第一篇：单片机英文翻译
微机发展简史
第一台存储程序的计算开始出现于1950前后，它就是1949年夏天在剑桥大学，我们创造的延迟存储自动电子计算机（EDSAC）。
最初实验用的计算机是由象我一样有着广博知识的人构造的。我们在电子工程方面都有着丰富的经验，并且我们深信这些经验对我们大有裨益。后来，被证明是正确的，尽管我们也要学习很多新东西。最重要的是瞬态一定要小心应付，虽然它只会在电视机的荧幕上一起一个无害的闪光，但是在计算机上这将导致一系列的错误。
在电路的设计过程中，我们经常陷入两难的境地。举例来说，我可以使用真空二级管做为门电路，就象在EDSAC中一样，或者在两个栅格之间用带控制信号的五级管，这被广泛用于其他系统设计，这类的选择一直在持续着直到逻辑门电路开始应用。在计算机领域工作的人都应该记得TTL，ECL和CMOS，到目前为止，CMOS已经占据了主导地位。
在最初的几年，IEE（电子工程师协会）仍然由动力工程占据主导地位。为了让IEE 认识到无线工程和快速发展的电子工程并行发展是它自己的一项权利，我们不得不面对一些障碍。由于动力工程师们做事的方式与我们不同，我们也遇到了许多困难。让人有些愤怒的是，所有的IEE出版的论文都被期望以冗长的早期研究的陈述开头，无非是些在早期阶段由于没有太多经验而遇到的困难之类的陈述。
60年代的巩固阶段
60年代初，个人英雄时代结束了，计算机真正引起了重视。世界上的计算机数量已经增加了许多，并且性能比以前更加可靠。这些我认为归因与高级语言的起步和第一个操作系统的诞生。分时系统开始起步，并且计算机图形学随之而来。
综上所述，晶体管开始代替正空管。这个变化对当时的工程师们是个不可回避的挑战。他们必须忘记他们熟悉的电路重新开始。只能说他们鼓起勇气接受了挑战，尽管这个转变并不会一帆风顺。
小规模集成电路和小型机
很快，在一个硅片上可以放不止一个晶体管，由此集成电路诞生了。随着时间的推移，一个片子能够容纳的最大数量的晶体管或稍微少些的逻辑门和翻转门集成度达到了一个最大限度。由此出现了我们所知道7400系列微机。每个门电路或翻转电路是相互独立的并且有自己的引脚。他们可通过导线连接在一起，作成一个计算机或其他的东西。
这些芯片为制造一种新的计算机提供了可能。它被称为小型机。他比大型
机稍逊，但功能强大，并且更能让人负担的起。一个商业部门或大学有能力拥有一台小型机而不是得到一台大型组织所需昂贵的大型机。
随着微机的开始流行并且功能的完善，世界急切获得它的计算能力但总是由于工业上不能规模供应和它可观的价格而受到挫折。微机的出现解决了这个局面。
计算消耗的下降并非起源与微机，它本来就应该是那个样子。这就是我在概要中提到的“通货膨胀”在计算机工业中走上了歧途之说。随着时间的推移，人们比他们付出的金钱得到的更多。
精简指令计算机的诞生
早期的计算机有简单的指令集，随着时间的推移，商业用微机的设计者增加了另外的他们认为可以微机性能的特性。很少的测试方法被建立，总的来说特性的选取很大程度上依赖于设计者的直觉。
1980年，RISC运动改变了微机世界。该运动是由Patterson 和 Ditzel发表了一篇命名为精简指令计算机的情况论文而引起的。
除了RISC这个引人注目缩略词外，这个标题传达了一些指令集合设计的见解，随之引发了RISC运动。从某种意义上说，它推动了线程的发展，在处理器中，同一时间有几个指令在不同的执行阶段称为线程。线程不是个新概念，但是它对微机来说是从未有过的。
RISC受益于一个最近的可用的方法的诞生，该方法使估计计算机性能成为可能而不去真正实现该微机的设计。我的意思是说利用目前存在的功能强大的计算机去模拟新的设计。通过模拟该设计，RISC的提倡者能够有信心的预言，一台使用和传统计算机相同电路的RISC计算机可以和传统的最好的计算机有同样的性能。
模拟仿真加快了开发进度并且被计算机设计者广泛采用。随后，计算机设计者变的多些可理性少了一些艺术性。今天，设计者们希望有满屋可用计算机做他们的仿真，而不只是一台，X86指令集
除非出现很大意外，要不很少听到有计算机使用早期的RISC指令集了。INTEL 8086及其后裔都与x86密切相关。X86构架已经占据了计算机核心指令集的主导地位。被认为是相当成功的RISC指令集现在的生存空间越来越小了。
对于我们这些从事计算机学术研究的人，X86的统治地位让我们感到失望。毫无疑问，商业上对于x86的生存会有更多的考虑，但是这里还有很多原因，尽管我们多么希望人们考虑其他的方面。高级语言并没有完全消除对机器原始编码的的使用。我们仍需要不断提醒我们自己：我们应该严格的与先前的应用
在机器层面上保持兼容。然而，情况也许有所不同，如果Intel的主要目的是为是生产一个好的RISC芯片。有一个已经取得了更大的成功，我所说的i860(不是i960,它们有一些不同)。从许多方面来说，i860是个卓越的芯片，但是它的软件借口不适合在工作站上应用。
对于x86取得胜利的最后有一件有意思的事情。直接应用先前x86的实现方式对于满足RISC处理器的持续增长的速度要求，是不可能的。因此，设计者们没有完全实现RISC指令集，尽管这不是很明显。表面上，一片现代的x86芯片包含了隐藏实现的部分，好象和实现RISC指令集的芯片一样。当致命的异常发生时，X86引入的代码是，经过适当的篡改后，被转化为它的内部代码并且被RISC芯片处理。
对于以上RISC运动的总结，我非常信赖最新版本的哈里斯和培生出版社的有关计算机设计的书籍。请参考特殊计算机体系构造，第三版，2003，P146，151-4，157-8 IA-64指令集
很久以前，Intel 和 Hewlett-Packard引进了IA-64指令集。这最初主要是为了满足通常的64位地址空间问题。在这种情况下，随后出现了MIPS R4000和Alpha。然而，人们普遍认为Intel应该与x86构架保持兼容，可令人疑惑的是恰恰相反。
进一步说，IA-64的设计与其他所有的指令集在主要实现方式上有所不同。特别的，每条指令它需要附加的6位。这打乱了传统的在指令字长和信息内容的平衡，并且它改变了编译器作者的原先的大纲。
尽管IA-64是个全新的指令集，但Intel发表了一个令人困惑的声明：基于IA-64的芯片将与早期的x86芯片保持兼容。很难弄懂它所指的是什么。
最新的称为Itaninu IA-64处理器显然需要特殊的兼容性的硬件，尽管如此，x86编码运行的相当慢。
由于以上的复杂因素，IA-64的实现需要更大的体积相对与传统的指令集，这暗示着更大的消耗。因此，在任何情况下，作为常识和一般性的标准，Gordon Moore在访问剑桥最近开放的Betty and Gordon Moore 图书馆时所反复强调。在听到他说问题出现在Intel内部也许有所不同，我很不理解。但是我已经作好了准备，去接受这样的事实，我已经完全不了解半导体经济学了。
AMD已经定义了一种64位的与x86更加兼容的指令集，并且他们已经取得了进展。这种片子并不是很大。很多人认为这才是Intel应该做的。（在这篇演讲稿被提交之前，Intel表示他们将销售一系列本质上与AMD兼容的芯片）
更小晶体管的出现
集成度还在不断增加，这是通过缩小原始晶体管以致可以更容易放在一个片子上。进一步说，物理学的定律占在了制造商的一方。晶体管变的更快，更简单，更小。因此，同时导致了更高的集成度和速度。
这有个更明显的优势。芯片被放在硅片上，称为晶片。每一个晶片拥有很大数量的独立芯片，他们被同时加工然后分离。因为缩小以致在每块晶片上有了更多的芯片，所以每块芯片的价格下降了。
单元价格下降对于计算机工业是重要的，因为，如果最新的芯片性能和以前一样但价格更便宜，就没有理由继续提供老产品，至少不应该无限期提供。对于整个市场只需一种产品。
然而，详细计算各项消耗，随着芯片小到一定程度，为了继续保持产品的优势，移到一个更大的圆晶片上是十分必要的。尺寸的不断增加使的圆晶片不再是很小的东西了。最初，圆晶片直径上只有1到2英寸，到2000年已经达到了12英寸。起初，我不太明白，芯片的缩小导致了一系列的问题，工业上应该在制造更大的圆晶片上遇到更多的问题。现在，我明白了，单元消耗的减少在工业上和在一个芯片上增加电子晶体管的数量是同等重要的，并且，在风险中增加圆晶片厂的投资被证明是正确的。
集成度被特殊的尺寸所衡量，对于特定的技术，它是用在一块高密度芯片上导线间距离的一半来衡量的。目前，90纳米的晶片正在被建成。
对Murphy‟s定理的怀疑 1997年3月，在Cavendish实验室建立一百周年纪念庆典上，Gordon Moore被邀作为一名演讲者。在他演讲的过程中，我第一次了解到这样一个事实，我们可以使得硅芯片既快并且消耗低，从而违反在英国被称为Murphy‟s 定律或 Sod‟s 定律。Moore说在其它领域你也许不在二者之间做出取舍，但事实上，在硅片上，同时拥有二者是可能的。
在网上可得到一本相关的书籍，Murphy是在美国空军中从事人体重力加速度研究的工程师。然而在我们的学生时代就已经相当熟悉该定律，当时我们对于该定律有个更接近散文的名字而不是上面我们提到的那两个名字，我们称为General Cussedness定律。甚至它都曾出现在我们的试卷上。问题是这样，第一部分是关于该定律的定义，第二部分是应用该定律解决一道问题。我们的试题是：
一、给出General Cussedness定律的定义；
二、当一个骑自行车人围绕着圆做运动时，在任何情况下，考虑到风的因素得到一个平衡公式。
单片机
芯片每次的缩小，芯片数量将减少；并且芯片间的导线也随之减少。这导
致了整体速度的下降，因为信号在各个芯片间的传输时间变长了。
渐渐地，芯片的收缩到只剩下处理器部分，缓存都被放在了一个单独的片子上。这使得工作站被建成拥有当代小型机一样的性能，结果搬倒了小型机绝对的基石。正如我们所知道的，这对于计算机工业和从事计算机事业的人产生了深远的影响
自从上述时代的开始，高密度CMOS硅芯片成为主导。随着芯片的缩小技术的发展，数百万的晶体管可以放在一个单独的片子上，相应的速度也成比例的增加。
为了得到额外的速度。处理器设计者开始对新的体系构架进行实验。一次成功的实验都预言了一种新的编程方式的分支的诞生。我对此取得的成功感到非常惊奇。它导致了程序执行速度的增加并且其相应的框架。
同样令人惊奇的是，通过更高级的特性建立一种单片机是有可能的。例如，为IBM Model 91开发的新特性，现在在单片机上也出现了。
Murphy定律仍然在中止的状态。它不再适用于使用小规模集成芯片设计实验用的计算机，例如7400系列。想在电路级上做硬件研究的人们没有别的选择除了设计芯片并且找到实现它的办法。一段时间内，这样是可能的，但是并不容易。
不幸的是，制造芯片的花费有了戏剧性的增长，主要原因是制造芯片过程中电路印刷版制作成本的增加。因此，为制作芯片技术追加资金变的十分困难，这是当前引起人们关注的原因。
半导体前景规划
对于以上提到的各个方面，在部分国际半导体工业部门的精诚合作下，广泛的研究与开发工作是可行的。
在以前美国反垄断法禁止这种行为。但是在1980年，该法律发生了很大变化。预竞争概念被引进了该法律。各个公司现在可以在预言竞争阶段展开合作，然后在规则允许的情况下继续开发各自的产品。
在半导体工业中，预竞争研究的管理机构是半导体工业协会。1972年作为美国国内的组织，1998年成为一个世界性的组织。任何一个研究组织都可加入该协会。
每两年，SIA修订一次ITRS(国际半导体科学规划)，并且逐年更新。1994年在第一卷中引入了“前景规划”一词，该卷由两个报告组成，些于1992年，在1993年提交。它被认为是该规划的真正开始。
为了推动半导体工业的向前发展，后续的规划提供最好的可利用的工业标准。它们对于15年内的发展做出了详细的规划。要达到的目标是每18个月晶体管的集成度增加一倍，同时每块芯片的价格下降一半，即Moore定律。
对于某些方面，前面的道路是清楚的。在另一方面，制造业的问题是可以预见的并且解决的办法也是可以知道的，尽管不是所有的问题都能够解决。这样的领域在表格中由蓝色表示，同时没有解决办法的，加以红色。红色区域往往称为红色砖墙。
规划建立的目标是现实的，同时也是充满挑战的。半导体工业整体上的进步于该规划密不可分。这是个令人惊讶的成就，它可以说是合作和竞争共同的价值。
值得注意的是，促进半导体工业向前发展的主要的战略决策是相对开放的预竞争机制，而不是闭关锁国。这也包括大规模圆晶片取得进展的原因。
1995年前，我开始感觉到，如果达到了不可能使得晶体管体积更小的临界点时，将发生什么。怀着这样的疑惑，我访问了位于华盛顿的ARPA（美国国防部）指挥总部，在那，我看到1994年规划的复本。我恍然大悟，当圆晶片尺寸在2007年达到100纳米时，将出现严重的问题，在2010年达到70纳米时也如此。在随后的2004年的规划中，当圆晶片尺寸达到100纳米时，也做了相应的规划。不久半导体工业将发展到那一步。
从1994年的规划中我引用了以上的信息，还有就是一篇提交到IEE的题目为CMOS终结点的论文和在1996年２月８号的Computing上讨论的一些题目。
我现在的想法是，最终的结果是表示一个存在可用的电子数目从数千减少到数百。在这样的情况下，统计波动将成为问题。最后，电路或者不再工作，或者达到了速度的极限。事实上，物理限制将开始让他们感觉到不能突破电子最终的不足，原因是芯片上绝缘层越来越薄，以致量子理论中隧道效应引起了麻烦，导致了渗漏。
相对基础物理学，芯片制造者面对的问题要多出许多，尤其是电路印刷术遇到的困难。2001年更新2002年出版的规划中，陈述了这样一种情况，照目前的发展速度，如果在2005年前在关键技术领域没有取得大的突破的话，半导体业将停止不前。这是对“红色砖墙”最准确的描述。到目前为止是SIA遇到的最麻烦的问题。2003年的规划书强调了这一点，通过在许多地方加上了红色，指示在这些领域仍存在人们没有解决的制造方法问题。
到目前为止，可以很满意的报道，所遇到的问题到及时找到了解决之道。规划书是个非凡的文档，并且它坦白了以上提到的问题，并表示出了无限的信心。主要的见解反映出了这种信心并且有一个大致的期望，通过某种方式，圆
晶体将变的更小，也许到45纳米或更小。
然而，花费将以很大的速率增长。也许将成为半导体停滞不前的最终原因。对于逐步增加的花费直到不能满足，这个精确的工业上达到一致意见的平衡点，依赖于经济的整体形势和半导体工业自身的财政状况。
最高级芯片的绝缘层厚度仅有５个原子的大小。除了找到更好的绝缘材料外，我们将寸步难行。对于此，我们没有任何办法。我们也不得不面对芯片的布线问题，线越来越细小了。还有散热问题和原子迁移问题。这些问题是相当基础性的。如果我们不能制作导线和绝缘层，我们就不能制造一台计算机。不论在CMOS加工工艺上和半导体材料上取得多么大的进步。更别指望有什么新的工艺或材料可以使得半导体集成度每18个月翻一番的美好时光了。
我在上文中说到，圆晶体继续缩小直到45纳米或更小是个大致的期望。在我的头脑中，从某点上来说，我们所知道的继续缩小CMOS是不可行的，但工业上需要超越它。
2001年以来，规划书中有一部分陈述了非传统形式CMOS的新兴研究设备。一些精力旺盛的人和一些投机者的探索无疑给了我们一些有益的途径，并且规划书明确分辨出了这些进步，在那些我们曾经使用的传统CMOS方面。
内存技术的进步
非传统的CMOS变革了存储器技术。直到现在，我们仍然依靠DRAM作为主要的存储体。不幸的是，随着芯片的缩小，只有芯片外围速度上的增长——处理器芯片和它相关的缓存速度每两年增加一倍。这就是存储器代沟并且是人们焦虑的根源。存储技术的一个可能突破是，使用一种非传统的CMOS管，在计算机整体性能上将导致一个很大的进步，将解决大存储器的需求，即缓存不能解决的问题。
也许这个，而不是外围电路达到基本处理器的速度将成为非传统CMOS.的最终角色。
翻译：
Progress in Computers The first stored program computers began to work around 1950.The one we built in Cambridge, the EDSAC was first used in the summer of 1949.These early experimental computers were built by people like myself with varying backgrounds.We all had extensive experience in electronic engineering and were confident that that experience would stand us in good stead.This proved true，although we had some new things to learn.The most important of these was that transients must be treated correctly;what would cause a harmless flash on the screen of a television set could lead to a serious error in a computer.As far as computing circuits were concerned, we found ourselves with an embarass de richess.For example, we could use vacuum tube diodes for gates as we did in the EDSAC or pentodes with control signals on both grids, a system widely used elsewhere.This sort of choice persisted and the term families of logic came into use.Those who have worked in the computer field will remember TTL, ECL and CMOS.Of these, CMOS has now become dominant.In those early years, the IEE was still dominated by power engineering and we had to fight a number of major battles in order to get radio engineering along with the rapidly developing subject of electronics.dubbed in the IEE light current electrical engineering.properly recognised as an activity in its own right.I remember that we had some difficulty in organising a conference because the power engineers‟ ways of doing things were not our ways.A minor source of irritation was that all IEE published papers were expected to start with a lengthy statement of earlier practice, something difficult to do when there was no earlier practice Consolidation in the 1960s
By the late 50s or early 1960s, the heroic pioneering stage was over and the computer field was starting up in real earnest.The number of computers in the world had increased and they were much more reliable than the very early ones.To those years we can ascribe the first steps in high level languages and the first operating systems.Experimental time-sharing was beginning, and ultimately computer graphics was to come along.Above all, transistors began to replace vacuum tubes.This change presented a formidable challenge to the engineers of the day.They had to forget what they knew about circuits and start again.It can only be said that they measured up superbly well to the challenge and that the change could not have gone more smoothly.Soon it was found possible to put more than one transistor on the same bit of silicon, and this was the beginning of integrated circuits.As time went on, a sufficient level of integration was reached for one chip to accommodate enough transistors for a small number of gates or flip flops.This led to a range of chips known as the 7400 series.The gates and flip flops were independent of one another
and each had its own pins.They could be connected by off-chip wiring to make a computer or anything else.These chips made a new kind of computer possible.It was called a minicomputer.It was something less that a mainframe, but still very powerful, and much more affordable.Instead of having one expensive mainframe for the whole organisation, a business or a university was able to have a minicomputer for each major department.Before long minicomputers began to spread and become more powerful.The world was hungry for computing power and it had been very frustrating for industry not to be able to supply it on the scale required and at a reasonable cost.Minicomputers transformed the situation.The fall in the cost of computing did not start with the minicomputer;it had always been that way.This was what I meant when I referred in my abstract to inflation in the computer industry „going the other way‟.As time goes on people get more for their money, not less.The RISC Movement and Its Aftermath
Early computers had simple instruction sets.As time went on designers of commercially available machines added additional features which they thought would improve performance.Few comparative measurements were done and on the whole the choice of features depended upon the designer‟s intuition.In 1980, the RISC movement that was to change all this broke on the world.The movement opened with a paper by Patterson and Ditzel entitled The Case for the Reduced Instructions Set Computer.Apart from leading to a striking acronym, this title conveys little of the insights into instruction set design which went with the RISC movement, in particular the way it facilitated pipelining, a system whereby several instructions may be in different stages of execution within the processor at the same time.Pipelining was not new, but it was new for small computers
The RISC movement benefited greatly from methods which had recently become available for estimating the performance to be expected from a computer design without actually implementing it.I refer to the use of a powerful existing computer to simulate the new design.By the use of simulation, RISC advocates were able to predict with some confidence that a good RISC design would be able to out-perform the best conventional computers using the same circuit technology.This
prediction was ultimately born out in practice.Simulation made rapid progress and soon came into universal use by computer designers.In consequence, computer design has become more of a science and less of an art.Today, designers expect to have a roomful of, computers available to do their simulations, not just one.They refer to such a roomful by the attractive name of computer farm.The x86 Instruction Set
Little is now heard of pre-RISC instruction sets with one major exception, namely that of the Intel 8086 and its progeny, collectively referred to as x86.This has become the dominant instruction set and the RISC instruction sets that originally had a considerable measure of success are having to put up a hard fight for survival.This dominance of x86 disappoints people like myself who come from the research wings.both academic and industrial.of the computer field.No doubt, business considerations have a lot to do with the survival of x86, but there are other reasons as well.However much we research oriented people would like to think otherwise.high level languages have not yet eliminated the use of machine code altogether.We need to keep reminding ourselves that there is much to be said for strict binary compatibility with previous usage when that can be attained.Nevertheless, things might have been different if Intel‟s major attempt to produce a good RISC chip had been more successful.I am referring to the i860(not the i960, which was something different).In many ways the i860 was an excellent chip, but its software interface did not fit it to be used in a workstation.There is an interesting sting in the tail of this apparently easy triumph of the x86 instruction set.It proved impossible to match the steadily increasing speed of RISC processors by direct implementation of the x86 instruction set as had been done in the past.Instead, designers took a leaf out of the RISC book;although it is not obvious, on the surface, a modern x86 processor chip contains hidden within it a RISC-style processor with its own internal RISC coding.The incoming x86 code is, after suitable massaging, converted into this internal code and handed over to the RISC processor where the critical execution is performed.In this summing up of the RISC movement, I rely heavily on the latest edition of Hennessy and Patterson‟s books on computer design as my supporting authority;see in particular Computer Architecture, third edition, 2003, pp 146, 151-4, 157-8.The IA-64 instruction set.Some time ago, Intel and Hewlett-Packard introduced the IA-64 instruction set.This was primarily intended to meet a generally recognised need for a 64 bit address space.In this, it followed the lead of the designers of the MIPS R4000 and Alpha.However one would have thought that Intel would have stressed compatibility with the x86;the puzzle is that they did the exact opposite.Moreover, built into the design of IA-64 is a feature known as predication which makes it incompatible in a major way with all other instruction sets.In particular, it needs 6 extra bits with each instruction.This upsets the traditional balance between instruction word length and information content, and it changes significantly the brief of the compiler writer.In spite of having an entirely new instruction set, Intel made the puzzling claim that chips based on IA-64 would be compatible with earlier x86 chips.It was hard to see exactly what was meant.Chips for the latest IA-64 processor, namely, the Itanium, appear to have special hardware for compatibility.Even so, x86 code runs very slowly.Because of the above complications, implementation of IA-64 requires a larger chip than is required for more conventional instruction sets.This in turn implies a higher cost.Such at any rate, is the received wisdom, and, as a general principle, it was repeated as such by Gordon Moore when he visited Cambridge recently to open the Betty and Gordon Moore Library.I have, however, heard it said that the matter appears differently from within Intel.This I do not understand.But I am very ready to admit that I am completely out of my depth as regards the economics of the semiconductor industry.AMD have defined a 64 bit instruction set that is more compatible with x86 and they appear to be making headway with it.The chip is not a particularly large one.Some people think that this is what Intel should have done.[Since the lecture was delivered, Intel have announced that they will market a range of chips essentially compatible with those offered by AMD.]
The Relentless Drive towards Smaller Transistors
The scale of integration continued to increase.This was achieved by shrinking the original transistors so that more could be put on a chip.Moreover, the laws of physics were on the side of the manufacturers.The transistors also got faster, simply by getting smaller.It was therefore possible to have, at the same time, both high density and high speed.There was a further advantage.Chips are made on discs of silicon, known as wafers.Each wafer has on it a large number of individual chips, which are processed together and later separated.Since shrinkage makes it possible to get more chips on a wafer, the cost per chip goes down.Falling unit cost was important to the industry because, if the latest chips are cheaper to make as well as faster, there is no reason to go on offering the old ones, at least not indefinitely.There can thus be one product for the entire market.However, detailed cost calculations showed that, in order to maintain this advantage as shrinkage proceeded beyond a certain point, it would be necessary to move to larger wafers.The increase in the size of wafers was no small matter.Originally, wafers were one or two inches in diameter, and by 2000 they were as much as twelve inches.At first, it puzzled me that, when shrinkage presented so many other problems, the industry should make things harder for itself by going to larger wafers.I now see that reducing unit cost was just as important to the industry as increasing the number of transistors on a chip, and that this justified the additional investment in foundries and the increased risk.The degree of integration is measured by the feature size, which, for a given technology, is best defined as the half the distance between wires in the densest chips made in that technology.At the present time, production of 90 nm chips is still building up Suspension of Law
In March 1997, Gordon Moore was a guest speaker at the celebrations of the centenary of the discovery of the electron held at the Cavendish Laboratory.It was during the course of his lecture that I first heard the fact that you can have silicon chips that are both fast and low in cost described as a violation of Murphy‟s law.or Sod‟s law as it is usually called in the UK.Moore said that experience in other fields would lead you to expect to have to choose between speed and cost, or to compromise between them.In fact, in the case of silicon chips, it is possible to have both.In a reference book available on the web, Murphy is identified as an engineer working on human acceleration tests for the US Air Force in 1949.However, we were perfectly familiar with the law in my student days, when we called it by a much more prosaic name than either of those mentioned above, namely, the Law of General Cussedness.We even had a mock examination question in which the law
featured.It was the type of question in which the first part asks for a definition of some law or principle and the second part contains a problem to be solved with the aid of it.In our case the first part was to define the Law of General Cussedness and the second was the problem;A cyclist sets out on a circular cycling tour.Derive an equation giving the direction of the wind at any time.The single-chip computer
At each shrinkage the number of chips was reduced and there were fewer wires going from one chip to another.This led to an additional increment in overall speed, since the transmission of signals from one chip to another takes a long time.Eventually, shrinkage proceeded to the point at which the whole processor except for the caches could be put on one chip.This enabled a workstation to be built that out-performed the fastest minicomputer of the day, and the result was to kill the minicomputer stone dead.As we all know, this had severe consequences for the computer industry and for the people working in it.From the above time the high density CMOS silicon chip was Cock of the Roost.Shrinkage went on until millions of transistors could be put on a single chip and the speed went up in proportion.Processor designers began to experiment with new architectural features designed to give extra speed.One very successful experiment concerned methods for predicting the way program branches would go.It was a surprise to me how successful this was.It led to a significant speeding up of program execution and other forms of prediction followed Equally surprising is what it has been found possible to put on a single chip computer by way of advanced features.For example, features that had been developed for the IBM Model 91.the giant computer at the top of the System 360 range.are now to be found on microcomputers
Murphy‟s Law remained in a state of suspension.No longer did it make sense to build experimental computers out of chips with a small scale of integration, such as that provided by the 7400 series.People who wanted to do hardware research at the circuit level had no option but to design chips and seek for ways to get them made.For a time, this was possible, if not easy
Unfortunately, there has since been a dramatic increase in the cost of making chips, mainly because of the increased cost of making masks for lithography, a photographic process used in the manufacture of chips.It has, in consequence, again
become very difficult to finance the making of research chips, and this is a currently cause for some concern.The Semiconductor Road Map
The extensive research and development work underlying the above advances has been made possible by a remarkable cooperative effort on the part of the international semiconductor industry.At one time US monopoly laws would probably have made it illegal for US companies to participate in such an effort.However about 1980 significant and far reaching changes took place in the laws.The concept of pre-competitive research was introduced.Companies can now collaborate at the pre-competitive stage and later go on to develop products of their own in the regular competitive manner.The agent by which the pre-competitive research in the semi-conductor industry is managed is known as the Semiconductor Industry Association(SIA).This has been active as a US organisation since 1992 and it became international in 1998.Membership is open to any organisation that can contribute to the research effort.Every two years SIA produces a new version of a document known as the International Technological Roadmap for Semiconductors(ITRS), with an update in the intermediate years.The first volume bearing the title „Roadmap‟ was issued in 1994 but two reports, written in 1992 and distributed in 1993, are regarded as the true beginning of the series.Successive roadmaps aim at providing the best available industrial consensus on the way that the industry should move forward.They set out in great detail.over a 15 year horizon.the targets that must be achieved if the number of components on a chip is to be doubled every eighteen months.that is, if Moore‟s law is to be maintained.-and if the cost per chip is to fall.In the case of some items, the way ahead is clear.In others, manufacturing problems are foreseen and solutions to them are known, although not yet fully worked out;these areas are coloured yellow in the tables.Areas for which problems are foreseen, but for which no manufacturable solutions are known, are coloured red.Red areas are referred to as Red Brick Walls.The targets set out in the Roadmaps have proved realistic as well as challenging, and the progress of the industry as a whole has followed the Roadmaps closely.This is a remarkable achievement and it may be said that the merits of cooperation and competition have been combined in an admirable manner.It is to be noted that the major strategic decisions affecting the progress of the industry have been taken at the pre-competitive level in relative openness, rather than behind closed doors.These include the progression to larger wafers.By 1995, I had begun to wonder exactly what would happen when the inevitable point was reached at which it became impossible to make transistors any smaller.My enquiries led me to visit ARPA headquarters in Washington DC, where I was given a copy of the recently produced Roadmap for 1994.This made it plain that serious problems would arise when a feature size of 100 nm was reached, an event projected to happen in 2007, with 70 nm following in 2010.The year for which the coming of 100 nm(or rather 90 nm)was projected was in later Roadmaps moved forward to 2004 and in the event the industry got there a little sooner.I presented the above information from the 1994 Roadmap, along with such other information that I could obtain, in a lecture to the IEE in London, entitled The CMOS end-point and related topics in Computing and delivered on 8 February 1996.The idea that I then had was that the end would be a direct consequence of the number of electrons available to represent a one being reduced from thousands to a few hundred.At this point statistical fluctuations would become troublesome, and thereafter the circuits would either fail to work, or if they did work would not be any faster.In fact the physical limitations that are now beginning to make themselves felt do not arise through shortage of electrons, but because the insulating layers on the chip have become so thin that leakage due to quantum mechanical tunnelling has become troublesome.There are many problems facing the chip manufacturer other than those that arise from fundamental physics, especially problems with lithography.In an update to the 2001 Roadmap published in 2002, it was stated that the continuation of progress at present rate will be at risk as we approach 2005 when the roadmap projects that progress will stall without research break-throughs in most technical areas “.This was the most specific statement about the Red Brick Wall, that had so far come from the SIA and it was a strong one.The 2003 Roadmap reinforces this statement by showing many areas marked red, indicating the existence of problems for which no manufacturable solutions are known.It is satisfactory to report that, so far, timely solutions have been found to all the problems encountered.The Roadmap is a remarkable document and, for all its frankness about the problems looming above, it radiates immense confidence.Prevailing opinion reflects that confidence and there is a general expectation that, by one means or another, shrinkage will continue, perhaps down to 45 nm or even less.However, costs will rise steeply and at an increasing rate.It is cost that will ultimately be seen as the reason for calling a halt.The exact point at which an industrial consensus is reached that the escalating costs can no longer be met will depend on the general economic climate as well as on the financial strength of the semiconductor industry itself.。
Insulating layers in the most advanced chips are now approaching a thickness equal to that of 5 atoms.Beyond finding better insulating materials, and that cannot take us very far, there is nothing we can do about this.We may also expect to face problems with on-chip wiring as wire cross sections get smaller.These will concern heat dissipation and atom migration.The above problems are very fundamental.If we cannot make wires and insulators, we cannot make a computer, whatever improvements there may be in the CMOS process or improvements in semiconductor materials.It is no good hoping that some new process or material might restart the merry-go-round of the density of transistors doubling every eighteen months.I said above that there is a general expectation that shrinkage would continue by one means or another to 45 nm or even less.What I had in mind was that at some point further scaling of CMOS as we know it will become impracticable, and the industry will need to look beyond it.Since 2001 the Roadmap has had a section entitled emerging research devices on non-conventional forms of CMOS and the like.Vigorous and opportunist exploitation of these possibilities will undoubtedly take us a useful way further along the road, but the Roadmap rightly distinguishes such progress from the traditional scaling of conventional CMOS that we have been used to.Advances in Memory Technology
Unconventional CMOS could revolutionalize memory technology.Up to now, we have relied on DRAMs for main memory.Unfortunately, these are only increasing in speed marginally as shrinkage continues, whereas processor chips and their associated cache memory continue to double in speed every two years.The result is a growing gap in speed between the processor and the main memory.This is the memory gap and is a current source of anxiety.A breakthrough in memory technology, possibly using some form of unconventional CMOS, could lead to a major advance in overall performance on problems with large memory requirements，that is, problems which fail to fit into the cache.Perhaps this, rather than attaining marginally higher basis processor speed will be the ultimate role for non-conventional CMOS.
第二篇：单片机英文翻译
单片机翻译
本文所研究的作息时间控制系统是由MCS-51系列单片机AT89S51做主控部件，外围电路用12MHZ晶体震荡器、74LS164寄存器、复位电路、三个按键、四联LED数码管做显示时间的器件，不需要外扩展存储器，就能实现其功能。在整个设计中，主要用的是单片机的自动控制原理，包括硬件和软件。在硬件部分，包括继电器，存储器和显示器接口芯片；软件部分，主要是主程序设计。将软、硬件有机地结合在一起，使得系统能够正确地进行计时。在系统的调试中，首先对硬件进行调试，然后逐级叠加调试；软件先在最小系统板上调试，确保其工作正常之后，再与硬件系统联调。最后将各模块组合后整体测试，使系统的所有功能得以实现。文中介绍了单片机AT89S51的主要特性及各管脚的说明，并讲解了74LS164内部功能，在此基础上展开了设计。
The rest of this article time control system is composed of MCS-51 Microcontroller AT89S51 do the main control unit, the external circuit with a 12MHZ crystal oscillator, 74LS164 registers, reset circuit, three buttons, LED digital tube to do quadruple the time of the device shows no the needs of extended memory, can achieve its functions.Throughout the design, mainly using a single chip control theory, including hardware and software.In hardware, including relays, memory and display interface chip;software components, mainly the main program design.The software and hardware together organically, making the system able to correctly time.Debugging the system, the first hardware debugging, and then progressively overlay debugging;software debugging board first in the minimum system to ensure its working properly, the FBI again and the hardware system.Finally, the overall test after each module combination, the system of all functions can be achieved.The paper describes the main features of the microcontroller AT89S51 description and the pin, and explained the 74LS164 internal functions, on this basis to start the design.
第三篇：英文翻译及文献_单片机-传感器_压力检测
译文
轮胎压力监测在汽车使用被动声表面波传感器
阿尔弗雷德波尔1，G。Ostermayer}，L.Reindl 2F.塞弗特 1）应用电子实验室，oETechnology大学，Gusshausstrasse 27，A1739年慕尼黑，德国
摘要：在我们的文件，我们介绍表面声波（SAW）传感器在测量道路车辆的轮胎连续气压的应用。有了这些，在驾驶的每一个阶段可以读出轮胎气压。我们展示了实施原型装置测量轮胎压力，所应用的SAW传感器，改进版本和审讯设置。对实际应用中存在的问题进行了讨论。在测试驾驶发生的时候所测得的轮胎压力就是实验结果。
导言
驾驶汽车时，在运动中因一个轮胎爆胎的轮胎故障可能会导致严重事故，危及人的生命。此外，现在的汽车制造商试图挽救汽车备胎。它的成本通常只有重量和空间，因此产生较高的油耗，虽然这将需要在汽车十余年的生命里不少于一次维护。这只能在驾驶期间测得轮胎气压。目前使用的传感器含有活性成分，采用锂电池。这些传感器组件的质量大约是20克，造成高动态负载。几年前，远距离无线声表面波器件传感器被发明。使用的是一个SAW延迟线连接到天线，射频信号的审讯注入和传感器响应，重复传输无线审讯。这些传感器能测量
温度，机械负荷，力和位移等的好处是，声表面波传感器是完全无源器件，并包含没有电力供应，也没有半导体。即使在恶劣的环境下，它们的温度高达几百度，其寿命远远长于的电池供电，车辆强烈的电磁污染是由点火系统传感器运作产生的危害风险。首先，我们讨论压力测量采用声表面波传感器与无线目前某些类型的传感器组件和审查我们讨论实施到本实验简要总结的内容。
声表面波压力传感器
电气被动声表面波压力传感器始终是一个端口延迟线多个反射或各自独立的谐振器。在延迟，审讯传送突发信号，读写器发送一个脉冲信号，每一个反射安排在基板的表面延迟差两个或两个以上的反应信号测量一些物理值，参数转化为改变传感器的表面长度或表面声波的速度，分别延迟里的反应一比长度李声表面波传播的基板表面和繁殖。损害传感器测量精度的传感器的反应遵守延迟响应信号源于硅反射镜可以通过拉伸和压缩收集载入传感器，用于无线测量的扭矩等，声表面波传感器的基板可以会影响传感器弯曲膜，把边缘传感器固定在传感器装到弯曲由于转移的中心，膜加载的另一方面传感器可直接安装在膜或压电膜代表的SAW基板可以显示这些方法。
图1 ：
一）膜转换转变弯曲的声表面波传感器（锯）二）声表面波传感器安装在膜
下一步是覆盖膜传感器组成的 串行制造的传感器系统〜有别小得多，能够被纳入，我们实施了综合压力室（图2）进入传感器固定在轮辋，金属阀轴用作为传感器的天线（图4）。
图4 ：集成压力室固定在轮辋阀用作天线
为了提高执行只安装阀门传感器装置（图5）。即使是在高速行驶的时候，该单位的总质量只有几克，动态负载很小。
图5 ：压力传感器阀轴
审讯系统采用基于空间的多样性，以区分传感器低于每一辆翼天线要使用同轴电缆，这个技术是困难和昂贵的，我们的调查也显示双绞线的适用性。
图6 ：讯问汽车天线
为了测量，我们开发了一个小型的审讯系统的传输阵和寻找的响应信号阵阵之间的相移。该系统是由一个片上微控制器控制和一个液晶显示屏上显示测量结果。系统的照片在图7所示
图7 ：系统的无线审讯的被动声表面波传感器
为了检验我们的传感器和我们的系统，我们做了很多测试车领域内和周围的城市审讯系统耦合到笔记本计算机压力值进行测量和记录档案。数字和 高胎压属于制动演习（传感器是安装东亚前轮）时间越长增加了轮胎压力和下列期限衰变是因为骑了系统表现出较高的可靠性，即使是在暴风雪里驾驶汽车。
图8：在不同的驾驶条件下的轮胎压力
在图9中的压力右前轮可以看到放大的时间，而通过两个轨道平面交叉口与相邻的水通道跨越的破旧安排的平面交叉口，硬冲击传达给身体造成硬压力冲击的轮胎。
图9：轮胎压力过级过境两个轨道
讨论
无线声表面波传感器的审讯都是免维护和承受高的热和机械载荷。在测量性能与竞争对手。在汽车系统中所付出的努力是对SAW传感器更高，因为有源传感器单位发送包含压力值和传感器识别的SAW器件的主要优势为前提的数字信息。应用程序，每次旋转的发生，是他们的低质量。在离心力的作用MV*/ R，与质量为m，速度v和半径r.To动态机械负荷最小化，系统应用到旋转部件的质量，应尽可能低。而传统轮胎压力测量传感器的单位有一个大约的质量。20克，集成压力传感器（图5）有一个不到一克的质量。在最坏的情况下完整的SAW传感器单元的质量只有几克。传统的系统是由锂离子电池供电。在一个破旧轮胎的情况下，由于电池不能被选中，应更换传感器，产生废物处置的问题。在汽车电子集成系统，它是不必要的，以显示每个轮胎的压力不断。在这里，只有一个故障触发警报。系统的显示，可以取消，降低系统的成本。
结论
无源声表面波传感器的优点是它们适合用于车辆应用。特别是测量轮胎气压低质量和他们不用维护的事实，使他们能够比竞争对手优越。压力测量表面波传感器，轮胎的磨损程度和审讯系统将被讨论。大量测量驾驶的实验结果将被表示出来。参考文献
[1]Reindl，F.穆勒，塞弗特，无源表面波传感器的讯问，国际专利应用（1992年）。
[2]塞弗特楼。机械传感器基于表面声波，传感器（1994）231-239 [3] 绍尔，T.奥斯特塔格，L.Reindl，H.谢尔，0.Sczesny，U.沃尔夫，无线声表面波传感器的远程测控的物理参数，商业电台传感器和通信技术，1997年。pp.51-58 [ 4 ] H ·谢尔，G.舍尔，F.塞弗特，R.威格尔，石英压力传感器反射基于声表面波延迟线，Proc.IEEE超声波研讨会1996年。pp.347-350。
第四篇：英文翻译
英语三级翻译辅导习题
1.各吹各的号，各唱各的调。
2.每逢假日的下午，我总要漫游周围的乡村。
3.暴风雨把小屋冲坏，他们只好住在一个窑洞里。
4.要不断加强基础设施建设，努力营建良好的开发环境。
5.深秋，冷雨霏霏，屋里静悄悄的。他们看了一下午的书。
6.Liberty is more important than life.（英译汉）
答案：
1.各吹各的号，各唱各的调。转载自:考试大[Examda.Com]
She works as a bilingual secretary for an insurance company.4.去年我一天洗两次澡，早晚各一次。
I used to take a bath twice a day last year，morning and night.5.坦白地说，面试后我一直认为这个职位不适合我。
Frankly speaking，I have been thinking that the position is not right for me after the
interview.6.Some people assert that nothing is impossible.Such people should get a grip on
reality and understand it‘s impossible to create another Universe.In more down-to-earth
terms，it’s impossible to know with any certainty whether you will live or die tomorrow.（英译汉）
一些人断言没有什么事是不可能的。这些人应该把握现实，知道再造一个宇宙是不可能的。更现实的 说法是不可能明确地知道明天你会活着还是会死。
get a grip on抓住，控制，管束
1.八成他不会来了。
Most probably he isn，t coming.2.他巴不得立刻见到你。
He is very anxious to meet you immediately.3.这刀不会留下任何疤痕。转载自:考试大-[Examda.Com]
The cut will not leave any scar.4.孩子成了他唯一的安慰。
The child became her only consolation.5.非常感谢贵公司的录用，但我不得不拒绝这份工作。
I really appreciate your offer，but I must decline it.6.Things aren’t even starting to take shape yet.（英译汉）
八字还没有一撇.1.显然你错了。考试大论坛
It is clear you were wrong.2.仔细看看信的地址是否写对了。
Care should be taken to see that the letter is properly addressed.3.现在全厂上上下下都普遍认为工厂必须进行改革。
It is now generally accepted that reform is necessary in the factory.4.这儿是头两卷，第三卷下个月出版。
Here are the first two volumes，the third one to come out next month.5.我们不知不觉地朝公园走去。公园就在人行桥那边，桥下很深的地方，汹涌的河水滚滚流过。Somehow our path took us toward the park across the footbridge high above the rolling
waters of the river.6.The man who is above his business may one day find his business above him.（英译汉）
不屑于干自己工作的人，终会有一天发现自己不配干那份工作。
1.为了找房子，不知花费我多少时间，受过多少闲气。
In my long seeking for lodging，I often met with a snub.2.树是那样高，笔直，而又整齐的特别可爱！因为是松树和杉树的原故，所以四时都是绿油油的。Standing tall and erect before me in neat array was a forest of evergreen pines and
firs.3.自己在树底下行走，如果把风景看得太严重了，倒反没有什么趣味。考试大论坛
While walking in the shade of the trees，I preferred not to focus my attention
exclusively on the scenery.4.最有意思的是自己慢慢地在后面走，看着人家一个个地从树荫下经过。
I found it most interesting to watch，by slowing down my pace，other people walking
ahead of me one after another.6.We‘ve all done something in our lives us we are ashamed of，some of us have fallen
for the wrong man，some have let go of the right women，there’re those who have
humiliated their parents and those who have failed their children.Yes，we‘ve all made
mistakes that diminish us and those we love.But there is redemption if we try to learn from
those mistakes and grow。（英译汉）
我们都做过一些自己都感到惭愧的事。有些人爱错了人，有些人错过了爱；有些孩子使父母丢脸，也 有些家长让孩子失望。是的，我们都犯过错，使自己和爱人蒙羞。但如果我们试着从s这些错误中吸取教 训并成长，就还有挽回的机会。
A： Bill Mcphee。我会尽快带他来见你。
Bill Mcphee.I’ll bring him around to see you soon.B： 我们会怀念和你一起共事的时光。
We’ll miss doing business with you.A： Bill Mcphee是个好人。你们会和他相处得很好的。
Bill Mcphee is a good man.You’ll get along with him very well.6.With the rapid development of Taiwan’s economy，a lot of social problems have come
to pass.（英译汉）
随着台湾经济的快速发展许多社会问题产生了
1.这架班机正点起飞吧？
Is the plane on schedule？
2.准备好机票与登机牌。
Let’s get our tickets and boarding pass ready.3.如果有退票的，请通知我。
Please notify me if there is any cancellation.4.请于起飞前一小进到达机场。
Please be at the airport at least one hour before departure？
You’ll be late if you don’t arrive in one hour before leaving.5.我需要提前多少天付款订票？
How long in advance of the flight must I pay to confirm the booking？
6.Promises are often like the butterfly，which disappear after beautiful hover。（英译
汉）
承诺常常很像蝴蝶，美丽地盘旋然后不见。
1.我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。请访问考试大网站http:///
We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.2.在建立个人网站前，先问问自己，为什么想要一网站，想要达到的目标是什么。
Before you build a personal site，ask yourself why you want one，and what you want to
accomplish.3.在造访一个提供网站空间服务的网站时，你会看到种类繁多的方案可供选择，哪一种价位可以给 你多少网络空间及多大的传输流量。
When you visit the site of a Web host，you’ll see a wide variety of plans-so much
space and so much network traffic for so much money.4.典型的网站包括图像、文字及图片，比较精心制作的网站还有动画、影像、声音和其他额外的内 容。
Web site typically contain graphics，texts and pictures，while more elaborate ones
include animation，video，audio and other extras.5.关于网站设计，有许多是很吸引人的，也有许多则令人泄气。
There are many things about Web sites that are appealing and many that are just plain
frustrating.6.Pizza came to the U.S.with Italian immigrants;the first U.S.pizzeria opened in
1905，and pizza became one of the nation’s favourite foods after World War Ⅱ。It is now
popular worldwide.（英译汉）
比萨随着意大利移民引进美国；1905年第一家美国比萨店开业了，第二次世界大战后比萨成为全美国 最喜爱的食物之一。现在比萨畅销全世界。
1.只要走一下就到了吗？
Is it within walking distance？
2.我儿子骑在我肩上看游行。
My son rode pickaback on me to watch the parade.3.其实我一点都不喜欢我现在的工作。
The fact of the matter is I’m not enjoying my new job at all.4.他有边吃饭边抽烟那让人讨厌的习惯。
He has the irritating habit of smoking during meals.5.如果我今早没忘了把油箱加满，我们不会没油的。
If I hadn’t forgotten to fill up the tank this morning，we wouldn’t be out of gas.6.Are there any charter flights？（英译汉）
有包机航班吗？
1、A：有什么我可以为您效劳的吗？
Is there anything I can help you with？
B：是的，我想知道你是否可以帮我找到一些这个城市的旅游指南，或许也要一张公路地图。Yes，I was wondering if you could help me find some travel guides for this city.And
maybe also a rode map，too.A：我们有各种不同的那个题材的书。有些相当概扣，而其他的则比较专业化。
We have a variety of books on that subject.Some are quite general while others are more
specialized and specific，B：我想概括性的就可以了。我只是要在这儿停留几天。但我想要那种多多少少能使我感觉到这个城 市的东西。
I think the generalized ones would do.I’m only staying here for a couple of days.But
I want something that can give me more or less the feel of the city.A：那样的话，也许这本书可以。它有很多图片，而且容易阅读，里头也有公路地图。
In that case，maybe this book will do.It has a lot of pictures and is easy to read.There are also road maps in it.B：太好了！我买这一本。
That’s perfect.I’ll buy this one.（英译汉）
2、At Christmas the air is filled with carols.圣诞节的时候到处都可以听到圣诞颂歌。
1.我认为年轻人应该能够有自己作决定的自由和空间。
I think young people should have the freedom and the space to make their own decisions.2.由于奥运会规模越来越大，为了大多数的城市将没有能力举办。来源：考试大
The Olympic Games are growing so big that most cities may not be able to host them in
future.3.当奥运会结束后，所有累积的专业经验就消失，使下一届主办城市必须一切从零开始。Currently，once the Games are finished，all the gathered expertise vanishes and the
next city has to begin from scratch.4.除了一般大学程度的课程之外，卢浮学院也提供大众免费的夜间艺术史课程。
The Ecole du Louvre，in addition to its regular university-level curricula，offers
free public evening classes in art history.5.你会相信咖啡有助于保护你的脑部免收一种危险的退化性疾病的侵袭吗？
Would you believe coffee and help protect your brain from a dangerous degenerative
disease？
6.The two of us sit on chairs and stare upward and around until closing time，watching
the sun illuminate the stained glass panes deep red，blue，gold，and a near blinding
white.On the way out，someone coughs，and the sound goes on and on—acoustics in this
chapel are remarkable.（英译汉）
我们俩坐在椅子上向上及四周凝视直到教堂关门，看着太阳照亮窗格中的彩色玻璃，有深红、蓝色、金色，及眩目的白色。离开时，有人咳嗽，回音缭绕再缭绕—可见这座教堂里的音响效果是多么棒。
1.她的行为深深地刺痛了我的心。{来源：考{试大}
I am deeply offended by her conduct.2.稳定性带来的好处有可能被夸大。
It is possible to overstate the benefits of stabilization.3.这事若是事实，它将给我们造成许多麻烦。
If true，this will cause us a lot of trouble.If it is true，this will cause us a lot of trouble.4.任何政府忽视这一点都将付出巨大的代价。
Any government which is blind to this point may pay a heavy price.5.许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少，以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车，而车上可能已满载乘客Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to
spend much more time waiting for a bus，which is usually crowded with a large number of
passengers.6.Love is the greatest refreshment in life。
爱情是生活最好的提神剂。
1.大家最好养成学习的好习惯。
You‘d better form the habit of studying.2.别把这两个近义词混淆了。
Don’t mix up this pair of synonyms.3.给出这个词的同义词和反义词。
Give the synonym and antonym of this word.4.他脸皮厚，从来不在乎别人讲什么。
He is thick-skinned and never cares what others say.5.面试时，有些面试者会有夸大的倾向。
During the interview，some interviewees tend to exaggerate.6.You’re really too good for me.（英语）
我真的配不上你。
1.一项调查显示妇女欢迎退休。
An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward
retirement.2.我最近利用了一点时间采访成功的专业人士，谈谈他们最难忘、最有效的学习经验。
I recently spent time asking effective professionals about their most memorable and
effective learning experiences.3.我的目的，是要找出成人教育的最佳方式。{来源：考{试大}
My goal was to find out what works best when it comes to adult education.4.那么为什么在适合成人的训练方式与公司的训练部门实际所提供的训练之间会有如此的断层呢？So why is there such a disconnect between what works for adults and is offered by
corporate training departments？
5.在世界各地，极少数的训练人员在从事他们的工作时，具备有充分的学习方面的知识。Very few trainers，in world over，come to their work with much knowledge about
learning.6.What I discovered is that adults are remarkably similar in how they learn best： The
most unforgettable and transformative learning occurs through personal experience，group
support and/or mentoring.（英译汉）
我发现，成人学习最有效的方式其实非常类似：最难忘、带来最深远改变的学习经验，均是通过个人 的体会、小组支持或者良师的启发。
第五篇：英文翻译
物流企业绩效评价
摘要：随着实践的发展与学术、媒体的关注和刺激, 物流企业绩效评价系统得到了很好的发展，而基于经济增加值和平衡计分卡(BSC)方法的物流企业绩效评价就此产生。该系统通过相关的测试和线性回归被给予了实证，就长远的眼光而言，经济增值是这个系统最重要的目的。为了得到高的经济效益，这四个方面包括财务、顾客、内部业务流程和学习和成长都将有巨大意义。经济附加值在企业的战略目标和企业价值的相关性上占据绝对的重要地位。在研究企业绩效的线性回归数据中有经济附加值、运行费用、审计报告和员工的内部控制的教育比等数据，他们被用来代表了前面四个方面。其中，财务和企业内部业务流程有量化的系数与理论分析一致。
关键词：绩效评估、物流、经济附加值、平衡计分卡(BSC)
1绪论
随着物流行业的快速发展,物流企业不断的成长和壮大。对于股东来说，一个问题迫切需要解决的问题产生了，即如何对其物流企业进行有效而科学的绩效评价。虽然这个行业具有很大的利润空间，里面有巨大的财富，但是该物流企业经济附加值到底有多大，而如何又能创造出来，作为股东又能获得多少报酬这些都是令人棘手的问题。传统的企业绩效评价以企业财务报表作为分析的基础，在一定程度上反映了企业为股东创造财富的能力和企业生存、发展的能力，但是人们只使用财务数据来支持他们的判断从而就缺乏注意到其他措施,特别是忽视股权成本由股东的投资。在本文中,我们基于平衡计分卡(BSC)建造一个评价指标系统，并围绕EVA作为物流企业绩效评价的指标体系，把经济增值作为一种主要的目标来对物流企业进行绩效评价，并衡量企业的股东获得的真正的财富。然后，本文提供实例证明这个系统的有效性。本文是组织结构如下：第二章相关的理论知识；第三部分建立评价体系根据通过EVA建立指标体系和介绍使用的平衡计分卡方法；四章和第五章对上面介绍的绩效评价方法给予实证；第六部分总结结论。文献回顾
2.1物流绩效评价
物流绩效评价在物流管理中是一个非常重要的问题。科学而准确的评价的结果可以让人们知道他们昨天的工作收获了什么，明天又将要做些什么。
许多外国的日报都聚焦在这三个方面1)介绍应具有的特性，个性 2)该方法需要涉及到的员工3）该企业要选择的方法步骤。而一个建立水平轴的反映国际物流组织所规定的服务质量和性能和垂直轴代表特定服务对客户的重要性的矩阵式相当困难的。
指定物流绩效指标分成三个广阔的领域，包括有形成分、实施途径和信息操作。近年来,人们越来越重视企业的独特的环境行为或公司的策略。有些论文试图为厂商解决如何面对日益变化的市场的问题，这些论文可以动态地解决这一问题的绩效衡量选择,却不是依靠一个静态群的措施。
在中国,物流企业绩效评价研究的主要内容有：1)选择的措施；(2)评价的方法；3)绩效评价体系。一个正确的绩效评价系统通常包含许多个部分。其中，王，杨两个人研究的内容，他们在乎费用、效率、风险、客户管理，而魏强调物流企业的竞争和发展能力。在这些 系统中，最常用的措施都是相关的，比如收入、成本、供应、订单交付延迟时间，指令反馈的精度等。支持以上的理论分析且已应用于物流企业的方法有很多，比如模糊分类方法，主成分分析方法，利用数据包络分析方法等。尽管这些方法都已经有一些高质量的研究成果，但是它们却很少关注公司的策略问题。
2.2平衡计分卡方法
平衡计分卡方法是由罗伯特·卡普兰和大卫·诺顿提出并形成的。它是一种将战略非财务指标添加到传统的给管理者看的财务指标，同时要求均衡的组织中的表现的框架结构的绩效评价方法。经过多年的发展,它成长成为一种全战略规划和管理的绩效评价方法，该方法包括四个方面：财务、客户、内部业务流程、学习和成长。见表一：
在卡普兰和诺顿建立平衡计分卡以后，有些文章开始逐渐将平衡计分卡在应用在物流绩效评价之中。布鲁尔和斯潘通过对先前的平衡积分卡的修改，进而推出一套可用于供应供应链绩效评价的BSC，他们建立的框架包括供应链管理(SCM)的目标、最终客户利益、财务收益、SCM提高；根据平衡计分卡模型,刘和王给出了一个3 + 1的模型，这其中的物流绩效评估包括财务、客户、内部操作和学习四个方面；在孙的导师的论文中，他将平衡积分卡方法与网络程序分析（ANP）相结合来对企业进行绩效评价，该方法以物流企业发展战略作为评价标准，并建立了网络程序分析模型（ANP），由此可以量化绩效评价的影响和便于定量矩阵的反馈。
这些文章都试图添加战略信息并将其转化为物流绩效评估的部分,从而使评价结果对物流企业来说更合理的、更有用。但是平衡计分卡模型在物流企业绩效评价上的应用物流才只是个开始，远非十全十美。再者，很少的研究报告能告诉我们包括股东企业为自己创造的真正的价值。
2.3 经济附加值(EVA)
股东对企业的投资，然而传统意义上的利润不可能告诉我们分与多少股东与其投资相符的红利，继而股东权益得不到强制性保证。投资的机会成本解释了为什么股东选择投资A公司而不是B公司的原因，然而没有效益的投资，谁还会继续。因此忽视利润的分配会导致重大决策失误。
EVA作为商标是由其开发者,斯特恩·斯图尔特和其公司在20世纪80年代注册的。EVA具有很大的吸引力的优势是因为EVA与传统的利润相比较，EVA的计算措施以考虑股本的机会成本为主。以这个方式而言，股东投资就等同于作为贷款的债权人。已经有实证研究支持这个增量，EVA信息内容的价值相关性要高于其他的一些行业的措施。在这同时，EVA有助于制定有效的激励管理，从这个角度来说,EVA的应用对反映出准确的财务绩效从而解决股东和管理的代理问题做出了重大贡献。
尽管EVA的应用受到如此多的赞扬,但是它却还没有来得及在物流行业广泛应用。EVA未能得到物流行业应用的主要原因是因为物流企业有着其自身的特殊性和特征。在本文中，我们设法把EVA和平衡计分卡模型结合在一起建立一个物流企业绩效评价系统。
3基于EVA和BSC的绩效评价系统
战略是企业发展和成功至关重要的因素，其中企业中最盛行的一个策略是公司价值的最大化。策略导向BSC，价值强调EVA，两者的结合可以让企业的绩效评价对齐企业的战略。3.1根据斯坦·斯图尔特定义，EVA一般相当于一个真正的经济效益评估，该评估纠正并调整了正确会计编号。这个基本关系式为：
在(1)中，NOPAT代表网上营业利润税后、IC卡代表公司资本总额联合会代表加权平均资本成本(包括资本投资股东和债权人)。
考虑到高的离职率和现金流的物流，我们做出对(1)做出调整，得到方程(2)，如下：
其中：NCFO代表净现金流量从操作、收益；在权责发生制下，ATInt税后利润；TA代表总资产(包括债务和股权)；AcctAdj特殊调整的项目，包括商誉、津贴作为坏帐等。3.2战略图
除了EVA，BSC还需要其他更多的指标去联系其框架结构的目标，以及物流企业的特点。我们需要从很多的案例中分析出三者之间的关系，然后再做合理的决策。而BSC提供了一个很好的工具来完成这一过程，这个工具名为战略图，下面给出了一个物流企业的战略图。
认识到战略目的作为战略图的首要任务是很重要的,因为战略目的代表和指导整个发现并建立企业战略的过程。EVA反映了一个物流企业中，股东价值创造的真实的增量，因此它是从财务角度来看的最主要的指标，同时它又是由成本和收入的增长两个关键项目支持的，在财务角度下,我们能够了解需要做出哪些工作来实现EVA。物流企业必须实现客户满意度和保证新客户的产生，这需要高的营业额和较短的交货时间。学习和成长伴随着人类、信息和组织资本。这是最低的观点，然而它却不能被忽视。物流企业的无形资产是最强大的和可持续的满足股东要求的方式。箭头的效果是由低到高的角度,反映了“拉”的联系，这个从低到高的改进需要很长一段时间,但是它将从根本上大幅度的改变公司并给公司一个光明的前途。
3.3方法的选择和EVA的指导作用
在选取具体方法进行绩效评价之前，战略图为我们提供了一种语言来描述的策略，战略图还为物流企业给出了一个走向成功的合理的道路。当利益相关者对物流公司的包括管理、股东、银行家、潜力投资者等方式进行绩效评价的时候，他们想要清晰并且容易的工作。根据卡普兰和诺顿，太多的方法让用户感到困惑，还增加了运营成本。所以按照战略地图的关键词，我们可以列出物流企业绩效评价方法的名单，如表2。他们并不适合所有的公司,但是可以针对某些典型的物流企业。
在这些绩效评估方法中，EVA代表最终的结果和领导前沿，主要是因为它的经济意义。根据在战略地图对这些运行过程的描述，作为一个高效、创造价值的企业将把较高效用的EVA作为其财务评价的结果。
4假设发展
尽管我们基于EVA和BSC对物流企业绩效评价的方法进行了描述，同时简述了EVA 与其他方法的的关系和不同点，但是EVA就真的满足企业长期发展战略的目标么？EVA就真的能在BSC系统的传统绩效评价方法中占据主导地位？
所有的相关信息可以根据市场效率的假设反映在股票市场，上市公司价值几乎跟股票价格是一样的，物流企业也不能例外，虽然中国的股票不可能有市场效率高，但是从1997年的实证表明它已经开始弱化。再者,股票市场的迅速发展,所以对于物流企业而言，市场本身和波动股票价格将会更加重要。企业价值最大化的战略目标将被大众在一般在长期的目标下等同于市场回报最大化。接着，让我们假设1：H1）EVA相比传统的净收益回报，与市场回报具有显著的关系。
作为绩效评价体系的最终结果，EVA应该和其他在BSC四部分有效的措施有重要的关联度。因此我们得到假设2：H2)EVA和其他绩效评价措施相关。
5数据和经验的结果
在绩效评价系统中，大多数的措施都是内部的信息，例如加工时间顺序，所以我们不能让我们所需要的所有的数据去完成实证检验。我们对应一个观点一种手段，包括EVA在内的手段，包括运行成本、第一五客户、收益率、审计的内部控制报告与员工教育的比例。我们找到46家上市物流企业在上海和深圳股票交易作为案例来进行实证检验。因为从2007年起，新的会计准则生效,我们计算的数字调查数据集中于2008年，我们通过删除缺失数据或极端异常的数据得到36个观察结果，这些观察已经被编制到财务信息服务数据库中。
审计报告的内部控制是一种两分法，当内部控制报告可以独立审计，则为1；若不可，其值为0。一个没有独立的外部审计意见内部报告缺乏目的评价，不够支撑一个高品质内部运作过程。为了减少数据上的差异，我们缩小2008年设立的EVA及操作成本总额，这五个描述性统计结果变量见表3：
所有的物流企业有负面的EVA，就是说他们不再继续为股东创造价值，它迫切需要公司向绩效评价体系增加新的EVA。上表中的客户平均收入的比是0.3558，代表前5个客户为物流企业贡献了三分之一的收入。我们发现了大部分公司都没有审计的内部控制报告，显示相对薄弱的内在力量。在员工受教育方面有最低标准偏差，它的均值是0.1838，这放映了物流企业内部人员受教育程度较低。
根据表
4、EVA具有显著的正相关关系与市场回报,支持假设1a。在同一时间，得到一个微不足道的净利润与市场回报，符合假说意向书。也有EVA和净利润之间明显的关系，但相关是消极的，可以看出传统的利润指标的问题。
用线性回归的假设2进行处理，处理结果如表5：
但是审计内部控制报告得到了显著的正面相关性，符合我们的预测；其中前五客户收入与EVA比没有明显关系；教育的比例为显著负系数，虽然得到这些，但是它们不能提供进一步的证据来支持假设2。因为这些结果所采取的措施为客户、学习和成长的观点更多的是根据内部信息，而不是我们所选定的对于财务内部业务流程的内容，所以我们没有合理的代理。我们收集的数据来自于公众物流企业的报告，因为种种原因，可能会有偏见。最后，我们可以做一个结论：假设2部分支持。
6结论
出于学术和实践的重要意义，我们建立一个基于EVA及平衡记分卡的绩效评价体系的为物流企业星星有效的绩效评价。从长远的眼光来研究，将EVA放在作战略地图首位，其他财政，客户，内部业务流程，学习和成长等指标用来辅助。然后我们给每个因素包括EVA定义指标：分别是运营成本、前五客户收益率、内部控制报告和员工受教育的程度。
K相关测试支持EVA和战略目标之间的一致性，另外，我们用线性回归发现运营成本显著的负系数，审计的内部控制报告得到了显著的正面，基本符合了我们的预测，其中前五客户与EVA收入比没有明显关系，受教育教育的比例有显著的负系数关系。
因此，我们觉得基于EVA和平衡计分卡的绩效评价体系是很重要的，它可以帮助物流企业关注战略目标，积极为股东创造价值的增量，并且基于内部信息分析未来的需要。
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