第一篇：历史老照片不能说的秘密慈禧军阀明末清初文革晚清
历史老照片不能说的秘密慈禧军阀明末清初文革晚清
Chapter 5 Word Meaning
The meanings of “Meaning”Reference(所指):
It is the relationship between language and the word.It is the arbitrary and conventional.It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:It is beyond language is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language.‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’
Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1)Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）2)Morphological motivation（形态理据）3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）4)Etymological motivation（词源理据）
Types of meaning
Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicate the grammatical concept(become important only in actual context)Lexical Meaning（词汇意义）
Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning
Lexical meaning has 2 components: Conceptual meaning(概念意义)and associative meaning(关联意义)Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义)
Associative meaning(关联意义):[connotative隐含意义,Stylistic风格意义,Affective感情意义, Collocative搭配意义]
Chapter 6--Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy: diachronic approach(历时方法)synchronic approach(共时方法)Two processed of development: radiation（辐射型）and concatenation（连锁型）Homonymy（同形/同音异义关系）
It refers words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms
1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）2）Homophones（同音异义词）3)Homographs（同形异义词）Origins of homonyms
1）change in sound and spelling 2）borrowing3）Shortening(缩略)
The differences between polysemes（多义词）and homonyms（同音同形异义词）).1)Homonymy refer to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has sevral distinguishable meaning.2)Homonymy are from different sources.Polysemy are from the same source.3)The various meanings of polysemy are correlated and connected to one central meaning.Meanings of different homonymy have nothing to do with one another.values: Polysemic and homonymous word are stlyistically useful to achieve humour or irony（反话，讽刺）,or to heighten（提高）dramatic effect.Synonymy(同义关系):one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the sam
e essential meaning : absolute synonyms and relative synonyms Sources of synonyms(同义词)are :1)Borrowing2)Dialects and regional English3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
Antonymy(反义关系)
It is concerned with semantic opposition.Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.1)contradictory terms(矛盾反义词):these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning, such antonyms are non-gradable.They cannot be used in comparative degrees.(single/married)
2)contrary terms（对立反义词）:antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(old/young)3)relative terms（关系反义词）：（parent/child）sell/buy Some of the characteristics of antonyms反义关系的特点
1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition
2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym 3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion 4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms The uses of antonyms
To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(idiom:now and never)To form anithesis(对比法)to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together.(proverbs and sayings:easy come , easy go)
Hyponymy(上下义关系)
Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.For example, a cat is hyponym of animal Superordinate and Subordinate(118)Semantic Field(词义场)
Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory
e.g.(apple, pear, peach,date,mango,orange,lemon, etc.make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 6 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变
Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content.Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes 词义变化的种类（extension,narrowing,degradation,elevation and transfer）Extension or generalization词义的扩大:is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo.[companion(old)one who shares bread(ex)a company]
Narrowing or specialization词义的缩小：is the opposite of widening meaning.When a common words is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed.[meat(old)food(na)flesh of animals]
Elevation or amelioration of meaning词义的升华: the process by which words rise from humble
（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance.[knight(old)servant(el)rank below baronet从男爵]
Degeneration or pejoration词义的贬降:A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or no-affective words come to used in derogatory sense.[silly(old)happy(de)foolish]
Transfer词义的转移:Words which were used to designate指明 one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.（140）
Causes of Semantic Change词义变化的原因 Extra-linguistic factors 141Historical reason2 Class reason(elevation or degradation)3 Psychological reason
Linguistic factors：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.Chapter 8Meaning and Context 意义和语境
Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word.Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context
Linguistic context：It refers to the words,clauses,sentences in which a word appears.It may cover a paragraph,a whole chapter and even the entire book.1)Lexical context：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question.2)Grammatical context：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.Extra-linguistic context：In a broad sense,it includes the physical situaion as well.it embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.The role of context语境的作用 Elimination of ambiguity消除歧义
1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity Indication of referents限定所指Provision of clues for inferring word meaning 提供线索以猜测词义
Chapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语 Idioms: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements.In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions（俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc.They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms
Semantic unity 语意的整体性 words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity
Structural stability结构的稳定性: the constituents要素of idioms cannot be replaced, inverted or changed, deleted or added to, not even an article.The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯
Classification of Idiomsidioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）
Use of idioms:习语的使用（stylistic features, rhetoric features and their occasional variations）Stylistic features 文体色彩〔colloquialisms（俗语）, slang 俚语,literary expressions〕 The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meaning
Rhetorical features 修辞色彩(phonetic manipulation 语音处理，lexical manipulation and figures of speech)phonetic manipulation 语音处理 : alliteration头韵、rhyme押韵
lexical manipulation：reiteration（duplication of synonyms同义字重复）[scream and shout]repetition [out and out]、juxtaposition(of antonyms)反义词并列 [here and there]
figures of speech : Simile（明喻）、Metaphor（隐喻）、Metonymy（换喻）、synecdoche(提喻)、Personification（拟人法）、Euphemism（委婉词）Variations of idioms习语的变异形式：addition,deletion,replacement,postion-shifting,dismembering(分解)179
Chapter 10English Dictionaries 英语字典
Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）Types of dictionaries:
Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries
Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language(LDCE,CCELD).The headword or entries are defined & illustrated in the same language.Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages(A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries
Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language(spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的Encyclopedic dictionary:encyclopedia(百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information.Concerning each headword(not pronunciation, meanings, or usages)but only information.Encyclopedic Dictionary: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia(
Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries Unabridged D: basic information about a word: its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意)
Specialized dictionaries: concentrate on a particular area of language or knowledge, treating such diverse topics as etymology, synonyms, idioms, pronunciation, usage in language, and computer, engineering, literature and a variety of other subjects.Use of the dictionaryread the contents page to find out quickly what information is included in the dictionary 2 read the guide to the use of the dictionary
Three good general dictionaries 3本常用字典
Longman dictionary of contemporary English(LDCE)new edition(1987)朗文当代英语词典 新版 Collins COBUILD English language dictionary(CCELD)(1987)科林斯合作英语词典 A Chinese-English dictionary(revised edition)(CED)(1995)汉英字典修订版
(增加：English dictionaries can be divided into 11 types according to different specialized purposes.General Dictionaries for Current English通用现代词典,Dictionaries Complied on History Principles按照历史原则编纂的词典,Etymological Dictionaries词源词典,Pronouncing Dictionaries发音词典,Dictionaries of Synonyms同义词词典,Dictionaries of Idioms and Proverbs习语和谚语词典,Dictionaries of Slang俚语词典, Classified and Illustrated Dictionaries分类词典,Encyclopedic Dictionaries百科全书性质的词典, Dictionaries of Dialects方言词典, Dictionaries of Place Names地名词典)
Supplementaries for terms:
1.word equivalent（等同词）:denotes an idiom or set phrase representing a semantic unit and funtioning as a single word in a sentence.2.register（语域）: It's one of the main factors that has led to the growth of sociolinguistic reaserch has been the recognition of fact that language is very variable phenomenon,and that this variability is not haphazard(偶然性，任意性)
3.dismembering（肢解）:It is what I mean by breaking up the idioms into pieces,an unusual case of use of idioms particularly in literature or popular press to achieve special effect
第二篇：历史老照片不能说的秘密慈禧军阀明末清初文革晚清
历史老照片不能说的秘密慈禧军阀明末清初文革晚清
19、佛、菩萨、（阿）罗汉的根本区别： 佛：自觉、觉他、觉行圆满； 菩萨：自觉、觉他（阿罗汉）：自觉；
20、汉地佛寺三佛同殿的合称、常见布局及表法意义； A、三身佛：其组合布局为：应身佛 法身佛 报身佛（释迦牟尼佛）——（毗卢遮那佛）——（卢舍那佛）； 表法意义：体现天台宗佛有三身教义；
B、三方佛：组合布局：西方极乐世界 娑婆世界 东方净琉璃世界（阿弥陀佛）——（释迦牟尼佛）——（药师佛）； 表法意义：体现净土信仰；
C、三世佛：组合布局：未来世 现在世 过去世 弥勒佛——释迦牟尼佛——燃灯佛 弥勒佛——释迦牟尼佛——迦叶佛
表法意义：从时间上体现佛的传承关系，表示佛法永存，世代不息；
21、汉地佛寺常见一佛二菩萨组合的合称、布局及其所教化世界： 合称 组合布局 所教化世界
释家三尊 普贤菩萨—释迦牟尼佛—文殊菩萨 娑婆世界 华严三圣 普贤菩萨—毗卢遮那佛—文殊菩萨 华藏世界
东方三圣[药师三尊] 月光菩萨—药师佛—日光菩萨 东方净琉璃世界
西方三圣[（阿）弥陀三尊] 大势至菩萨—阿弥陀佛—观世音菩萨 西方极乐世界
三方佛一铺布局
西方极乐世界 娑婆世界 东方净琉璃世界
大势至菩萨—阿弥陀佛—观世音菩萨 普贤菩萨—释迦牟尼佛—文殊菩萨 月光菩萨—药师佛—日光菩萨
[西方三圣] [释家三佛] [东方三圣]
22、“华严三圣”的表达意义：
华严宗经典《华严经》特别推崇法身佛毗卢遮那佛。认为无限的宇宙是华藏世界（又称”莲花藏世界”，它又包含多层次世界。），法身佛毗卢遮那佛是华世藏世界的教主、主宰和本体。毗卢遮那佛教无所不在，整个华藏世界不过是毗卢遮那佛的显现，一切佛菩萨也全是毗卢遮那佛教的应化身。毗卢遮那佛有两个取亲密助笔，那文殊菩萨和普贤菩萨（也是其化身），三者合称“华严三圣”。
23、“三大士”、“四大士”、“五大士”：
三大士：文殊菩萨、普贤菩萨、观世音菩萨；
四大士：文殊菩萨、普贤菩萨、观世音菩萨、地藏菩萨；
五大士：文殊菩萨、普贤菩萨、观世音菩萨、地藏菩萨、大势至菩萨；
24、四大菩萨的别号、手持法器、坐骑及其道场： 文殊菩萨：别号（大智菩萨）；手持法器（宝剑）；坐骑（狮子）；道场（山西五台山）； 普贤菩萨：别号（大行菩萨）；手持法器（如意棒）；坐骑（六牙大象）；道场（四川峨眉山）；
观世音菩萨：别号（大悲菩萨）；手持法器（净瓶、杨柳枝）；道场（浙江普陀山）； 地藏菩萨：别号（大愿菩萨）；手持法器（锡杖、如意珠）；道场（安徽九华山）；
25、只有40手40眼的观音像也称作千手千眼观音的原因？ 每只手和眼睛有二十五种功能（二十五有），相乘后得千手千眼。
26、四大天王的名称及其表法意义、手持法器及其表法意义： 东方持国天王：服色（白色）；表法意义（代表尽职尽力主持国家事务）；手持法器及其表法意义：（琵琶：代表做事要合乎中道、恰到好处）； 南方增长天王：服色（青色）；表法意义（代表“天天进步”）；手持法器及其表法意义：（慧剑：代表斩断烦恼）； 西方广目天王：服色（红色）；表法意义（代表“多看”）；手持法器及其表法意义：（龙（蛇）：象征世上一切人和事变化无常；）； 北方多闻天王：服色（绿色）；表法意义（代表“多听”）；手持法器及其表法意义：（宝伞：代表遮挡世上的种种污染）；
27、寺院中弥勒的造像既有佛像又有菩萨的原因：
现在世佛释迦牟尼曾预言：弥勒将在56.7亿年以后降生印度，在华林园龙华树下得道成佛接班，并分批超度一切众生，故称未来世佛。但弥勒现在还是菩萨，据佛经说，他还在兜率天内院中（即弥勒净土）修行。
28、大肚弥勒的来历及其表法意义。
“大肚弥勒”名契比，相传为五代梁朝时明州（今宁波）奉化人，他两耳垂肩，袒胸露肚，开口常笑；但出语无定，寝卧随处，常以杖荷一布袋，终日奔走，劝化人信佛，人称布袋和尚。贞明二年（916年），在岳林寺圆寂静时口念一偈：“弥勒真弥勒，分身千百亿，时时示世人，世人处不识。”这时人们才醒司其为弥勒的化身。他的表法意义为：学佛者要生平等心，要呈喜悦相。对待任何人、任何事物，都要欢欢喜喜，平平静静，不跟任何人计较，具备这样的条件，才有资格入佛门。
29、韦驮有“三洲感应”之称的原因及根据其造像判断该寺院是接待寺还是非接待寺的方法。韦驮曾亲受佛祖法旨，周统东、西、南三洲巡游护法事宜，保护出家人，护持佛法，故称“三洲感应”（佛经称北俱卢洲人不信佛教）。
韦驮像如为双手合十将金刚杵搁于肘间，表该寺为十方丛林，接待寺；如以杵拄地，表该寺为非接待寺。
30、“二王尊”的职能、俗称及其所持法器：
“二王尊”指伽蓝守护神密迹金刚和那罗延天，专司把守佛寺山门。密迹金刚是释迦牟尼五百执金刚（即金刚杵）卫队的卫队长，其形象开口、持杵那罗延天是具有大力之印度古神，其形象合口、持棒。民间根据他们“合口”和“开口”的形象特征，俗称为“哼合二将”。
31、汉地佛寺法堂的用途及陈设：
法堂是演说佛法皈戒集会之处。法堂内除一般安置佛像外，另设法座、讲台、钟鼓。
32、我国佛塔的四种主要型制及其代表性佛塔名称：
楼阁式塔——陕西西安大雁塔、山西应县木塔、河南开封祜国寺铁塔；
密檐式塔——河南登封嵩岳寺塔、北京天宁寺塔、西安小雁塔、云南大理千寻塔； 覆钵式塔——北京妙应寺白塔、北京北海白塔、山西五台山塔院寺大白塔；
金刚宝座塔——北京真觉寺金刚宝座塔、北京碧云寺金刚宝座塔、内蒙古呼和浩特市五塔寺金刚座舍利宝塔；
33、“在家男女二众”，“出家男女二众”、“四众弟子”；“出家四众”；“出家五众”、“七众”：在家男女二众：优婆塞（信士，居十）和优婆夷（信女，女居士）； 出家男女二众：比丘（俗称“和尚”）和比丘尼（俗称“尼姑”）； 四众弟子：优婆塞（信士，居十）和优婆夷（信女，女居士），比丘（俗称“和尚”）和比丘尼（俗称“尼姑”）；
出家四众：比丘、比丘尼、沙弥（俗称“小和尚”）和沙弥尼（小尼姑）； 出家五众：比丘、比丘尼、沙弥、沙弥尼和式叉摩那（学戒尼）；
34、道教创立的时间、地点及创始人：东汉末年，在蜀中鹤鸣山（今四川省大邑县境内），张陵（又称张道陵）倡导五斗米道（因信徒入教必须交五斗米故名之）。后一，倡导导道教的张陵，被称为张天师，被尊为道教的创始者。
35、道教的基本教义：
（1）宣扬“道”是“万物之母”：A、“道”是“万物之母”/“道”是无所不在的力量；B、“德”是道的显现/“德”是道的行动；
（2）追求长生不老、肉身成仙：A、内养；B、外养；C、房中术；
36、道教全真道和正一道的主要区别：
（1）全真道：创建时间：金末；主要经典有：（道经）《道德经》、（佛经）《般若波罗密多心经》和（儒经）《孝经》（主张道、佛、儒三合一）；主要特征：重内丹修炼，不尚符箫，不事黄白之术（冶炼金银之术），以修真养性为正道；戒规：道士必须出家住宫观，不得蓄妻
室，并制定严格的清规戒律；传播地区：全国道教宫观大部属全真派。（2）正一道：形成时间：元代；主要经典：《正一经》；主要特征：以行符箫为主要特征（画符念咒，驱鬼降妖，祈福禳灾）；戒规：道士可以有家室，可不出家，不住宫观，清规戒律也不如全真道严格；传播地区：主要流行在江南和台湾省。40、“三清”
系道教最高层神团。
三清主要指：A、玉清元始天尊——住清微天之玉清宫 B、上清灵宝天尊——住禹余天之上清宫 C、太清道德天尊——住大赤天之太清宫
41、“四御”；
指辅佐三清的四位天帝。
玉皇大帝——总执天道A、紫微北极大帝（协助玉皇大帝执掌天地经纬、日月星辰和四时气候）；B、勾陈南极大帝（协助玉皇大帝执掌南北极和天地人三才，统御众星，并主持人间兵革之事）
后土皇地祗——执掌地道（掌阴阳生育、万物之美与大地山河之秀）；
42、“真武大帝”及其祖庭，以及元明以来受到皇家特别尊崇的原因：
原为星宿神，指黄道圈上北方七宿玄武，呈龟蛇形象。宋代成为道教大神。传真武为净东国太子，后在武当山修炼，得道飞升，威镇北方。为北方最高神，又是水神（有有防止火灾之威力）。元世祖国统一忽必烈营建大都、与南宋对抗时，传西直门外有龟蛇显现；明代朱棣发动“靖难之变”向南京进攻时，传真武曾显像助威。故元明以来真武大帝受到皇家特别尊崇，各地纷纷建真武庙。其祖庭在湖北武当山。
43、我国古代读书人特别尊崇文昌帝君和魁星的原因及文昌帝君的祖庙。
道教称文昌帝君掌管人世功名利禄，魁星主文运。故古代备受读书人崇拜。文昌帝君 的祖庙为四川梓潼七曲山文昌宫（梓潼大庙）。
44、妈祖（天妃、天后）的来历；我国三大妈祖庙及妈祖祖庭。妈祖原名林默，生于北宋建隆元年（960年）。传她生而神异，救助过不少海上遇难渔民和般只，后在福建莆田湄洲岛羽化升天当地渔民在岛上盖庙祭祀。道教继承民间传说，把妈祖列为道教女神（海上保护神）。湄洲岛妈祖庙、天津天后宫和台湾北港朝天宫并列为我国三大妈祖庙。湄洲岛妈祖庙为妈祖庙的祖庭。
45、我国佛、道、儒三教褒封关羽的称号及全国最大的两座关帝庙； 佛教：伽蓝神 道教：关圣帝君 儒家：武圣人
山西运城解州（关羽出生地）关帝庙是全国规模最大、最为壮观、保存最完好之关帝庙。河南洛阳的关林，传为埋葬关羽头颅之处，也是著名的关帝误码。
46、伊斯兰教创立的时间、地点及创始人；
公元7世纪初创立于阿拉伯斗岛。创始人为穆罕默德。
47、伊斯兰教传入中国的时间及两条路线；
伊斯兰教于唐永徽二年（651年）传入中国。传入中国的路线有两条：
（1）丝绸之路（陆路：从阿拉伯，经波斯，过天山南北，穿过河西走廊，进入中原）；（2）香料之路（海路：从阿拉伯经印度洋到东南沿海广州和泉州等地）；
48、伊斯兰教的教义：
一、六大信仰：信安拉（即真主）为惟一的主宰、信天使、信使者、信经典、信前定、信后世；
二、五功：念功、礼功、斋功、课功、朝功；
三、善行
49、伊斯兰教主要节日的名称及内涵：（1）开斋节（新疆称肉孜节）：教历9月内斋戒。斋月最后一天寻看新月，见月的次日即行开斋，为开斋节；其节日内涵为：在斋月，每天从日出至日落要禁食，并禁房事；
（2）宰牲节（又名古尔邦节）：教历12月10日；节日内涵：在中国，是穆斯林最大的节日。据传易卜拉欣受安拉“启示”，命他杀儿献祭，以考验他对安拉的忠诚。当易卜拉欣遵命执
行时，安拉又命以羊代替，遂产生宰牲节。穆斯林每逢此日举行会礼，互相拜会，并宰杀牛、羊、骆驼，互相馈赠以示纪念。（3）圣纪节（又称圣忌日）：教历3月12日；节日内涵：相传为穆罕默德诞生和恨真（逝世）的日子。那天举行圣会，诵读《古兰经》，讲述穆罕默德的生平业绩等。50、我国传统式风格清真寺的主要特点：1）分几进四合院，有明显中轴线。
2）礼拜正殿和殿内壁龛（圣龛）必须背向麦加（在中国为背向西方），以示跪拜朝赂。3）建筑内部不得设偶像，也不以动物形象作装饰，多以阿拉伯文经文和花草为饰。4）主要建筑有大殿、经堂、浴堂、（作大、小净用）、望月楼（斋月观察新月用）、宣礼楼（又名“邦克楼”，是宣礼员按时登高召唤穆斯林进行每日五次礼拜的地方）。
51、基督教创立的时间、地点及创始人；
基督教在公元1世纪由巴勒斯坦拿撒勒人耶稣创立。
52、基督教发展史上的两次大分裂及形成的三大教派。原始基督教——于公元11世纪中叶：1）
2）天主教——公元16世纪：1）天主教 2）新教
53、基督教四传中国情况；
基督教一传中国：指流行于中亚的基督教聂斯脱利海豹（景教）从波斯来华传教，时逢唐朝“贞观之治”。后在唐武宗崇道毁佛的风云中遭到厄运。
基督教二传中国：指景教在元朝的复兴和罗马天主教来华传教。随
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