第一篇:螺丝的英文翻译
螺丝的英文翻译
创固螺丝
螺纹大径:Major Diam 螺纹 中径:Pitch diam 螺纹 底径:Minor diam 通止规:Go/No go gage 机械性能:mechanical and physical properties unified thread 统一英制螺纹 Lustrate hydrogen after galvanizing to avoid hydrogen embrittlement 镀后去氢,防止氢脆 Case carburization 表面渗碳 With across flats 对边 With across corners 对角 Radius of fillet:头下圆角 Transition thread length 过度螺纹 Wrenching height 扳拧高度 Rockwell 铬氏硬度 Vickers 维氏硬度 Brinell 布氏硬度 Metallography microscope 金相显微镜 Salt spray device 盐雾试验箱 Tensile testing machine 拉力试验机 Cold forming 冷打 Hot forging 红镦 P C 8 = property class 8 机械性能8级 原材料:Raw material 球化退火:Annealing 冷拔:Drawing 冷镦:Forming 机加工:Machining 螺纹成型:Roll Threading 热处理:heat-treatment 表面处理:finish 去氢:Lustrating hydrogen 检验:Inspection 包装:Packing 入库:Stocking 车床:lathe 磨制:grinding 红打:hot forging 冲压:punching Diameter 直径 Length 长度 1 标准 GB(国家标准)ISO(国际标准)DIN(德制)JIS(日标)ANSI /ASME(美标)BA(英制)2 螺纹 M.MF(公制牙)UNC.UNF(美制牙)BSW.BSF(英制牙)3 海关编码 73181500 螺栓 73181600 螺帽 73182100 垫圈 BO=black oxide 氧化发黑 IHH=ind hex head 锯 六角头 PH=phillips 十字槽 sw/fw=split washer/flatwasher 弹垫平垫 kep nut 锁紧螺母 cementation 渗碳 acorn nut 盖形螺母 螺丝头型 Pan 圆头(盘头)Oval 半沉头 H.W.H..六角小法兰 H.W.F.六角大法兰 CSK 沙拉头(沉头)Large wafer 大扁平头 Bugle 喇叭头 Truss 盘头带垫 Pozi 米制槽 Phill 十字槽 Serra-tion 垫下带花 Flower Head 开花头 6-bobes recess 内梅花 Piston bolt 活塞螺钉 Winding bolt 线圈螺钉 Hexagon head bolts-full thread 六角头螺栓 全螺纹 Carriage bolt 马车螺栓 Square head bolt-product grade C 方头螺栓 C级 Flat counter sunk square neck bolts 沉头方颈螺栓 Flat counter sunk nib bolts 沉头带榫螺栓 Cup head square neck bolts 半圆头方螺栓 Cup head nib bolts 半圆头带榫螺栓 Cup head square neck bolts with large head –product grade C大半圆头方颈螺栓 C级 Hexagon head bolts-product grade C六角头螺栓 C级 Hexagon head bolts-full thread –product grade C 六角头螺栓 全螺纹 C级 Hexagon head bolts 六角头螺栓 Hexagon head bolts –full thread 六角头螺栓 全螺纹 Hexagon head bolts-reduced shank-product grade B六角头螺栓 细杆菌B级 Hexagon head bolts with fine pitch thread 六角头螺栓 细牙 Hexagon head bolts with fine pitch thread full thread六角头螺栓 细牙 全螺纹 Hexagon flange bolts –heavy series-product grade B 六角法兰面螺栓 加大系列车员 B级 Cross recessed pan head tapping screws 十字槽盘头自攻螺钉 Hexagon flange drilling screw with tapping screw thread 六角法兰面自钻自攻螺钉
第二篇:螺丝材料
螺丝材料
一、目前市场上标准件主要有碳钢、不锈钢、铜三种材料。
(一)碳钢。我们以碳钢料中碳的含量区分低碳钢,中碳钢和高碳钢以及合金钢。
1、低碳钢C%≤0.25% 国内通常称为A3钢。国外基本称为1008,1015,1018,1022等。主要用于4.8级螺栓及4级螺母、小螺丝等无硬度要求的产品。(注:钻尾钉主要用1022材料。)
2、中碳钢0.25%
3、高碳钢C%>0.45%。目前市场上基本没使用
4、合金钢:在普碳钢中加入合金元素,增加钢材的一些特殊性能:如35、40铬钼、SCM435,10B38。芳生螺丝主要使用SCM435铬鉬合金钢,主要成分有C、Si、Mn、P、S、Cr、Mo。
(二)不锈钢。性能等级:45,50,60,70,80 主要分奥氏体(18%Cr、8%Ni)耐热性好,耐腐蚀性好,可焊性好。A1,A2,A4 马氏体、13%Cr耐腐蚀性较差,强度高,耐磨性好。C1,C2,C4铁素体不锈钢。18%Cr镦锻性较好,耐腐蚀性强于马氏体。目前市场上进口材料主要是日本产品。按级别主要分SUS302、SUS304、SUS316。
(三)铜。常用材料为黄铜…锌铜合金。市场上主要用H62、H65、H68铜做标准件。
二、碳钢产品所使用的盘元: 序号 种 类 可选用的材质 4.8级六角螺栓 1008K 1010 1015K 2 6.8级六角螺栓 1032 1035 1040 CH38F 1039 3 8.8级六角螺栓 1035ACR(M10以下)1040ACR(M12以上)CH38F 1045ACR 1039 10B21 10B33 10B38 4 8.8级内六角螺栓 CH38F 1039 10B21(M10-M12)10B33(M14)10B38(M12-M24)10B21 10.9级六角螺栓 1045ACR 10B38 6 │8│级螺帽 1008K 1010 7 8级螺帽 1015(M<16)CH38F(M≥16)8 10级螺帽 CH38F 1039 10B21 10B33 9 12级螺帽 1039 10B21 10B33 10B38 10 马车螺丝 1008 1010 1015 11 六角缘凸螺栓 CH38F 1039 10B21 10B33 10B38 12 六角木螺丝 1008K 1010 13 自攻钉、墙板钉
钻尾钉、夹板钉 1018 1022 CH22A 14 机螺钉 家俱螺丝 1008 1010
三、材料中各类元素对钢的性质的影响:
1、碳(C):提高钢件强度,尤其是其热处理性能,但随着含碳量的增加,塑性和韧性下降,并会影响到钢件的冷镦性能及焊接性能。
2、锰(Mn):提高钢件强度,并在一定程度上提高可淬性。即在淬火时增加了淬硬渗入的强度,锰还能改进表面质量,但是太多的锰对延展性和可焊性不利。并会影响电镀时镀层 的控制。
3、镍(Ni):提高钢件强度,改善低温下的韧性,提高耐大气腐蚀能力,并可保证稳定的热处理效果,减小氢脆的作用。
4、铬(Cr):能提高可淬性,改善耐磨性,提高耐腐蚀能力,并有利于高温下保持强度。
5、钼(Mo):能帮助控制可淬性,降低钢对回火脆性的敏感性,对提高高温下的抗拉强度有很大影响。
6、硼(B):能提高可淬性,并且有助于使低碳钢对热处理产生预期的反应。
7、矾(V):细化奥氏体晶粒,改善韧性。
8、硅(Si):保证钢件的强度,适当的含量可以改善钢件塑性和韧性。
四、关于不锈钢材质之特性简介(304、316)
(一)该三种材质均为300系列的奥氏体不锈钢,其化学成分如下: 名称 C Si Mn P S Ni Cr Mo Cu 304M ≤0.06 ≤1.0 ≤2.0 ≤0.045 ≤0.03 8.91-10.0 18.0-20.0 0 0 316 ≤0.03-0.06 ≤1.0 ≤2.0 ≤0.045 ≤0.03 10.0-14.0 16.0-18.0 2.0-3.0 0 304HC ≤0.08 ≤1.0 ≤2.0 ≤0.045 ≤0.03 8.0-10.5 17.0-19.0 0 1.0-3.0
(二)主要化学成分与不锈钢性能之关系。
1、碳 C 可增加硬度和强度,含量过高会降低其延展性和耐蚀性
2、铬 Cr 可增加耐蚀性、抗氧化性,使品粒细化,增加强度,硬度和耐磨性
3、镍 Ni 可增加高温强度、耐蚀性,降低冷加工硬化之速率
4、钼 Mo 增加强度,对氧化物和海水的耐蚀性优良
5、铜 Cu 利于冷加工成型,降低磁性
(三)材质之其它性能
1、以上材质正常状态无磁性。304M冷加工后略有磁性(1.6u-2.0u左右);304HC磁性为(1.01u-1.6u左右);316材质冷加工后磁性小于1.01u。
2、各材质均有良好的延展性,易冷加工成型,抗拉强度、屈服强度、均可达到要求。(Ts 抗拉强度 min 700N/mm, Ys 屈服强度 min 450N/mm)
(四)结论 1、304M、304HC、316三种材质是目前300系列奥氏体不锈钢使用最广的材质之一。各材质明显差异为:冷加工后材质磁性为316<304HC<304M。316材质抗化学品腐蚀,抗孔蚀性及抗海水耐蚀性能相对于304M及304HC要优良。
2、总之,不锈钢标准件特性为耐腐蚀、美观、卫生,但其强度、硬度正常情况下相当于碳钢(6.8级)故对不锈钢产品应不可撞击、敲打、注意维护其表面光洁度、精度,且不能和使用碳钢产品一样随便施加力量,亦不可施力过大,同时因不锈钢延展性好,在使用时产生钢屑易粘于螺帽牙级处,增加摩檫力,易导致锁死,而使用碳钢即使产生铁屑也会掉落,相对于不锈钢不易锁死
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第三篇:螺丝的国际标准
螺丝的国际标准
J-日规(JIS)D-欧规(DIN)A-美规(AISI)G-国标(GB)B-英规(BSW)S-国际标准(ISO)T-特殊标准 规格标准——GB标准
十字槽盘头自攻螺钉 GB 845-85 十字槽沉头自攻螺钉 GB 846-85 十字槽半沉头自攻螺钉 GB 847-85 开槽盘头自攻螺钉 GB 5282-85 开槽沉头自攻螺钉 GB 5283-85 开槽半沉头自攻螺钉 GB 5284-85 六角头自攻螺钉 GB 5285-85
十字槽盘头自攻锁紧螺钉 GB 6560-86 十字槽沉头自攻锁紧螺钉 GB 6561-86 十字槽半沉头自攻锁紧螺钉 GB 6562-86 六角头自攻锁紧螺钉 GB 6563-86
内六角花形圆柱头自攻锁紧螺钉 GB 6564-86
十字槽头凹穴六角头自攻螺钉 GB 9456-88
精密机械用紧固件十字槽自攻螺钉 刮削端 GB /T 13806.2-92 墙板自攻螺钉 GB /T 14210-93
十字槽盘头自钻自攻螺钉 GB /T 15856.1-2002 十字槽沉头自钻自攻螺钉 GB /T 15856.2-2002 十字槽半沉头自钻自攻螺钉 GB /T 15856.3-2002 六角法兰面自钻自攻螺钉 GB /T 15856.4-2002 六角凸缘自钻自攻螺钉 GB /T 15856.5-2002 六角凸缘自攻螺钉 GB /T 16824.1-1997 六角法兰面自攻螺钉 GB /T 16824.2-1997
规格标准——GB标准
十字槽盘头自攻螺钉 GB 845-85 十字槽沉头自攻螺钉 GB 846-85 十字槽半沉头自攻螺钉 GB 847-85 开槽盘头自攻螺钉 GB 5282-85 开槽沉头自攻螺钉 GB 5283-85 开槽半沉头自攻螺钉 GB 5284-85 六角头自攻螺钉 GB 5285-85
十字槽盘头自攻锁紧螺钉 GB 6560-86 十字槽沉头自攻锁紧螺钉 GB 6561-86 十字槽半沉头自攻锁紧螺钉 GB 6562-86
六角头自攻锁紧螺钉 GB 6563-86
内六角花形圆柱头自攻锁紧螺钉 GB 6564-86 十字槽头凹穴六角头自攻螺钉 GB 9456-88
精密机械用紧固件十字槽自攻螺钉 刮削端 GB /T 13806.2-92 墙板自攻螺钉 GB /T 14210-93
十字槽盘头自钻自攻螺钉 GB /T 15856.1-2002 十字槽沉头自钻自攻螺钉 GB /T 15856.2-2002 十字槽半沉头自钻自攻螺钉 GB /T 15856.3-2002 六角法兰面自钻自攻螺钉 GB /T 15856.4-2002 六角凸缘自钻自攻螺钉 GB /T 15856.5-2002 六角凸缘自攻螺钉 GB /T 16824.1-1997 六角法兰面自攻螺钉 GB /T 16824.2-1997
美制螺丝用于机械设备,电子产品,通讯设备,家具设备,建筑行业等行业的生产,安装维修和保养方面. 英制6#-32:6#相当于公制的M多少,指螺纹规格;32相当于公制的牙距多少,指一英吋(25.4mm)里面有32个牙距,用25.4除以32即得牙距的公制数字,这个数字便是1个牙距.转载请注明出自六西格玛品质论坛 http://www.6sq.net/cdb/,本贴地址:http://www.6sq.net/cdb/viewthread.php?tid=178182
螺钉的性能与等级划分国际标准
管理提醒:
本帖被 chenmiaooo 执行锁定操作(2008-09-23)
1).钢结构连接用螺栓性能等级分3.6、4.6、4.8、5.6、6.8、8.8、9.8、10.9、12.9等10余个等级。
2).8.8级及以上螺栓材质为低碳合金钢或中碳钢并经热处理(淬火+回火),通称为高强度螺栓,其余为普通螺栓。3).螺栓性能等级标号有两部分数字组成,分别表示螺栓材料的公称抗拉强度值和屈强比值。
螺栓性能等级的含义是国际通用的标准,相同性能等级的螺栓,不管其材料和产地的区别,其性能是相同的。
螺栓是用“X.Y”的格式表示其强度,X*100=此螺栓的抗拉强度,X*100*(Y/10)=此螺栓的屈服强度
强度等级所谓8.8级和10.9级是指螺栓的抗剪切应力等级为8.8GPa和10.9Gpa,8.8的公称抗拉强度800N/MM^2 公称屈服强度640N/MM^2
例:
1).性能等级4.6级的螺栓,其含义是:该螺栓的材质公称抗拉强度达400MPa级别,螺栓材质的屈强比值为0.6,该螺栓材质的公称屈服强度达400×0.6=240MPa 2).性能等级10.9级高强度螺栓,其含义是:该螺栓材质公称抗拉强度达1000MPa级别;螺栓材质的屈强比值为0.9,该螺栓材质的公称屈服强度达1000×0.9=900MPa
不锈钢螺栓通常标为A4-70,A2-70的样子,涵义另有解释,见后文,螺钉的材料。
尺寸度量
当今世界上长度计量单位主要有两种,一种为公制,计量单位为米(m)、厘米(cm)、毫米(mm)等,在欧州、中国,日本及东南亚地区使用较多,另一种为英制,计量单位主要为英寸(inch),在美国、英国及其原殖民地国家使用较多。
1).公制计量:(10进制)1m =100 cm=1000 mm 2).英制计量:(8进制)
1英寸=8英分 1英寸=25.4 mm 3/8¢¢×25.4 =9.52 3).1/4¢¢以下的产品用番号来表示其称呼径,如:4#,5#,6#,7#,8#,10#,12#
螺栓表面的螺纹及其分类
螺纹是一种在固体外表面或内表面的截面上,有均匀螺旋线凸起的形状。根据其结构特点和用途可分为三大类:
1).普通螺纹:牙形为三角形,用于连接或紧固零件。普通螺纹按螺距分为粗牙和细牙螺纹两种,细牙螺纹的连接强度较高。
2).传动螺纹:牙形有梯形、矩形、锯形及三角形等。
3).密封螺纹:用于密封连接,主要是管用螺纹、锥螺纹与锥管螺纹。
螺纹配合等级:
螺纹配合是旋合螺纹之间松或紧的大小,配合的等级是作用在内外螺纹上偏差和公差的规定组合。
对统一英制螺纹,外螺纹有三种螺纹等级:1A、2A和3A级,内螺纹对应也有三种等级:1B、2B和3B级,全部都是间隙配合。等级数字越高,配合越紧。在英制螺纹中,偏差仅规定1A和2A级,3A级的偏差为零,而且1A和2A级的等级偏差是相等的。等级数目越大公差越小。
具体应用如下:
1A和1B级,非常松的公差等级,其适用于内外螺纹的允差配合。
2A和2B级,是英制系列机械紧固件规定最通用的螺纹公差等级。
3A和3B级,旋合形成最紧的配合,适用于公差紧的紧固件,用于安全性的关键设计。
对外螺纹来说,1A和2A级有一个配合公差,3A级没有。1A级公差比2A级公差大50%,比3A级大75%,对内螺纹来说,2B级公差比2A公差大30%。1B级比2B级大50%,比3B级大75%。
对统一的公制螺纹,外螺纹有三种螺纹等级:4h、6h和6g,内螺纹有三种螺纹等级:5H、6 H、7H。(日标螺纹精度等级分为I、II、III三级,通常状况下为II级)在公制螺纹中,H和h的基本偏差为零。G的基本偏差为正值,e、f和g的基本偏差为负值。
H是内螺纹常用的公差带位置,一般不用作表面镀层,或用极薄的磷化层。
G位置基本偏差用于特殊场合,如较厚的镀层,一般很少用。
g常用来镀6-9um的薄镀层,如产品图纸要求是6h的螺栓,其镀前螺纹采用6g的公差带。
螺纹配合最好组合成H/g、H/h或G/h,对于螺栓、螺母等精制紧固件螺纹,标准推荐采用6H/6g的配合。
螺钉的材料
目前的标准件主要有碳钢、不锈钢、铜三种材料。
碳钢
我们以碳钢料中碳的含量区分低碳钢,中碳钢和高碳钢以及合金钢。
1).低碳钢C%≤0.25%国内通常称为A3钢。国外基本称为1008,1015,1018,1022等。主要用于4.8级螺栓及4级螺母、小螺丝等无硬度要求的产品。(注:钻尾钉主要用1022材料。)
2).中碳钢0.25% 3).高碳钢C%>0.45%。目前市场上基本没使用 4).合金钢:在普碳钢中加入合金元素,增加钢材的一些特殊性能:如35、40铬钼、SCM435,10B38。 不锈钢 性能等级:45,50,60,70,80 奥氏体(18%Cr、8%Ni)耐热性好,耐腐蚀性好,可焊性好,主要是A1,A2,A4。 马氏体(13%C)r耐腐蚀性较差,强度高,耐磨性好,主要是C1,C2,C4。 铁素体不锈钢(18%Cr)镦锻性较好,耐腐蚀性强于马氏体。目前市场上材料主要是日本产品。按级别主要分SUS302、SUS304、SUS316。 铜 常用材料为黄铜…锌铜合金。主要用H62、H65、H68铜做标准件。 碳钢产品所使用的材料例: 种类 可选用的材质 4.8级六角螺栓 1008K 1010 1015K 6.8级六角螺栓 1032 1035 1040 CH38F 1039 8.8级六角螺栓 1035ACR(M10以下)1040ACR(M12以上)CH38F 1045ACR 1039 10B21 10B33 10B38 8.8级内六角螺栓 CH38F 1039 10B21(M10-M12)10B33(M14)10B38(M12-M24)10B21 10.9级六角螺栓 1045ACR 10B38 8级螺帽 1015(M<16)CH38F(M≥16)10级螺帽 CH38F 1039 10B21 10B33 12级螺帽 1039 10B21 10B33 10B38 六角缘凸螺栓 CH38F 1039 10B21 10B33 10B38 六角木螺丝 1008K 1010 自攻钉、墙板钉、钻尾钉、夹板钉 1018 1022 CH22A 机螺钉、家俱螺丝 1008 1010 材料中各类元素对钢的性质的影响: 1、碳(C):提高钢件强度,尤其是其热处理性能,但随着含碳量的增加,塑性和韧性下降,并会影响到钢件的冷镦性能及焊接性能。 2、锰(Mn):提高钢件强度,并在一定程度上提高可淬性。即在淬火时增加了淬硬渗入的强度,锰还能改进表面质量,但是太多的锰对延展性和可焊性不利。并会影响电镀时镀层的控制。 3、镍(Ni):提高钢件强度,改善低温下的韧性,提高耐大气腐蚀能力,并可保证稳定的热处理效果,减小氢脆的作用。 4、铬(Cr):能提高可淬性,改善耐磨性,提高耐腐蚀能力,并有利于高温下保持强度。 5、钼(Mo):能帮助控制可淬性,降低钢对回火脆性的敏感性,对提高高温下的抗拉强度有很大影响。 6、硼(B):能提高可淬性,并且有助于使低碳钢对热处理产生预期的反应。 7、矾(V):细化奥氏体晶粒,改善韧性。 8、硅(Si):保证钢件的强度,适当的含量可以改善钢件塑性和韧性。 关于不锈钢材质之特性简介(304M、316、304HC) 1).三种材质均为300系列的奥氏体不锈钢,其化学成分如下: 名称 C Si Mn P S Ni Cr Mo Cu 304M ≤0.06 ≤1.0 ≤2.0 ≤0.04 5≤0.0 38.91-10.0 18.0-20.0 0 0 316 ≤0.03-0.06 ≤1.0 ≤2.0 ≤0.045 ≤0.03 10.0-14.0 16.0-18.0 2.0-3.0 0 304HC ≤0.08 ≤1.0 ≤2.0 ≤0.045 ≤0.03 8.0-10.5 17.0-19.0 0 1.0-3.0 2).主要化学成分与不锈钢性能之关系。 1、碳C 可增加硬度和强度,含量过高会降低其延展性和耐蚀性 2、铬Cr 可增加耐蚀性、抗氧化性,使品粒细化,增加强度,硬度和耐磨性 3、镍Ni 可增加高温强度、耐蚀性,降低冷加工硬化之速率 4、钼Mo增加强度,对氧化物和海水的耐蚀性优良 5、铜Cu利于冷加工成型,降低磁性 3).材质之其它性能 1、以上材质正常状态无磁性。304M冷加工后略有磁性(1.6u-2.0u左右);304HC磁性为(1.01u-1.6u左右);316材质冷加工后磁性小于1.01u。 2、各材质均有良好的延展性,易冷加工成型,抗拉强度、屈服强度、均可达到要求。(Ts抗拉强度min700N/mm, Ys屈服强度 min 450N/mm) 4).注意事项 1、304M、304HC、316三种材质是目前300系列奥氏体不锈钢使用最广的材质之一。各材质明显差异为:冷加工后材质磁性为316<304HC<304M。316材质抗化学品腐蚀,抗孔蚀性及抗海水耐蚀性能相对于304M及304HC要优良。 2、总之,不锈钢标准件特性为耐腐蚀、美观、卫生,但其强度、硬度正常情况下相当于碳钢(6.8级)故对不锈钢产品应不可撞击、敲打、注意维护其表面光洁度、精度,且不能和使用碳钢产品一样随便施加力量,亦不可施力过大,同时因不锈钢延展性好,在使用时产生钢屑易粘于螺帽牙级处,增加摩檫力,易导致锁死,而使用碳钢即使产生铁屑也会掉落,相对于不锈钢不易锁死。 产品标准分类 (一)、六角螺栓(HEXAGON HEAD BOLTS) 1、英制螺栓参照标准为ANSI/ASME B18.2.1,日标参照JIS B1180(韦氏牙)。英制参照BSW916(韦氏牙)。(1)、HEX MACHINE BOLT:无华司、有束尾、半牙六角螺栓,(2)、HEX TAP BOLT:无华司、无束尾、全牙六角螺栓,(3)、HEX CAP SCREWS:有华司、有束尾、半牙六角螺栓,2、公制螺栓参照标准如下,其相互区别如表所示: 老国标 新国标 ISO标准 DIN(德标)GB30 GB5780(半牙)GB5781(全牙)GB5782(半牙)GB5783(全牙)ISO4016 ISO4018 ISO4014 ISO4017 DIN601 DIN558 DIN931 DIN933 (二)、马车螺丝/圆头方颈螺栓(Carriage Bolts): ANSI/ASME B18.5;DIN603;ISO 8677;GB12;GB14 (三)、内六角螺栓(Hexagon socket-head cap screws): DIN912;GB70; ISO4762; ANSI /ASME B18.3 (四)、六角木螺丝(Hexagon Head Lag Screws): ANSI/ASME B18.2.1 DIN 571 (五)、家俱螺丝(Furniture screws):依客户标准 (六)、六角法兰螺栓(Hexagon Flange Bolt): IFI 111 GB 5787 DIN 92 正确的标识 (1)、标志明显。六角头螺栓和螺钉(螺纹直径≥5mm)。需在头部顶面用凸字或凹字标志,或在头部侧面用凹字标志。包括性能等级、厂标。碳钢:强度等级标记代号由“•”隔开的两部分数字组成。 标记代号中“•”前数字部分的含义表示公称抗拉强度,如4.8级的“4”表示公称抗拉强度400N/MM2的1/100。 标记代号中“•”和点后数字部分的含义表示屈强比,即公称屈服点或公称屈服强度与公称抗拉强度之比。如4.8级产品的屈服点为320 N/mm2。 不锈钢产品强度等级标志由“—”隔开的两部分组成。标志代号中“—”前符号表示材料。如:A2,A4等标志“—”后表示强度,如:A2-70(2)、等级。碳钢:公制螺栓机械性能等级可分为:3.6、4.6、4.8、5.6、5.8、6.8、8.8、9.8、10.9、12.9共10个性能等级。 不锈钢:60,70,80(奥氏体);50,70,80,110(马氏体);45,60(铁氏体)三类。 德国标准和国际标准、中国标准中英文对照表 频道:五金 发布时间:2008-02-12 德国标准和国际标准、中国标准中英文对照表 序号 德国标准 中文品名 英文品名 国际标准 中国标准 item din-standard description in chinese description in english iso-standardgb-standard 1 din1 圆锥销 taper pins iso2339 gb117 2 din7 圆柱销 parallel pins iso2338 gb119-86 3 din84 开槽圆柱头螺钉 slotted cheese head screws iso1207 gb65-85 4 din85 开槽盘头螺钉 slotted pan head screws iso1580 gb67-85 5 din93 单耳止动垫圈 tab washers gb854 6 din94 开口销 split cotter pins iso1234 gb91 7 din95 开槽半沉头木螺钉 slotted raised csk head wood screws gb101 8 din96 开槽半圆头木螺钉 slotted round head wood screws gb99 9 din97 开槽沉头木螺钉 slotted countersunk head wood screws gb100 10 din125-a平垫 plain washers iso7089 gb97.1-85 11 din125-b平垫(带倒角)mediun washers iso7090 gb97.2-85 12 din126平垫 plain washers iso7091 din127-a 重型弹垫 spring lock washers,tang ends gb7244 14 din127-b 标准弹垫 spring lock washers,square ends gb93-87 15 din128-a 鞍形弹垫 single coil spring lock washers gb7245-87 16 din137-a 弹簧止动垫圈 curved spring washers din137-b 波形弹垫 wave spring washers gb955 18 din186 t型方颈螺栓 t-head bolts with square neck gb37-88 19 din188 t型双接头螺栓 t-head bolts with double nip din258 螺纹圆锥销 taper pins with threaded end iso8737 21 din261 t型头螺栓 t-head bolts din315af 蝶型螺母(美制)wing nuts amercia form din315df 蝶型螺母(德制)wing nuts germany form gb62-88 24 din316af 蝶型螺钉(美制)wing screws amercia form din317df 蝶型螺钉(德制)wing screws germany form din319 圆球型盖型螺母 ball knobs din404 开槽带孔球面圆柱头螺钉 slotted capstan screws gb832-88 28 din417 开槽长圆柱端紧定螺钉 slotted set srews with full dog pointiso7435gb75-85 29 din427 开槽平端紧定螺钉(半牙)slotted set srews with chamfered endiso2342gb73-85 30 din431 小六角特薄细牙螺母 pipe nuts with thread gb808-88 31 din432 外舌止动垫圈 external tap gb856-88 32 din433 小垫圈(用于圆柱头螺钉)washers for cheese head screws iso7092 gb848-95 33 din434 方斜垫圈(u型)square taper washers for u-section gb852-88 34 din435 方斜垫圈(i型)square taper washers for i-sections gb852-88 35 din436 方垫圈 square washers din438 开槽凹端紧定螺钉 slotted set with cup point iso7436 gb74-85 37 din439 六角薄螺母 hexagon thin nuts iso4035 gb6172-86 38 din439 细牙六角薄螺母 hexagon thin nuts iso8675 gb6173-86 39 din440 木螺钉专用垫圈 rounds washers for wood constructions iso7094 40 din443 密封帽 sealing caps,push-in type din444 活节螺栓b 型 eye bolts form b gb798-88 42 din462 内舌止动垫圈 internal tab washers din463 双耳止动垫圈 washers with two taps gb855-88 44 din464 滚花高头螺钉 knurled thumb screws with collar gb834-88 45 din465 开槽滚花高头螺钉 slotted knurled thumb screws with collar din466 滚花高螺母 knurled thumb nuts with collar gb806-88 47 din467 滚花薄螺母 knurled thumb thin nuts gb807-88 48 din470 锁紧垫圈 sealing washers din471 轴用弹性挡圈 retaining rings for shafts(external),circlips gb894.1-86 50 din472 孔用弹性挡圈 retaining rings for bores(internal),circlips gb893.1-86 51 din478 方头带垫螺栓 square head bolts with collar din479 方头圆柱底端螺栓 square head bolts with half dog point din480 方头带垫半圆底端螺栓 square head bolts with collar,half dog point and rounded end din508 t型槽螺母 t-slot nutsiso299 55 din525 单头螺柱 single end studs din529 地脚螺栓 masonry bolts gb799-88 57 din546 带槽圆螺母 slotted round nuts gb817-76 58 din547 端面带孔圆螺母 round nuts with drilled holes in one face gb815-88 59 din551 开槽平端紧定螺钉 slotted sit screws with flat point iso4776 gb73-85 60 din553 开槽锥端紧定螺钉 slotted set screws with cone point iso7434 gb71-85 61 din555 六角螺母 hexagon nuts iso4034 din557 方螺母-csquare nuts gb39-88 63 din558 六角头螺钉 hexagon screws iso4018 64 din561 六角头圆柱端紧定螺钉 hexagon set screws with full dog point din52 薄型方螺母-bsquare nuts without bevel(pressed nuts) din571 六角头木螺钉 hexagon head wood screws(coach screws)gb102-86 67 din580 吊环螺钉 lifting eye bolts iso3266 gb825-76 68 din582 吊环螺母 lifting eye nuts din601 六角头螺栓 hexagon bolts iso4016 din603 大半圆头方颈螺栓(马车螺栓)mushroom head square neck bolts(carriage bolts)iso8677 gb14-88 71 din604 沉头带插销马车螺栓 flat countersunk nib bolts din605 沉头长方颈马车螺栓 flat countersunk long square neck bolts din607 半圆头带插销马车螺栓 cup head nib bolts din608 沉头短方颈马车螺栓 flat countersunk short square neck bolts din609 六角头精配螺栓(长螺纹)hexagon fitted bolts,long thread din610 六角头精配螺栓(短螺纹)hexagon fitted bolts,short thread din653 滚花平头螺钉 knurled thumb screws thin type gb835-88 78 din660 半圆头铆钉 round head rivets iso1051 gb867-86 79 din661 沉头铆钉 contersunk head rivets iso1051 gb869-86 80 din662 半沉头铆钉 raised contersunk head rivets iso1051 81 din674 大扁头铆钉 mushroom head rivets iso1051 din703 重型侧面带孔圆螺母 adjusting rings,heavy range(shafting collars) din705 侧面带孔圆螺母 adjusting rings,light range(shafting collars)gb816-88 84 din741 卡头 wire rope clips din787t 型槽螺钉 t-slot screws iso299 din835 双头螺柱(牙长=2d)studs-metal(end=2d)gb900-88 87 din906 内六角锥型闭锁螺钉 hexagon socket pipe plugs,conical thread din908 内六角直型闭锁螺钉 hexagon socket screw plugs,cyl.thread din909 外六角锥型闭锁螺钉 hexagon head pipe plugs,conical thread 90 din910 外六角直型闭锁螺钉 hexagon head screw plugs,cyl.thread din911 内六角扳手 socket wrenches iso2936 din912 内六角圆柱头螺钉 hexagon socket cap screws iso4762 gb70-85 93 din913 内六角平端紧定螺钉 hexagon socket set screws withflatpoint iso4026 gb77-85 94 din914 内六角尖端紧定螺钉 hexagon socket set screws with conepoint iso4027 gb78-85 95 din915 内六角圆柱端紧定螺钉 hexagon socket set screws with dog point iso4028 gb79-85 96 din916 内六角凹端紧定螺钉 hexagon socket set screws with cup point iso4029 gb80-85 97 din917 薄型盲螺母 hexagon cap nuts din920 开槽小圆柱头螺钉 slotted short cheese head screws din921 开槽大圆柱头螺钉 slotted large cheese head screws gb838-88 100 din923 开槽圆柱头轴肩螺钉 slotted pan head screws with shoulder gb830-88 101 din927 开槽无头轴肩螺钉 slotted shoulder screws din928 焊接方螺母 square weld nuts gb/t13680-92 103 din929 焊接六角螺母 hexagon weld nuts gb/t13681-92 104 din931 六角头螺栓(半牙)hexagon head screws iso4014 gb5782-86 105 din933 六角头螺栓(全牙)hexagon head screws iso4017 gb5783-86 106 din934 六角头螺母(1型)hexagon full nuts iso4032 gb6170-86 107 din934 细牙六角头螺母(1型)hexagon full nuts iso8673 gb6171-86 108 din935 开槽六角螺母 hexagon slotted and castle nuts iso7035 gb6178-86 109 din936 六角头薄螺母 hexagon thin nuts iso4035 gb6172.1-86 110 din937 六角头开槽薄螺母 hexagon thin slotted and castle nuts iso7038 gb6181-86 111 din938 双头螺距(牙长=1d)studs metal(end=1d)gb897-88 112 din939 双头螺距(牙长=1.25d)studs metal(end=1.25d)gb898-88 113 din940 双头螺距(牙长=1.5d)studs metal(end=1.5d) din960 六角头细牙螺栓(半牙)hexagon head bolts,metric fine pitch thread iso8765 gb5785-86 115 din961 六角头细牙螺栓(全牙)hexagon head bolts,metric fine pitch thread iso8676 gb5786-86 116 din962 头部穿孔六角头螺栓 additional shapes and versions for bolts din963 开槽沉头螺钉 slotted countersund head screwsiso 2009 gb68-85 118 din964 开槽半沉头螺钉 slotted raised countersunk oval head screwsiso 2010 gb69-85 119 din965 十字槽沉头螺钉 cross recessed countersunk head screws iso7046 gb819-85 120 din966 十字槽半沉头螺钉 cross recessed raised countersunk head screws iso7047 gb820-85 121 din970 六角头螺母 hexagon nuts type-1 din971 六角头螺母 hexagon nuts type-2 din972 细牙六角头螺母(2型)hexagon nuts with fine thread iso8674 gb6176-86 124 din975 牙条(全螺纹)threaded rods(studdings)gb15389-94 125 din976 螺纹销 threaded pins(stud bolts) din979 六角头开槽薄螺母(2型)hexagon thin slotted and castle nuts din980 全金属六角锁紧螺母(1型)prevailling torque type hexagon nuts,all metall nuts iso7199 gb6184-86 128 din981 圆螺母 locknuts iso2982 gb812-88 129 din982 六角头尼龙锁紧螺母 prevailling torque type hexagon nuts,heavy type ,with nylon insert iso7040 gb889.1-86 130 din985 六角头薄型尼龙锁紧螺母 prevailling torque type hexagon nuts,heavy type ,with nylon insert iso10511 gb6172.2-86 131 din986 六角盖型尼龙锁紧螺母 prevailling torque typedomed capnuts with nylon insert din988 配合垫片shim rings din1052 木材连接用垫片 washers for timber connectors din1151 沉头钢钉 round plain head nails din1440 销钉专用垫片a型 plain washers for clevis pins(a型)iso8738 136 din1441 销钉专用垫片 plain washers for clevis pins din1444 带头销钉 clevis pins with head iso2341 din1471 圆锥型槽销 grooved pins,taper grooved iso8744 gb/t13829.2 139 din1472 圆锥型槽销(半槽)grooved pins,taper grooved half length iso8745 gb/t13829.2 140 din1473平行槽销(带倒角)grooved pins,parallel grooved full length iso8740 141 din1474 前端凹槽槽销 grooved pins,reserve grooved half length iso8741 142 din1475 中部凹槽槽销 grooved pins,centre grooved iso8742 din1476 圆头槽销 grooved pins with round head iso8746 gb/t13829.3 144 din147 7沉头槽销 grooved pins with countersunk head iso8747 145 din1479 六角螺母棒turnuckles(centre parts),made out of hexagon bar din1480 花篮螺栓 turnuckles with eye bolt and hook bolt din1481 弹性圆柱销 spring pins,heavy type iso8752 gb879-86 148 din1587 组合式盖型螺母 hexagon domed cap nuts gb802-88 149 din1804 开槽圆螺母(配合沟头扳手)slotted round nuts for hook spanner din1816 圆螺母(带插销孔)round nuts with set holes 151 din2093 盘型弹簧垫圈disc springs 152 din3017 喉箍 hose clamps 153 din3404 润滑油嘴(旋扭头)lubricating nipples,button head 154 din3567 管夹shackles for conduilts 155 din3570 u型螺栓 stirrup bolts(u-bolts)156 din6319 球面垫圈 spherical washers,conical seats gb849-88 157 din6325 圆柱销 parallel pins iso8734 158 din6330 厚六角螺母 hexagon nuts ,1.5d gb56-88 159 din6331 厚六角法兰面螺母 hexagon nuts ,1.5d with collar gb6177-86 160 din6334 长六角螺母 hexagon nuts ,3d 161 din6797-a 外齿锁紧垫圈 external teeth lock washers gb862.1-87 162 din6797-i 内齿锁紧垫圈 internal teeth lock washers gb861.1-87 163 din6798-a 外锯齿锁紧垫圈 external teeth serrated lock washers gb862.2-87 164 din6798-i 内锯齿锁紧垫圈 internal teeth serrated lock washers gb861.2-87 165 din6799 开口挡圈 retaining rings for shafts(e-rings),circlips gb896-76 166 din6885平键(a型)parallel keys(form a)iso773/2491 167 din6888 半圆键woodruff keys iso3912 168 din6899 嵌环(支撑环)thimbles 169 din6900 机器螺钉和垫圈组合件 screws and washers assemblies gb9074.1-.17 170 din6901 自攻螺钉和垫圈组合件 tapping screws and washers assemblies gb9074.18-.23 171 din6912 薄型带孔内六角圆柱头螺钉 hexagon socket head cap screws with hole,low head 172 din6914 大六角头螺栓 hexagon head bolts with large head(friction grip bolts) 173 din6915 大六角螺母 hexagon nuts with large wideth across flat(friction grip nuts) 174 din6916 大垫圈 round washers for friction grip bolts 175 din6917 楔型方垫圈 spuare taper washers for friction grip bolts on t-sections 176 din6923 六角法兰面螺母 hexagon flange nuts iso4161 gb6177-86 177 din6925 全金属六角锁紧螺母(2型)prevailing torque type hexagon nuts,all metallic nuts iso7042 gb6185.1-2000 178 din7337 开口型抽芯铆钉(沉头、扁圆头)blind rivets gb12617/12618 179 din7338 扁平头半空心/全空心铆钉 rivets for brake and clutch lining gb875/975-86 180 din7343 螺旋夹紧销 spiral pins iso8750 181 din7346 轻型弹性圆柱销 spring pins,light type iso13337 182 din7349 重型弹性圆柱销用垫圈 washers for bolts with heavy type spring pinss 183 din7500 iso公制螺纹螺钉(多种头型)threadforming screws for iso-metric thread 184 din7504 自攻自钻螺钉(多种头型)self-drilling tapping screws 185 din7513 开槽切削螺纹螺钉(多种头型)thread cutting screws 186 din7516 十字槽切削螺纹螺钉(多种头型)thread cutting screws cross recess 187 din7965 t型四爪螺母 tee nuts with pronge 188 din7968 钢结构用六角头螺栓连接副 hexagon head fitted bolts for steel structures gb1228/1229/1230 189 din7971 开槽盘头自攻螺钉 pan head tapping screws with slot iso1481 gb5282-85 190 din7972 开槽沉头自攻螺钉 countersunk flat head tapping screws with slot iso1482 gb5283-85 191 din7973 开槽半沉头自攻螺钉 raised countersunk oval head tapping screws with slot iso1483 gb5284-85 192 din7976 六角头自攻螺钉 hexagon tapping screws iso1479 gb5285-85 193 din7980 圆柱头螺钉用弹簧垫圈 spring lock washers for screws with cylindrical headsiso8738 194 din7981 十字槽盘头自攻螺钉pan head tapping screws with cross recessed iso7049 gb845-85 195 din7982 十字槽沉头自攻螺钉 countersunk flat head tapping screws with cross recessed iso7050 gb846-85 196 din7983 十字槽半沉头自攻螺钉 raised countersunk oval head tapping screws with cross recessed iso7051 gb847-86 197 din7984 薄型内六角圆柱头螺钉 hexagon socket head cap screws with,reduced head 198 din7985 十字槽盘头螺钉 pan head screws with cross recessed iso7045 gb818-85 199 din7989 钢结构用垫圈 washers for steel structures gb1230-84 200 din7990 钢结构用六角头螺栓 hexagon head bolts for steel structuresgb1229-84 201 din7991 内六角沉头螺钉 hexagon socket countersunk head screws iso10642 202 din7993 轴用钢丝挡圈 roundwire snap rings for shafts gb895.2-86 203 din7995 十字槽半沉头木螺钉 cross recessed raised countersunk head wood screws gb952-86 204 din7996 十字槽圆头木螺钉 cross recessed round head wood screws gb950-86 205 din7997 十字槽沉头木螺钉 cross recessed countersunk head wood screws gb951-86 206 din8140 螺纹护套(普通自锁等)ciol inserts,coarse,fine thread,silf locking 207 din9021 大外径垫圈 washers,outside diameter appro.3d iso7093 gb96-85 208 din11024 弹簧卡子 spring cotter for a bolt 209 din13257平板螺栓 belting bolts(elevator bolts) 210 din18182 干壁钉(墙板钉)dry wall screws 211 din28129 环型螺母lifting nuts(eye nuts)gb63-88 212 din70952 圆螺母用止退垫圈 tab washers for slotted round nuts gb858-88 Introduction: with the rapid development of the economy, China ‘smprehensive national power has been improved effectively.As a saying said;“Want to become rich first road”.So China has begun to build the high-speed rail since years ago.The building of the high~speed rail is suited to China's national conditions and help our country to run well in the strong competition of the world.大多数经济学家认为:交通基础设施的供应水平和能力必须适度超前,否则就会影响社会经济持续、稳定 和健康发展。这就意味着要加大对交通基础设施的投资,但是政府在加大交通基础设施投资力度的同时,用于改善民生的措施实际却在相对地减少。从中国目前的经济发展和人民的收入状况来说,我认为中国高 铁弊大于利.Most economists believe that: the supply and capability of transportation infrastructure must advance appropriately, otherwise it will affect the sustainable, stable and healthy development of social economy.This means that we have to increase the investment into transportation infrastructure,But while government increase the investment into transportation infrastructure, it will to some extent decrease the practical measures to improve people's livelihood.From China's current situation, I think it will do more harm than good to build high-speed railway in China.Piont1: Building too fast go against the laws of economic development, causing many problems, such as loan repayment, staff placement.And high-speed railway construction needs large investment, from the use of the actual situation, the possibility of short-term cost recovery do not, there is also the problem of capital wasting.建设速度过快,容易违背经济发展规律,同时面对的问题较多,例如贷款偿还,员工安置等。中国第一条高 铁客运专线——从北京到天津,它在 2008 年 8 月通车后一年就亏损了 7 个亿。武广高铁总投资约 1166 亿元,目前的线路至少能开 120 对车,但实际上只开了 33 对,而且还坐不满,这是资本的严重浪费。所 以说高铁建设不仅需要大笔的投资,而且从运用的实际的情况来看,短期收回成本的可能性根本就没有。The fast building speed will violate the rule of economic development, and at same time it faced many problems, such as loan repayment, staff placement.First high-speed railway of China-from Beijing to Tianjin, it was launched in August 2008, after one year it lossed 70 millions.The total investment of d rail can drive the development of the industry related.for example, the building need many workers and the new technology, so it expand the employment and promiot the technological innovation.In another word through the building, more steel products are needed.Another important hand is transport during the Spring Festival.During this period of time, large numbers of people going home together.So the high speed rail can relieve the transportation pressure ectively 高铁的票价较高,例如京津高铁,它行驶 30 分钟,却要 69 元票价,让人望而生叹啊。中国的 GDP 总量 高居世界第二,但人均 GDP 在世界的排名却还在百名开外,穷人还是绝大多数。武广高铁开通后,原有 的一些客运列车停运,意味着中低收入者将被迫选择高铁,接受高票价。这种行为伤及了底层人民的最根 本利 e 而且建设过程中容易出现贪污腐败问题。The fare of high Speed Rail is higher, for example, the Beijing-Tianjin high-speed rail, it costs 69 yuan for only drive 30minuts.China's GDP ranks the second in the world, but per capita GDP still ranks out of hundreds in the world, the poor is the majority.When Wuhan-Guangzhou high-speed railway was used, the original passenger trains were stopped, which means low-incomer will be forced to choose high-speed rail and accept the high fares.This action has Overview of the Global System for Mobile Communications 1 History of GSM During the early 1980s, analog cellular telephone systems were experiencing rapid growth in Europe, particularly in Scandinavia and the United Kingdom, but also in France and Germany.Each country developed its own system, which was incompatible with everyone else’s in equipment and operation.This was an undesirable situation, because not only was the mobile equipment limited to operation within national boundaries, which in a unified Europe were increasingly unimportant, but there was also a very limited market for each type of equipment, so economies of scale and the subsequent savings could not be realized.The Europeans realized this early on, and in 1982 the Conference of European s Posts and Telegraphs(CEPT)formed a study group called the Group Special Mobile(GSM)to study and develop a pan-European public land mobile system.The proposed system has to meet certain criteria: ·Good subjective speech quality ·Low terminal and service cost ·Support for international roaming ·Ability to support handheld terminals ·Support for range of new services and facilities ·Spectral efficiency ·ISDN compatibility In 1989, GSM responsibility was transferred to the European Telecommunication Standards Institute(ETSI), and phase I of the GSM specifications were published in 1990.Commercial service was started in mid-1991, and by 1993 there were 36 GSM networks in 22 countries.Although standardized in Europe, GSM is not only a European standard.Over 200 GSM networks are operational in 110 countries around the world.In the beginning of 1994, there were 1.3 million subscribers worldwide, which had grown to more than 55 million by October 1997.With North America making a delayed entry into the GSM field with a derivative of GSM called PCS1900, GSM systems exist on every continent, and the acronym GSM now aptly stands for Global System for Mobile communications.The developers of GSM chose an unproven(at the time)digital system, as opposed to the then-standard analog cellular systems like AMPS in the United States and TACS in the United Kingdom.They had faith that advancements in compression algorithms and digital signal processors would allow the fulfillment of the original criteria and the continual improvement of the system in terms of quality and cost.The over 8,000 pages of GSM recommendations try to allow flexibility and competitive innovation among suppliers, but provide enough standardization to guarantee proper interworking between the components of the system.This done by providing functional and interface descriptions for each of the functional entities defined in the system.2 General Concepts 2.1 Analog Versus Digital Telephony Systems First-generation systems were analog.During the early 1980s these underwent rapid development in Europe.Although the NMT system was used by all the Nordic countries, and the TACS system in the United Kingdom and Italy, there was a variety of systems and no compatibility among them.Compared with these systems, the main advantages offered by GSM, which is the most important of the second-generation digital systems, are: ·Standardization;·Capacity;·Quality;·Security.Standardization guarantees compatibility among systems of different countries, allowing subscribers to use their own terminals in those countries that have adopted the digital standard.The lack of standardization in the first-generation system limited service to within the borders of a country.Mobility is improved, since roaming is no longer limited to areas covered by a certain system.Calls can be charged and handled using the same personal number even when the subscriber moves from one country to another.Standardization also allows the operator to buy entities of the network from different vendors, since the functional elements of the network and the interfaces between these elements are standardized.This means that a mobile phone from any manufacturer is able to communicate with any network, even if this network is built with entities from different vendors.This leads to a large economy of scale and results in cost reduction for both the operator and the subscriber.Furthermore, the phone cost is also reduced, because GSM is an international standard, produced quantities are greater and the level of competition is high.With respect to capacity, the use of the radio resource is much more efficient in a digital system such as GSM than in an analog system.This means that more users can be allocated in the same frequency bandwidth.This is possible with the use of advanced digital techniques, such as voice compression algorithms, channel coding, and multiple access techniques.Note that capacity gains are also achieved with radio frequency reuse, which had also used in analog systems.Frequency reuse means that a given carrier can be employed in different areas.The quality in digital transmission systems is better, thanks to the channel coding schemes that increase the robustness in the face of noise and disturbances such as interference caused by other users or other systems.The quality improvement is also due to the improved control of the radio link, and adaptations to propagation conditions, with advanced techniques such as power control or frequency hopping.This will be explained in greater detail in the next section.In terms of security, powerful authentication and encryption techniques for voice and data communications are enabled with GSM, which guarantees protected access to the network, and confidentiality.2.2 Cellular Telephony In mobile radio systems, one of the most important factors is the frequency spectrum.In order to make the best use of the bandwidth, the system is designed by means of the division of the service area into neighboring zones, or cells, which in theory have a hexagonal shape.Each cell has a Base Transceiver Station(BTS), which to avoid interference operates on a set of radio channels different from those of the adjacent cells.This division allows for the use of the same frequencies in nonadjacent cells.A group of cells that as a whole use the entire radio spectrum available to the operator is referred to as a cluster.The shape of a cell is irregular, depending on the availability of a spot for the BTS, the geography of the terrain, the propagation of the radio signal in the presence of obstacles, and so on.In dense urban areas, for instance, where the mobile telephony traffic is important, the diameter of the cells is often reduced in order to increase capacity.This is allowed since the same frequency channels are used in a smaller area.On the other hand, reducing the cell diameter leads to a decrease in the distance necessary to reuse the frequencies(that is, the distance between two co-channel cells), increasing co-channel interference.In order to minimize the level of interference, several techniques are used on the radio interface.A basic example of cluster organization is shown in Figure 1.In this example, we see a reuse attern for seven different frequencies, f1 to f7.These frequencies correspond to the beacon carrier of each cell, on which signaling information about the cell is broadcast(see Section 2.7).It can be seen from this figure that a given carrier can be reused in two separate geographical areas, as long as these areas are far enough from each other to reduce the effect of interference.With this technique of dividing the area in cells and clusters, the operator can increase the area it is able to cover with a limited frequency bandwidth.Figure 1 Example of a Cell Planning 在80 年代初期期间,模式手机系统在欧洲体验迅速增长,特别在斯堪的那 维亚和英国,以及法国和德国。每个国家开发了它自己的系统,在设备和操作 上是互不相容的。这是一个不受欢迎的情况,因为不仅移动通信设备被限制在国 界之内,这在统一的欧洲是越来越不重要的,而且每种类型的设备都只有一个非 常有限的市场,因此经济尺度及随后的储蓄不可能体会。 欧洲人早就意识到了这点,并且在1982 年欧洲邮电管理联合会(CEPT)上形 成了移动通信特别研究组(GSM)来研发一个能在全欧洲大陆通用的移动通信系 统。提出的系统必须符合以下标准: 〃通话质量好 〃终端及服务费用低 〃支持国际漫游 〃能够支持可随身携带的终端 〃支持一系列新的服务和设备 〃效率高 〃与ISDN 兼容 1989 年,GSM 的责任转移了到欧洲电信标准学院(ETSI),并且GSM 规格的 第一阶段也在1990 年出版了。商业服务在1991 年中期开始了,截至1993 年有 36 个GSM 网络在22 个国家诞生了。GSM 不仅仅是欧洲标准,尽管它是在欧洲 规范化的。现已有200 多个GSM 网络在全球110 个国家和地区运行。1994 年初 期全球有1,300,000 用户,截至1997 年10 月已突破55,000,000 用户。随着美国 后来在GSM 领域制造了一个词条PCS1900 作为GSM 的拓展,GSM 系统已发展至 各大洲,并且缩写词GSM 现在已可以代表移动通信的全局系统。 GSM 开发商选择了一个当时未经证明的数字系统,与后来的标准模式蜂窝系 统相对,就象美国叫AMPS,而英国叫TACS 一样。他们坚信能够推进压缩算法 和数字信号处理器使其能够根据质量和费用将原始标准和系统连续改善。GSM 推荐8,000 页设法使得在与供应商竞争之中体现灵活性和创新,但提供 足够的标准来保证在系统的组分之间适当配合工作。完成提供功能和接口描述的 功能个体在系统中都有定义。 第一代系统是模拟的。上个世纪80 年代初期在欧洲迅速发展。虽然所有北 欧国家使用TACS 系统,英国和意大利使用NMT 系统,它们之间还有各式各样 的系统不兼容。和这些系统相比,GSM 提供的更重要的第二代数字系统主要优势 体现在: 〃标准化; 〃容量; 〃质量; 〃安全。 标准化保证了不同国家系统之间的兼容性,允许采取了数字化标准的国家的 订户使用他们自己的终端。在第一代系统中缺乏标准化的有限服务为在国家的边 界之内。流动性被改进,漫游不再被限制到某一系统包括的面积之内。既使当用 户从一个国家移动到另一个国家,电话也可以使用同一个个人号码。因为网络的功能元件和这些元素之间的接口被规范化,操作员可以从不同的 供营商购买。这意味着所有制造商的移动电话能与任何网络沟通,即使这个网络 是由不同的供营商的功能元件建立的。这为操作员和订户带来费用成本的降低。此外,电话费用也降低了,因为GSM 是国际标准,生产数量大,竞争水平高。能力方面,数字系统如GSM 比模拟系统使用的无线资源更有效。这意味着 更多的用户可以使用同一频带。这就有可能利用先进的数字技术,如语音压缩算 法,信道编码和多址接入技术。请注意,无线电频率复用也取得了一定增益,这 也已用于模拟系统。频率复用意味着同一载波可以在不同的地区重复使用。由于这种信道编码方案,提高了可靠性及对噪音和其他用户或系统的干扰能 力,数字传输系统的质量更好了。质量改进的原因还在于改善了对无线连接的控 制,并适应传播条件下,使用先进的技术,如电源控制或跳频。质量改进的原因 还在于使用先进的技术如电源控制或跳频改善了无线连接的控制,,传播条件的适 应性等。这些将在下文中做更详尽的解释。 在安全方面,GSM 具有语音和数据通信的强大的认证和加密技术的功能,保 证了保护接入网络和保密性。 在移动通信系统中,一个最重要的因素就是频谱。为了最有效地利用带宽,系统设计的目的是通过基站的服务区到周边小区,理论上是一个正六边形。每个 小区有一个收发基站(BTS),其中,以避免相邻小区的不同无线信道在运行时 产生相互干扰。这样可以在不相邻的小区使用同一载频。一组小区,作为一个整 体,给运营商提供整个无线电频谱是指一个区群。小区的形状是不规则的,这取 决于是否有现成的基站,地理地形,无线电信号传播中存在的障碍,等等。例如,在人口密集的城市地区,移动电话的通行非常重要,小区的直径往往 会减小,以提高其通行能力。 这是允许的,因为同一频道只在一个较小的地区内使用。另一方面,小区直 径的减小导致使用同一频率的小区间的距离(即两个公共通道小区间的距离)缩 小了,增强了各频道之间的相互干扰。为了尽量提高抗干扰的能力,无线接口使 用了一系列技术。 一个基本的区群组织的结构如图1 所示。在这个例子中,我们看到了一个复 用模式的7 个不同的频率,f1 至f7。这些频率对应于每个小区的信标载波,整个 小区的信号信息就靠它们被传播出去(见第2.7 节)。从图中可以看出,某一载 波可在两个不同的地理区域重复使用,只要这两个地区离的足够远,相互之间的 干扰足够小。这一技术把地区分成小区和区群,经营者可以利用有限的带宽增加 覆盖区域的面积。第四篇:英文翻译
Wuhan-Guangzhou high-speed rail was about 110 billions yuan, now it is able to drive at least 120 pairs of cars, but in fact only 33 to drive, and lots of seats are empty, this is a serious waste of capital.The high-speed railway not only requires large construction investment, but also, it is impossible to recovery the short-term cost based on its actural implement.Poiimnt2: The building of the high spee
impair interests of the low class people, and the corruption problem will be prone to easily during the process of building.新建高铁实际是在现有几种交通方式的基础上新增一种交通方式。建成之后会与高速公路、现有铁路、飞 机、船运形成竞争关系,在原有运力并不紧张的背景下必然形成运力过剩。新建的高铁主要是客运专线,因此高铁并不会加快货物与资金的周转速度,不会降低全社会运行成本。要修建如此庞大的高速铁路网,必将消耗大量的资金,必将挤占人们收入上涨的空间与企业利润空间(加重税负)如果将此财政投入医疗、。社保、教育、技术研究,则会消除人们存钱的预防养老动机从而扩大消费,利于中国经济可持续发展。综 上所述,在中国大规模修建高铁对中国经济的长远发展来讲是弊大于利,不利于扩大内需、不利于产业结 构调整 结论:The high-speed railway will compete with the existing highway, railway, aircraft, shipping after it consummation which will lead to a situation capacity.The new high-speed railway is mainly to carry passenger, so it will not speed up the turnover rate between cargos and the capital and will not decrease the costs of the whole social transportation.To build such a large network of high-speed rail will need a large amount of money, the government must increase the taxes of people and enterprise to raise the capital.If this financial investment used in health care, social security, education, tec第五篇:英文翻译