第一篇：英文写作常用句子总结范文
1.开篇
1)Many nations have been faced with the problem of...2)Recently the problem has been brought into focus.3)Recently the phenomenon has become a heated topic.4)Recently the issue has aroused great concern among...5)Nowadays there is a growing concern over...6)Never in our history has the idea that...been so popular.7)Faced with..., quite a few people argue that...8)According to a recent survey,...9)With the rapid development of...,...注：用于句首提出论题或现象的句型
①Recently , …has become the focus of the society.②…has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life.③Nowadays there is a growing concern for …
④Nowadays it is common to hear /see …
⑤…has become a common occurrence in our daily life.⑥Nowadays more and more people are beginning to be aware of the seriousness of …
⑦It is only during the last /past few years that man has become generally aware that …
⑧There is an old / popular saying / proverb which says / goes …
⑨In recent years, there is a general tendency …
⑩Nowadays … has become a problem we have to face.2.证明
1)No one can deny the fact that...2)The idea is hardly supported by facts.3)Unfortunately, none of the available data shows...4)Recent studies indicate that...5)There is sufficient evidence to show that...6)According to statistics proved by..., it can be seen that...3.举例
1)A good case in point is...2)As an illustration, we may take...3)Such examples might be given easily.4)...is often cited as an example.4.表示原因
1)There are three reasons for this.2)The reasons for this are as follows.3)The reason for this is obvious.4)The reason for this is not far to seek.5)The reason for this is that...6)We have good reason to believe that...例如： There are three reasons for the changes that have taken place in our life.Firstly，people’s living standard has been greatly improved.Secondly，most people are well paid，and they can afford what they need or like.Last but not least，more and more people prefer to enjoy modern life.注：如考生写第一个句子没有把握，可将其改写成两个句子。如：Great changes have taken place in our life.There are three reasons for this.这样写可以避免套用中的表达失误。
4-1.基本原因---分析某事物时, 用此句型说明其基本的或者多方面的原因.[1].Why...? For one thing… For another...[2].The answer to this problem involves many factors.For one thing...For another...Still another...[3].A number of factors, both physical and psychological affect..../both individual and social contribute to....4-2 另一原因--------> 在分析了基本原因之后, 再补充一个次要的或者更重要时用!
[1].Another important factor is....[2]....is also responsible for the change/problem.[3].Certainly, the...is not the sole reason for...另附 ：
1.)A number of factors are accountable for this situation.A number of factors might contribute to(lead to)(account for)the phenomenon(problem).2.).The answer to this problem involves many factors.3.).The phenomenon mainly stems from the fact that...4.).The factors that contribute to this situation include...5.).The change in...largely results from the fact that...6.).We may blame..., but the real causes are...7).Part of the explanations for it is that...One of the most common factors(causes)is that...Another contributing factor(cause)is...Perhaps the primary factor is that…
But the fundamental cause is that...5.后果---------分析某事物可能造成的后果或者带来的影响.1).It will produce a profound/far-reaching effect/impact on....2).It involves some serious consequence for...3)It may give rise to a host of problems.4).The immediate result it produces is...5).It will exercise a profound influence upon...6).Its consequence can be so great that...6.表示好处
1.)It has the following advantages.2.)It does us a lot of good.3.)It benefits us quite a lot.4.)It is beneficial to us.5.)It is of great benefit to us.例如： Books are like friends.They can help us know the world better，and they can open our minds and widen our horizons.Therefore，reading extensively is of great benefit to us.7.表示坏处
1.)It has more disadvantages than advantages.2.)It does us much harm.3.)It is harmful to us.例如： However，everything divides into two.Television can also be harmful to us.It can do harm to our health and make us lazy if we spend too much time watching television.8.表示重要、必要、困难、方便、可能
1.)It is important(necessary，difficult，convenient，possible)for sb.to do sth.2.)We think it necessary to do sth.3.)It plays an important role in our life.例如： Computers are now being used everywhere，whether in the government，in schools or in business.Soon，computers will be found in every home，too.We have good reason to say that computers are playing an increasingly important role in our life and we have stepped into the Computer Age.9.表示措施
1.)We should take some effective measures.2.)We should try our best to overcome(conquer)the difficulties.3.)We should do our utmost in doing sth.4.)We should solve the problems that we are confronted(faced)with.例如： The housing problem that we are confronted with is becoming more and more serious.Therefore，we must take some effective measures to solve it.10.表示变化
1.)Some changes have taken place in the past five years.2.)A great change will certainly be produced in the world’s communications.3.)The computer has brought about many changes in education.例如： Some changes have taken place in people’s diet in the past five years.The major reasons for these changes are not far to seek.Nowadays，more and more people are switching from grain to meat for protein，and from fruit and vegetable to milk for vitamins.11.表示事实、现状
1.)We cannot ignore the fact that...2.)No one can deny the fact that...3.)There is no denying the fact that...4.)This is a phenomenon that many people are interested in.5.)However，that’s not the case.例如： We cannot ignore the fact that industrialization brings with it the problems of pollution.To solve these problems，we can start by educating the public about the hazards of pollution.The government on its part should also design stricter laws to promote a cleaner environment.12.表示比较对照
1.)Compared with A，B...2.)I prefer to read rather than watch TV.3.)There is a striking contrast between them.例如： Compared with cars，bicycles have several advantages besides being affordable.Firstly，they do not consume natural resources of petroleum.Secondly，they do not cause the pollution problem.Last but not least，they contribute to people’s health by giving them due physical exercise.12-1.两者比较---> 比较两事物, 要说出其一超过另一个, 或肯定一事物的优点, 也肯定其缺点的时候用!
[1].The advantages gained from A are much greater than the advantages we gain from B.[2].Indeed, A carries much weight when compared with B.[3].There is no doubt that it has its negative effects as well as positive effects.12-2.两者相同/相似------> 比较两事物共同都有或者共同都没有的特点时用!
[1].A and B have several thing in common.They are similar in that...[2].A bears some striking resemblance(s)to B.另附 ：
1.).The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages.2.).The advantages of A are much greater than those of B.3.).A may be preferable to B, but A suffers from the disadvantages that...4.).It is reasonable to maintain that...but it would be foolish to claim that...5.).For all the disadvantages, it has its compensating advantages.6.).Like anything else, it has its faults.7.).A and B has several points in common.8.).A bears some resemblances to B.9.).However, the same is not applicable to B.10.).A and B differ in several ways.11.).Evidently, it has both negative and positive effects.12.).People used to think...but things are different now.13.).The same is true of B.14.).Wondering as A is, it has its drawbacks.15.).It is true that A..., but the chief faults(obvious defects)are...13.表示数量
1.)It has increased(decreased)from...to...2.)The population in this city has now increased(decreased)to 800，000.3.)The output of July in this factory increased by 15% compared with that of January.例如： With the improvement of the living standard，the proportion of people’s income spent on food has decreased while that spent on education has increased.再如： From the graph listed above，itcan be seen that student use of computers has increased from an average of less than two hours per week in 1990 to 20 hours in 2000.注：“From the graph listed above，it can be seen that”见句式12。
14表示看法
1)It is true that..., but one vital point is being left out.2)There is a grain of truth in these statements, but they ignore a more important fact.3)Some people say...but it does not hold water.4)Many of us have been under the illusion that...5)A close examination would reveal how ridiculous the statement is.6)It makes no sense to argue for...7)Too much stress placed on...may lead to...8)Such a statement mainly rests on the assumption that...9)Contrary to what is widely accepted, I maintain that...10)People have(take，adopt，assume)different attitudes towards sth.11)People have different opinions on this problem.12)People take different views of(on)the question.13)Some people believe that...Others argue that...例如： People have different attitudes towards failure.Some believe that failure leads to success.Every failure they experience translates into a greater chance of success at their renewed endeavor.However，others are easily discouraged by failures and put themselves into the category of losers.再如： Do“lucky numbers really bring good luck?Different people have different views on it.注：一个段落有时很适宜以问句开始，考生应掌握这一写作方法。
又注：用于陈述个人观点/想法的常用句型
①My own experience tells me that …
②In my opinion , we should attack more importance to …
③As for my own idea about … I believe …
④As far as I am concerned , I plan to …
⑤Personally , I prefer …
⑥In my view , both sides are partly right in that …⑦But for me , I would rather …
⑧My own point of view is that …
⑨In conclusion , I support the statement that …
⑩As regards me , I tend to choose …
又注：用于比较、阐述不同观点的常用句型
①Some people like / prefer …, while others are / feel inclined to …
②There are different opinions among people as to … Some believe … whole hold …
③Some people claim that … is superior to … Others , however , disagree with it.④Some people believe … Others maintain … Still others claim …
⑤Some people suggest … Others , however , hold the opposite opinion.⑥On the one hand , people tend to … On the other hand , they feel …
⑦Some people argue that … Others , in contrast , believe that …
⑧Although more and more people come to believe … there are still others who insist that …⑨On the contrary , there are people in favor of …
⑩There are some people who hold different opinions about …
15.套语
1.)It’s well known to us that...2.)As is known to us，...3.)This is a topic that is being widely talked about.4.)From the graph(table，chart)listed above，it can be seen that...5.)As a proverb says，“Where there is a will，there is a way.
例如： As is well known to us，it is important for the students to know the world outside campus.The reason for this is obvious.Nowadays，the society is changing and developing rapidly，and the campus is no longer an“ivory tower.As college students，we must get in touch with the world outside the campus.Only in this way can we adapt ourselves to the society quickly after we graduate.再如： Does it pay to be honest?This is a topic that is being widely talked about and different people have different opinions on it.16.用于描写漫画、图表的常用句型
①As the graph depicts , …
②From the cartoon /picture , we can see that …
③According to the statistics shown in the first /second graph , ④The table shows / indicates / reveals that …
⑤It can be seen /concluded from the picture / table / figures that …
17.用于书信写作的常用句型
①Thank you for your letter of …
②It is a pleasure for me invite you on behalf of … to accept …
③Thanks so much for your letter , which arrived …
④I am writing to you with reference to …
⑤I am writing to you in connection with …
⑥I would be grateful if you could / would …
⑦I would like to know some information on …
⑧It will be appreciated if you can / could …
⑨I would also like to know if you can / could …
⑩I look forward to hearing from you.18.用于结尾的常用句型
①From what has been discussed / mentioned above , we may conclude that …
②Therefore , it is not difficult to draw / come to the conclusion that …
③It is high time that something was done about …
④From all the reasons / consideration above , it is evident / clear / obvious that …
⑤Taking into account all these factors , we may reach the conclusion that …
⑥Given the reasons / consideration I have just outlined / discussed / presented , I strongly recommend that …
⑦It is clear , therefore , that …
⑧All in all ,what really matters is , in fact , to …
⑨It is essential that effective measure be taken to …
⑩From what has been discussed above , we may reasonably arrive at the conclusion that …⑾ In conclusion ,the most important is …
⑿ On the whole , it is high time that every one …⒀ As a result , we should take some effective steps to …⒁ Judging by the figures / statistics , it is not difficult to see that …⒂ Only in this way / in so doing , can be really …
1)From what has been discussed above, we can draw the conclusion that...2)It is high time that strict measures were taken to stop...3)It is necessary that steps should be taken to...4)In conclusion, it is imperative that...5)There is no easy method, but...might be of some help.6)To solve the above-mentioned problem, we must...7)In summary, if we continue to ignore the above-mentioned issue, more problems will crop up.8)With the efforts of all parts concerned, the problem will be solved thoroughly.9)We might do more than identify the cause;it is important to take actions to...10)Taking all these into account, we...11)Whether it is good or not /positive or negative, one thing is certain/clear...12)In short，it can be said that...13)It may be briefly summed up as follows.14)From what has been mentioned above，we can come to the conclusion that...例如： From what has been mentioned above，we can come to the conclusion that examination is necessary，however，its method should be improved.注：例句1可用于任何一个段落的结论句;例句3则多用文章结论段的第一句。
第二篇：英文论文写作常用句子
beginningl in this paper, we focus on the need for l this paper proceeds as follow.l the structure of the paper is as follows.l in this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related conceptsl to begin with we will provide a brief background on the introductionl this will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined.l details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections.l in the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed;then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non‑fuzzy service rule is studied;lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered.reviewl this review is followed by an introduction.l a brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in section 2.l in the next section a brief view of the....is given.l in the next section, a short review of...is given with special regard to...l section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx.l section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.bodyl section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance.l section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the flc decision‑making logic.l section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxxl section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding.l section 2 explains how flexibility which often...can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time‑windowl section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the...l section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the..and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.l section 3 describes a new measure of xx.l section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx.l section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.l section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rulesl the main idea of the flc is described in section 3 while section 4 describes the xx strategies.l section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model.l section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set‑based approach to cost variance investigation.l section 4 gives a specific example of xxx.l section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process.l section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of section 2 and 3.l section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data.l section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model..l section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.l section 6 illustrate the model with an example.l various ways of fuzzification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in section 2.l in section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human dm systeml in section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a...scheme must satisfy.l in section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order‑dense.l in section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions.l in section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...this sectionl in this section, the characteristics and environment under which mrp is designed are described.l we will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.next sectionl the next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements.l however, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.l the three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use.l we can interpret the results of experiments i and ii as in the following sections.l the next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xxsummaryl this paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5.l section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.l section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.l section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper.l finally, conclusions and future work are summarizedl the basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn.l section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.chapter 0.abstractl a basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables.l this paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures.l this paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx.l the method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations.l the procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.l the technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithms.l the usefulness of xx is also considered.l a brief methodology used in xx is discussed.l the analysis is useful in xx and xx problem.l a model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices.l algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified.l the use of the method is discussed and an example is given.l results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique.l this paper analyses problems in l this paper outlines the functions carried out by...l this paper includes an illustration of the...l this paper provides an overview and information useful for approachingl emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.l the main emphasis is placed on the problem of xxl our proposed model is verified through experimental study.l the experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of : xx,xxl the compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables.l a didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedurechapter 1.introductiontimel over the course of the past 30 years,..has emerged form intuitive l technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial worldl the advent of...systems for has had a significant impact on the l the development of...is exploredl during the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions,l the concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent yearsl there has been a turning point in...methodology in accordance with the advent of...l a major concern in...today is to continue to improve...l a xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena.l at the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xxl although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.l the pioneer work can be traced to xx [1965].l to date, none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from ready to be used in commercial systems.objective / goal / purposel the purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:l the ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the non‑experts to utilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to provide intelligent, computer‑aided instruction for xxx.l the paper concerns the development of a xxl the scope of this research lies inl the main theme of the paper is the application of rule‑based decision making.l these objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as to permit...l the objectives of the...operations study are as follows:l the primary purpose/consideration/objective ofl the ultimate goal of this concept is to providel the main objective of such a...system is tol the aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probability distribution.l in order to achieve these objectives, an xx must meet the following requirements:l in order to take advantage of their similarityl more research is still required before final goal of...can be completedl in this trial, the objective is to generate...l for the sake of concentrating on...research issuesl a major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently developed procedure for the xx.l for an illustrative purpose, four well‑known or problems are studied in presence of fuzzy data: xx.l a major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for structuring..methodsl this illustration points out the need to specifyl the ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive.l chapter 2.literature reviewl a wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature, for example, regarding xxl a considerable amount of research has been done..during the last decadel a great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties associated with xx.l there is considerable amount of literature on planningl however, these studies do not provide much attention to undertainty in xx.l since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still under investigation as well in methodological aspects as in concrete applications.l many research studies have been carried out on this topic.l problem of xx draw recently more and more attention of system analysis.l attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of l many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design procedure and have, therefore, not yet been automated.l most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabilistic in nature.l the central issue in all these studies is to l the problem of xx has been studied by other investigators, however, these studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches.l applied...techniques tol characterized the...system asl developed an algorithm tol developed a system called...whichl uses an iterative algorithm to deducel emphasized the need tol identifies six key issues surrounding high technologyl a comprehensive study of the..has been undertaken l much work has been reported recently in these filedl proposedl presentedl state thatl point out that the problem of l describedl illustratedl indicatedl has shown / showedl addressl highlightsl a study on...was done / developed by []l previous work, such as [] and [], deal only withl the approach taken by [] isl the system developed by [] consistsl a paper relevant to this research was published by []l []'s model requires consideration of..l []' model draws attention to evolution in human developmentl []'s model focuses on...l little research has been conducted in applying...tol the published information that is relevant to this research...l this study further shows thatl their work is based on the principle of l more history of...can be found in xx et al.[1979].l studies have been completed to establishedl the...studies indicated that l though application of xx in the filed of xx has proliferated in recent years, effort in analyzing xx, especially xx, is lacking.problem / issue / questionl unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturing planning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model.they tend to span broad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects.l remedy / solve / alleviate these problemsl...is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolvedl two major problems have yet to be addressedl an unanswered questionl this problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution.l an additional research issue to be tackled is....l some important issues in developing a...system are discussedl the three prime issues can be summarized:l the situation leads to the problem of how to determine the...l there have been many attempts to l it is expected to be serious barrier to l it offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex problem.l there are several ways to get around this problem.l as difficult as it seems to be, xx is by no means new.l the problem is to recognize xx from a design representation.l a xx problem can trace its roots to xx.l xx [1987] used a heuristic approach to simplify the complexity of the problem.l several problems are associated with them.l although some progress has been made in this area, at least two major obstacles must be overcome before a fully automated system can be realized.l most problems in practice are complicatedl more problem surface here.l hamper effort toward a xx systeml in order to overcome the limitations due to incomplete and imprecise xx knowledge, a xx program has been developed, which bases its knowledge upon the statistical analysis of a sample population of xxl the above difficulties are real challenges faced by researchers attempting to developl this type of mapping raises no controversy to the issue of membership function determination.l however, attempts to quantify the xx have met both theoretical and empirical problems.l it has become apparent that in order to apply this new methodological framework to real‑world problems and data, we have to pay attention to the problems of xx and xx.chapter 3.proposed methodologyassumptionl in the case when the assumption of a xx seems to be too restrictive or inadequate, the formulation with fuzzy termination time, i.e.given by a fuzzy set in the space of control stages, may be applied.l we assume here the fuzzy constraints to be state‑dependent, and the fuzzy goal to be the same for all the control states, xx, which stems from the problem's nature.l an approach to the solution of this problem is presented under the assumption that the sampling rate decision can be made prior to the execution of the experiment, as opposed to being made while the experiment is in progress.l another assumption made above is that there are precise odds at which the expert is indifferent.l main simplifying assumptions are:l this, in our view, is a questionable assumption.outline / structure / modulel an outline of the researchl information is incorporated within the schemel is built into...structurel a nice modular structure.l the principles of...are applied as modularized criteriaclassificationl a xx system comprises three main components:l must decompose the original..into a set of..l consists of the following steps:l this is summarized in the following steps:l can be broadly classified into the following areas:l can be characterized by its function of effectively processing thel can allow further breadth of application of...into morel the following steps should be followedl xx can be classified by a different ways.l based on the xx, one may classify xx into the following:l this catalog may change due to wear, breakage, and purchasing.systeml unlike many conventional program, expert systems do not usually deal with problem for which there is clearly a right or wrong answer.l the system consists of both...and...l the system has a hierarchical modular architecture organized on three levels.l expert system domains are area of expertisel to develop a xx system for xx, the following factors must be considered:l the system has been developed / designed to determinel the system has proven to be able to l the domain in which an expert system operates is a particular domainl the system comprises a...withl the system is [feature-oriented ] / based on the...techniquel the system environment must be relatively stablel the system is utilized to generate, load, store, update and retrieve...l the development of a xx system has two stages: xx stage and xx stage.l the most essential part of..system is the...l the successful developments in ess have made them an important tool in the development of l an automated system was developed forl in this case, the system can be considered to be generative.l an interactive automatic...systeml a..is commonly thought of as a truly integrated..systeml should be capable of being generated from a...systeml xx is an important part of the integrated system.l the model consists of four rule bases, each of which addresses a separate problem in the hierarchy of scheduling decision.l the rule bases are linked to each other in a chin‑like manner in the sense that the consequent of one rule base constitutes a part of the antecedent of the next rule base.l the rule base consists of all possible combinations of the linguistic terms associated with the linguistic variable of the antecedent of a rule.computer systeml the system has been implemented using prolog language in an ms‑dos environment.prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l the current version of the xx program when compiled with watfor77 results in an executable code of about 270k bytes.typical run time, when run on a xx computer(an ibm compatible machine)operating at 4.77 mhz with 640k ram, ranges from 10 min to 2h, depending on the size(or complexity)of the problem.l time consuming procedures have been implemented in c‑language and directly linked to the prolog environment.l the xx process, once the xx's data has been entered, requires approximately 180 seconds.l it should be noted that the computation was done with a 20 hhz, 80386‑based microcomputer equipped with a 80387 math co‑processor.l the computer programs used for the analyses, one based on the xx method and the other based on the new method, were written in fortran with a compiler that supports the math co‑processor.l lisp, prolog give maximum flexibility but also maximizes development time.l internal representation is the way a model is represented in the computer.l an interactive menu-driven procedure is used in this studyl shell can be develop very fast at the cost of time fairly severe limitations.l while there is no measurable saving of time for the case involving five criteria, the saving is dramatic for the case involving 10 criteria--the computation time reduces from 10 hr 40 min to about 1 min.l this combination is being implemented in an objected‑oriented programming environment(smalltalk‑80 system)to solve problems encountered in construction xxx.method / approach / study / process model / equation /algorithm / rule / formula / techniquel a discussion is presented of a problem-solving systeml to improve the efficiency of the method, the following approach may be applied.l in order to an investigation was made to find the causes of thel although large collections of rules and equations have been complied, none are generally accepted l this approach will be explained and discussed thoroughly in the body of the report.l this can be accomplished byl this algorithm to compute the total cost can be described step by step as follows:l the above preliminary analysis has provided important informationl various methods have been proposed for selecting an optimum...l these concepts have been applied to l on the basis of the concept mentioned above,l this can be achieved byl this fact suggests that a new conceptl this was accomplished by taking...l the preparatory stage is very time consuming process.l test are performed for validity, completeness, and compatibilityl there is little hope of achieving successful...l there has been an increasing awareness of the potential of using most..so far made have not taken this approach, with the exception ofl only a few studies can be found.l it is a very tedious process to go throughl it is only when..has been completed that..may be effectedl the entire interpretation process is conducted in one's head.l these approaches are sometimes very tedious.l several techniques can be usedl a polynomial parametric model can be written as [the following]/[follows]:l a xx model is constructed/formulated using xx.l a xx model represents an xx by its xx.l a process decision model captures the logic essential tol from the equation above, xx is equal to the summation of xx times the...l the validity of a xx model can be checked using euler's formula.l given a model, one can mathematically determine whether...or...l equations for xx need to be derived and implemented in the system.l a number of heuristic rules have been developed forl optimum..techniques can be made more reliable by...so thatl an algorithm based on the characteristic...is used to determinel euler's formula states the following:l the completed model should agree with the formula.l for manufacturing purposes, a detailed and precise model of the object is necessaryl engineering design models are very well defined;therefore, l to keep the domain narrow enough to be implementable, yet wide enough to be useful.point of viewl from an implementation standpoint,l from the point of view of this application,l from this point of view, zadeh suggested an inference rule named xxx(cri for short).l information is the meaningful interpretation and correlation of some aggregation of data in order to allow one to make decisions.l from a practical point of view, the computational aspects of an flc require a simplification of the fuzzy control algorithm.l the use of a hammer to insert screws, although partly effective, tends to distort, destroy, and generally defeat the purpose of using a screw [kusiak ai implications for cim p.129]justificationl we choose the so called xx in our experiment because it has received wide acceptance and canl prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l the rationale behind this is that it can be much easier for an estimator to rate a cost as high than to attempt to place a dollar value on the estimate.l this strategy has been widely used in fuzzy control applications since it is natural and easy to implement.l a function definition expresses the membership function of a fuzzy set in a functional form, typically a bell‑shaped function, etc.such functions are used in flc because they lead themselves to manipulation through the use of fuzzy arithmetic.l it should be noted that in our daily life most of the information on which our decisions are based is linguistic rather than numerical in nature.seen in this perspective, fuzzy control rules provide a natural framework for the characterization of human behavior and decisions analysis.l many experts have found that fuzzy control rules provide a convenient way to express their domain knowledge.this explains why most flcs are based on the knowledge and experience which are expressed in the language of fuzzy “if‑the” rule.chapter 4.examplesexample/ datal the data used in the following example was taken from an experiment in which xx was measured between x and x using a xx technique.l the data consists of over xx measurements.l an example of xx is discussed and the control rules of xx are compared with a xxl examples of complex processes to which this technique may be applied are xx, xx, etc.l the following example is constructed only for the purpose of illustrating the computational procedure discussed.l this example clearly demonstrates that the profile of an individual xx, or a very small group of xx, with no enough data to be studied statistically, can be meaningfully analyzed by fuzzy possibilistic methods.l there is no space here to go into detail on all these methods, but deserve a mention and the bibliography will point to detailed references for those wishing this level of detail.l note that the golf ball spotting example is used throughout the paper.comparisonsl as well, the pros and cons of these representations from a process planning point of view will be discussed.l the method of using xx to implement xx described by zadeh(1973)appeared more suitablel as discussed [in the previous section]/[preciously],relationl we can not invert f' directly because it defines a many-to-one mapping.l the relationships appear very complicatel lifting tasks involve complex and imprecise relationship between the task variables and the human operator's characteristics.l these methods are based on the relationship between...and...l the fundamental concept of a fuzzy rating language is that we can establish a relationship among terms such as high, medium, and low, and then modify these relationships.l this article will thus mention the latter as well as the former.l the former two bear a close relation to a fuzzy cartesian product.importancel the emphasis is on an implementation of a general approach to rule based decision making.consideration / attentionl careful evaluation is necessary to ensure l such a formulation does not change further considerations.l considerable attention has been paid tol attention should be paid to an important finding of this investigation.l caution should be exercised in this process to avoid...l primary consideration is given to...components, though others can be accommodatedl after...has been defined by..., a carefully analysis is carried out/performed to determinel a number of factors such as...need to be taken into consideration before making the appropriate decision.l it should be noted thatl it is important to point out that...l these considerations have heightened interest in the possibility of providing...l we should stress the fundamental importance of the xxchapter 5.results.advantages / disadvantagel one of the major advantages of this new measure of xx is that it can be applied to the experimental study ofl one advantage of using a..is the ease of preparing it.l the xx system is versatilel it has a very fast decision making processl all the algorithms involve mostly logical operations.l it can be easily and without additional cost implemented in a microprocessor‑based environment.l it can reduce the waste of designing from scratch.l the advantages of using a xx to represent xx are the following:l however, xx is not without its shortcomings.l in most cases, the xxx shows an improvement over the existing xxx.l compared to the existing xx, the impacts of the xx are generally reduced by 5% to 9%.l the “best case” results shows a savings of 6% to 9%.l most of the existing works based on xx approach can only recognize a xx.l most of the above methods are computational expansive and limited to xx.l some other advantages of xx are the following:l the problem is the limitation of this method to a limited domain of parts.l it proved limited in application because it demanded precision in system modeling that was impossible in practice.l there are advantages to be gained in the structuring of costs and benefits, the use of xx, l the disadvantages of this method are also disadvantages of conventional xx approaches.l this combines the best features of both techniquesl hopefully, this tool can be as the reference framework of for developing a xx platform, and helping the administration, marketing, and knowledge management activities in virtual communities.resultsl an improvement on the result shown above can be made by based on the data providedl discussion of these theories is beyond the scope of this reviewl based on the information contained in thisl the result can be categorized into nine classesl the results are illustrated by an examplel the experimental results for each xx time are reported in table 2.l from the results obtained so far, it seem thatl because of the inaccuracy of the..., a conclusion cannot be drawn as l although much effort has been made to., this reality is far from completion.l the results indicate that the total benefits are higher than the total costs.l their results may then serve as guidelines for lower level models, less fuzzy and more detailed.chapter 6.conclusionl from the discussion, one may conclude that...l form the above discussion, the conclusion can be reached that l the conclusions drawn are also validl in conclusion to this, it becomes obvious that the problem of xx lies not only in...l we have attempted to introduce some concepts associated with a theory of xx based on fuzzy sets.l considerable more work, hopefully, will be done in this areal a fuzzy set procedure is proposed to solve xx selection problems interwoven with imprecise datal employing the compositional rule of inference, the assessment of the xx compatibility in achieving prescribed xx projectiles in any level of the hierarchy is made possible.l this paper has presented a theoretical and experimental study of the xx process and xx concept.l the experimental research results will hopefully serve as useful feedback information for improvements for xx work.l the scope of this contribution was to introduce a xx method.l in general, fuzzy sets theory provides an alternative foundation for xx analysis in a fuzzy environment.future researchl thus, first extension of the approach could be, l present some cues for a further approach from fuzzy sets theory application to l some improvements to the scheduling aspect of the model may be brought through additional levels in the hierarchy for more detailed representation of the scheduling activity.tables and figuresl figure 7-1 sketches these relationships.l the graphical representation of these functions is shown in figure 1.l the xx may be depicted as in figure 1.l figure x shows the schematic diagram of the l figure 1 though 2 provide a...thatl the architecture of this expert system for....is illustrated in figure 2.l figure 2 gives the outline of an...systeml table shows thel as shown in table 1 and 2l this concept is illustrated in figure 2l at the top of table xx are shown two blocks of data.l each table or matrix has constructs xx through xx as row‑headings, xx through xx as column‑headings.l a table of..is developed and significant recommendations are made.conjugationto indicate additionl additionally, again, also, and then, as can be easily understood, besides, equally important, especially, finally, for the same reason, first, further, furthermore, in addition, last, likewise, moreover, next, second, third, too, evidently, obviously, roughly speaking, broadly speakingto indicate cause and effectl accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, in short, otherwise, then, therefore, thus, trulyto indicate comparisonl in a like manner, likewise, similarly , alternativelyto indicate concessionl after all, although this may be true, at the same time, even though, even so , i admit, naturally, of courseto indicate contrastl and yet, at the same time, but, for all that, however, yet, in fact, in contrast, in the real life, in spite of, nevertheless, notwithstanding, normally, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, traditionally, rather, unfortunately,to indicate time relationshipsl after a short time, afterwards, as indicated earlier, as long as, as soon as, at last, at length, at the moment, at that time, at the same time, before, earlier, currently, immediately, in the meantime, in recent years, lately, later, meanwhile, often, of late, presently, recently, soon, shortly, since, thereupon, temporarily, therefore, until, when, whileto indicate special features or examplesl for example, for instance, incidentally, indeed, in fact, in other words, in particular, in practice, specifically, that is, to illustrate, in this respect, theoretically, as mentioned before / aboveto indicate summaryl in brief, in conclusion, in short, in summary, on the whole, to conclude, in general, to summarize, to sum up, as a result, ultimately,verb phasel build a..modell build up the key linkl began a new era in...l can be regarded as / achieved / used to/for / found / obtained throughl can result inl carries out...tasks l production information in order to simultaneouslyl contains all information necessary to describel do not make use of production informationl deals withl end with failurel fetch the information from the model directlyl has great potential / yet to be resolved / spurred the development of / been recognized as l be aimed at / built up / carried out by / essentially concerned with / considered to be the key technology / associated with each feature of a composite component / cable of / currently implemented for / demonstrated by an example / finally reached / made equal to / equivalent to / more suitable to / oriented to / interpreted as / pointed out / potentially of great benefit in the complex task of / shown in / used to effectively guide the searchl makes use of l make upl meets the needs of real life production,/ the current demands placed upon itl must be justifiedl point outl play an important rolel relates tol rely on l satisfy the needsl determine the total requirements for the...l uses...as a key to search for...l without relying onl will be available/ performed/ overlookednoun phasel a basic technical function of l a critical needl a key / principle feature ofl a substantial impact onl an intensive review was conductedl an increasing need for expanding the application of....l an important component / function / aspect / issuel each rule is numbered in sequencel each of these involvesl for this calculation, it is necessary to definel in the physical environment / integration ofl in the reality of situations where …l many aspects of l most past efforts have been spent on...l common sense to a well studied and documented technical field.l sources of additional information on...are listedl systematic and rationally structured formatl the basis on which a range of...operations can be established is shownl the basic philosophy / principles of / key element / general hypothesis / candidate list of / concept of...has attracted wide interest / function is concerned with / heart / impact / nature / role / task of / kernel functions l the number of parts needed to l the above statement means thatl the output data is passed to l the proposed method / underlying principlel the recommendations made in this report, if implemented, shouldl this information resides inl this process is composed of...different...operationl along with the use of l concerning general aspects ofl due tol for later use in generating...,l in turn,l it is believed / noted / assumed / suggested / shown / quite evident / appears / implies that / intended for / of no important tol it can be claimed/concluded thatl it demonstrates the decisions required of l it also provides information to..l it becomes essential to l let...be the probability thatl once...is written, it is compiled into...l suppose it is observe
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Beginningl In this paper, we focus on the need for l This paper proceeds as follow.l The structure of the paper is as follows.l In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related conceptsl To begin with we will provide a brief background on the Introductionl This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined.l Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections.l In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed;then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non‑fuzzy service rule is studied;lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered.Reviewl This review is followed by an introduction.l A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in Section 2.l In the next section a brief view of the....is given.l In the next section, a short review of...is given with special regard to...l Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx.l Section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.Bodyl Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance.l Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision‑making logic.l Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxxl Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding.l Section 2 explains how flexibility which often...can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time‑windowl Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the...l Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the..and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.l Section 3 describes a new measure of xx.l Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx.l Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.l Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rulesl The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4 describes the xx strategies.l Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model.l Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set‑based approach to cost variance investigation.l Section 4 gives a specific example of xxx.l Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process.l Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Section 2 and 3.l Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data.l Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model..l Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.l Section 6 illustrate the model with an example.l Various ways of fuzzification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in Section 2.l In Section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human DM systeml In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a...scheme must satisfy.l In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order‑dense.l In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions.l In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...This Sectionl In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRp is designed are described.l We will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.Next Sectionl The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements.l However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.l The three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use.l We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in the following sections.l The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xxSummaryl This paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5.l Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.l Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.l Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper.l Finally, conclusions and future work are summarizedl The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn.l Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.Chapter 0.Abstractl A basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables.l This paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures.l This paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx.l The method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations.l The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.l The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithms.l The usefulness of xx is also considered.l A brief methodology used in xx is discussed.l The analysis is useful in xx and xx problem.l A model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices.l Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified.l The use of the method is discussed and an example is given.l Results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique.l This paper analyses problems in l This paper outlines the functions carried out by...l This paper includes an illustration of the...l This paper provides an overview and information useful for approachingl Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.l The main emphasis is placed on the problem of xxl Our proposed model is verified through experimental study.l The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of : xx,xxl The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables.l A didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedureChapter 1.IntroductionTimel Over the course of the past 30 years,..has emerged form intuitive l Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial worldl The advent of...systems for has had a significant impact on the l The development of...is exploredl During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions,l The concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent yearsl There has been a turning point in...methodology in accordance with the advent of...l A major concern in...today is to continue to improve...l A xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena.l At the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xxl Although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.l The pioneer work can be traced to xx [1965].l To date, none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from ready to be used in commercial systems.Objective / Goal / purposel The purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:l The ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the non‑experts to utilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to provide intelligent, computer‑aided instruction for xxx.l The paper concerns the development of a xxl The scope of this research lies inl The main theme of the paper is the application of rule‑based decision making.l These objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as to permit...l The objectives of the...operations study are as follows:l The primary purpose/consideration/objective ofl The ultimate goal of this concept is to providel The main objective of such a...system is tol The aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probability distribution.l In order to achieve these objectives, an xx must meet the following requirements:l In order to take advantage of their similarityl more research is still required before final goal of...can be completedl In this trial, the objective is to generate...l for the sake of concentrating on...research issuesl A major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently developed procedure for the xx.l For an illustrative purpose, four well‑known OR problems are studied in presence of fuzzy data: xx.l A major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for structuring..methodsl This illustration points out the need to specifyl The ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive.l Chapter 2.Literature Reviewl A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature, for example, regarding xxl A considerable amount of research has been done..during the last decadel A great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties associated with xx.l There is considerable amount of literature on planningl However, these studies do not provide much attention to undertainty in xx.l Since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still under investigation as well in methodological aspects as in concrete applications.l Many research studies have been carried out on this topic.l problem of xx draw recently more and more attention of system analysis.l Attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of l Many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design procedure and have, therefore, not yet been automated.l Most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabilistic in nature.l The central issue in all these studies is to l The problem of xx has been studied by other investigators, however, these studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches.l Applied...techniques tol Characterized the...system asl Developed an algorithm tol Developed a system called...whichl Uses an iterative algorithm to deducel Emphasized the need tol Identifies six key issues surrounding high technologyl A comprehensive study of the..has been undertaken l Much work has been reported recently in these filedl proposedl presentedl State thatl point out that the problem of l Describedl Illustratedl Indicatedl Has shown / showedl Addressl Highlightsl A study on...was done / developed by []l previous work, such as [] and [], deal only withl The approach taken by [] isl The system developed by [] consistsl A paper relevant to this research was published by []l []'s model requires consideration of..l []' model draws attention to evolution in human developmentl []'s model focuses on...l Little research has been conducted in applying...tol The published information that is relevant to this research...l This study further shows thatl Their work is based on the principle of l More history of...can be found in xx et al.[1979].l Studies have been completed to establishedl The...studies indicated that l Though application of xx in the filed of xx has proliferated in recent years, effort in analyzing xx, especially xx, is lacking.problem / Issue / Questionl Unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturing planning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model.They tend to span broad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects.l Remedy / solve / alleviate these problemsl...is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolvedl Two major problems have yet to be addressedl An unanswered questionl This problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution.l An additional research issue to be tackled is....l Some important issues in developing a...system are discussedl The three prime issues can be summarized:l The situation leads to the problem of how to determine the...l There have been many attempts to l It is expected to be serious barrier to l It offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex problem.l There are several ways to get around this problem.l As difficult as it seems to be, xx is by no means new.l The problem is to recognize xx from a design representation.l A xx problem can trace its roots to xx.l xx [1987] used a heuristic approach to simplify the complexity of the problem.l Several problems are associated with them.l Although some progress has been made in this area, at least two major obstacles must be overcome before a fully automated system can be realized.l Most problems in practice are complicatedl More problem surface here.l Hamper effort toward a xx systeml In order to overcome the limitations due to incomplete and imprecise xx knowledge, a xx program has been developed, which bases its knowledge upon the statistical analysis of a sample population of xxl The above difficulties are real challenges faced by researchers attempting to developl This type of mapping raises no controversy to the issue of membership function determination.l However, attempts to quantify the xx have met both theoretical and empirical problems.l It has become apparent that in order to apply this new methodological framework to real‑world problems and data, we have to pay attention to the problems of xx and xx.Chapter 3.proposed methodologyAssumptionl In the case when the assumption of a xx seems to be too restrictive or inadequate, the formulation with Fuzzy termination time, i.e.given by a fuzzy set in the space of control stages, may be applied.l We assume here the fuzzy constraints to be state‑dependent, and the fuzzy goal to be the same for all the control states, xx, which stems from the problem's nature.l An approach to the solution of this problem is presented under the assumption that the sampling rate Decision can be made prior to the execution of the experiment, as opposed to being made while the experiment is in progress.l Another assumption made above is that there are precise odds at which the expert is indifferent.l Main simplifying assumptions are:l This, in our view, is a questionable assumption.Outline / Structure / Modulel An outline of the researchl Information is incorporated within the schemel Is built into...structurel A nice modular structure.l The principles of...are applied as modularized criteriaClassificationl A xx system comprises three main components:l Must decompose the original..into a set of..l Consists of the following steps:l This is summarized in the following steps:l Can be broadly classified into the following areas:l Can be characterized by its function of effectively processing thel Can allow further breadth of application of...into morel The following steps should be followedl xx can be classified by a different ways.l Based on the xx, one may classify xx into the following:l This catalog may change due to wear, breakage, and purchasing.Systeml Unlike many conventional program, expert systems do not usually deal with problem for which there is clearly a right or wrong answer.l The system consists of both...and...l The system has a hierarchical modular architecture organized on three levels.l expert system domains are area of expertisel To develop a xx system for xx, the following factors must be considered:l The system has been developed / designed to determinel The system has proven to be able to l The domain in which an expert system operates is a particular domainl The system comprises a...withl The system is [feature-oriented ] / based on the...techniquel The system environment must be relatively stablel The system is utilized to generate, load, store, update and retrieve...l The development of a xx system has two stages: xx stage and xx stage.l The most essential part of..system is the...l The successful developments in ESs have made them an important tool in the development of l An automated system was developed forl In this case, the system can be considered to be generative.l An interactive automatic...systeml A..is commonly thought of as a truly integrated..systeml Should be capable of being generated from a...systeml xx is an important part of the integrated system.l The model consists of four rule bases, each of which addresses a separate problem in the hierarchy of scheduling decision.l The rule bases are linked to each other in a chin‑like manner in the sense that the consequent of one rule base constitutes a part of the antecedent of the next rule base.l The rule base consists of all possible combinations of the linguistic terms associated with the linguistic variable of the antecedent of a rule.Computer Systeml The system has been implemented using prolog language in an MS‑DOS environment.prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l The current version of the xx program when compiled with WATFOR77 results in an executable code of about 270K bytes.Typical run time, when run on a XX computer(an IBM compatible machine)operating at 4.77 Mhz with 640K RAM, ranges from 10 min to 2h, depending on the size(or complexity)of the problem.l Time consuming procedures have been implemented in C‑language and directly linked to the prolog environment.l The xx process, once the xx's data has been entered, requires approximately 180 seconds.l It should be noted that the computation was done with a 20 Hhz, 80386‑based microcomputer equipped with a 80387 math co‑processor.l The computer programs used for the analyses, one based on the xx method and the other based on the new method, were written in FORTRAN with a compiler that supports the math co‑processor.l Lisp, prolog give maximum flexibility but also maximizes development time.l Internal representation is the way a model is represented in the computer.l An interactive menu-driven procedure is used in this studyl Shell can be develop very fast at the cost of time fairly severe limitations.l While there is no measurable saving of time for the case involving five criteria, the saving is dramatic for the case involving 10 criteria--the computation time reduces from 10 hr 40 min to about 1 min.l This combination is being implemented in an objected‑oriented programming environment(Smalltalk‑80 system)to solve problems encountered in construction xxx.Method / Approach / Study / process Model / Equation /Algorithm / Rule / Formula / Techniquel A discussion is presented of a problem-solving systeml To improve the efficiency of the method, the following approach may be applied.l In order to an investigation was made to find the causes of thel Although large collections of rules and equations have been complied, none are generally accepted l This approach will be explained and discussed thoroughly in the body of the report.l This can be accomplished byl This algorithm to compute the total cost can be described step by step as follows:l The above preliminary analysis has provided important informationl Various methods have been proposed for selecting an optimum...l These concepts have been applied to l On the basis of the concept mentioned above,l This can be achieved byl This fact suggests that a new conceptl This was accomplished by taking...l The preparatory stage is very time consuming process.l Test are performed for validity, completeness, and compatibilityl There is little hope of achieving successful...l There has been an increasing awareness of the potential of using most..so far made have not taken this approach, with the exception ofl Only a few studies can be found.l It is a very tedious process to go throughl It is only when..has been completed that..may be effectedl The entire interpretation process is conducted in one's head.l These approaches are sometimes very tedious.l Several techniques can be usedl A polynomial parametric model can be written as [the following]/[follows]:l A xx model is constructed/formulated using xx.l A xx model represents an xx by its xx.l A process decision model captures the logic essential tol From the equation above, xx is equal to the summation of xx times the...l The validity of a xx model can be checked using Euler's formula.l Given a model, one can mathematically determine whether...or...l Equations for xx need to be derived and implemented in the system.l A number of heuristic rules have been developed forl Optimum..techniques can be made more reliable by...so thatl An algorithm based on the characteristic...is used to determinel Euler's formula states the following:l The completed model should agree with the formula.l For manufacturing purposes, a detailed and precise model of the object is necessaryl Engineering design models are very well defined;therefore, l To keep the domain narrow enough to be implementable, yet wide enough to be useful.point of Viewl from an implementation standpoint,l From the point of view of this application,l From this point of view, Zadeh suggested an inference rule named xxx(CRI for short).l Information is the meaningful interpretation and correlation of some aggregation of data in order to allow one to make decisions.l From a practical point of view, the computational aspects of an FLC require a simplification of the fuzzy control algorithm.l The use of a hammer to insert screws, although partly effective, tends to distort, destroy, and generally defeat the purpose of using a screw [Kusiak AI Implications for CIM p.129]Justificationl We choose the so called xx in our experiment because it has received wide acceptance and canl prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l The rationale behind this is that it can be much easier for an estimator to rate a cost as high than to attempt to place a dollar value on the estimate.l This strategy has been widely used in fuzzy control applications since it is natural and easy to implement.l A function definition expresses the membership function of a fuzzy set in a functional form, typically a bell‑shaped function, etc.Such functions are used in FLC because they lead themselves to manipulation through the use of fuzzy arithmetic.l It should be noted that in our daily life most of the information on which our decisions are based is linguistic rather than numerical in nature.Seen in this perspective, fuzzy control rules provide a natural framework for the characterization of human behavior and decisions analysis.l Many experts have found that fuzzy control rules provide a convenient way to express their domain knowledge.This explains why most FLCs are based on the knowledge and experience which are expressed in the language of fuzzy “if‑the” rule.Chapter 4.ExamplesExample/ Datal The data used in the following example was taken from an experiment in which xx was measured between x and x using a xx technique.l The data consists of over xx measurements.l An example of xx is discussed and the control rules of xx are compared with a xxl Examples of complex processes to which this technique may be applied are xx, xx, etc.l The following example is constructed only for the purpose of illustrating the computational procedure discussed.l This example clearly demonstrates that the profile of an individual xx, or a very small group of xx, with no enough data to be studied statistically, can be meaningfully analyzed by fuzzy possibilistic methods.l There is no space here to go into detail on all these methods, but deserve a mention and the bibliography will point to detailed references for those wishing this level of detail.l Note that the golf ball spotting example is used throughout the paper.Comparisonsl As well, the pros and cons of these representations from a process planning point of view will be discussed.l The method of using xx to implement xx described by Zadeh(1973)appeared more suitablel As discussed [in the previous section]/[preciously],Relationl We can not invert F' directly because it defines a many-to-one mapping.l The relationships appear very complicatel Lifting tasks involve complex and imprecise relationship between the task variables and the human operator's characteristics.l These methods are based on the relationship between...and...l The fundamental concept of a fuzzy rating language is that we can establish a relationship among terms such as high, medium, and low, and then modify these relationships.l This article will thus mention the latter as well as the former.l The former two bear a close relation to a fuzzy Cartesian product.Importancel The emphasis is on an implementation of a general approach to rule based decision making.Consideration / Attentionl Careful evaluation is necessary to ensure l Such a formulation does not change further considerations.l Considerable attention has been paid tol Attention should be paid to an important finding of this investigation.l Caution should be exercised in this process to avoid...l primary consideration is given to...components, though others can be accommodatedl After...has been defined by..., a carefully analysis is carried out/performed to determinel A number of factors such as...need to be taken into consideration before making the appropriate decision.l It should be noted thatl It is important to point out that...l These considerations have heightened interest in the possibility of providing...l We should stress the fundamental importance of the xxChapter 5.Results.Advantages / Disadvantagel One of the major advantages of this new measure of xx is that it can be applied to the experimental study ofl One advantage of using a..is the ease of preparing it.l The xx system is versatilel It has a very fast decision making processl All the algorithms involve mostly logical operations.l It can be easily and without additional cost implemented in a microprocessor‑based environment.l It can reduce the waste of designing from scratch.l The advantages of using a xx to represent xx are the following:l However, xx is not without its shortcomings.l In most cases, the xxx shows an improvement over the existing xxx.l Compared to the existing xx, the impacts of the xx are generally reduced by 5% to 9%.l The “best case” results shows a savings of 6% to 9%.l Most of the existing works based on xx approach can only recognize a xx.l Most of the above methods are computational expansive and limited to xx.l Some other advantages of xx are the following:l The problem is the limitation of this method to a limited domain of parts.l It proved limited in application because it demanded precision in system modeling that was impossible in practice.l There are advantages to be gained in the structuring of costs and benefits, the use of xx, l The disadvantages of this method are also disadvantages of conventional xx approaches.l This combines the best features of both techniquesl Hopefully, this tool can be as the reference framework of for developing a xx platform, and helping the administration, marketing, and knowledge management activities in virtual communities.Resultsl An improvement on the result shown above can be made by based on the data providedl Discussion of these theories is beyond the scope of this reviewl Based on the information contained in thisl The result can be categorized into nine classesl The results are illustrated by an examplel The experimental results for each xx time are reported in Table 2.l From the results obtained so far, it seem thatl Because of the inaccuracy of the..., a conclusion cannot be drawn as l Although much effort has been made to., this reality is far from completion.l The results indicate that the total benefits are higher than the total costs.l Their results may then serve as guidelines for lower level models, less fuzzy and more detailed.Chapter 6.Conclusionl From the discussion, one may conclude that...l Form the above discussion, the conclusion can be reached that l The conclusions drawn are also validl In conclusion to this, it becomes obvious that the problem of xx lies not only in...l We have attempted to introduce some concepts associated with a theory of xx based on fuzzy sets.l Considerable more work, hopefully, will be done in this areal A fuzzy set procedure is proposed to solve xx selection problems interwoven with imprecise datal Employing the compositional rule of inference, the assessment of the xx compatibility in achieving prescribed xx projectiles in any level of the hierarchy is made possible.l This paper has presented a theoretical and experimental study of the xx process and xx concept.l The experimental research results will hopefully serve as useful feedback information for improvements for xx work.l The scope of this contribution was to introduce a xx method.l In general, fuzzy sets theory provides an alternative foundation for xx analysis in a fuzzy environment.Future Researchl Thus, first extension of the approach could be, l present some cues for a further approach from Fuzzy Sets Theory application to l Some improvements to the scheduling aspect of the model may be brought through additional levels in the hierarchy for more detailed representation of the scheduling activity.Tables and Figuresl Figure 7-1 sketches these relationships.l The graphical representation of these functions is shown in Figure 1.l The xx may be depicted as in Figure 1.l Figure x shows the schematic diagram of the l Figure 1 though 2 provide a...thatl the architecture of this expert system for....is illustrated in Figure 2.l Figure 2 gives the outline of an...systeml Table shows thel as shown in Table 1 and 2l This concept is illustrated in Figure 2l At the top of Table xx are shown two blocks of data.l Each table or matrix has constructs xx through xx as row‑headings, xx through xx as column‑headings.l A table of..is developed and significant recommendations are made.CONJUGATIONTo Indicate Additionl additionally, again, also, and then, as can be easily understood, besides, equally important, especially, finally, for the same reason, first, further, furthermore, in addition, last, likewise, moreover, next, second, third, too, evidently, obviously, roughly speaking, broadly speakingTo Indicate Cause and Effectl accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, in short, otherwise, then, therefore, thus, trulyTo indicate Comparisonl in a like manner, likewise, similarly , alternativelyTo Indicate Concessionl after all, although this may be true, at the same time, even though, even so , I admit, naturally, of courseTo Indicate Contrastl and yet, at the same time, but, for all that, however, yet, in fact, in contrast, in the real life, in spite of, nevertheless, notwithstanding, normally, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, traditionally, rather, unfortunately,To Indicate Time Relationshipsl after a short time, afterwards, as indicated earlier, as long as, as soon as, at last, at length, at the moment, at that time, at the same time, before, earlier, currently, immediately, in the meantime, in recent years, lately, later, meanwhile, often, of late, presently, recently, soon, shortly, since, thereupon, temporarily, therefore, until, when, whileTo Indicate Special Features or Examplesl for example, for instance, incidentally, indeed, in fact, in other words, in particular, in practice, specifically, that is, to illustrate, in this respect, theoretically, as mentioned before / aboveTo Indicate Summaryl in brief, in conclusion, in short, in summary, on the whole, to conclude, in general, to summarize, to sum up, as a result, ultimately,VERB pHASEl build a..modell build up the key linkl began a new era in...l can be regarded as / achieved / used to/for / found / obtained throughl can result inl carries out...tasks l production information in order to simultaneouslyl contains all information necessary to describel do not make use of production informationl deals withl end with failurel fetch the information from the model directlyl has great potential / yet to be resolved / spurred the development of / been recognized as l BE aimed at / built up / carried out by / essentially concerned with / considered to be the key technology / associated with each feature of a composite component / cable of / currently implemented for / demonstrated by an example / finally reached / made equal to / equivalent to / more suitable to / oriented to / interpreted as / pointed out / potentially of great benefit in the complex task of / shown in / used to effectively guide the searchl makes use of l make upl meets the needs of real life production,/ the current demands placed upon itl must be justifiedl point outl play an important rolel relates tol rely on l satisfy the needsl determine the total requirements for the...l uses...as a key to search for...l without relying onl will be available/ performed/ overlookedNOUN pHASEl a basic technical function of l a critical needl a key / principle feature ofl a substantial impact onl an intensive review was conductedl an increasing need for expanding the application of....l an important component / function / aspect / issuel each rule is numbered in sequencel each of these involvesl for this calculation, it is necessary to definel in the physical environment / integration ofl in the reality of situations where …l many aspects of l most past efforts have been spent on...l common sense to a well studied and documented technical field.l sources of additional information on...are listedl systematic and rationally structured formatl the basis on which a range of...operations can be established is shownl THE basic philosophy / principles of / key element / general hypothesis / candidate list of / concept of...has attracted wide interest / function is concerned with / heart / impact / nature / role / task of / kernel functions l the number of parts needed to l the above statement means thatl the output data is passed to l the proposed method / underlying principlel the recommendations made in this report, if implemented, shouldl this information resides inl this process is composed of...different...operationl along with the use of l concerning general aspects ofl due tol for later use in generating...,l in turn,l IT IS believed / noted / assumed / suggested / shown / quite evident / appears / implies that / intended for / of no important tol it can be claimed/concluded thatl it demonstrates the decisions required of l it also provides information to..l it becomes essential to l let...be the probability thatl once...is written, it is compiled into...l suppose it is observe
第四篇：英文常用句子总结
.lover-情人.sporting house 妓院.dead president-美钞.service station加油站.busboy 餐馆勤杂工
.dry goods <美>纺织品，<英> 谷物.heart man 换心人.tea shop茶馆；小吃店.senior citizen老年人.wash one’s hands 上厕所.a busy body爱管闲事的人.a black sheep害群之马.be taken in受骗，上当.pull sb’s leg开玩笑
.eat one’s words 收回前言，改正错话.mad doctor精神病科医生.eleventh hour最后时刻.personal remark人身攻击.sweet water淡水.confidence man 骗子.criminal lawyer刑事律师.dressing room 化妆室.horse sense常识.capital idea好主意.familiar talk庸俗的交谈.Green hand 新手.have a fit 勃然大怒.black art 妖术
.white coal(作动力来源的)水.Chinese dragon 麒麟.red tape 官僚习气.China policy 对华政策.white man 忠实可靠的人.black stranger 完全陌生的人.an apple of love 西红柿
.handwriting on the wall 不祥之兆.bring down the house 博得满堂喝彩
.blind date 有第三方安排的男女双方初次见面.roadside business 汽车饭店，汽车旅馆，汽车影院.American dream 美国的生活方式，美国人的自由民主观念.yellow book 黄皮书（法国政府报告书）.blue stocking 女学者，女才子
.American beauty 一种玫瑰，名叫美丽动人.English disease 软骨病.Indian summer 愉快的晚年.greek gift 害人的礼物.Spanish athlete 吹牛的人.French chalk滑石粉
.in one’s birthday suit 赤身裸体
.make one’s hair stand on end 令人毛骨悚然.think a great deal of oneself 高看或看重自己.pull up one’s socks 鼓起勇气.don’t have the heart to do不忍心做.what a shame多可惜，真遗憾.you don’t say? 是吗？.you can say that again.说得好.I haven’t sleep better我睡得很好
This moment nap, you will have a dream;but if this moment study, you will interpret a dream.If it’s good, it’s wonderful;if it’s bad, it’s experience.【五险一金的表达】1.medical insurance（医疗保险）；2.endowment insurance（养老保险）；3.unemployment insurance（失业保险）；4.work-related injury insurance（工伤保险）；5.childbirth insurance（生育保险）6.housing accumulation funds（住房公积金）
爱屋及乌 love me, love my dog 眼见为实（百闻不如一见）seeing is believing 不眠之夜white night 不以物喜，不以己悲 not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses 不打不成交 no discord, no concord 拆东墙补西墙rob Peter to pay Paul 辞旧迎新 bid farewell to the old and usher in the new;ring out the old year and ring in the new 大事化小小事化了 try first to make their mistake sound less serious and then to reduce it to nothing at all.国泰民安 the country flourishes and people live in peace 过犹不及 going too far is as bad as not going far enough;beyond is as wrong as falling short 功夫不负有心人 everything comes to him who waits 好了伤疤忘了疼 once on shore, one prays no more 好事不出门，坏事传千里 good news never goes beyond the gate, while bad news spread far and wide 君子之交淡如水 a hedge between keeps friendship green 礼尚往来 courtesy calls for reciprocity 留得青山在不怕没柴烧 where there is life, there is hope 谋事在人成事在天 man proposes, God disposes 弄巧成拙 cunning outwits itself 抛砖引玉 throw a sprat to catch a whale 巧妇难为无米之炊 one can’t make bricks without straw 前人栽树后人乘凉 one sows and another reaps 强强联手 win-win co-operation 世上无难事，只要肯攀登 where there is a will, there is a way 塞翁失马焉知非福 misfortune may be an actual blessing 水涨船高 when the river rises, the boat floats high 时不我待 time and tide wait for no man 屋漏偏逢连阴雨 misfortunes never come singly.When it rains, it pours 欲速则不达 haste makes a waste 优胜劣汰 survival of the fittest 英雄所见略同 great minds thinks alike 众矢之的 target of public criticism
第五篇：英文句子总结第一版
Unit 1 1.Man is not only a dweller in nature, he also transforms it.Humanity converts nature’s wealth into the means of the cultural, historical life of society.人类不仅仅只是自然的居民，他还改造者自然。人类将自然的财富转变成社会文化和历史生活的资料
2.Not only has man transferred various species of plants and animals to different climatic conditions, he has also changed the shape and climate of his environment and transformed plants and animals.人类不仅仅将各种各样的动植物送到不同的气候条件下，还改变了环境的形态和气候，改造了动植物
3.Our distant ancestorslived in fear of nature’s destructive forces.我们遥远的祖先生活在对大自然破坏性力量的恐惧中.4.This was all done in the name ofcivilis ation, which meant the places where man had made his home,(are)where the earth was cultivated, where the forest had been cut down
这是以人类文明的名义做的事情，也就是说人类住在哪里，那里的土地就会被耕耘，森林就会被砍伐
5.But as time goes on mankind becomes increasingly concerned with the question of where and how to obtain irreplaceable natural resourcesfor the needs of production.然而，随着岁月的流逝，人们越来越关注的是在何处得到和如何得到生产所需的不可替代的自然资源问题
6.At present the previous dynamic balance between man and nature and between nature and society as a whole has shownominous signs of breaking down.目前，人与自然以及自然与社会整体之间过去存在的动态平衡，以呈现崩溃的迹象。现在技术的特征是生产和使用日益合成的人工合成产品
7.para.6 line 1.Modern technology is distinguished by an ever increasing abundance of produced and used synthetic goods.现在技术的特征是生产和使用日益合成的人工合成产品
8.para.6 line 1.People increasingly cover their bodies from head to foot in nylon and other synthetic, glittering fabrics that are obviously not good for them.人们越来越多的用尼龙和其它人造纤维把自己从头到脚包裹起来这些绚丽的织物显然对他们无益
9.para.7 line 1.As time goes on the synthetic output of production turns into waste, and then substances that in their original form were not very toxic are transformed in the cycle of natural processes into aggressive agents.”
久而久之，这些合成物质转变成废弃物，那些原本毒性不大的物质在自然循环中变为极其有害的物质。
10.But to return to our theme, the bitter truth is that those human actions which violate the laws of nature, the harmony of the biosphere, threaten to bring disaster and this disaster may turn out to be universal.但是，言归正传，令人难以接受的事实是那些违背了自然规律、破坏了生物圈和谐的人类行为将会带来灾难，而这种灾难也许是全球性的
11.How apt then are the words of ancient Oriental wisdom: live closer to nature, my friends, and its eternal laws will protect you!古代东方智者的话讲得真是恰如其分：朋友们，你要是亲近大自然，大自然就会用那永恒不变的规律永远呵护你
12.In the 20th century, Americans, Europeans, and East Asians enjoyed material and technological advances that were unimaginable in previous eras.In the United States, for instance, gross domestic product per capita tripled from 1950 to 2000.Life expectancy soared.The boom in productivity after World War II made goods better and cheaper at the same time.世纪的美国人、欧洲人和东亚人都享受到了过去历代人都无法想象的物质和技术进步带来的乐趣。譬如，在美国，从1950年到2000年国民生产总值翻了3倍。人们的寿命大幅度提高。二战后生产力的迅速发展使商品变得物美价廉
13.And even though Americans seemed to work extraordinarily hard, their pursuit of entertainment turned media and leisure into multibillion-dollar industries.尽管美国人看起来工作非常努力，他们对于消遣娱乐的追求让媒体和休闲成为数十亿美元的产业
14.The truly groundbreaking work on the relationship between prosperity and well-being was done by the economist Richard Easterlin, who in 1974 wrote a famous paper entitled “Does Economic Growth Improve the Human Lot?” 在繁荣与幸福之间的关系上做出开创性工作的理查德以斯特林在19874年写了一篇名为“经济增长能提高我们的幸福感吗？”
15.Easterlin showed that when it came to developed countries, there was no real correlation between a nation’s income level and its citizens’ happiness.Money, Easterlin argued, could not buy happiness — at least not after a certain point.伊斯特林指出，当提到发达国家时，国家收入水平和人民幸福感之间并没有真正意义上的相关关系。他认为金钱不能买到幸福，至少一定时间内不会。
16.You can see this principle at work in the world of technology every day, as things that once seemed miraculous soon become common and, worse, frustrating when they don’t work perfectly.在科技方面你每天都能看到这一现象，那些被认为奇迹般的东西当它们表现不再完美时很快就变得普通，糟糕，令人沮丧。
17.Does our fast assimilation of technological progress mean, then, that technology makes no difference? No.It just makes the question of technology’s impact, for good or ill, more complicated.Let’s start with the downside.我们对科技进步的快速吸收同化意味着，然而，科技没有任何差别（没有带来任何影响？）？不是的，它仅仅是使科技冲击所带来的问题更复杂，不论好坏。让我们开始谈谈这些负面的影响。（好难，我瞎翻的）
18.We promise to love each other, for better or worse, through sickness and health, till death do us part.我们承诺会爱着对方，无论境遇好坏，无论疾病或健康，直到死亡把我们分开
19.There are certain ways in which technology makes life obviously worse.Telemarketing, traffic jams, and identity theft all come to mind.These are all phenomena that make people consciously unhappy.科技使生活更糟糕是体现在具体方面的，如电话推销，交通堵塞，身份盗窃都涌现在我的脑海（都容易想到），这所有的现象都使人们有意识地感到不开心。.20.Privacy has become increasingly fragile in a world of linked databases.In many workplaces, technologies like keystroke monitoring and full recordings of phone calls make it easier to watch workers.在这个与数据库紧密联系的世界里，隐私变得越来越易碎。在很多工作场所，比如按键监视和全程电话录音等科技，使监视工人变得更加容易
21.The notion that technologydisrupts relationships and fracturescommunity gained mainstream prominence as an attack on television.科技扰乱了人际关系，团体破裂这一观点成为人们批评电视的主要声音
22.But until very recently, life for the vast majority of people was nasty, rough, and short.Technology has changed that, at least for people in the rich world.As much as we should worry about the rising cost of health care and the problem of the uninsured, it’s also worth remembering how valuable for our spirits as well as our bodies are the benefits that medical technology has brought us.但是直到最近，大多数人的生活是令人不愉快的，是不舒服呢，是短暂的。是科技改变了原来的生活，至少对于富人来说是这样。我们应该尽可能的去考虑持续增长的医疗成本和未报销民众的问题，而且，我们应该记得医学技术给我们带来的身心益处
23.On a deeper level,what the technological improvement of our health and our longevity emphasizes is a paradox of any discussion of happiness on a national or a global level: even though people may not be happier, even though they are wealthier and possess more technology, they’re still as hungry as ever for more time.科技提高了我们的健康水平和寿命这一说法，有悖于说它不能给我们带来幸福，无论从理论上还是全球水平上。尽管人们不那么幸福，尽管他们更有富有，拥有了更多的技术，多数时候他们仍然跟以前一样饥饿
24.If what you want most is to see your name in lights,be featured on Entertainment Tonight, or have a mob of screaming fans swoon in your presence, you’re not the only one.你不是唯一一个想要看到自己的名字在聚光灯下闪亮，被邀请到<今夜娱乐>，或者拥有一群在你出现时为你尖叫，为你疯狂的粉丝
25.Reality TV shows such as Survivor, Temptation Island, and The Real World transform average people into instant celebrities.像幸存者，诱惑岛和真实世界这种真人秀节目会让普通人变得立刻出名
26.Today, more and more people own or have access to recording and film equipment or publishing software.Huge numbers also have access to the Internet, and many people have their own Web sites.现在，越来越多的人拥有或者可以利用录音，电影设备或者发表软件。特别多人还可以利用互联网，有一些人还有他们自己的网页
27.Perhaps it’s only natural that so many of us fantasize about fame and plot out ways to gain it.After all, we live in a culture obsessed with the doings of famous people.或许，我们中的有些人幻想着出名，描绘着得到名气的道路只是天生的自然的。毕竟我们生活在为做一个出名的人而着迷的文化中
28.At least three out of four magazines feature a celebrity on the cover and promise some juicy bit celebrity gossip inside.至少3/4的杂志封面都特写了一个名人还承诺里面有一些生动多汁的名人名声的小道消息。
美国文化概论
29.These regions are cultural units rather than governmental units-formed by history and geography and shaped by the economics, literature and folkways that all the parts of a region share.这些区域是按照文化单元来划分的，而不是按照行政管理，这个区域由历史、地理位置组成和区域内共有的经济、文化、民风民俗形成。
30.The continental United States stretches 4500 kilometers from the Atlantic Ocean on the east to the Pacific Ocean on the west.It borders Canada on the north and reaches south to Mexico and Gulf of Mexico.美国的大陆东起大西洋，西至太平洋，横跨4500千米，其北相邻加拿大，南街墨西哥和墨西哥湾
31.From the Appalachian Mountains in the East to Rocky Mountains in the west, the center of the country is drained by the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers and their branches..从东边的阿巴拉契亚山脉到西边的落基山脉，这个国家的中心地区由密西西河，密苏里河与他们的分支灌溉滋养
32.The first Europeans to reach North America were Icelandic Vikings.第一批到达北美的人的欧洲人是冰岛的维京人
33.Acting on behalf of the Spanish crown, in 1492 the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus sailed west from Europe and landed on one of the Bahamas Islands in the Caribbean Sea.1492年，意大利航海家克里斯多夫，哥伦布，代表并受托于西班牙皇族自欧洲大陆向西航行并于加勒比海的巴哈马岛登陆
34.In the 16th and 17thCentury, Northern Europeans settled in what is now the Northeast Coast of the United States, which soon fell under the British Crown and stayed an English Colony till the Revolutionary Wars in the late 18thCentury.在16,17世纪，来之北欧的移民定居在现在的东北部海岸线，并很快（东北部海岸线）受赘于来自英国皇室并由英国的移民定居直至18世纪末的美国革命战争时期
35.The Constitution outlines the structure of the national government and specifies its powers and activities, and defines the relationship between the national government and individual state governments.美国宪法阐述了美国政府的构成，明细划分其职能职权并定义阐明了美国联邦政府与各州立政府间的关系
36.Government power and functions in the United States rest in three branches of government: the legislative, judicial, and executive.美国国家政府的职权职能被划分为：立法，司法，行政三个方面
37.In this system of a “separation of powers” each branch operates independently of the others, however, they are built in “checks and balances” to present a concentration of power in any one branch and to protect the rights and liberties of citizens..在这个“分权”系统中，每一个分支都独立于其他部门独立运作，但是，它们是建立在“制衡”中，为了防止在任何一个分支中存在一个权力的集中，并保护公民的权利和自由
38.Though the United States held less than 5 percent of the world’s population, it accounted for more than 25 percent of the world’s economic output.In the 1990s, the American economy recorded the longest uninterrupted period of expansion in its history..虽然美国的人口不到全世界的百分之五，但它占世界经济总量的百分之二十五以上。在20世纪90年代，美国经济记录了历史上最长的不间断的扩张时期
39.Besides believing that free markets promote economic efficiency, Americans see them as a way of promoting their political values as well-especially their commitment to individual freedom and political pluralism and their opposition to undue concentrations of power.除了相信自由市场促进经济效率，美国看到他们作为一种促进他们的政治价值观以及其对个人自由和政治多元化，反对过分的权力集中的承诺
40.American Broadcasting Company(ABC)美国广播公司
41.The Columbia Broadcasting System(CBS)哥伦比亚广播公司
42.The National Broadcasting Corporation(NBC)美国全国广播公司
43.Public Broadcasting System(PBS)美国公共电视网
44.Broadcasting television of all kinds network and local, has long been under threat from cable and satellite television services, which now reach more than half of all American homes.所有的广播电视，网络和本地的，长期处于现在已经达到美国半数家庭的有线电视与卫星电视的威胁下
45.Most of these shows last only one or two 13-week seasons, but some run for many years.Special shows such as the Academy Awards or Emmy Awards presentations are always primetime.大部分此类的节目仅仅播出一两季，有一些会连续播很长时间。一些特殊的节目像奥斯卡奖和艾美奖的颁奖仪式会在黄金时间段播出。
46.One of the most sensational, innovative, and often controversial genres of television programming in the United States right now is “reality”television.现在美国最轰动，有创新性，争议也比较大的节目类型是真人秀
47.During the bulk of the program he would interview various celebrity guests, do further comedy routines on his own(often in costume), and perhaps have a singer or comedian do an act,with frequent commercials.An excellent band would play lead-ins to each segment , and occasionally perform full musical numbers.在节目中，强尼.卡森会花大部分时间采访各类名人嘉宾，按常规表演一些喜剧，也会经常有乐队为各部分演奏一些引入的曲子，有些会演奏整首曲子
48.The American public has assured the film industry by their weekly treks to the movie theater, and their purchase and rental of videos and DVDs.美国人经常去电影院或通过租借光碟来看电影，这是他们电影行业发达的基础
49.As we know, the American definition of success is largely one of acquiring wealth and a high material standard of living.正如我们所知,美国成功的定义在很大程度上是一个获取财富和高物质的生活标准
50.Like high school, the four undergraduate grades are commonly called freshman, sophomore, junior and senior years(alternatively called first year, second year, etc.).就像高中一样,大学的四个年级，通常称为新生,大二学生,大三学生和大四学生(或者称为第一年,第二年,等等
51.Admissions criteria involve the rigor and grades earned in high school courses taken, the students’ GPA, class ranking, and standardized test scores(such as the SAT or the ACT tests).Most colleges also consider more subjective factors such as a commitment to extracurricular activities,a personal essay, and an interview.入学标准是涉及到一定的严密性，也包含高中课程所得各种课程的成绩，学生的平均绩点，班级排名，以及标准化成绩的测试分数（美国学术能力测试或者美国大学入学考试测试）大部分大学生会考虑一些更主观的因素比如承担一次课外活动，一篇个人随笔或者一次采访
52.Once admitted, students engage in undergraduate study, which consists of satisfying university and class requirements to achieve a bachelor’s degree in a field of concentration known as a major.(Some students enroll in double majors or “minor” in another field of study.).一旦获得许可,学生参加本科学习,需要完成获得学士学位所要学习的所有必修科目。(一些学生参加双专业或参加一些其他领域的辅修科目)
53.The most common method consists of four years of study leading to Bachelor of Arts(B.A.), a Bachelor of Science(B.S.),or sometimes another bachelor’s degree such as Bachelor of Fine Arts(B.F.A.), Bachelor of Social Work(B.S.W.), Bachelor of Engineering(B.Eng.)or Bachelor of Philosophy(B.Phil.)Five-Year Professional Architecture programs offer the Bachelor of Architecture Degree(B.Arch.)最常见的方法包括通过四年的学习后获得的文学、科学、或有时另一种学士学位，如美术学士，社会工作学士，工程学士,哲学学士学位或是五年专业建筑学课程后才能拿到的建筑学学士学位
54.Professional degrees such as law, medicine, pharmacy and dentistry, are offered as graduate study after earning at least three years of undergraduate schooling or after earning a bachelor’s degree depending on the program.根据规定，法律、医学、药学、牙科等专业学位，在至少接受三年的本科教育，或获得学士学位后，才可以继续毕业学习
55.These professional fields do not require a specific undergraduate major, though medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry have set prerequisite courses that must be taken before enrollment.（报考）这些专业领域不要求是某个特定的专业，但是医学、药学和牙科在报名前都有必须完成的课程
56.Community colleges are generally publicly funded and offer career certifications and part-time programs.In most states, community colleges are operated either by a division of the state university or by local special districts subject to guidance from a state agency.社区大学一般都是由政府资助的，并且提供职业资格认证和兼职项目。在大多数州，社区大学的运作都是由州立大学的一个部门或由来自国家机关部门的地方特别行政区进行指导
57.Some programs, such as medicine and psychology,have formal apprenticeship procedures post-graduation, such as residencies and internships, which must be completed after graduation and before one is considered fully trained.Other professional programs like law and business have no formal apprenticeship requirements after graduation(although law school graduates must take the bar exam to legally practice law in nearly all states).一些课程，比如医学和心理学都有正式的学徒期兼职课程，比如在毕业后必须完成合格的住院医师实习期和实习医师的全面培养。其他专业性课程，例如法学和商学在毕业后就没有正式的学徒期要求（虽然法学毕业生必须通过律师资格考试才能在国内执业
58.Entrance into graduate programs usually depends upon a student’s undergraduate academic performance or professional experience as well as their score on a standardized entrance exam like the Graduate Record Examination(GRE), the Medical College Admission Test(MCAD), or the Law School Admission Test(LSAT).进入研究生课程通常取决于学生在本科学院的表现，或者工作经历和他们标准化入学考试的成绩一样好。诸如研究生入学考试（GRE），医学院入学考试（MCAD）或法学院入学考试（LSAT）
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