第一篇：机械类-英文翻译
NC Technology
1、Research current situation of NC lathe in our times Research and development process to such various kinds of new technologies as numerical control lathe , machining center , FMS , CIMS ,etc.of countries all over the world, linked to with the international economic situation closely.The machine tool industry has international economy to mutually promote and develop, enter 21 alert eras of World Affairs, the function that people's knowledge plays is more outstanding , and the machine tool industry is regarded as the foundation of the manufacturing industry of the machine, its key position and strategic meaning are more obvious.Within 1991-1994 years, the economic recession of the world, expensive FMS, CIMS lowers the temperature, among 1995-2000 years, the international economy increases at a low speed, according to requisition for NC lathe and the world four major international lathes exhibition in order to boost productivity of users of various fields of present world market(EMO , IMTS , JIMTOF , China CIMT of Japan of U.S.A.of Europe), have the analysis of the exhibit, there are the following several points mainly in the technical research of NC lathe in our times:（1）、Pay more attention to new technology and innovation
Worldwide , are launching the new craft , new material , new structure , new unit , research and development of the new component in a more cost-effective manner, developmental research of for instance new cutter material , the new electric main shaft of main shaft structure , high speed , high-speed straight line electrical machinery ,etc..Regard innovating in improvement of the processing technology as the foundation, for process ultra and hard difficult to cut material and special composite and complicated part , irregular curved surface ,etc.research and develop new lathe variety constantly.（2）、Improve the precision and research of machine tooling In order to improve the machining accuracy of the machining center , are improving rigidity of the lathe , reduction vibration constantly, dispel hotly and out of shape, reduce the noise , improve the precision of localization of NC lathe , repeat precision , working dependability , stability , precision keeping, world a lot of country carry on lathe hot error , lathe sport and load out of shape software of error compensate technical research, take precision compensate , software compensate measure improve , some may make this kind of error dispel 60% already.And is developing retrofit constantly, nanometer is being processed.（3）、Improve the research of the machine tooling productivity World NC lathe, machining center and corresponding some development of main shaft , electrical machinery of straight line , measuring system , NC system of high speed, under the prerequisite of boosting productivity.（4）、What a lot of countries have already begun to the numerical control system melt intelligently, openly, study networkedly A、elligent research of the numerical control system Mainly showing in the following aspects: It is intelligent in order to pursue the efficiency of processing and process quality, the self-adaptation to the processing course is controlled, the craft parameter produces research automatically;Join the convenient one in order to improve the performance of urging and use intelligently, to the feedback control , adaptive operation , discerning automatically load selects models automatically , since carries on research whole definitely ,etc.of the electrical machinery parameter;There are such research of the respect as intelligent automatic programming , intelligent man-machine interface , intelligence diagnosing , intelligent monitoring ,etc..B、The numerical control system melts and studies open Mainly showing in the following aspects: The development of the numerical control system is on unified operation platform, face the lathe producer and support finally, through changing, increasing or cutting out the structure target(numerical control target), form the seriation, and can use users specially conveniently and the technical know-how is integrated in the control system, realize the open numerical control system of different variety , different grade fast, form leading brand products with distinct distinction.System structure norm of the open numerical control system at present, norm , disposing the norm , operation platform , numerical control systematic function storehouse and numerical control systematic function software developing instrument ,etc.are the core of present research to pass through.C、Meeting the manufacture system of the production line , demand for the information integration of the manufacturing company networkedly greatly of numerical control equipment, it is a basic unit of realizing the new manufacture mode too.2、Classification of the machining center（1）Process according to main shaft space position when it classifies to be as follows, horizontal and vertical machining center.Horizontal machining center, refer to the machining center that the axis level of the main shaft is set up.Horizontal machining center for 3-5 sport coordinate axis, a common one three rectilinear motion coordinate axis and one turn the coordinate axis of sports round(turn the workingbench round), it can one is it is it finish other 4 Taxi processing besides installing surfaces and top surfaces to insert to install in work piece, most suitable for processing the case body work piece.Compared with strength type machining center it, the structure is complicated, the floor space is large, quality is large, the price is high.Vertical machining center, the axis of the main shaft of the vertical machining center, in order to set up vertically, its structure is mostly the regular post type, the workingbench is suitable for processing parts for the slippery one of cross, have 3 rectilinear motion coordinate axis generally , can find a room for one horizontal numerical control revolving stage(the 4th axle)of axle process the spiral part at workingbench.The vertical machining center is of simple structure, the floor space is small, the price is low, after allocating various kinds of enclosures , can carry on the processing of most work pieces.Large-scale gantry machining center, the main shafts are mostly set up vertically, is especially used in the large-scale or with complicated form work piece , is it spend the many coordinate gantry machining center to need like aviation , aerospace industry , some processing of part of large-scale steam turbine.Five machining centers, this kind of machining center has function of the vertical and horizontal machining center, one is it after inserting , can finish all five Taxi processing besides installing the surface to install in work piece, the processing way can make form of work piece error lowest , save 2 times install and insert working, thus improve production efficiency , reduce the process cost.(2)Classify by craft use Is it mill machining center to bore, is it mill for vertical door frame machining center , horizontal door frame mill the machining center and Longmen door frame mill the machining center to divide into.Processing technology its rely mainly on the fact that the door frame is milled, used in case body, shell and various kinds of complicated part special curve and large processes , curved surface of outline process, suitable for many varieties to produce in batches small.Complex machining center, point five times and compound and process mainly, the main shaft head can be turned round automatically, stand, lie and process, after the main shaft is turned round automatically, realize knowing that varies in the horizontal and vertical direction.(3)Classify by special function Single workingbench , a pair of workingbench machining center;Single axle , dual axle , three axle can change machining center , main shaft of case;Transfer vertically to the tower machining center and transfer;One hundred sheets of storehouses adds the main shaft and changes one one hundred sheets of machining centers;One hundred sheets of storehouses connects and writes hands to add the main shaft and change one hundred sheets of machining centers;One hundred sheets of storehouses adds the manipulator and adds one pair of main shafts to transfer to the tower machining center.3、Development trend of the current numerical control lathe At present, the advanced manufacturing technology in the world is rising constantly, suchapplication of technology as ultrafast cutting , ultraprecision processing ,etc., the rapid development of the flexible manufacturing system and integrated system of the computer one is constant and ripe, have put forward higher demand to the process technology of numerical control.Nowadays the numerical control lathe is being developed in several following directions.（1）.The speed and precision at a high speed , high accuracy are two important indexes of the numerical control lathe , it concerns directly that processes efficiency and product quality.At present, numerical control system adopt-figure number, frequency high processor, in order to raise basic operation speed of system.Meanwhile , adopt the super large-scale integrated circuit and many microprocessors structure, in order to improve systematic data processing ability , namely improve and insert the speed and precision of mending operation.Adopt the straight line motor and urge the straight line of the lathe workingbench to be servo to enter to the way directly, it is quite superior that its responds the characteristic at a high speed and dynamically.Adopt feedforward control technology , make it lag behind error reduce greatly , thus improve the machining accuracy cut in corner not to track.For meet ultrafast demand that process, numerical control lathe adopt main shaft motor and lathe structure form that main shaft unite two into one, realize frequency conversion motor and lathe main shaft integrate , bearing , main shaft of electrical machinery adopt magnetism float the bearing , liquid sound pigeonhole such forms as the bearing or the ceramic rolling bearing ,etc..At present, ceramic cutter and diamond coating cutter have already begun to get application.（2）.Multi-functional to is it change all kinds of machining centers of organization(a of capacity of storehouse can up to 100 of the above)automatically to furnished with, can realize milling paring , boring and pares , bores such many kinds of processes as paring , turning , reaming , reaming , attacking whorl ,etc.to process at the same time on the same lathe , modern numerical control lathe adopt many main shaft , polyhedron cut also , carry on different cutting of way process to one different position of part at the same time.The numerical control system has because adopted many CPU structure and cuts off the control method in grades, can work out part processing and procedure at the same time on a lathe , realize so-called “ the front desk processes , the backstage supporter is an editor ”.In order to meet the needs of integrating the systematic one in flexible manufacturing system and computer, numerical control system have remote serial interface , can network , realize data communication , numerical control of lathe, can control many numerical control lathes directly too.（3）.Intelligent modern numerical control lathe introduce the adaptive control technology, according to cutting the change of the condition, automatic working parameter, make the processing course can keep the best working state , thus get the higher machining accuracy and roughness of smaller surface , can improve the service life of the cutter and production efficiency of the equipment at the same time.Diagnose by oneself , repair the function by oneself, among the whole working state, the system is diagnosed, checked by oneself to CNC system and various kinds of equipment linking to each other with it at any time.While breaking down , adopt the measure of shutting down etc.immediately , carry on the fault alarm, brief on position , reason to break down ,etc..Can also make trouble module person who take off automatically , put through reserve module , so as to ensure nobody demand of working environment.For realize high trouble diagnose that requires , its development trend adopts the artificial intelligence expert to diagnose the system.（4）.Numerical control programming automation with the development of application technology of the computer, CAD/CAM figure interactive automatic programming has already get more application at present, it is a new trend of the technical development of numerical control.It utilize part that CAD draw process pattern , is it calculate the trailing punishing to go on by cutter orbit data of computer and then, thus produce NC part and process the procedure automatically, in order to realize the integration of CAD and CAM.With the development of CIMS technology , the full-automatic programming way in which CAD/CAPP/CAM integrates has appeared again at present, it, and CAD/CAM systematic programming great difference their programming necessary processing technology parameter needn't by artificial to participate in most, get from CAPP database in system directly.（5）.The dependability of the dependability maximization numerical control lathe has been the major indicator that users cared about most all the time.The numerical control system will adopt the circuit chip of higher integrated level , will utilize the extensive or super large-scale special-purpose and composite integrated circuit, in order to reduce the quantity of the components and parts , to improve dependability.Through the function software of the hardware, in order to meet various kinds of demands for controlling the function, adopt the module , standardization , universalization and seriation of the structure lathe noumenonn of the hardware at the same time , make not only improve the production lot of the hardware but also easy to is it produce to organize and quality check on..Still through operating and starting many kinds of diagnostic programs of diagnosing , diagnosing , diagnosing off-line online etc.automatically, realize that diagnoses and reports to the police the trouble to hardware , software and various kinds of outside equipment in the system.Utilize the warning suggestion, fix a breakdown in time;Utilize fault-tolerant technology, adopt and design the important part “ redundantly ”, in order to realize the trouble resumes by oneself;Utilize various kinds of test , control technology , exceed Cheng , one one hundred sheets of damages , interfering , cutting out ,etc.at the time of various kinds of accidents as production, carry on corresponding protection automatically.（6）.Control system miniaturization systematic miniaturization of numerical control benefit and combine the machine , electric device for an organic whole.Adopt the super large-scale integrated component , multi-layer printed circuit board mainly at present, adopt the three-dimensional installation method , make the electronic devices and components must use the high density to install, narrow systematic occupying the space on a larger scale.And utilize the new-type slim display of colored liquid crystal to substitute the traditional cathode ray tube, will make the operating system of numerical control miniaturize further.So can install it on the machine tool conveniently, benefit the operation of the numerical control lathe correctly even more.本文出自：Shigley J E.Mechanical Engineering Design.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998
数控技术
1、当前世界NC机床的研究现状
世界各国对数控机床、加工中心以至FMS、CIMS等各种新技术的研究与发展进程，是与世界经济形势紧密相连的。机床工业有世界经济相互促进和发展，进入21世界知识机警时代，人们的知识所起的作用更加突出，而机床工业作为机器制造业的基础，其重点地位与战略意义也更加明显。在1991—1994年间，世界经济衰退，昂贵的FMS，CIMS降温，1995—2000年间，世界经济在低速增长，根据当前世界市场各方面用户为提高生产率对NC机床的要求以及世界四大国际机床展（欧洲的EMO、美国的IMTS、日本的JIMTOF、中国的CIMT）上展品的分析，当前世界NC机床的技术研究主要有以下几点：（1）、更加重视新技术和创新
在世界范围内，对新工艺、新材料、新结构、新单元、新元件的研究开发工作正在大力开展，如新的刀具材料、新的主轴结构、高速电主轴、高速直线电机等的开发研究。以加工工艺的改进创新为基础，为加工超硬、难切削材料及特殊复合材料及复杂零件、不规则曲面等在不断研究开发新机种。（2）、提高机床加工的精度和研究
为了提高加工中心的加工精度，不断提高机床的刚度、减少振动，消除热变形，降低噪声，提高NC机床的定位精度、重复精度、工作可靠性、稳定性、精度保持性，世界很多国家都在进行机床热误差、机床运动及负载变形误差的软件补偿技术研究，并采取精度补偿、软件补偿等措施加以改善，有的已经可以使此类误差消除60%。并在不断开发精细加工，纳米加工。（3）、提高机床加工生产率的研究
世界NC机床、加工中心及相应的高速点主轴、直线电机、测量系统、NC系统的开发，均以提高生产率为前提。（4）、许多国家都已经开始对数控系统的智能化、开放化、网络化研究 A、数控系统的智能化的研究
主要表现在：为追求加工效率和加工质量的智能化，对加工过程的自适应控制，工艺参数自动生成进行研究；为提高驱动性能及使用连接方便的智能化，对反馈控制、电机参数的自适应运算、自动识别负载自动选定模型、自整定等进行研究；还有智能化的自动编程、智能化的人机界面、智能诊断、智能监控等方面的研究。
B、数控系统开放化研究
主要表现在：数控系统的开发在统一的运行平台上，面向机床厂家和最终拥护，通过改变、增加或剪裁结构对象（数控对象），形成系列化，并可方便地将用户的特殊应用和技术诀窍集成到控制系统中，快速实现不同品种、不同档次的开放式数控系统，形成具有鲜明个性的名牌产品。目前开放式数控系统的体系结构规范、通行规范、配置规范、运行平台、数控系统功能库以及数控系统功能软件开发工具等是当前研究的核心。
C、数控装备的网络化将极大地满足生产线制造系统、制造企业对信息集成的需求，也是实现新的制造模式的基础单元。
2、加工中心的分类
（1）按主轴加工时的空间位置分类有：卧式和立式加工中心。
卧式加工中心，是指主轴轴线水平设置的加工中心。卧式加工中心一般具有3—5个运动坐标轴，常见的是三个直线运动坐标轴和一个回转运动坐标轴（回转工作台），它能在工件一次装夹完成除安装面和顶面以外的其余4个面的加工，最适合加工箱体类工件。它与力式加工中心相比，结构复杂，占地面积大，质量大，价格高。
立式加工中心，立式加工中心主轴的轴线为垂直设置，其结构多为固定立柱式，工作台为十字滑台，适合加工盘类零件，一般具有3个直线运动坐标轴，并可在工作台上安置一个水平轴的数控转台（第4轴）来加工螺旋类零件。立式加工中心结构简单，占地面积小，价格低，配备各种附件后，可进行大部分工件的加工。
大型龙门式加工中心，主轴多为垂直设置，尤其使用于大型或形状复杂的工件，像航空、航天工业及大型汽轮机上的某些零件的加工都需要用这类多坐标龙门式加工中心。
五面加工中心，这种加工中心具有立式和卧式加工中心的功能，在工件一次装夹后，能完成除安装面外的所有五个面的加工，这种加工方式可以使工件的形状误差降到最低，省去二次装夹工作，从而提高生产效率，降低加工成本。
（2）按工艺用途分类有：
镗铣加工中心，分为立式樘铣加工中心、卧式樘铣加工中心和龙门樘铣加工中心。其加工工艺以樘铣为主，用于箱体，壳体以及各种复杂零件特殊曲线和曲面轮廓的多工序加工，适合多品种小批量生产。
复合加工中心，主要指五面复合加工，主轴头可自动回转，进行立，卧加工，在主轴自动回转后，在水平和垂直方向实现知道变换。（3）按特殊功能分类有：
单工作台、双工作台加工中心；
单轴、双轴、三轴及可换主轴箱的加工中心； 立式转塔加工中心和卧式转塔加工中心； 刀库加主轴换刀加工中心； 刀库接写手加主轴换刀加工中心； 刀库加机械手加双主轴转塔加工中心。
3、当今数控机床的发展趋势：
目前，世界先进制造技术不断兴起，超高速切削、超精密加工等技术的应用，柔性制造系统的迅速发展和计算机集成系统的不断成熟，对数控加工技术提出了更高的要求。当今数控机床正在朝着以下几个方向发展。
（1）.高速度、高精度化速度和精度是数控机床的两个重要指标，它直接关系到加工效率和产品质量。目前，数控系统采用位数、频率更高的处理器，以提高系统的基本运算速度。同时，采用超大规模的集成电路和多微处理器结构，以提高系统的数据处理能力，即提高插补运算的速度和精度。并采用直线电动机直接驱动机床工作台的直线伺服进给方式，其高速度和动态响应特性相当优越。采用前馈控制技术，使追踪滞后误差大大减小，从而改善拐角切削的加工精度。
为适应超高速加工的要求，数控机床采用主轴电动机与机床主轴合二为一的结构形式，实现了变频电动机与机床主轴一体化，主轴电机的轴承采用磁浮轴承、液体动静压轴承或陶瓷滚动轴承等形式。目前，陶瓷刀具和金刚石涂层刀具已开始得到应用。
（2）.多功能化配有自动换刀机构(刀库容量可达100把以上)的各类加工中心，能在同一台机床上同时实现铣削、镗削、钻削、车削、铰孔、扩孔、攻螺纹等多种工序加工，现代数控机床还采用了多主轴、多面体切削，即同时对一个零件的不同部位进行不同方式的切削加工。数控系统由于采用了多CPU结构和分级中断控制方式，即可在一台机床上同时进行零件加工和程序编制，实现所谓的“前台加工，后台编辑”。为了适应柔性制造系统和计算机集成系统的要求，数控系统具有远距离串行接口，甚至可以联网，实现数控机床之间的数据通信，也可以直接对多台数控机床进行控制。
（3）.智能化现代数控机床将引进自适应控制技术，根据切削条件的变化，自动调节工作参数，使加工过程中能保持最佳工作状态，从而得到较高的加工精度和较小的表面粗糙度，同时也能提高刀具的使用寿命和设备的生产效率。具有自诊断、自修复功能，在整个工作状态中，系统随时对CNC系统本身以及与其相连的各种设备进行自诊断、检查。一旦出现故障时，立即采用停机等措施，并进行故障报警，提示发生故障的部位、原因等。还可以自动使故障模块脱机，而接通备用模块，以确保无人化工作环境的要求。为实现更高的故障诊断要求，其发展趋势是采用人工智能专家诊断系统。
（4）.数控编程自动化随着计算机应用技术的发展，目前CAD／CAM图形交互式自动编程已得到较多的应用，是数控技术发展的新趋势。它是利用CAD绘制的零件加工图样，再经计算机内的刀具轨迹数据进行计算和后置处理，从而自动生成NC零件加工程序，以实现CAD与CAM的集成。随着CIMS技术的发展，当前又出现了CAD／CAPP／CAM集成的全自动编程方式，它与CAD／CAM系统编程的最大区别是其编程所需的加工工艺参数不必由人工参与，直接从系统内的CAPP数据库获得。
（5）.可靠性最大化数控机床的可靠性一直是用户最关心的主要指标。数控系统将采用更高集成度的电路芯片，利用大规模或超大规模的专用及混合式集成电路，以减少元器件的数量，来提高可靠性。通过硬件功能软件化，以适应各种控制功能的要求，同时采用硬件结构机床本体的模块化、标准化和通用化及系列化，使得既提高硬件生产批量，又便于组织生产和质量把关。还通过自动运行启动诊断、在线诊断、离线诊断等多种诊断程序，实现对系统内硬件、软件和各种外部设备进行故障诊断和报警。利用报警提示，及时排除故障；利用容错技术，对重要部件采用“冗余”设计，以实现故障自恢复；利用各种测试、监控技术，当生产超程、刀损、干扰、断电等各种意外时，自动进行相应的保护。
（6）.控制系统小型化数控系统小型化便于将机、电装置结合为一体。目前主要采用超大规模集成元件、多层印刷电路板，采用三维安装方法，使电子元器件得以高密度安装，较大规模缩小系统的占有空间。而利用新型的彩色液晶薄型显示器替代传统的阴极射线管，将使数控操作系统进一步小型化。这样可以方便地将它安装在机床设备上，更便于对数控机床的操作使用。
第二篇：机械类英文翻译
STUDY ON SLIPPERS FOR RAW WATER HYDRAULIC AXIAL
PISTON PUMPS AND MOTORS' 1.Abstract
As concerns for environmental compatibility, safetyand hygienic requirements, hydraulic systems using rawwater as pressure medium become more and moreattractive.A raw water hydraulic system has many advantages over conventional oil hydraulic systems,such as: environmentally compatibility, no pollution and no fire hazard, elimination of expensive oils with the associated problems of contamination, maintenance,storage, handling, elimination of the return hose, and elimination of health hazards, etc.But as a hydraulic medium, raw water has also drawbacks, such as very low viscosity, high vapor pressure, lack of lubrication and chemically active nature, etc., that all tend to promote problems of corrosion, wear, cavitation erosion, leakage, and so on, those problems must be overcome in the design and development of the raw water hydraulic components, especially the selection of materials and design of structure for the friction pairs in raw water hydraulic pumps and motors.The slipper/swashplate pair is one of the very important friction pairs in axial piston pumps and motors.Under the lubrication of raw water.materials for slipper/swashplate combination should have superior mechanical strength, low friction, resistance to corrosion, abrasion, cavitation erosion and sliding wear, and the structure of the slipper should be suitable for the characteristics of raw water and materials used
Based on authois researches, a new slipper foraxial piston pumps and motors is introduced in this paper.From tests with the slipper/swashplate lest rig, it shows that the new type slipper combined with appropriate swashplate has good tribological characteristics.This slipper can operate with raw water, even sea water.The successful study on slippers will provide good helps for design and development of raw water hydraulic axial piston pumps and motors with higher performance.2.Introduction The use of water as hydraulic fluid is not new.The first hydraulic machine as a means of transmitting not only energy but also control signals is raw water hydraulic press that manufactured by Joseph Bramah in 1795, which marks the beginning of the age of modern applied hydraulics.After that almost 100 years raw water was used as hydraulic medium, until the beginning of 20th century the mineral oil began to take the place of raw water.Because of the much better lubrication and anti-corrosi on properbes of mineral oil as compared with raw water and the development of oil resistant sealing materials, oil hydraulics boosted quickly and raw water hydraulics was left behind, gradually acquiring the image of an obsolete technology.As concerns over safe or environmental issues a number of other hydraulic fluids have been developed over the past decades, such as synthetic base fluids, water base fluids, and vegetable oil base fluids, etc.These fluids have their own advantages and a certain range of applications.For a given application, engineers can make the hydraulic system have satisfactory performance by careful hydraulic fluid choice and system design.However, these hydraulic fluids also have its own shortcomings,so me shortcomings of these fluids are inherent and fatal.No one of these hydraulic fluids can meet the requirements of fire resistance and environmentally protection at the same time, and most of these fluids are very expensive.The re-emergence of using raw water as hydraulic fluid is mainly because of the following reasons.(1)Environmental Protection Requirement
Without strict adherence to specific control techniques, it is nearly impossible to eliminate the threat of leakage in hydraulic systems.Industry observers believe that as much as 85% of all hydraulic fluids eventually leave their systems through slow leaks, catastrophic line breaks, or failures of fittings and seals.The leakage of hydraulic fluids with some toxic chemical additives not only make working conditions messy and unsafe, but also can not be biodegradable and have potential threat to the environment.Raw water has very good environmental compatibility and no pollution;water in the event of leakage eventually evaporates without leaving greasy or dirty residuals needs of applications for water hydraulics.The need of new applications is the intrinsic force of re-emergence and development of water hydraulics(2)Requirement of Safety
Mineral oil are flammable, its leakage or spilling from systems may be result in a fire when in or near heat sources.Water is not flammable and does not present a fire hazard.In some areas, such as steel and glass production, iron making and foundry, injection molding, die casting, nuclear power, coal mining, etc.the requirement of safety is prime, so raw water hydraulics may be the best choice in the near future(3)Hygienic Requirement
In some fields, such as gold mining, food and medicine processing, water supply industry, etc , where escaping of oil or chemical additives from hydraulic systems can smear the product and damage the quality of manufactured product.Under these conditions, raw water is an ideal pressure medium.(4)Economy Requirement
Water is available everywhere, needing no purchase, transport, storage, maintenance and disposal costs, so using water instead of mineral oil and other hydraulic fluids may offer tremendous economy.In ambient water environment, the system using raw water as hydraulic fluid can be designed as an open circuit.That means the return lines and water reservoir can be eliminated, further more the heater and the cooler of system are no longer needed, so the volume and weight of hydraulic equipment will reduced and the efficiency of system increased.If used underwater, such as in marine engineering, ocean exploration engineering, subsea equipment, underwater operation tools and robots, etc., water hydraulics can automatically counterbalance the water hydrostatic head, this is very important for improving the efficiency and performance of the hydraulic systems.(5)Need of New Applications
Along with the developments of modern science and technologies, many areas with special requirements provide many new opportunities of applications for water hydraulics.Such as fusion reactor equipment in nuclear power engineering, marine equipment and robots in ocean exploration engineering, etc，where the fire resistance, hygienic requirement, economy and environmental protection are all considered.Because of higher power density and smaller size of hydraulics than that of other power transmissions, there have urgent needs of applications for water hydraulics.The need of new applications is the intrinsic force of re-emergence and development of water hydraulics.3.Material Selection The slipper/swashplate pair is one of the very important friction pairs in axial piston pumps and motors.Under the lubrication of raw water,ingenious material selection is necessary.In a typical axial swashplate is stationary piston pump or motor, the swashplate is stationary;the swashplate angle with the shaft centerline determines the length of the piston stroke(see Fig.1)
When using raw water as lubricant,according to rawwater's chemically active nature, low viscositylubrication and high vapor pressure,more problem should be considered.Firstly, raw water especially seawater is more aggressive , a large number of ions in seawater result in that seawater have much higher electric conductivity and may lead to electrochemistry erosion.The materials used for slipper and swashplate inevitably suffer aggressive corrosion from raw water , and the materials used for traditional oil hydraulic components will not be suitable here.Secondly, the kinematic viscosity of water at 50℃ is approximately 0.55cs ,which is less than 1/30 of the viscosity of a typical mineral oil fluid.The very low viscosity must increase the difficulty of developing hydrodynamic film between slipper and swashplate,and the very small change of water’s viscosity with pressure means that elastohydrodynamic lubrication with hard materials is unlikely to occur.Hydraulic fluids with additives that aid in the boundary lubrication of contacting surface permit metal-on-metal contact without large amounts of surface damage or wear.Raw water contains on such additives and its lubrication is very poor.The poor lubrication of water is clearly one of its major dtawbacks, and will lead to increase contact fraction and possibly wear of contacting conponents.Indeed it is well documented that wear was the greatest problem experienced by the early users of water based fluids in axial piston pumps.Researches indicate that the elastohydrodynamic film of water is about 0.1μm thick at 3m/s and 20-60℃, the elastohydtodynamic film of HWBF is about 0.15μm thick at 0.19~1.27m/s and 23.5℃.So there are risks as high dry friction and strong wear between slipper and swashplate under the lubrication of raw water.Thirdly, the vapor pressure of water is much higher than that of mineral oil, which means that water boils or vaporizes much easier.Due to water’s high vapor pressure and high velocity flow caused be water’s low viscosity, the slipper and swashplate will be exposed to strong and fast cavitation erosion.So material selection for slipper/swashplate pair should depend on the operation conditions and the special properties of raw water.Materials for slipper/swashplate combination should have superior mechanical strength, low friction, resistance to aggressive corrosion, cavitation erosion,abrasion,and sliding wear, and should be easy available and cost low.4.Structure Design
The structure design of slipper is very important as well as the material selection.The use of polymers as the material of slipper will derive a new problem-how to make the slipper wrap on the ball-shaped head of piston.Probably the solution is to use corrosion resistant metals combined with polymers.The slipper can be divided into two parts.One is slipper pad made of polymer, directly contact on the swashplate, its main function is making the slipper have good tribological properties.The other is shoe made of corrosion resistant alloy, its main function is making the slipper wrap on the ball-shaped head of piston.This structure can take the advantages of both metal’s ductility and polymer’s good tribological property(see Fig.2).The main static forces exerted on slipper are show in Fig.3.The force F acted on slipper from piston head includes hydrostatic force Fp on the piston end, spring force Fs, inertia force Fa of piston and slipper, and friction force Ff between piston and cylinder bore as formula:
The reaction force N from swashplate can be divided into two components, component Nh of hydrostatic bearing force and component Nm of mechanical surface pressure,as following:
N=Nh+Nm
The relationship of N and F is:
F=N·cosα 5.Conclusions
Based on author’s researches, some conclusions about material selection and structure design of slipper under lubrication of raw water can be summarized as following:(1)Slipper made of polymers combined with swashplate made of corrosion resistant alloys has superior tribological properties.(2)Cotton fiber-filled phenolics can be used to manufacture slipper for a certain application range of operation pressure below 14MPa.(3)The spring force exerted on slipper should be strong enough to keep about 0.1~0.2MPa contacting pressuer on the surfaces of slipper and swashplate.Farther tests are underway, and ceramics with good toughness will be introduced to manufacture slipper and swashplate.The experiences of study on slippers will provide good helps for design and development of raw water hydraulic axial piston pumps and motors.References [1] Joseph L.Foszcz, Hydraulic Fluid Choices, Plant Engineering,(8),1996,68.[2]Li Zhuangyun, et al, Development of Hydraulic Pump to Operate with Raw water, Proceedings of ASME Fluid Engineering Division Summer Meeting, Washington DC, USA, June 21-25,1998.关于自然水液压轴向活塞泵和电动机的滑动部分的研究
1.摘要
基于环境和谐、安全和卫生需要的考虑，液压系统使用自然水作为压力介质这种现象变得越来越广泛。一个自然水液压系统相对于普通的油液压系统有很多优点，例如：环境和谐，没有污染，没有火的危害，与昂贵的油相关的危害、维护、贮存、管理问题的消除，返回塑料管的消除和健康危害的消除等等。但是作为液压系统的介质，自然水也有一些缺点，例如非常低的粘性，很高的水蒸气压力，缺少润滑和化学性自然等等，都加剧了腐蚀、磨损、气蚀侵蚀、泄露等问题，这些问题必须在设计和自然水液压元件的发展，尤其是材料和自然水液压泵和电动机的摩擦部分的结构设计中被克服。
滑动部分/旋转罗盘部分是轴向活塞泵和电动机中的重要摩擦部分。在自然水的润滑下，滑动部分和旋转罗盘结合部分的材料应该较好的机械强度、低摩擦力、腐蚀的抵抗性、磨损、气蚀侵蚀和滑动摩擦，并且滑动部分的结构应该对于自然水和使用材料的特性是适合的。
根据作者的研究，一种新型的用于轴向活塞泵和电动机上的滑块会在这篇文章中介绍。从滑块/旋转罗盘部分试验中表明这种新型的与合适旋转罗盘结合的滑块有着非常好的摩擦特性。这种滑块能够用自然水润滑，甚至是海水也可以。这个关于滑块的研究将会为自然水液压轴向活塞泵和电动机的更好发展提供好的帮助。2.介绍
水用来作为液压流体已经不是新技术了。作为转换能源和控制信号的一种方式，第一台液压机器就是自然水液体压力，并且在1795年由杰瑟夫大量生产，同时也标志着现代液压时代的开始。在那之后几乎100年自然水被用作液压介质，直到20世纪的初期，油介质开始取代水介质。和自然水相比，油介质有更好的润滑和矿物油的抗腐蚀性，并且油抗性密封材料，油液压装置发展的很快，自然水液压装置就落后了，渐渐成为一种过时的技术了。
基于在安全和环境问题方面的考虑，许多其他液压流体已经在过去的几十年发展了，例如合成来源液体、水来源液体和蔬菜油来源液体等等。这些液体有着它们各自的优点和确定的用途。对于一种给定的用途，工程师能够通过合理的液压流体选择和系统设计来使液压系统满足这个条件。然而，这些液压流体也存在着自身的缺点，其中的某些缺点是内在的并且是重大的。这些液压流体中没有一种能同时满足防火性和环保性的要求，同时大部分液体是很昂贵的。
使用自然水作为液压流体主要由于以下几个原因：（1）环境保护的需要
如果对于特殊控制技术没有严格的遵守，评估液压系统中的泄露威胁是不可能的。工业观察员相信所有液压流体中85%的流体最后都是通过缓慢泄露、严重的连接破损或者设备和密封的故障而离开液压系统的。液压流体和一些有毒的化学添加剂的泄露不仅使工作条件混乱和不安全，同时也不能生物降解和对环境存在潜在的危害。自然水拥有很好的环境适应性并且没有污染；水在泄露后也会消失而没有油腻和脏的残留物。（2）安全的需要
矿物油是可燃的，当周围有热源的时候它的泄露可能会导致起火。水是不可燃的，所以不会存在起火隐患。在一些区域，例如钢铁和玻璃生产，钢铁制造和铸造，注射模具，拉模铸造，核动力，采煤等等，对于安全的要求是主要的，因此自然水液压可能会成为将来的最好选择。
（3）液压的需要
在一些领域，例如金矿开采，事物和药品生产，水提供工业等等，这些由于油或者化学添加剂从液压系统中泄露而弄脏产品或是损害大批产品的质量，在这些条件下，自然水是一种理想的压力介质。（4）经济的需要
水在很多地方都是存在的，不需要购买、运输、贮存、保持和清理成本，因此使用水代替矿物油和其他液压流体可以提供极大的经济性。在包围的水环境中，系统使用自然水作为液压流体能够被设计成开式循环。那意味着返回线和水储藏可以消除，加热和冷却系统也不再需要了，因此液压设备的容积和重量也会减少而系统的效率会增加。如果水下作业，例如在海运的工程上，海洋探索工程，海底设备，水下操作工具和机器人等等，水液压能够自动的抵消水静力的前端，这对于提高效率和液压系统的性能是很重要的。（5）新应用的需要
随着现代科学和技术的发展，许多有着特殊需求的领域为水液压提供了很多运用的机遇。例如在核电工程中的核聚变反应装置，在海洋探索工程中的海运设备和机器人等等，这些地方需要考虑抗燃性，清洁的设备，经济性和环保等方面。和其它的能源转换相比，由于液压系统有较高的力密度和较小的尺寸，所以对于水液压的应用是迫切需要的。新应用的需要是水液压的出现和发展的内在反应。3．材料选择
滑动部分/旋转罗盘部分是轴向活塞泵和电动机中的重要摩擦部分。在自然水的润滑下，巧妙地选择材料是有必要的。
在一个典型的轴向活塞泵或电动机中，旋转罗盘固定不动的，旋转罗盘与轴线的角度决定了活塞盘的长度。
当使用自然水作为润滑剂时，由于自然水的化学活性自然，低粘性，润滑性差和较高的蒸汽压力，所以需要考虑很多问题。
首先，自然水，尤其海水是活性的，海水中的大量离子导致海水有很强的导电性并且会导致电化学腐蚀。用在滑块和旋转罗盘上的材料会不可避免地遭到自然水的活性腐蚀，并且用于传统油液压器件也不适合用在这里。
第二点，水的运动粘性在50℃时接近0.55cs，少于典型矿物油液体粘性的1/30。过低的粘性一定会增加发展滑块和旋转罗盘之间水力薄层的困难程度，并且水的粘性伴随着压力的很小变化意味着硬质材料的流体动力润滑是不容易发生的。带有添加剂的液压流体使得金属与金属表面之间没有大量表面破坏或是磨损。自然水不包含如此多的添加剂并且它的润滑性是很差的。水的润滑性差很明显是它的一个主要缺点，并且会导致接触、破碎、和接触器件之间摩擦的加剧。事实上摩擦是早期用水作为轴向活塞泵的流体的使用者遇到的最大问题。研究表明水的流体弹性动力薄层在3m/s和20~60℃时大约是0.1μm厚，HWBF的流体弹性动力薄层在0.19~1.27m/s和23.5℃时大约是0.15μm厚。因此在自然水润滑下，滑块和旋转罗盘之间有干摩擦和强烈摩擦时会存在危险。
第三点，水的蒸汽压力要比矿物油的高很多，这意味着水沸腾或是蒸发会更加容易。由于水的高蒸汽压力和高速流动性由水的粘性地决定的，所以滑块和旋转罗盘会受到强烈和快速的气穴气蚀损害。
因此，对于滑块和旋转罗盘部分材料的选择应该依据工作条件和自然水的特殊性质。滑块和旋转罗盘之间的连接部分应该有很好的机械强度、低摩擦、抗腐蚀性、和气穴气蚀、磨损和滑动摩擦，并且应该有很好的实用性和低成本。
4.结构设计
滑块的结构设计和材料的选择是同样重要的。
用在滑块上的高分子材料会产生一个新的问题，就是怎样使滑块包围住活塞前端的球形部分。其中一个解决办法就是使用抗腐蚀材料与高分子材料连接。滑块可以分成两部分。一部分就是由高分子材料制成的滑块垫，直接与旋转罗盘相连，他的主要的功能就是使滑块有很好的摩擦性能。另一部分是由抗腐蚀的合金材料制成的鞋，它的主要功能是使滑块在活塞的球形头上摩擦。这个结构能够很好的利用金属的展延性和高分子材料的摩擦性。（见图2）
在滑块上的主要的静力在图3中有表示。滑块上的力F来自活塞头，包括活塞尾端的液体压力Fp，反弹力Fs, 活塞和滑块的惯性力Fa,还有活塞与圆孔之间的摩擦力Ff。
来自旋转罗盘的反作用力N能够被分成两部分液压轴承力Nh和机械表面压力Nm，如下所示：N=Nh+Nm
N和F的关系是：F=N·cosα 5.结论
根据作者的研究，一些关于滑块在自然水润滑下的材料选择和结构设计结论可以总结为如下几条：
（1）用高分子材料制作成的滑块与用抗腐蚀性合金制成的旋转罗盘结合有很好的摩擦性。
（2）在滑块的大量制造中棉布纤维填充的酚醛塑料被使用，目的是使工作压力低于14MPa。
（3）在滑块上的反弹力应该足够强以确保滑块和旋转罗盘表面上的连接压力在0.1~0.2MPa。
除此之外还有一些实验需要进行，并且拥有良好韧性的陶瓷材料也会被引进用来大量制造滑块和旋转罗盘。在滑块研究上的经验将会为自然水液压轴向活塞泵和电动机的设计和发展提供很大的帮助。参考文献：
[1] Joseph L.Foszcz, Hydraulic Fluid Choices, Plant Engineering,(8),1996,68.[2]Li Zhuangyun, et al, Development of Hydraulic Pump to Operate with Raw water, Proceedings of ASME Fluid Engineering Division Summer Meeting, Washington DC, USA, June 21-25,1998.
第三篇：英文翻译
英语三级翻译辅导习题
1.各吹各的号，各唱各的调。
2.每逢假日的下午，我总要漫游周围的乡村。
3.暴风雨把小屋冲坏，他们只好住在一个窑洞里。
4.要不断加强基础设施建设，努力营建良好的开发环境。
5.深秋，冷雨霏霏，屋里静悄悄的。他们看了一下午的书。
6.Liberty is more important than life.（英译汉）
答案：
1.各吹各的号，各唱各的调。转载自:考试大[Examda.Com]
She works as a bilingual secretary for an insurance company.4.去年我一天洗两次澡，早晚各一次。
I used to take a bath twice a day last year，morning and night.5.坦白地说，面试后我一直认为这个职位不适合我。
Frankly speaking，I have been thinking that the position is not right for me after the
interview.6.Some people assert that nothing is impossible.Such people should get a grip on
reality and understand it‘s impossible to create another Universe.In more down-to-earth
terms，it’s impossible to know with any certainty whether you will live or die tomorrow.（英译汉）
一些人断言没有什么事是不可能的。这些人应该把握现实，知道再造一个宇宙是不可能的。更现实的 说法是不可能明确地知道明天你会活着还是会死。
get a grip on抓住，控制，管束
1.八成他不会来了。
Most probably he isn，t coming.2.他巴不得立刻见到你。
He is very anxious to meet you immediately.3.这刀不会留下任何疤痕。转载自:考试大-[Examda.Com]
The cut will not leave any scar.4.孩子成了他唯一的安慰。
The child became her only consolation.5.非常感谢贵公司的录用，但我不得不拒绝这份工作。
I really appreciate your offer，but I must decline it.6.Things aren’t even starting to take shape yet.（英译汉）
八字还没有一撇.1.显然你错了。考试大论坛
It is clear you were wrong.2.仔细看看信的地址是否写对了。
Care should be taken to see that the letter is properly addressed.3.现在全厂上上下下都普遍认为工厂必须进行改革。
It is now generally accepted that reform is necessary in the factory.4.这儿是头两卷，第三卷下个月出版。
Here are the first two volumes，the third one to come out next month.5.我们不知不觉地朝公园走去。公园就在人行桥那边，桥下很深的地方，汹涌的河水滚滚流过。Somehow our path took us toward the park across the footbridge high above the rolling
waters of the river.6.The man who is above his business may one day find his business above him.（英译汉）
不屑于干自己工作的人，终会有一天发现自己不配干那份工作。
1.为了找房子，不知花费我多少时间，受过多少闲气。
In my long seeking for lodging，I often met with a snub.2.树是那样高，笔直，而又整齐的特别可爱！因为是松树和杉树的原故，所以四时都是绿油油的。Standing tall and erect before me in neat array was a forest of evergreen pines and
firs.3.自己在树底下行走，如果把风景看得太严重了，倒反没有什么趣味。考试大论坛
While walking in the shade of the trees，I preferred not to focus my attention
exclusively on the scenery.4.最有意思的是自己慢慢地在后面走，看着人家一个个地从树荫下经过。
I found it most interesting to watch，by slowing down my pace，other people walking
ahead of me one after another.6.We‘ve all done something in our lives us we are ashamed of，some of us have fallen
for the wrong man，some have let go of the right women，there’re those who have
humiliated their parents and those who have failed their children.Yes，we‘ve all made
mistakes that diminish us and those we love.But there is redemption if we try to learn from
those mistakes and grow。（英译汉）
我们都做过一些自己都感到惭愧的事。有些人爱错了人，有些人错过了爱；有些孩子使父母丢脸，也 有些家长让孩子失望。是的，我们都犯过错，使自己和爱人蒙羞。但如果我们试着从s这些错误中吸取教 训并成长，就还有挽回的机会。
A： Bill Mcphee。我会尽快带他来见你。
Bill Mcphee.I’ll bring him around to see you soon.B： 我们会怀念和你一起共事的时光。
We’ll miss doing business with you.A： Bill Mcphee是个好人。你们会和他相处得很好的。
Bill Mcphee is a good man.You’ll get along with him very well.6.With the rapid development of Taiwan’s economy，a lot of social problems have come
to pass.（英译汉）
随着台湾经济的快速发展许多社会问题产生了
1.这架班机正点起飞吧？
Is the plane on schedule？
2.准备好机票与登机牌。
Let’s get our tickets and boarding pass ready.3.如果有退票的，请通知我。
Please notify me if there is any cancellation.4.请于起飞前一小进到达机场。
Please be at the airport at least one hour before departure？
You’ll be late if you don’t arrive in one hour before leaving.5.我需要提前多少天付款订票？
How long in advance of the flight must I pay to confirm the booking？
6.Promises are often like the butterfly，which disappear after beautiful hover。（英译
汉）
承诺常常很像蝴蝶，美丽地盘旋然后不见。
1.我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。请访问考试大网站http:///
We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.2.在建立个人网站前，先问问自己，为什么想要一网站，想要达到的目标是什么。
Before you build a personal site，ask yourself why you want one，and what you want to
accomplish.3.在造访一个提供网站空间服务的网站时，你会看到种类繁多的方案可供选择，哪一种价位可以给 你多少网络空间及多大的传输流量。
When you visit the site of a Web host，you’ll see a wide variety of plans-so much
space and so much network traffic for so much money.4.典型的网站包括图像、文字及图片，比较精心制作的网站还有动画、影像、声音和其他额外的内 容。
Web site typically contain graphics，texts and pictures，while more elaborate ones
include animation，video，audio and other extras.5.关于网站设计，有许多是很吸引人的，也有许多则令人泄气。
There are many things about Web sites that are appealing and many that are just plain
frustrating.6.Pizza came to the U.S.with Italian immigrants;the first U.S.pizzeria opened in
1905，and pizza became one of the nation’s favourite foods after World War Ⅱ。It is now
popular worldwide.（英译汉）
比萨随着意大利移民引进美国；1905年第一家美国比萨店开业了，第二次世界大战后比萨成为全美国 最喜爱的食物之一。现在比萨畅销全世界。
1.只要走一下就到了吗？
Is it within walking distance？
2.我儿子骑在我肩上看游行。
My son rode pickaback on me to watch the parade.3.其实我一点都不喜欢我现在的工作。
The fact of the matter is I’m not enjoying my new job at all.4.他有边吃饭边抽烟那让人讨厌的习惯。
He has the irritating habit of smoking during meals.5.如果我今早没忘了把油箱加满，我们不会没油的。
If I hadn’t forgotten to fill up the tank this morning，we wouldn’t be out of gas.6.Are there any charter flights？（英译汉）
有包机航班吗？
1、A：有什么我可以为您效劳的吗？
Is there anything I can help you with？
B：是的，我想知道你是否可以帮我找到一些这个城市的旅游指南，或许也要一张公路地图。Yes，I was wondering if you could help me find some travel guides for this city.And
maybe also a rode map，too.A：我们有各种不同的那个题材的书。有些相当概扣，而其他的则比较专业化。
We have a variety of books on that subject.Some are quite general while others are more
specialized and specific，B：我想概括性的就可以了。我只是要在这儿停留几天。但我想要那种多多少少能使我感觉到这个城 市的东西。
I think the generalized ones would do.I’m only staying here for a couple of days.But
I want something that can give me more or less the feel of the city.A：那样的话，也许这本书可以。它有很多图片，而且容易阅读，里头也有公路地图。
In that case，maybe this book will do.It has a lot of pictures and is easy to read.There are also road maps in it.B：太好了！我买这一本。
That’s perfect.I’ll buy this one.（英译汉）
2、At Christmas the air is filled with carols.圣诞节的时候到处都可以听到圣诞颂歌。
1.我认为年轻人应该能够有自己作决定的自由和空间。
I think young people should have the freedom and the space to make their own decisions.2.由于奥运会规模越来越大，为了大多数的城市将没有能力举办。来源：考试大
The Olympic Games are growing so big that most cities may not be able to host them in
future.3.当奥运会结束后，所有累积的专业经验就消失，使下一届主办城市必须一切从零开始。Currently，once the Games are finished，all the gathered expertise vanishes and the
next city has to begin from scratch.4.除了一般大学程度的课程之外，卢浮学院也提供大众免费的夜间艺术史课程。
The Ecole du Louvre，in addition to its regular university-level curricula，offers
free public evening classes in art history.5.你会相信咖啡有助于保护你的脑部免收一种危险的退化性疾病的侵袭吗？
Would you believe coffee and help protect your brain from a dangerous degenerative
disease？
6.The two of us sit on chairs and stare upward and around until closing time，watching
the sun illuminate the stained glass panes deep red，blue，gold，and a near blinding
white.On the way out，someone coughs，and the sound goes on and on—acoustics in this
chapel are remarkable.（英译汉）
我们俩坐在椅子上向上及四周凝视直到教堂关门，看着太阳照亮窗格中的彩色玻璃，有深红、蓝色、金色，及眩目的白色。离开时，有人咳嗽，回音缭绕再缭绕—可见这座教堂里的音响效果是多么棒。
1.她的行为深深地刺痛了我的心。{来源：考{试大}
I am deeply offended by her conduct.2.稳定性带来的好处有可能被夸大。
It is possible to overstate the benefits of stabilization.3.这事若是事实，它将给我们造成许多麻烦。
If true，this will cause us a lot of trouble.If it is true，this will cause us a lot of trouble.4.任何政府忽视这一点都将付出巨大的代价。
Any government which is blind to this point may pay a heavy price.5.许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少，以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车，而车上可能已满载乘客Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to
spend much more time waiting for a bus，which is usually crowded with a large number of
passengers.6.Love is the greatest refreshment in life。
爱情是生活最好的提神剂。
1.大家最好养成学习的好习惯。
You‘d better form the habit of studying.2.别把这两个近义词混淆了。
Don’t mix up this pair of synonyms.3.给出这个词的同义词和反义词。
Give the synonym and antonym of this word.4.他脸皮厚，从来不在乎别人讲什么。
He is thick-skinned and never cares what others say.5.面试时，有些面试者会有夸大的倾向。
During the interview，some interviewees tend to exaggerate.6.You’re really too good for me.（英语）
我真的配不上你。
1.一项调查显示妇女欢迎退休。
An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward
retirement.2.我最近利用了一点时间采访成功的专业人士，谈谈他们最难忘、最有效的学习经验。
I recently spent time asking effective professionals about their most memorable and
effective learning experiences.3.我的目的，是要找出成人教育的最佳方式。{来源：考{试大}
My goal was to find out what works best when it comes to adult education.4.那么为什么在适合成人的训练方式与公司的训练部门实际所提供的训练之间会有如此的断层呢？So why is there such a disconnect between what works for adults and is offered by
corporate training departments？
5.在世界各地，极少数的训练人员在从事他们的工作时，具备有充分的学习方面的知识。Very few trainers，in world over，come to their work with much knowledge about
learning.6.What I discovered is that adults are remarkably similar in how they learn best： The
most unforgettable and transformative learning occurs through personal experience，group
support and/or mentoring.（英译汉）
我发现，成人学习最有效的方式其实非常类似：最难忘、带来最深远改变的学习经验，均是通过个人 的体会、小组支持或者良师的启发。
第四篇：英文翻译
物流企业绩效评价
摘要：随着实践的发展与学术、媒体的关注和刺激, 物流企业绩效评价系统得到了很好的发展，而基于经济增加值和平衡计分卡(BSC)方法的物流企业绩效评价就此产生。该系统通过相关的测试和线性回归被给予了实证，就长远的眼光而言，经济增值是这个系统最重要的目的。为了得到高的经济效益，这四个方面包括财务、顾客、内部业务流程和学习和成长都将有巨大意义。经济附加值在企业的战略目标和企业价值的相关性上占据绝对的重要地位。在研究企业绩效的线性回归数据中有经济附加值、运行费用、审计报告和员工的内部控制的教育比等数据，他们被用来代表了前面四个方面。其中，财务和企业内部业务流程有量化的系数与理论分析一致。
关键词：绩效评估、物流、经济附加值、平衡计分卡(BSC)
1绪论
随着物流行业的快速发展,物流企业不断的成长和壮大。对于股东来说，一个问题迫切需要解决的问题产生了，即如何对其物流企业进行有效而科学的绩效评价。虽然这个行业具有很大的利润空间，里面有巨大的财富，但是该物流企业经济附加值到底有多大，而如何又能创造出来，作为股东又能获得多少报酬这些都是令人棘手的问题。传统的企业绩效评价以企业财务报表作为分析的基础，在一定程度上反映了企业为股东创造财富的能力和企业生存、发展的能力，但是人们只使用财务数据来支持他们的判断从而就缺乏注意到其他措施,特别是忽视股权成本由股东的投资。在本文中,我们基于平衡计分卡(BSC)建造一个评价指标系统，并围绕EVA作为物流企业绩效评价的指标体系，把经济增值作为一种主要的目标来对物流企业进行绩效评价，并衡量企业的股东获得的真正的财富。然后，本文提供实例证明这个系统的有效性。本文是组织结构如下：第二章相关的理论知识；第三部分建立评价体系根据通过EVA建立指标体系和介绍使用的平衡计分卡方法；四章和第五章对上面介绍的绩效评价方法给予实证；第六部分总结结论。文献回顾
2.1物流绩效评价
物流绩效评价在物流管理中是一个非常重要的问题。科学而准确的评价的结果可以让人们知道他们昨天的工作收获了什么，明天又将要做些什么。
许多外国的日报都聚焦在这三个方面1)介绍应具有的特性，个性 2)该方法需要涉及到的员工3）该企业要选择的方法步骤。而一个建立水平轴的反映国际物流组织所规定的服务质量和性能和垂直轴代表特定服务对客户的重要性的矩阵式相当困难的。
指定物流绩效指标分成三个广阔的领域，包括有形成分、实施途径和信息操作。近年来,人们越来越重视企业的独特的环境行为或公司的策略。有些论文试图为厂商解决如何面对日益变化的市场的问题，这些论文可以动态地解决这一问题的绩效衡量选择,却不是依靠一个静态群的措施。
在中国,物流企业绩效评价研究的主要内容有：1)选择的措施；(2)评价的方法；3)绩效评价体系。一个正确的绩效评价系统通常包含许多个部分。其中，王，杨两个人研究的内容，他们在乎费用、效率、风险、客户管理，而魏强调物流企业的竞争和发展能力。在这些 系统中，最常用的措施都是相关的，比如收入、成本、供应、订单交付延迟时间，指令反馈的精度等。支持以上的理论分析且已应用于物流企业的方法有很多，比如模糊分类方法，主成分分析方法，利用数据包络分析方法等。尽管这些方法都已经有一些高质量的研究成果，但是它们却很少关注公司的策略问题。
2.2平衡计分卡方法
平衡计分卡方法是由罗伯特·卡普兰和大卫·诺顿提出并形成的。它是一种将战略非财务指标添加到传统的给管理者看的财务指标，同时要求均衡的组织中的表现的框架结构的绩效评价方法。经过多年的发展,它成长成为一种全战略规划和管理的绩效评价方法，该方法包括四个方面：财务、客户、内部业务流程、学习和成长。见表一：
在卡普兰和诺顿建立平衡计分卡以后，有些文章开始逐渐将平衡计分卡在应用在物流绩效评价之中。布鲁尔和斯潘通过对先前的平衡积分卡的修改，进而推出一套可用于供应供应链绩效评价的BSC，他们建立的框架包括供应链管理(SCM)的目标、最终客户利益、财务收益、SCM提高；根据平衡计分卡模型,刘和王给出了一个3 + 1的模型，这其中的物流绩效评估包括财务、客户、内部操作和学习四个方面；在孙的导师的论文中，他将平衡积分卡方法与网络程序分析（ANP）相结合来对企业进行绩效评价，该方法以物流企业发展战略作为评价标准，并建立了网络程序分析模型（ANP），由此可以量化绩效评价的影响和便于定量矩阵的反馈。
这些文章都试图添加战略信息并将其转化为物流绩效评估的部分,从而使评价结果对物流企业来说更合理的、更有用。但是平衡计分卡模型在物流企业绩效评价上的应用物流才只是个开始，远非十全十美。再者，很少的研究报告能告诉我们包括股东企业为自己创造的真正的价值。
2.3 经济附加值(EVA)
股东对企业的投资，然而传统意义上的利润不可能告诉我们分与多少股东与其投资相符的红利，继而股东权益得不到强制性保证。投资的机会成本解释了为什么股东选择投资A公司而不是B公司的原因，然而没有效益的投资，谁还会继续。因此忽视利润的分配会导致重大决策失误。
EVA作为商标是由其开发者,斯特恩·斯图尔特和其公司在20世纪80年代注册的。EVA具有很大的吸引力的优势是因为EVA与传统的利润相比较，EVA的计算措施以考虑股本的机会成本为主。以这个方式而言，股东投资就等同于作为贷款的债权人。已经有实证研究支持这个增量，EVA信息内容的价值相关性要高于其他的一些行业的措施。在这同时，EVA有助于制定有效的激励管理，从这个角度来说,EVA的应用对反映出准确的财务绩效从而解决股东和管理的代理问题做出了重大贡献。
尽管EVA的应用受到如此多的赞扬,但是它却还没有来得及在物流行业广泛应用。EVA未能得到物流行业应用的主要原因是因为物流企业有着其自身的特殊性和特征。在本文中，我们设法把EVA和平衡计分卡模型结合在一起建立一个物流企业绩效评价系统。
3基于EVA和BSC的绩效评价系统
战略是企业发展和成功至关重要的因素，其中企业中最盛行的一个策略是公司价值的最大化。策略导向BSC，价值强调EVA，两者的结合可以让企业的绩效评价对齐企业的战略。3.1根据斯坦·斯图尔特定义，EVA一般相当于一个真正的经济效益评估，该评估纠正并调整了正确会计编号。这个基本关系式为：
在(1)中，NOPAT代表网上营业利润税后、IC卡代表公司资本总额联合会代表加权平均资本成本(包括资本投资股东和债权人)。
考虑到高的离职率和现金流的物流，我们做出对(1)做出调整，得到方程(2)，如下：
其中：NCFO代表净现金流量从操作、收益；在权责发生制下，ATInt税后利润；TA代表总资产(包括债务和股权)；AcctAdj特殊调整的项目，包括商誉、津贴作为坏帐等。3.2战略图
除了EVA，BSC还需要其他更多的指标去联系其框架结构的目标，以及物流企业的特点。我们需要从很多的案例中分析出三者之间的关系，然后再做合理的决策。而BSC提供了一个很好的工具来完成这一过程，这个工具名为战略图，下面给出了一个物流企业的战略图。
认识到战略目的作为战略图的首要任务是很重要的,因为战略目的代表和指导整个发现并建立企业战略的过程。EVA反映了一个物流企业中，股东价值创造的真实的增量，因此它是从财务角度来看的最主要的指标，同时它又是由成本和收入的增长两个关键项目支持的，在财务角度下,我们能够了解需要做出哪些工作来实现EVA。物流企业必须实现客户满意度和保证新客户的产生，这需要高的营业额和较短的交货时间。学习和成长伴随着人类、信息和组织资本。这是最低的观点，然而它却不能被忽视。物流企业的无形资产是最强大的和可持续的满足股东要求的方式。箭头的效果是由低到高的角度,反映了“拉”的联系，这个从低到高的改进需要很长一段时间,但是它将从根本上大幅度的改变公司并给公司一个光明的前途。
3.3方法的选择和EVA的指导作用
在选取具体方法进行绩效评价之前，战略图为我们提供了一种语言来描述的策略，战略图还为物流企业给出了一个走向成功的合理的道路。当利益相关者对物流公司的包括管理、股东、银行家、潜力投资者等方式进行绩效评价的时候，他们想要清晰并且容易的工作。根据卡普兰和诺顿，太多的方法让用户感到困惑，还增加了运营成本。所以按照战略地图的关键词，我们可以列出物流企业绩效评价方法的名单，如表2。他们并不适合所有的公司,但是可以针对某些典型的物流企业。
在这些绩效评估方法中，EVA代表最终的结果和领导前沿，主要是因为它的经济意义。根据在战略地图对这些运行过程的描述，作为一个高效、创造价值的企业将把较高效用的EVA作为其财务评价的结果。
4假设发展
尽管我们基于EVA和BSC对物流企业绩效评价的方法进行了描述，同时简述了EVA 与其他方法的的关系和不同点，但是EVA就真的满足企业长期发展战略的目标么？EVA就真的能在BSC系统的传统绩效评价方法中占据主导地位？
所有的相关信息可以根据市场效率的假设反映在股票市场，上市公司价值几乎跟股票价格是一样的，物流企业也不能例外，虽然中国的股票不可能有市场效率高，但是从1997年的实证表明它已经开始弱化。再者,股票市场的迅速发展,所以对于物流企业而言，市场本身和波动股票价格将会更加重要。企业价值最大化的战略目标将被大众在一般在长期的目标下等同于市场回报最大化。接着，让我们假设1：H1）EVA相比传统的净收益回报，与市场回报具有显著的关系。
作为绩效评价体系的最终结果，EVA应该和其他在BSC四部分有效的措施有重要的关联度。因此我们得到假设2：H2)EVA和其他绩效评价措施相关。
5数据和经验的结果
在绩效评价系统中，大多数的措施都是内部的信息，例如加工时间顺序，所以我们不能让我们所需要的所有的数据去完成实证检验。我们对应一个观点一种手段，包括EVA在内的手段，包括运行成本、第一五客户、收益率、审计的内部控制报告与员工教育的比例。我们找到46家上市物流企业在上海和深圳股票交易作为案例来进行实证检验。因为从2007年起，新的会计准则生效,我们计算的数字调查数据集中于2008年，我们通过删除缺失数据或极端异常的数据得到36个观察结果，这些观察已经被编制到财务信息服务数据库中。
审计报告的内部控制是一种两分法，当内部控制报告可以独立审计，则为1；若不可，其值为0。一个没有独立的外部审计意见内部报告缺乏目的评价，不够支撑一个高品质内部运作过程。为了减少数据上的差异，我们缩小2008年设立的EVA及操作成本总额，这五个描述性统计结果变量见表3：
所有的物流企业有负面的EVA，就是说他们不再继续为股东创造价值，它迫切需要公司向绩效评价体系增加新的EVA。上表中的客户平均收入的比是0.3558，代表前5个客户为物流企业贡献了三分之一的收入。我们发现了大部分公司都没有审计的内部控制报告，显示相对薄弱的内在力量。在员工受教育方面有最低标准偏差，它的均值是0.1838，这放映了物流企业内部人员受教育程度较低。
根据表
4、EVA具有显著的正相关关系与市场回报,支持假设1a。在同一时间，得到一个微不足道的净利润与市场回报，符合假说意向书。也有EVA和净利润之间明显的关系，但相关是消极的，可以看出传统的利润指标的问题。
用线性回归的假设2进行处理，处理结果如表5：
但是审计内部控制报告得到了显著的正面相关性，符合我们的预测；其中前五客户收入与EVA比没有明显关系；教育的比例为显著负系数，虽然得到这些，但是它们不能提供进一步的证据来支持假设2。因为这些结果所采取的措施为客户、学习和成长的观点更多的是根据内部信息，而不是我们所选定的对于财务内部业务流程的内容，所以我们没有合理的代理。我们收集的数据来自于公众物流企业的报告，因为种种原因，可能会有偏见。最后，我们可以做一个结论：假设2部分支持。
6结论
出于学术和实践的重要意义，我们建立一个基于EVA及平衡记分卡的绩效评价体系的为物流企业星星有效的绩效评价。从长远的眼光来研究，将EVA放在作战略地图首位，其他财政，客户，内部业务流程，学习和成长等指标用来辅助。然后我们给每个因素包括EVA定义指标：分别是运营成本、前五客户收益率、内部控制报告和员工受教育的程度。
K相关测试支持EVA和战略目标之间的一致性，另外，我们用线性回归发现运营成本显著的负系数，审计的内部控制报告得到了显著的正面，基本符合了我们的预测，其中前五客户与EVA收入比没有明显关系，受教育教育的比例有显著的负系数关系。
因此，我们觉得基于EVA和平衡计分卡的绩效评价体系是很重要的，它可以帮助物流企业关注战略目标，积极为股东创造价值的增量，并且基于内部信息分析未来的需要。
第五篇：英文翻译
我的笔记本电脑
我现在已经十一岁了，每年都会收到爸爸妈妈送给我的礼物，可是最让我心仪的礼物就是今年春节他们送给我的笔记本电脑，因为他带给了我许多快乐。
我的家里已经有了一台台式电脑，虽然它也可以上网、玩游戏、听音乐，但是它有一个缺点，这个缺点是它不能移动。而我的笔记本电脑就不存在这个问题了，它是我一个形影不离的小伙伴，在家，不管我在客厅、卧室、甚至在卫生间我都能看我喜欢的英语动画片；出去旅游时，我会把它带在身边，听我喜欢听的音乐，让漫长的旅途不再寂寞。
我的笔记本电脑长得非常精致，有暖金色的外观，13英寸液晶显示屏，它的功能特别强大，兼备了台式机的所有功能，而且它的速度比台式电脑快好几倍，它真是我学习和生活的小助手。
在我的同学中，很少有人拥有自己的笔记本电脑，我一定要珍惜它，充分发挥它的作用。
My Laptop computer
I have already eleven years old,I get a lot of gifts from my parent,butI like they give me the Laptop computer the best beacause it give plenty of happy.I have a desktop computer at home, although it can also surf the Internet, play the games, listen to music, but it has a fault, the downside is that it can't move.And my laptop computer don't have this problem, it is the friend a inseparable, in the home, whether I'm in the sitting room, bedroom, even in the toilet I can watching English cartoons I like;Go out to travel, I will put it with them,listen to a lot of music with the tipe, long a journey no longer lonely.My laptop computer looks very delicate, have a warm golden appearance, 13 inches LCD screen, it is particularly powerful, with all the functionality of the desktop and its speed is faster than a desktop computer for several times, it was my study and life ?
In my class,there are only a few student have laptop computer,I must treasure it.
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