using the additional assumption that the body remains elastic within the range of the applied forces.变形体：由于在分析由外力引起的内应力和应变时不能采用刚体假设，因而我们将物体视作可变形体。这种分析通常称之为弹性体分析，并且通常假定物体在力的作用范围内保持为弹性的。3.2 Mechanical Properties of Metals

3.2 金属的力学性能

Mechanical properties are the characteristic responses of a material to applied forces.The knowledge of mechanical properties of materials is very essential in order to construct a mechanically sound structure such as a bridge on a river.Mechanical properties can be determined by conducting experimental tests on the material specimen.Some important mechanical properties of materials are: 力学性能指的是某种材料对所外力所表现出的特性。在建造力学坚固的建筑如在河流上建造桥梁时，了解材料的力学性能显得非常重要。力学性能可以通过在材料试样上作测试实验得到。材料的一些重要的力学性能包括：

(1)Strength(in tension, compression, shear, bending and torsion)(2)Stiffness(3)Ductility(4)Impact strength(5)Hardness(6)Toughness 1）强度（在拉伸、压缩、剪切、弯曲、扭转时所表现出的强度）2）刚度 3）塑性 4）冲击强度 5）硬度 6）韧性 1.Strength Strength of a material may be defined as the ability of the material to sustain loads without undue distortion or failure.Material should have adequate strength when subjected to tension, compression, shear, bending or torsion as per the intended use;for example, the crankshaft of an automobile should have proper torsion strength.1.强度：材料的强度可以定义为材料在不致过度变形和毁坏的情况下成承受载荷的能力。材料在预定的使用场合中受到拉伸、压缩、剪切、弯曲或扭转时应具有足够的强度。比如说汽车的曲轴应具有适当的抗扭强度。

2.Stiffness Stiffness is the ability of a material or shape to resist elastic deflection.For identical shapes, the stiffness is proportional to the modulus of elasticity.A material which deforms less under a given load is stiffer than one which deforms more.2.刚度：刚度是材料或物体抵抗弹性变形的能力。对于确定的形状，刚度正比于弹性模量。在给定的载荷下变形较小的材料较之变形较大的材料具有更高的刚度。

3.Ductility Ductility refers to the capacity of a material to undergo deformation under tension without rupture as in a wire drawing operation.3.塑性：塑性是指材料经受拉伸变形如拉丝加工而不致断裂的能力。4.Impact Strength It is the strength of a material when subjected to high rates of loading, usually in bending, tension or torsion.The amount of energy required to fracture the material by a single blow is measured by means of Charpy test.4.冲击强度：这是指材料在受到高速载荷作用时的强度，通常是在弯曲、拉伸或扭转的情况下。致使材料失效的单次冲击能量的数值可以通过摆锤式冲击实验得到。

5.Hardness Hardness is the resistance of a material to plastic deformation usually by indentation.However, the term may refer to stiffness or refer to resistance to scratching, abrasion or cutting.Tests such as Vickers, Brinell and Rockwell are generally employed to measure hardness.5.硬度：硬度是指材料对通常由压痕引起的塑性变形的抗力，不过这一名词也可指刚性或指材料对划擦、磨损或切削的抗力。硬度多利用维氏、布氏及洛氏之类的实验方法来测定。6.Toughness Toughness refers to the ability of a material to withstand bending or the application of shear stresses without fracture.By this definition, copper is extremely tough but cast iron is not.6.韧性：韧性指的是在不致失效的情况下材料承受弯曲或剪切应力的能力。根据该定义可知，铜的韧性很好，而铸铁的韧性则较差。

3.3 Machines and Work

3.3 机器和功

Defined in simplest terms a machine is a device that uses force to accomplish something.More technically, it is a device that transmits and changes force or motion into work.This definition implies that a machine must have moving parts.A machine can be very simple, like a block and tackle to raise a heavy weight, or very complex, like a railroad locomotive or the mechanical systems used for industrial processes.用最简单的词定义，机器就是用力完成某项工作的装臵。更专业一点讲机器是将力或运动转变为功的装臵。该定义意味着机器必须含有运动部件。机器可以非常简单，比如提升重物的滑轮组；机器也可以非常复杂，比如铁路机车和生产过程中的机械系统。

A machine receives input from an energy source and transforms it into output in the form of mechanical or electrical energy.Machines whose input is a natural source of energy are called prime movers.Natural sources of energy include wind, water, steam, and petroleum.Windmills and waterwheels are prime movers;so are the great turbines driven by water or steam that turn the generators that produce electricity;and so are internal combustion engines that use petroleum products as fuel.Electric motors are not prime movers, since an alternating current of electricity which supplies most electric energy does not exist in nature.机器接受能源的输入，并将其转换为机械能或电能的形式输出。以自然能源作为输入的机器称之为原动机，自然能源包括风、水、蒸汽和石油。因此风车和水车是原动机；由水或蒸汽驱动并带动发电机发电的大型涡轮机也是原动机；以石油产品作为燃料的内燃机还是原动机。电力马达并非原动机，因为为其提供绝大部分电能的交流电并不是自然界中存在的。

Terms like work, force, and power will be used frequently, so it is necessary to define them precisely.Force is an effort that results in motion or physical change.If you use you muscles to lift a box, you are exerting force on that box.The water which strikes the blades of a turbine is exerting force on those blades, thereby setting them into motion.诸如功、力、功率之类的术语会经常用到，因此必须对其进行准确的定义。力是为产生运动或物理改变而作出的努力。如果你用臂力举起一个箱子，那么你在对箱子施加力的作用。冲击涡轮叶片的水在对这些叶片施加力的作用，从而可以使其开始运转。

Note these two kinds of motion: linear and rotary.Linear motion is movement in a straight line;the technical term for this kind of motion is translation.Reciprocating motion is a linear motion that goes back and forth or up and down in the same path, like the movement of the pistons in a car.Rotary motion is movement in a circular path.To produce rotary motion it is necessary to have torque, a force that can cause a twisting motion called torsion.Torque is the kind of effort that you exert to open a twist-off lid on a jar.In many machines the problem is to change one kind of motion to another.In a car, for example, the linear motion of the pistons must be converted into rotary motion to make the wheels turn.注意这两种不同形式的运动：线性运动和旋转运动。线性运动是沿直线的运动，这种运动的专业术语是“平移”。往复运动指的是沿着相同的路径前后或上下所作的线性运动，比如说汽车内活塞的运动。旋转运动指的是沿环形路线的运动。要形成转动就必须具有转矩，即引起称作扭转的回转运动的力。转矩是你为拧开瓶盖而施加的那种作用。很多机器要处理的问题是将一种运动转变为另一种运动。比如说在汽车内，活塞的线性运动必须被转变为使车轮转动的旋转运动。

Power is another term used in a special technical sense in speaking of machines.It is the rate or speed at which work is performed.If you raise a ten pound weight a distance of twenty feet in two minutes, you are performing work at a rate of ten pounds×twenty feet / two minutes, or two hundred foot-pounds in two minutes.Since the rate is usually given in units of one minute, this is a rate of 100 foot-pounds in a minute.功率是在谈到机器时所用的另一个专业术语，它指的是做功的速率或速度。如果你在两分钟内将一个10磅重的物体提升了20英尺，你就以10磅×20英尺/2分钟的速率做了功。由于速率通常以每分钟为单位给出，因而这一速率亦即每分钟100磅英尺。

In the metric system, power is measured in terms of watts and kilowatts.The watt is the power to do one joule of work per second.The joule is a small unit of work, approximately three-quarters of a foot-pound.One horsepower is equal to 745.7 watts.The kilowatt, a more widely used term, equals a thousand watts or approximately 4/3 horsepower in the English system.The newton is a unit equal to the force necessary to accelerate one kilogram one meter per second per second.在公制系统中，功率由瓦或千瓦来衡量，1瓦的功率相当于每秒做了1焦耳的功，焦耳是功的一个很小的单位，大约相当于1磅英尺的三分之一。1马力等于745.7瓦。千瓦则是更常用的单位，等于一千瓦特或在英制系统中近似等于4/3马力。牛顿是力的单位，它等于产生1千克·米/平方秒加速的力。Unit 4 Materials and Heat Treatment

第四单元材料与热处理 4.1 Metallic and Nonmetallic Materials 4.1 金属材料和非金属材料

Perhaps the most common classification that is encountered in materials selection is whether the material is metallic or nonmetallic.The common metallic materials are such metals as iron, copper, aluminum, magnesium, nickel, titanium, lead, tin, and zinc and the alloys of these metals, such as steel, brass, and bronze.They possess the metallic properties of luster, thermal conductivity, and electrical conductivity;are relatively ductile;and some have good magnetic properties.The common nonmetals are wood, brick, concrete, glass, rubber, and plastics.Their properties vary widely, but they generally tend to be less ductile, weaker, and less dense than the metals, and they have no electrical conductivity and poor thermal conductivity.金属材料和非金属材料的划分也许是材料选择中最常见的一种分类形式。最常见的金属材料诸如铁、铜、铝、镁、镍、钛、铅、锡、锌以及这些金属的合金，如钢铁、黄铜、青铜等，它们拥有金属的一些特性诸如光泽、导热性、导电性、延展性，而且其中的某些还有较好的磁性。常见的非金属材料诸如木材、砖块、混凝土、玻璃、橡胶和塑料。这些材料的特性差异很大，但他们整体上表现为不易延展、较脆、与金属相比密度较小，没有导电性以及导热性较差。

Although it is likely that metals always will be the more important of the two groups, the relative importance of the nonmetallic group is increasing rapidly, and since new nonmetals are being created almost continuously, this trend is certain to continue.In many cases, the selection between a metal and nonmetal is determined by a consideration of required properties.Where the required properties are available in both, total cost becomes the determining factor.尽管在两类材料中相对重要的可能还将一直是金属材料，但非金属材料的重要性却在迅速提高，并且由于新的非金属材料的不断涌现，这种提高的趋势肯定还会保持下去。在许多场合中，金属材料或非金属材料的选择取决于所要求的特性，如果两种材料都具备该需求特性，那么总的成本将成为决定性因素。

More than 90% by weight of the metallic materials used by human beings are ferrous alloys.This represents an immense family of engineering materials with a wide range of microstructures and related properties.The majority of engineering designs that require structural load support or power transmission involve ferrous alloys.As a practical matter, these alloys fall into two broad categories based on the carbon in the alloy composition.在人类使用的金属材料中，重量占90%以上的都是铁合金。这代表着一个具有各种各样微观机构与相关特性的巨大工程材料家族。大多数要求结构承重或动力传输的工程设计都采用了铁合金。在实际应用中，这些合金根据碳在合金成分中的含量被划分为两大类。

A number of nonmetallic materials have substantial importance in manufacturing.Consequently, it is imperative for the design engineer to have an understanding of their natures, properties, advantages, and limitations so he may know when and how they may be used advantageously in his designs.Except in furniture manufacturing, where wood is of prime importance, these materials are plastics, elastomers and ceramics.许多非金属材料在制造业中也占据重要地位。因此，对于设计工程师来说，必须了解它们的种类、特性、优点和局限性，这样他才能知道何时和怎样在设计中更好的使用它们。在木材占首要重要性的家具制造业中则例外，其材料包括塑料、橡胶和陶瓷。

4.2 Iron and Its Production

4.2 铁及其产品

As we have seen, ferrous metals are alloys of iron with carbon, these alloys may contain also some other elements such as silicon(Si), phosphorus(P), etc., but carbon is the most important of all elements present in ferrous alloys.正如我们所知，黑色金属是铁和碳的合金，这些合金也可能包含一些其它元素诸如硅、磷等等，但碳是铁合金所有元素中最重要的。

Ferrous metals are used in industry in two general forms: cast iron and steel.These two ferrous alloys are usually produced from pig iron, and they have different carbon content.Steel is iron containing from 0.0218 to 2.11 per cent carbon, while pig iron is an alloy of iron and carbon with the carbon content more than 2.11 per cent.Pure iron is not used in industry because it is too soft.黑色金属在工业领域的应用主要有两种形式：铸铁和钢铁。这两种铁合金通常都由生铁制造，但其中碳的含量不同，含炭量在0.0218%到2.11之间的铁为钢，而生铁则是碳的含量超过2.11%的铁碳合金。纯铁因为太软而在工业中不被使用。

The furnace that is used for separating iron from the other elements combined with it in the iron ore is called a blast furnace, as shown in Fig.4-1.It is called so because a blast of hot air is forced into it , while producing the pig iron.This is a vertical furnace from 50 to 100 feet high and from 10 to 20 feet in diameter.The walls of this furnace are made of refractory bricks, which can stand great heat.用来从铁矿石中把同其它元素结合在一起的铁分离出来的炉子叫做鼓风炉（高炉），如图4-1所示。之所以这样称是因为在炼生铁时要将热风鼓入炉内，这是一个高度在50-100英尺，直径在10-20英尺之间的竖直熔炉，该熔炉的墙由耐火砖制成，它可以经受高温。

The largest parts of the blast furnace are the shaft and the hearth.The charging mechanism is in the shaft top, through this charging mechanism the iron ore, coke and flux are charged into the blast furnace.The blast of hot air is forced into the hearth through tuyeres, special holes in the top part of the hearth.These tuyeres are cooled with water while working.The pig iron flows out of the furnace through the tap which is special hole in the wall of hearth near the hearth bottom.The slag, which is lighter than the pig iron, flows out through another hole made in the wall of the furnace higher than the tap.This hole is called the slag hole.鼓风炉中最主要的组成部分是竖井和炉膛，加料机构位于竖井顶端，铁矿石、焦炭和助熔剂通过加料机构被加入到鼓风炉中。热风通过风口即位于炉膛顶部的一些特制孔被鼓入炉膛，这些风口在工作的同时被水冷却，生铁从出铁口即靠近炉膛底部的路墙上的特制孔排出炉膛。比生铁重量轻的炉渣从炉墙上另外一个位臵比出铁口略高的出口排出，这一出口被称为炉渣出口。

For separating iron from the impurities, the iron ore must be melted.The ore melts at a very high temperature, that is why the temperature inside the blast furnace is held about 2 500 degrees Fahrenheit.This great heat is produced by the coke burning in the blast of hot air.The air is heated in special stoves which are called hot blast stoves.In these stoves the blast furnace gases are burned to produce heat and to heat the air.A blast furnace may hold about 1 000 tons of iron ore, coke and fluxes.为了将铁和杂质分离开，铁矿石必须被熔化，矿石的熔化温度很高，这就是为什么高炉内的温度要保持在华氏2500度左右的原因。高热的产生依赖于焦炭在热风中的燃烧，而热风则是在称作热风炉中的专用炉子中被加热的，在这些炉子中通过燃烧高炉煤气来产生热量并加热空气，一个鼓风炉可以容纳大约1000吨的铁矿石、焦炭和助熔剂。

4.3 Heat Treatment of Steel

4.3 钢的热处理

Heat treatment is a method by which the heat-treater can change the physical properties of a metal.There are three main operations in the heat treatment of steel: hardening, tempering, and annealing.热处理是热处理工人用来改变金属物理性能的方法。钢的热处理有三种主要的工艺：淬火、回火和退火

The hardening operation consists of heating the steel above its critical range and then quenching it, that is rapidly cooling in a suitable medium such as water, brine , oil, or some other liquid.Having been hardened , the metal must be given a tempering treatment which consists of reheating the hardened steel to a temperature below the critical range, thus producing the required physical properties.淬火处理是指将钢材加热到其临界区之上，然后降温—即在适当的介质如水、盐水、油或其它液体中使之迅速冷却。金属淬硬之后必须进行回火处理，回火是将淬硬的钢重新加热到低于临界区的某个温度，从而获得所需的物理性能。

The critical points or critical temperatures are the temperatures at which a certain change takes place in the physical condition of the steel.These points are very important because in order to properly harden a piece of steel, it must be heated to a temperature above the upper critical point.Having known the critical points for certain steel, we can easily control the heat in the furnace.Gas, oil, and electric furnaces are the most commonly used for heat-treating.临界点或临界温度指的是钢的物理状态发生某个变化的温度。这些点非常的重要，因为为了适当地淬硬一块钢材必须将其加热到高于上临界点的温度。已知某种钢材的临界点之后，控制炉膛中的热量就比较容易了。金属的热处理中用得最多的是气炉、油炉和电炉。

Annealing is the uniform heating of a metal above usual hardening temperatures, followed by very slow cooling.Annealing may be carried out either to soften a piece that is too hard to machine or to remachine a piece that has already been hardened.Annealing also relieves internal stresses produced by machining.退火指的是在通常的淬火温度之上将金属均匀的加热，然后再缓慢的冷却。若工件过硬以致无法机加工，或是要重新机加工已经加工变硬的工件，就可通过退火来使材料软化。退火也可以减轻因为加工而造成的内应力。

Low carbon steel do not become hard when subjected to such a heat treatment because of the small amount of carbon contained.If it is necessary to obtain a hard surface on a part made of such steel, surface hardening operation must be carried out.One of the methods of surface hardening is cyaniding, which is done by keeping the work in a molten bath of sodium cyanide from 5 to 30 minutes, depending on the size of the work and the depth of penetration required.Having been subjected to such a treatment, the work is then quenched in water or oil, and a very hard case 0.01 to 0.015 inch thick is formed.This process is also called case hardening.低碳钢因为含碳量少所以在经受这种热处理后并不会变硬。如果这种钢材制成的某个零件有必要得到一个较硬的表面，就必须进行表面硬化处理。表面硬化的方法之一是氰化，即根据工件的尺寸和所要求的渗层深度将工件臵于氰化钠熔池中保持5到30分钟。工件经过这样的处理后被臵于水或油中冷却，就可以形成一0.01到0.015英寸厚的硬度层，这一过程也被称为表面硬化。

Nitriding is also one of the case hardening methods.This process consists of keeping the steel in hot ammonia gas for some hours.Nitrogen, formed in this condition from ammonia, penetrates into the surface of the metal, thus forming a very hard case.渗氮也是一种表面硬化方法，它是指将钢臵于热的氨蒸气中保持数小时。氮—在该情形下来自于氨—便会渗入金属表面，形成一非常硬的表层。

Another method of the case hardening is carburization.The work is placed into a metal box containing carburizing materials(that is materials with high carbon content)；the box is closed and placed into a furnace for some hours at the temperature of 926 degrees Centigrade.The depth to which the carbon penetrates depends upon the length of time the piece is kept in the furnace.Having been quenched in some liquid quenching medium, the work has a hard case and a soft core.表面硬化的另一个方法是渗碳。工件被臵于含渗碳材料（即含碳量很高的材料）的金属箱中。封闭箱子将其臵于926摄氏度的炉膛内数小时。渗碳深度取决于工件在炉膛中保持的时间长短，经一些液体冷却介质冷却之后，工件便会形成坚硬的表面和较软的芯部。Unit 7 Friction and Mechanisms

第七单元摩擦与机构

7.1 Friction 7.1 摩擦

Friction reduces the efficiency of machines but it is also indispensable.When you try to walk on ice, slipping and sliding and perhaps falling down, you realize the importance of friction.Ice has a low coefficient of friction and that is what makes it so difficult to walk on.Without friction it would be impossible to walk at all and our trains and cars could not move.摩擦的存在使得机器效率下降，但它同样也是不可缺少的。当你试着在冰上行走时，总会滑动还可能摔倒，这时你就会意识到摩擦力的重要性。冰的摩擦系数很小，这使得在其之上很难行走。没有摩擦力我们将完全无法行走，火车和汽车也将无法运行。

There are there different kinds of mechanical friction: static, sliding, and rolling.Static friction is the resistance to motion between two bodies in contact but at rest.The resistance of static friction is greater than that of sliding friction which is the resistance to continued motion after one body has started to move.Rolling friction occurs when resistance is reduced to its lowest degree by rotary motion not on the same axis.机械摩擦有三种不同的类型：即静止摩擦、滑动摩擦和滚动摩擦。静止摩擦是抵抗两个相互接触的物体发生相对运动的力。静止摩擦产生的抵抗力大于滑动摩擦，滑动摩擦阻止物体开始运动之后的进一步运动。当轴线不定的转动所受到的阻力降至最低限度时，就会出现滚动摩擦。Note these three kinds of friction at work: it takes a stronger effort to put a box into motion(static friction)than it does to keep it moving across the floor once started(sliding friction);if there are rollers under the box it takes still less effort to keep it in motion(rolling friction).注意这三种有效的摩擦力：使一个箱子开始移动（静摩擦）所需的力要大于它开始移动之后使之在地板上继续移动（滑动摩擦）所需的力；而如果箱子下有滚柱的话，使之继续运动（滚动摩擦）所需的力还会更小。

One way to reduce friction in machines is through the materials for the parts that contact each other.The coefficient of friction is the constant ratio of the friction to the force pressing the surfaces together.Coefficients have been equated for different common materials using the three type of friction.Steel on steel or glass on glass has high coefficients but some new substances have much lower coefficients.One of these is babbitt metal, an alloy made of tin, copper, and antimony;another is teflon, a plastic containing fluorine that is sometimes used in cooking utensils.降低摩擦的一个方法是通过改进相互接触的零件的材料实现的。摩擦力与促使表面压合的力之比为常数，称为摩擦系数。人们已测定出各种常用材料在此三种摩擦形式下的摩擦系数值。钢和钢或玻璃和玻璃相互接触时有较高的摩擦系数，但是一些新型的材料其系数要低得多。巴氏合金即是其中之一，它是一种由锡、铜和锑组成的合金。另外还有聚四氟乙烯，这是一种含氟的塑料，有时候用于作厨具。

Another way of reducing friction is by means of lubrication, applying oil or grease to the points or surfaces where the parts of a machine contact each other, petroleum products are the principal modern lubricants;some of them include polymers, the long, heavy, complex molecules that occur in plastics.另外一种减小摩擦的方法是通过润滑，即将油或油脂加在机器零件相互接触的点或面上。石油产品是最重要的现代润滑剂，其中一些含有聚合物，即塑料中存在的又长又大的复杂分子团。

A vital mechanism for reducing friction is the bearing which basically is a device that bears the friction of parts in motion.Often one of the parts will be moving and the other will be stationary.Logs used to move heavy stones in early times were the primitive form of a bearing.They were efficient because they changed sliding friction to rolling friction, thereby decreasing the effort necessary to move the stones.减小摩擦所用到的一个非常重要的装臵是轴承，它可以承担运动零件的摩擦力。通常其中的一个零件处于运动状态而另一个则静止。早期用来移动重的石头的圆木可以说是轴承的原始形式。它们是非常有效的，因为它们将滑动摩擦转变为了滚动摩擦，因此减小了移动石块所必需的力。

Reducing friction between the parts of a machine is the principal purpose of bearings.Different types have been designed for use at various points of contact to fit the kinds of motion at work.Probably the most familiar are ball bearings which are used in many machines.Small balls are fitted into a cage, a container that separates them.Cage and bearings（应改为：balls）are then sealed, often in a lubricant, between rings which are called races.The entire assembly is a ball bearing.减小机器零件之间的摩擦是轴承最基本的目的。对各种不同的接触点已设计了不同的轴承种类，以便适应做功的运动类型。最常见的可能是用于多种机器的球轴承。小的球体被嵌入盒内，即将其分割容纳的腔室，然后将壳与球体密封在称之为套圈的环路内，其中往往要采用润滑剂。这一完整的装配就是一个球轴承。

Another familiar type is the roller bearing, a modern version of the logs that were used as primitive bearings.Roller bearings contain small cylinders on which the bearing races can roll.They are usually fitted with the same kind of holding cage and races as ball bearing.In order to sustain pressure from different directions, bearing rollers are sometimes tapered or shaped like cut-off cones and set at an angle to the races.A variation is the needle bearing with cylinders of very small diameter.Needle bearings need not be contained in a cage or between races.Their advantage is greater load-carrying capacity with more friction than ball bearings of comparable size.另一种常见的型式为滚子轴承，这是最早用作轴承的圆木的现代版本。滚子轴承包含有若干小的圆柱体，轴承套圈可以在其上滚动，它们配合的方式与球轴承中壳与套圈的连接一样。为了承受来自不同方向的压力，轴承滚子有时候做成楔形的或像截锥形的并以一定的角度装入套圈内。其变种之一是包含小直径圆柱体的滚针轴承。滚针轴承不必安装于盒内或位于套圈之间，它们的优点是在尺寸可比的情况下较球轴承而言有更高的承重能力，可承受更大的摩擦力。

7.2 Mechanisms 7.2 机构

Essentially all machines are variations or combinations of some basic mechanisms.There are a number of different kinds of mechanisms or components that transmit motion or change it in one way or another.Modern machines and their components have become so complex that a branch of the science of mechanics called kinematics evolved in order to study mechanisms and their actions.Regardless of the original input and the final output of most modern machines, it is their mechanisms that give them their great versatility and flexibility.基本上所有的机器都是一些基本机构的变种或组合形式。有许多不同类型的机构或构件可以用来传输运动或将其从一种方式转变为另一种方式。现代的机器及其构件已变得如此复杂，以至于已发展出了一门称之为运动学的力学分支,专门用于研究机构及其运动。不论绝大多数现代机器的最初输入和最终输出如何，都是其中的机构使之具有了广泛的适应性和很大的灵活性。

Gears play such an important part in machines that they have become the symbol for machinery.They are wheels with teeth that engage or mesh with each other so that they work in pairs to transmit or change motion.They are frequently used to reduce or increase the speed of a motion and they can also change the direction of motion.The line around which a wheel rotates is its axis;gears can change axial motion.齿轮在机器中扮演了一个非常重要的角色,以至于它们已成为了机器的象征。齿轮的轮上有相互啮合的齿，因此它们成对的工作以便传输或改变运动。它们通常用于减小或增加某个运动的速度，有时也用于改变运动的方向。轮子绕其旋转的线称之为轴线，齿轮可以改变轴向运动。

Another kind of mechanism is the cam.Like the gear, it consists of a pair of components;the cam itself is the input member and the follower is the output member.The cam is attached to a rotating shaft;it transmits motion to the follower.Cams come in many different shapes—there are heart-shaped cams, clover-leafed cams, elliptical cams and others.By means of these different shapes cams can change rotating into reciprocating(back and forth or up and down)motion or into oscillating or vibrating motion.The follower is usually a rod or shaft.Cams can transmit exact motions at specific times in a cycle.They are in automobile engines to raise and lower the valves and in sewing machines to control the movements of the needle.还有一种机构是凸轮，它和齿轮一样包括一对构件。凸轮本身为输入元件而从动件则是输出元件。凸轮安装于旋转的轴上，它将运动传递给从动件。凸轮有很多不同的形状—有心形凸轮、三星凸轮、椭圆凸轮以及其它形状的凸轮。通过这些不同的形状，凸轮可以将旋转运动变为往复运动（前后的或者上下的）或变为摆动或振动。从动件则通常是杆或轴。凸轮可在一个循环中特定的时间段精确传递运动。在汽车发动机中它们用来提起或关上阀门，在缝纫机中则用来控制针的运动。

Another kind of mechanism is known as a linkage;it is a series of at least four rods that are connected by joints that permit the rods to pivot.When one rod is fixed the other rods can move only in paths that are predetermined.Like cams, linkages are used to change the direction of motion, to transmit different kinds of motion, or to provide variations by varying the lengths of the rods in relation to each other.还有一种机构称之为连杆机构，它由至少4个以上的一系列杆组成，通过可以确保这些杆转动的连接装臵连接起来。当某一根杆固定时，其它杆只能沿预定的路线运动。和凸轮一样，连杆机构可被用来改变运动的方向、传递不同类型的运动，或者通过改变连杆的长度来提供其它变型。

A ratchet is another paired mechanism consisting of a wheel with teeth and a pawl which drops into the spaces between the teeth.The ratchet mechanism is used to prevent a motion from being reversed or to change reciprocating into rotary motion.棘轮机构是另外一种成对的机构，它由一个带齿的轮子和一个棘爪组成，棘爪位于两齿之间。棘轮机构用来防止运动反向进行，或用来将往复运动转变为旋转运动。

This is a brief introduction to the complex world of mechanisms.以上就是对复杂的机构世界的一个简短介绍。

7.3 Gears 7.3 齿轮

Gears are vital factors in machinery.One of the first mechanism invented using gears was the clock.In fact, a clock is little more than a train of gears.Considerable study and research have been made on gears in recent years because of their wide use exacting conditions.They have to transmit heavier loads and run at higher speeds than ever before.The engineers and the machinists all consider gearing the prime element in nearly all classes of machinery.在机器中齿轮是一个不可缺少的元件。首先采用了齿轮的发明之一是钟表，实际上，钟表就是一系列的齿轮。因为齿轮在苛刻的条件下的广泛适用性，近些年来对其作了大量的学习和研究工作。和过去相比，现在的齿轮要传递更重的载荷，并以更高的速度运转。工程师和机械师一致认为，几乎在所有的机械领域内齿轮装臵都是最基本的元件。

1.Spur Gears Spur gears are used to transmit power and rotary motion between parallel shafts.As can be seen in Fig.7-1, the teeth are cut parallel to the axis of the shaft on which the gears are mounted.The smaller of two gears in mesh is called the pinion, and the large is customarily designated as the gear.In most applications the pinion is the driving whereas the gear is the driven element.1.直齿圆柱齿轮：直齿圆柱齿轮用于在平行的轴间传递功和转动。如图7-1所示，齿的切割与齿轮安装的轴线相平行。啮合的一对齿轮中较小的一个称为小齿轮，而大的则通常被称为“齿轮”。在大多数设备中，小齿轮通常是主动元件，而齿轮则通常是从动元件。2.Helical Gears Fig.7-2 shows helical gears in mesh.The pair shown is mounted on parallel shafts, the most common situation for which helical gears are used.However, helical gears are sometimes used for nonparallel, nonintersecting shaft applications.When used in this manner, they are known as crossed helical gears.Fig.7-3 illustrates a pair of crossed helical gears in mesh.Spur gears are used for low speed applications and those situations where noise control is not a problem.Use of helical gears is indicated when applications involves high speeds, large power transmission, or where noise abatement is important.Whereas spur gears have their teeth cut parallel to the gear axis, helical gear teeth are cut in the form of helices making a constant angle with respect to the gear axis.2.斜齿轮：图7-2所示是一对相互啮合的斜齿轮。所示的一对齿轮装在相互平行的轴上，这也是大多数场合中斜齿轮的使用方式。然而，有时候斜齿轮使用时其轴线是既不平行也不相交的，当以这种方式应用时，它们被称为交错轴斜齿轮。图7-3描绘了一对啮合的交错轴斜齿轮。直齿圆柱齿轮被用于低速和那些对噪音控制要求不高的场合，而在高速、大功率传动或对噪声有严格要求的应用场合，则需要使用斜齿轮。与轮齿被切削为平行于齿轮轴线的直齿圆柱齿轮不同，斜齿轮的轮齿被切削为螺旋线的形式，即相对于齿轮轴线夹一恒定角度。

3.Worm Gears Although crossed helical gears can be used for applications involving nonparallel, nonintersecting shafts, they are rather limited in their load transmission capacity.In addition, large speed ratios, on the order of say 200 to 1 could not be reasonably achieved in one reduction because of the size of gear

第三篇：英语教案

学院：外国语学院班级：2011级英本八班学号：11280268 姓名：沈贤淑

如何做一个懂礼仪的大学生

礼仪，在现代的社会中扮演者越来越重要的角色，在很多为人处事的细节中，礼仪显得尤为重要。作为新一代的大学生，学好礼仪是很重要的，一个人的素质就可以突显在一个人的礼仪上，那么，怎样提高自己的素养，怎样学好礼仪，这是我们值得深思的问题。而现代大学生现在的素质低下，行为举止不文明礼貌的现象日已有泛滥，我们应该引起足够的重视，那么我们就如何做一个懂礼仪的大学生这个问题进行探究。

我国是一个历史悠久的文明古国，素有“礼仪之邦”的美称。讲“礼”懂“仪”是中华民族世代相传的优良传统。源远流长的礼仪文化是前人留给我们的一笔丰厚的遗产。随着时代的进步，人际交往的日趋频繁和密切，作为交往润滑剂的礼仪也越加显得重要。在走向全面小康的当今社会中，崇尚礼仪是社会对其成员的基本要求，也是社会成员的精神要求。注重礼仪，对促进社会进步和提高文明有着重要的作用。

讲究礼仪，遵从礼仪规范，可以有效地展现一个人的教养、风度与魅力，更好地体现一个人对他人和社会的认知水平和尊重程度，从而使个人的学识，修养和价值得到社会的认可和尊重。适度、恰当的礼仪不仅能给公众以可亲可敬、可合作、可交往的信任和欲望，而且会使与公众的合作过程充满和谐与成功。

一个知书不达礼，知识水准和道德水准严重不协调的学生，不可能成为一个优秀人才。一个优秀人才，不仅应当有高水平的专业知识，还必须有良好的道德品质修养和礼仪修养。礼仪是良好品德修养的表现形式，也是良好道德品质养成重要途径之一，良好的道德品质需用彬彬有礼的方式去体现。尽管礼仪的研究和教育在国内已经有所发展，特别是职业与礼仪的结合已成大势所趋。可是礼仪教育，还未引起高校的足够重视，大多数高校还未开设礼仪课程。

大学生是知识层次较高的群体，在如今的中国社会已经算得上是知识分子，也是中国明日发展的引领者、顶梁柱，在道德水准上，在礼仪修养方面应当提出更高的要求。追求个性是当代年轻人的特点，在追求突出个性过程中，却有一些大学生把丑陋当成了个性。许多不文明、不礼貌，甚至丑陋、陈腐、粗俗的东西都被当做了“新潮”、“潇洒”，在现在的大学校园里面，经常可以看到衣冠不整者、行为不端者、张口骂人者、随地吐痰者，其他的不讲礼不懂仪的现象亦不鲜见，如关门之时声震如雷、打电话从不自我介绍、不再礼让教师、端着饭盒边走边吃等等。这些不良现象已经不再是个别，而且有着愈加普遍的趋势。

造成一些大学生礼仪素养低下的原因，大致有以下几点：

第一点：中学时代的应试教育副作用。在这个层面上，家长，教师，乃至整个教育体系都负有不可推卸的责任。高考的指挥捧的魔力使中小学的教育是以“分数”和“考试”为中心的教育，德育和美育长期受到不应该的冷落。学生把分数看成是“命根”，老师把分数看成是“法宝”，家长只看学生的成绩，不关心学生的心理和品格的全面发展。这种只用学习成绩的名次来衡量学生的优劣，就决定只在教学上下工夫而在塑造孩子的灵魂方面却很少花费时间和精力。看来教育的制度是要大力的投入，不断借鉴古今中外的教育制度中的合理的成分，不断地完善一个能适应时代发展的教育体系。

第二点：社会的转型。当社会初于价值的转型，伦理，道德，观念，都处系乱状态之中，作为社会的一部分的大学生，也是难作到“出淤泥而不染，濯清涟而不妖”。大学城已非伊甸园般的净土。作为一个典型的亚文化圈，大学城必然要受到社会大文化的影响和侵蚀。在商品化和传煤化的社会里出，不吃人间烟火的象牙塔早已不复存在。当代的中国正面临着相似的社会文化背景中国的大学生正经历着一个痛苦的“断奶”历程，如何判断真、善、美，是他们的是他们急待祢补的课程。

第三点：社会的不良的风气的影响。就大学生身边的就很多的不良风气，像如“课桌文学”，“厕所文学”的泛滥，图书馆的书被乱图乱写，某些大学教授抄袭他人的学术论文被揭露，有些教师为了创收而对上课敷衍了事……，还有是社会上的凶杀，色情，受贿，贪污，蒙骗……

由此大学生们应吸取传统文化的精髓，提高文化道德修养，学习一些必要的礼仪常识，方可立足于社会、立足于风潮的前端，方可得到人们更多的肯定。

其实，不知道大学们是否曾想过：当你在社会交往中用礼貌的语言与人交谈；用文明的举止与人交往；用得体的文书与人交流，人们一定会感触到你彬彬有礼的气度，落落大方的气质，文明道德的修养，都会平生出几分敬意。优雅合理的谈吐，亲切整体的仪容，会是人感到一股温馨的春风吹来一股热情洋溢周身。

礼仪贯穿着人际交往的始终，为交往的内涵服务；不重视礼仪必然会影响交流的深度和交往的持久性。由于礼仪的缺憾而影响交往是在是因小失大。不独对外交往，我们大学生在日常生活中也要重视礼仪，养成习惯，自然成为一种修养也有助于提高自己的品味。

一、修饰与衣着

修饰是指女士穿戴不要太华丽了，太耀眼了，如果这样去面试，我想机会就已经了了无几了。因为你是来工作的，要庄重，不要给人一种浮的感觉。我觉得不化妆也不太好，最起码要化些淡妆，这也是对别人尊重的一种做法。想想看打扮的整整洁洁是不是让别人看上去很舒服呀！你想如果一个老农民和一个西装革履的人，找你谈判，你是不是要选择那个西装革履的人呀！

当面试时，有的人说：“面试时，不就是到那天从里到外都换上新衣服，穿的整整齐齐的，然后到发廊整理一下头型吗？”其实这样做是不对的。

一、会让人一看就知道你提前准备了，有的时候连刚打上去的发胶还在头上呢，一看就知道你是刚从发廊里出来的。

二、由于刚穿上新衣服，一切都是新的，你会有一种很不舒服的感觉，所以你最好要提前

一、两天就穿上，适应一下。也就是面试前要提前

一、两天做好准备。

面试时要多带几份简历，因为你交到面试官那的已经订成厚厚的一打了。他要看你的简历还要翻找一下才能找到，这时你就要拿出你已提前多准备的简历给他，他会觉得的很舒服的。当面试完后要给面试官写感谢信，虽然现在有许多人一般都不写，但这是礼仪，我还是希望大家写，你想别人都不写，你写了是不是会引起注意呀。在面试或会议时要带上比较精致皮面的笔记本，还有好的笔，不要随便找一个本或笔。

面试时要提前半小时去，先与他们的总台人熟悉一下，总台是个很关键的人物，多打听一下有关将要面试你的上级的消息。如称呼等。有一次一位王女士，接了一个电话说：你好，我是xx公司的王浩，请你明天九点到我们公司来接授面试。第二天，他八点半就到了，和总台服务员聊了一会，服务员打了一个电话，说“王总，王小姐到了”，这时她才知道，原来给她打电话的就是王总呀！在这之前她还把这个人当成小人物呢？因为一般打电话通知的都是小人物或员工做的事。所以她进去面试时，说了你好！王总。你想想假如她说，你好，王浩！王总会怎么个想法，“王总”叫了几年了，都已经叫习惯了，突然叫他王浩，他能够习惯吗？

二、自我介绍。

应筹式：在不太重要的场合。如在火车上等场合只要说出叫什么名字就可以了，不必报上职务等。

工作式：你好，我是xx公司的xx经理。

交流式：你好，我是xx，请多多关照，或送上名片。比较随便。

礼仪式：如：开学仪式，升旗仪式等等。比较庄严。

三、眼神

时间：与别人谈话30分钟时，如果只有10分钟以内对方是看着你的，说明他在轻视你。如果10分钟至20分钟之间，说明他对你是友好的。20分钟至30分钟说明两种情况：

一、重视。

二、敌视。也就是与别人谈话时眼睛要注视谈话时间的2/3。字串1

部位：额头上，属于公务型注视。不太重要的事情和时间也不太长的情况下。

眼睛上，属于关注型注视。

睛睛至唇部，属于社交型注视。

眼睛到胸部，属于亲密型注视。

角度：平视，表示平等。斜视，表示失礼。

俯视：从上往下看，轻视别人。

四、面容

有的时候皱眼眉，表示不奈。撅着嘴表示生气。“噢”?表示惊呀！

五、笑容

要学会微笑。微笑很重要，谁喜欢天天面对着冷冰冰一点笑容的人呀。像储蓄所、银行的职员，当你去取钱时，他们是不是很冷冰冰的，一点笑容也没有。像别人欠他们什么似的，感觉不太好吧，其实那是他们的职业病，已经习惯了。下面我给你们讲一个故事：

以前有一家公司让他们的员工去拿一份重要的材料，结果去的都被骂了回来。老板就把这个任务交给了小李，小李很愁呀！但这份材料不拿还不行，结果还是去了。到那时，只见那位科长还在破口大骂呢？这时小李什么也没有说，只是微笑、微笑还是微笑，嘴里说着：“噢？这样呀？是吗？”，只是点着头微笑着。后来，那个吴科长骂了一阵子的时候，小李说：“吴科长，你很会善于表达你内心里的愤怒呀！”。后来，吴科长看了看小李说：“嗯！这小伙子不错！我也不为难你了，你就拿回去吧！”，就这样别人没有拿到的，他却拿到了。

大学生社交礼仪论文生活中，社交礼仪已经成为我们必不可缺少的一部分，掌握良好的社交礼仪知识是我们走向成功必要的铺路石。

先来谈谈个人礼仪吧。

一、修饰与衣着

当面试时，有的人说：“面试时，不就是到那天从里到外都换上新衣服，穿的整整齐齐的，然后到发廊整理一下头型吗？”其实这样做是不对的。

一、会让人一看就知道你提前准备了，有的时候连刚打上去的发胶还在头上呢，一看就知道你是刚从发廊里出来的。

二、由于刚穿上新衣服，一切都是新的，你会有一种很不舒服的感觉，所以你最好要提前

一、两天就穿上，适应一下。也就是面试前要提前

一、两天做好准备。

二、自我介绍。

应筹式：在不太重要的场合。如在火车上等场合只要说出叫什么名字就可以了，不必报上职务等。

工作式：你好，我是xx公司的xx经理。

交流式：你好，我是xx，请多多关照，或送上名片。比较随便。

礼仪式：如：开学仪式，升旗仪式等等。比较庄严。

三、眼神

一、重视。

二、敌视。也就是与别人谈话时眼睛要注视谈话时间的2/3。

部位：额头上，属于公务型注视。不太重要的事情和时间也不太长的情况下。

眼睛上，属于关注型注视。

睛睛至唇部，属于社交型注视。

眼睛到胸部，属于亲密型注视。

角度：平视，表示平等。斜视，表示失礼。

俯视：从上往下看，轻视别人。

四、面容

有的时候皱眼眉，表示不奈。撅着嘴表示生气。“噢”?表示惊呀！

五、笑容

六、需要避免的身体语言。

当与别人谈话时不要双手交叉，身体晃动，一会倾向左边，一会倾向右边，或是摸摸头发、耳朵、鼻子给人以你不耐烦的感觉。一边说话一边在玩笔，有的人特别喜欢转笔，好像在炫耀，你看我转的多酷呀！也不要拿那个笔来回的按。虽然与同辈之间还算说的过去吧，但是跟长辈谈话时这样做是很不礼貌的。

下面我们来说说拜访的基本礼仪

中华民族大都热情好客。“有朋自远方来，不亦乐乎”。对来客，不管是预约好的，还首先是拜访做客的基本礼仪。

做客有不同情况：初次登门拜访，老朋友串串门，应邀赴约聚会，有事求助于人等等，因而礼节也稍有不同，不过无论何种情况，作为客人的身份一样，都要为主人着想，客随主便，少给主人带来不便，也就有些需遵循的大致相同的礼节。（1）注意时间的选择。一般来说，访问某人，应事先选择好时间，不宜选择对方较忙或三餐时间，晚上不宜太迟。节假日和周末，本是访问的好时机，但如果没有预约，也不要贸然前往，这些时间主人往往另有安排。预先约定时间，最符合礼貌。尽量不做不速之客，不请自到。预约好的拜访，宾主都要守时、守约、守信。客人应准时或稍提前一点儿到达，因特殊情况不能赴约，应想办法通知对方，无声无息地取消预约是极不礼貌的。（2）注意服装的选择。一般的访问，整洁、朴素、大方即可，不必太过华丽。蓬头垢面、衣冠不整是对主人的不敬。去庆贺喜事，就须讲究些。（3）进门时先敲门或按门铃。敲门要有节奏感，不轻不重，不急不慢，敲两三下为宜。虚掩着或开着的门也不可破门而入，给主人一个措手不及则很失礼，进室后最好等要拜访的人来后才落座。如果需要较长时间等候，可先落座与接待者交谈或看些报纸书刊杂志之类的读物，要拜访的人来后应起立寒暄。对于约好的正式拜访，无论事情多急，拜访的时间很紧，在门口也只能寒暄问候，不要谈正题，入室落座后再谈，否则会给对方留下不成熟的印象。要穿拖鞋的在门口就换好，见到其家人应问好致意，不打招呼是失礼的。（4）对主人的热情款待表示感谢。主人敬茶或糖果等小食品时，应起身或欠身双手接过，并说声“谢谢”，若敬烟，作为学生应婉言谢绝。（5）交谈过程中，要注意交谈的礼仪和技巧，谈话要简要，少说消极、沉闷的话。善于倾听，作出积极反应，不要随意中断别人的谈话。客人在主人家不宜东张西望。不要随便走进主人的卧室，除非主人主动邀请。（6）掌握好告辞的最佳时机。一般性拜访，时间不宜太长，也不宜太匆忙。一般以半小时到一小时为宜。若是事务、公务性拜访，则可视需要决定时间的长短。客人提出告辞的时间，最好是与主人的一个交谈高潮之后，或者是在又有新客人来时，交谈中主人若有疲劳感或有家人来提示有什么急事要办等情况时，适时告辞较为得体。告辞时应对主人及家人的款待表示感谢。如果主人家有长辈，应向长辈告辞。综上所述，作为客人应遵守的基本礼节概括为：事先预约，不做不速之客；如期而至，不做失约之客；彬彬有礼，不做冒失之客；衣冠整洁，不做邋遢之客；举止端庄，谈吐文雅，不做粗俗之客；适时告辞，不做难辞之客。

关于社交礼仪还有很多我们需要学习的地方，我们应该不断的完善自己、充实自己。谈谈大学生的礼仪修养

摘要：中国自古以来一直有“礼仪之邦”之美誉。在大理提倡社会注意精神文明的今天，讲文明，讲礼仪，讲礼貌，是每一位公民必须具体的社会公德。本文着重探讨当代大学生礼仪修养的重要性及当代大学生的礼仪现状等。

关键词：礼仪修养礼貌大学生

造成一些大学生礼仪素养低下的原因，大致有以下几点：

中国素以“文明古国，礼仪之邦”著称于世，讲“礼”重“仪”是中华民族世代相传的优秀传统，源远流长的礼仪文化是先人留给我们的一笔丰厚遗产。在中国更加向世界开放的今天，礼仪不仅体现出丰厚的历史优秀传统，更富有鲜明的时代内涵。随着人与人，国与国之间交往的日益频繁，讲究礼仪，礼尚往来，对营造和谐的人际关系，显得尤为重要。

那么什么是文明礼仪呢？即：人与人社会交往时，把待人接物的内心尊敬之情通过美好的仪表、仪式表达出来。从社会交往来说，文明礼仪不仅是立身处世之本，也是一门待人交友的学问。每个人只要置身于社会，无论从政还是经商，日常工作还是出入重要场合，居家还是外出，均离不开文明礼仪。文明礼仪无处不在，他不仅可以展现一个人的风度和魅力，还体现了一个人的内在学识和文化修养。

可以说，礼仪是一张人际交往的名片。文明礼仪可以帮助我们“规范言谈举止，学会待人接物；塑造良好形象，赢得社会尊重；架设友谊桥梁，通向成功之路。”礼仪又是帮助我们获得成功，创造幸福生活的“通行证”。所以说：知礼懂礼，注重文明礼仪，是每个立足社会的基本前提之一，是人们成就事业，获得美好人生的重要条件。

想要做一个懂文明讲礼仪的人，不单单只要不随地吐痰，不说脏话，不乱扔废弃物，尊老爱幼，这些都是最根本的。作为新时代的大学生，对自身修养必须是严格要求的，什么样的场合说什么样的话做什么样的事都是必须要仔细思量的，学好礼仪是我们大学生必须要学好的一门功课，为做文明礼貌儒雅的大学生儿奋斗！

第四篇：英语教案

Unit 1

Hello

第一课时

本周好习惯我养成：大方展示，积极发言。教学目标：

1、听懂、会说 Hello./Hi, I'm...。

2、通过创设见面打招呼、自我介绍以及道别等情景，让学生学会见面打招呼、自我介绍及道别的日常用语

3、培养学生乐于开口,敢于开口讲英语的习惯，激发学生想学、乐学英语的兴趣和愿望。

教学重点：本部分主要是见面打招呼、自我介绍及道别用语的会话学习，使学生在不同的情景中听懂、会说 Hello./Hi.I'm...。

教学难点：自我介绍用语I’m …的发音不容易到位，学习起来较难，教师要适时纠正，切不可挫伤孩子的学习积极性。课前准备：

1、教材相关人物的面具或头饰

2、为Let's play中的击鼓传花游戏准备相应的道具

3、教材相配套的录音带

4、学生和教师各自收集一些印有外国文字的物品，如：化装品。

5、学生收集一些在现实生活中已经能用英语表述的物品或图片，如：VCD。教学过程：

1、热身(Warm-up)

（1）教师用“Hello.”问候学生。

（2）辨认不同国家的文字，想一想，哪种文字应用最广

（3）教师在此基础上与学生讨论一下英语的作用以及学习英语的意义。

（4）请学生说说他们在现实生活中已经了解的英语单词（边展示实物或图片边说）或日常用语。

2、呈现新课、操练(Presentation/ Practice)

（1）教师播放本课的歌曲 “Hello”的录音，自然引出师生之间的打招呼。

（2）教师利用这个机会及时向学生介绍自己Hello, I’m …/Hi, I’m …

（3）通过师生对话，鼓励学生介绍自己Hello, I’m …/Hi, I’m …

（4）介绍本套教材中的主要人物Sarah, Chen Jie, Mike, Wu Yifan，请学生扮演这些人物到讲台前说Hello!I’m …

（5）听录音，或通过VCD来展示Let’s talk部分的教学内容.3、活动、操练(Activities/ Practice)

（1）游戏：击鼓传花

（2）情景表演

4、课外活动(Add-activities)

（1）听录音，仿读对话，并在实际情景中运用所学内容。

（2）遇到老师、同学和家长时要用打招呼；分手时要用道别。

（3）制作人物面具。教学反思：

第二课时教学目标：

1、进一步巩固打招呼、自我介绍及道别用语，能在不同情景中准确运用。

2、能够听说、认读 crayon, pencil, pen, eraser, ruler,并能用英语介绍文具。

3、进一步培养开口能力，初步了解一些课堂用语。

教学重点：有关文具的五个词汇 crayon、pencil、eraser、ruler的学习，并用英语介绍文具。

教学难点：较准确读出各单词，尤其是crayon，eraser 两个单词的发音。课前准备：学生的面具教学过程：

1、热身、复习(Warm-up/Revision)（1）师生共唱英语歌曲 “Hello”

（2）学生戴上自己喜欢的人物面具，表演见面打招呼或自我介绍用语。（3）游戏：A name train

2、呈现新课、操练(Presentation/ Practice)（1）教师事先安排一位学生扮演Zoom，并向学生介绍情景：今天是Zoom的生日，爸爸、妈妈为他买了个新书包作为生日礼物（拿出准备好的实物）。Zoom打开书包，一一拿出蜡笔、铅笔、钢笔、橡皮、尺子，边拿文具边说英文crayon, pencil, eraser, ruler。教师用双面胶将这些实物固定在黑板上。（2）教师教新单词crayon, pencil, eraser, ruler。

（3）游戏：I have a(an)…………

（4）学生听录音，跟读 Let’s learn 部分的单词。

3、活动、操练(Activities/ Practice)（1）游戏：Matching game（2）小组竞赛：猜词游戏

（3）让学生听录音，边说边做 Let’s do 部分的活动。

（4）分小组活动，练习I have a(an)…………………………………（5）游戏：传口令

4、课外活动(Add-activities)（1）听说、认读新单词crayon, pencil, pen, eraser, ruler，并能用英语介绍文具。（2）做单词卡片。教学反思：

第三课时

教学目标：正确认读、书写26个大小写字母，会背字母表。

教学重点：相似字母的区分和变化较大的大写字母的记忆；教学难点：有些字母可能难以正确发音。教学思路：以讲唱结合的方式，寓教于乐。

教

具：课件，黑板，字母卡片，小奖品（学习用具，小东西等等）教学过程：

一、热身、复习(Warm-up/Revision)（1）游戏：抛球

(2)复习I have a(an)…教师先发指令请全班共同练习，之后可请“小老师”带领同学们进行操练。（3）游戏：What is missing?

二、呈现新课(Presentation)课堂导入：以问题开始，如小朋友们以前有没有听说过26个英文字母啊？有没有哪些朋友会读一些字母啊？

1、这节课我们来学习一首歌，首先，听老师先唱一遍（如果有会唱的同学可以跟老师一起唱）边唱边出示26个大小写字母的卡片。

2、接下来，老师一句一句地唱。讲字母分成三组，如A----G, H-----N, O---且只出示大写字母。

3、A----G组老师领唱完后，学生分组唱（班内可以按座位分成几小组）。

4、H-----N组老师领唱完后，学生可以分男女生交替唱（重复两遍）。

5、O------Z组老师领唱完后，师生合作唱。

6、老师请一位同学来带着大家唱，课件出示26个字母，包括大小写，可以点唱。

7、全体齐唱一遍，可以拍手唱。

8、给与表现好的同学奖励。

三、趣味操练(Practice)

1、开火车按字母表顺序认读。

2、课件单个出示大写字母，点名认读。

3、连线：将大小写字母连起来（回答问题时要求先大声念出大写字母，再和哪一个小写字母相连）。

4、给表现好的同学奖励。

四、检查反馈

课件出示小写字母，学生写出相应的大写字母。随后即出示对应的大写字母，请学生对照是否正确。教学反思：

第四课时教学目标:

1、初步学习询问对方的姓名及回答的用语What's your name? My name is...，使学

生能听、会说此交际用语。

2、学习表达道别的说法：Goodbye/Bye!教学重点：询问对方的姓名及回答的用语What’s your name? My name is… 的学习

教学难点：What’s your name? My name is…中name 的发音.教学过程：

1、热身、复习(Warm-up/Revision)

(1)唱“Hello”歌

(2)师生互相问候Hello!/Hi!

(3)学生戴着头饰或面具，分别起立做自我介绍。

2、呈现新课、操练(Presentation/ Practice)

（1）老师指着自己的英文名卡说Hello!I’m Miss/Mr….然后用My name’s….反复说三到四遍自己的名字，速度由慢到正常。接着教师对一名学生发问What’s your name（用清晰、缓慢的语调问两遍）边问边指他/她的名卡，并可以用夸张的口型提示他/她回答My name’s….教师对第一个应答学生应重点表扬，并发给他/他小奖品，以鼓励学生认真听别人的问答，努力模仿教师说的新句型。

（2）跟读、模仿、操练My name’s….注意学生对name一词中 a 的发音。

（3）跟读、模仿What’s your name?

（4）抛球游戏

(5)教道别语Goodbye/Bye，告诉学生其中意思是“再见”或“一会见”。

(6)听录音，或通过VCD来展示B部分Let’s talk的内容。

3、活动、操练(Activities/ Practice)

（1）Pair work:让学生戴上头饰，表演书上Let’s talk 的对话。

（2）游戏：猜一猜我是谁

（3）Let’s play中的游戏。

4、课堂评价(Assessment)

情景再现

5、课外活动(Add-activities)

（1）要求学生听录音，然后模仿课本第4-7页的内容并伴有动作表演。

（2）鼓励学生用第4-7页所学的内容与同学和老师进行交流。教学反思：

第五课时

教学目标:

1、学习有关学校及学习用品的词汇bag, book, pen pencil-box,通过听听做做的活动，让学生练习并运用所学的词汇。

2、了解一些简单的指示语，要求学生能听懂并按照指令做出相应的动作

教学重点：pencil-box, book , pen, bag, 4个有关学习用品的词汇学习。教学难点：本课词汇的认读。教学过程：

1、热身、复习(Warm-up/Revision)

（1）“接力活动”：学生一个接一个进行口语问答，要求又快又好。

（2）通过图片和单词卡片复习学过的单词crayon, ruler, eraser, pencil.（3）游戏： Touching game

2、呈现新课、操练(Presentation/ Practice)

教学单词pencil-box, book, pen ,bag，游戏:Touch and say

教师边做打开书的动作边说Open the book.用同样的方法教Show me your

sharpener.Carry the bag.等句子。

（4）让学生听录音，边说边做Let’s do 部分的活动。

3、活动、操练(Activities/ Practice)

（1）游戏：画文具。

（2）通过游戏Simon says 来练习以show, open, close, put, carry所引导的祈使句。

（3）恰逢教师节，教唱歌曲《Happy Teacher’s Day》

4、课堂评价(Assessment)

学生根据录音，拿出所听到的文具。

5、课外活动(Add-activities)

（1）要求学生听录音，跟读单词和句子，并在实际生活中自然运用。

（2）将学习用品逐个用英语说给家人听，并制成单词卡片。

（3）移pencil变图形教学反思：

第六课时

教学目标：1.通过听，说，读，写复习字母和本单元的单词。

2.正确完成Let’s check部分的听力作业，培养良好的听音习惯。

3.会唱Let’s sing的歌曲。

教学重点：能听，说，认读本单元的单词，并能在句子中运用。教学难点：对相似英语字母的区分。教学过程：

热身、复习(Warm-up/Revision)

（1 师生共唱英语歌曲“Hello”。

（2 复习有关文具的单词，可通过实物和单词卡来显示。

（3 游戏：Let’s do

呈现新课(Presentation)教师从自己准备的书包中拿出一本书，并指着自己说：I have a book.随后再掏出笔袋，对学生说：I have a pencil-case.再从笔袋里拿出一支铅笔说：I have a pencil.拿出一把尺子说：I have a ruler.等等。待学生熟悉了I have a ….是“我有一个….”后，请学生用自己的文具来说：I have a….请一名学生说自己所有的物品，如果他/她说I have a book.时，教师则举起自己的书说Me too!告诉学生如果你有与别人东西相同时，可说Me too!

趣味操练(Practice)

1）Start to read

Circle the same letters 让学生圈出相同的字母。

2）Read and count在图片中找出一样的文具，并且数数。

学生根据录音，拿出所听到的文具。课外活动(Add-activities)

（1）要求学生听录音，跟读单词和句子，并在实际生活中自然运用。

（2）将学习用品逐个用英语说给家人听，并制成单词卡片。教学反思:

第五篇：英语教案

教案编写模板

一、要求

1、教案请按下面所列格式编写，页面设置为纸张，上下左右2厘米,；

2、每课时40分钟；

3、教案于11月15日前完成并上交。

二、模板

封面格式：

A 4

小学英语教学法

(教案编写及说课稿)

学院专业级班

教材名称：pep 小学英语四年级（上）

Unit 6 At a PE lesson

学生姓名：学号：

上交日期：2011-11-1

5教案编写格式：

Unit 6At a PE lesson(Comic Sans MS，加粗三号)

一、教学要求（黑体，加粗四号）

1、能听得懂，会说，会读和会拼写单词time, left, right, touch, an arm, a hand, a leg, a foot.（宋体，小四）

二、单元教材分析（黑体，加粗四号）

本单元通过一堂体育课引出“按指令做动作”这一语言项目（中文：宋体，小四；英文：Comic Sans MS，小四）

Unit 6（第一课时）(Comic Sans MS，三号)

一、教学内容（黑体，加粗四号）ARead and say

二、教学目标（黑体，加粗四号）

1．会听、说、读日常交际用语： Stand in a line.Let’s do some exercise.（中文：宋体，小四；英文：Comic Sans MS，小四）

三、教学重点（黑体，加粗四号）

1．会听、说、读、写单词：time, left, right, stop, touch.（中文：宋体，小四；英文：Comic Sans MS，小四）

四、教学难点（黑体，加粗四号）

1．单词time, back, right, with意思和句子Touch „ with „的意义。

五、教学准备（黑体，加粗四号）

1．教具准备：录音机、磁带、人体各个部位的图片、单词卡片和投影片。

（中文：宋体，小四；英文：Comic Sans MS，小四）

六、教学过程（黑体，加粗四号）

Step 1．Free talk(Comic Sans MS，加粗四号)Timing: 15 min

1.T: Good morning, boys and girls.（Comic Sans MS，小四）

七、作业设计（黑体，加粗四号）

1． Read the text three times after the tape.（Comic Sans MS，小四）

八、板书设计（黑体，加粗四号）

Unit 6At a PE lesson（A）

（Comic Sans MS，小四）

九、教后记（黑体，加粗四号）

-----说课稿内容包括：

1.问候语

2.说教学内容

3.说教材

4.说教学目的5.说教学重点、难点

6.说教学准备

7.说教法、学法

8.说教学流程

9.教学总结

科技英语教案

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