经典散文 英语美文 Get a thorough understanding of oneself 中英文翻译

第一篇：经典散文 英语美文 Get a thorough understanding of oneself 中英文翻译

Get a thorough understanding of oneself 悟透“自己”

In all one's lifetime it is oneself that one spends the most time being with or dealing with.But it is precisely oneself that one has the least understanding of.人生在世，和“自己”相处最多，打交道最多，但是往往悟不透“自己”。

When you are going upwards in life you tend to overestimate yourself.It seems that everything you seek for is within your reach;luck and opportunities will come your way and you are overjoyed that they

constitute part of your worth.When you are going downhill you tend to underestimate yourself, mistaking difficulties and adversities for your own incompetence.It's likely that you think it wise for yourself to know our place and stay aloof from worldly wearing a mask of cowardice, behind which the flow of sap in your life will be retarded.人生走上坡路时，往往把自己估计过高，似乎一切所求的东西都能垂手可得，甚至把运气和机遇也看做自己身价的一部分而喜不自胜。人在不得意时，又往往把自己估计过低，把困难和不利也看做自己的无能，以至把安分守己，与世无争误认为有自知之明，而实际上往往被怯懦的面具窒息了自己鲜活的生命。

To get a thorough understanding of oneself is to gain a correct view of oneself and be a sober realist--aware of both one's strength and shortage.You may look forward hopefully to the future but be sure not to expect too much, for ideals can never be fully realezed.You may be courageous to meet challenges but it should be clear to you where to directyour efforts.That's to way so long as you have a perfect knowledge of yourself there won't be difficulties you can't overcome, nor obstacles you can't surmount.悟透自己，就是正确认识自己，也就是说要做一个冷静的现实主义者，既知道自己的优势，也知道自己的不足。我们可以憧憬人生，但期望值不能过高。因为在现实中，理想总是会打折扣的。可以迎接挑战。但是必须清楚自己努力的方向。也就是说，人一旦有了自知之明，也就没有什么克服不了的困难，没有什么过不去的难关。To get a thorough understanding of oneself needs selfappreciation.Whether you liken yourself to a towering tree or a blade of grass, whether you think you are a high mountain or a small stone, you represent a state of nature that has its own raison detre.If you earnestly admire yourself you'll have a real sense of self-appreciation, which will give you confidence.As soon as you gain full confidence in yourself you'll be enabled to fight and overcome any adversity.要悟透自己就要欣赏自己。无论你是一棵参天大树，还是一棵小草，无论你成为一座巍峨的高山，还是一块小小的石头，都是一种天然，都有自己存在的价值。只要你认真地欣赏自己，你就会拥有一个真正的自我。只有自我欣赏才会有信心，一旦拥有了信心也就拥有了抵御一切逆境的动力。

To get a thorough understanding of oneself also requires doing oneself a favor when it's needed.In time of anger, do yourself a favor by giving vent to itin a quiet place so that you won't be hurt by its flames;in time of sadness, do yourself a favor by sharing it with your friends so as to change a gloomy mood into a cheerful one;in time of tiredness, do yourself a favor by getting a good sleep or taking some tonic.Show yourself loving concern about your health and daily life.As you are

aware, what a person physically has is but a human body that's vulnerable when exposed to the elements.So if you fall ill, it's up to you to take a good care of yourself.Unless you know perfectly well when and how to do yourself a favor, you won't be confident and ready enough to resist the attack of illness.要悟透自己，就要心疼自己。在气愤时心疼一下自己，找个僻静处散散心，宣泄宣泄，不要让那些无名之火伤身；忧伤时，要心疼一下自己，找个三五好友，诉说诉说，让感情的阴天变晴；劳累时，你要心疼一下自己，为自己来一番问寒问暖，要明白人所拥有的不过是一个血肉之躯，经不住太多的风力霜剑；有病时，你要心疼一下自己，惟有对自己的心疼，才是战胜疾病的信心和力量。

To get a thorough understanding of oneself is to get a full control of one'slife.Then one will find one's life full of color and flavor.悟透了自己，才能把握住自己，你生活才会有滋有味！

第二篇：英语短文中英文翻译

1.Today my friend and I are taking a walk.suddenly, we are seeing a boy sit on the chair,he is crying,we go and ask him.“what’s the matter with you” he tell us“I can’t find my dog can you help me”.“yes,I can”.And we help him find his dong.oh it stay under the big tree!今天我和我的朋友一起去散步。突然我们看见一个男孩坐在椅子上，他哭的很伤心。我们走过去问他：“你怎么了”。他告诉我们：“我的狗不见了，你们能帮我找到它吗”。“是的，我们能帮你找到你的狗”然后我们帮助他找到了他的狗，原来是它呆在一棵大树下。2.One day an old man siselling a big elephant.A young man comes to the elephant and begins to look at it slowly.The old man goes up to him and says inhis ear,“Don't say anything about the elephant before I sell it,then i'll give you some money.”“All right,”says the young man.After the old man slles the elephant,he gives the young man some money and says,“Now,can you tell me how you find the bad ears of theelephant?”“I don't find the bad ears,”says the young man.“Then why do you look at the elephant slowly?”asks the old man.The young man answers,“Because I never see an elephant before,and I want to know what it looks like.”

一天，一个老的男人正在卖一头大象。一个年轻的男人走向大象然后开始慢慢看着它（大象），这个老的男人走向他对着他的耳朵说，“不要在我卖出它（大象）之前说关于它（大象）的事，然后我会给你一些钱。”“好的”，这个年轻的男人说。在这个老的男人卖出大象后，他给了年轻的男人一些钱并且说，“现在，你可以告诉我你是怎样知道大象的坏的耳朵了吧？”“我不知道坏的耳朵”，这个年轻的男人说。“然后为什么你慢慢的看着大象？”这个老的男人问。这个年轻的男人回答，“因为我在这之前从来没有见过大象，还有我想知道它（大象）是什么样子的。”

3.An old woman had a cat.The cat was very old;she could not run quickly, and she could not bite, because she was so old.One day the old cat saw a mouse;she jumped and caught the mouse.But she could not bite it;so the mouse got out of her mouth and ran away, because the cat could not bite it.Then the old woman became very angry because the cat had not killed the mouse.She began to hit the cat.The cat said, “Do not hit your old servant.I have worked for you for many years, and I would work for you still, but I am too old.Do not be unkind to the old, but remember what good work the old did when they were young.” 一位老妇有只猫，这只猫很老，它跑不快了，也咬不了东西，因为它年纪太大了。一天，老猫发现一只老鼠，它跳过去抓这只老鼠，然而，它咬不住这只老鼠。因此，老鼠从它的嘴边溜掉了，因为老猫咬不了它。

于是，老妇很生气，因为老猫没有把老鼠咬死。她开始打这只猫，猫说：“不要打你的老仆人，我已经为你服务了很多年，而且还愿意为你效劳，但是，我实在太老了，对年纪大的不要这么无情，要记住老年人在年青时所做过的有益的事情。”

4.I love my family, because I have a happy family.My father is an English teacher.His name is Jacky.He is thirty-eight.He likes playing basketball.What’s my mother job? Is she a teacher? Yes, you’re right!My mother is very kind and nice, she is thirty-seven.My mother is always laborious work.I love my parents!On Saturday and Sunday, I often go to the library and play the piano, My father go to play basketball.Sometimes, we watch TV and listen to music at home.I love my family.Because I’m very happy to live with my parents together!我爱我的家庭,因为我有一个快乐的家庭.我的爸爸是一名英语教师,他的名字叫Jacky.他今年38岁.他非常喜欢打篮球.我的妈妈是赶什么呢?她是一名教师吗?是的.你说对了!我的妈妈是一个很亲切、友善的人,她今年37岁.我妈妈总是勤劳的干活.我爱我的父母.在星期六和星期天里,我经常去图书馆和弹钢琴.我爸爸去打篮球.有时侯,我们都在家看电视和听音乐.我爱我家.因为我和爸爸妈妈一起生活得很开心!4.This is my room.Near the window there is a desk.I often do my homework at it.You can see some books, some flowers in a vase, a ruler and a pen.On the wall near the desk there is a picture of a cat.There is a clock above the end of my bed.I usually put my shoe under my bed.Of course there is a chair in front of the desk.I sit there and I can see the trees and roads outside.这是我的房间。在窗口附近有一张书桌。我经常在那做我的家庭作业。您能看有些书，有些花在花瓶里，一把格尺和笔。在墙壁在书桌有猫的图片。有一个时钟在我的床上的末端。我通常把我的鞋子放在我的床下。当然有一把椅子在书桌前面。我坐那里，并且我能看外面的树和路

6.What do you know about the sea? Some people know about it, but others don’t.The sea looks beautiful on a fine sunny day, the sea is very big.In the world, there is more sea than land.Do you know Hainan Island? It’s really very nice.We can see beaches, trees and the sea.We can swim and visit a lot of beautiful places.海

你对海知道些什么？ 某些人知道关于它，但其他不。海看起来美丽在一个美好的晴天，海是非常大的。在世界上，比土地有更多海。您是否知道海南岛？ 那非常好。我们能看海滩、树和海。我们可以游泳和参观很多美好的地方。

7.Computers are changing our life.You can do a lot of things with a computer.Such as, you can use a computer to write articles, watch video CDs, play games and do office work.But the most important use of a computer is to join the Internet.We don’t need to leave home to borrow books from a library or to do shopping in a supermarket.Computers help us live a more convenient life.计算机改变我们的生活。您能做很多事用计算机。例如，您能使用计算机写文章，手表录影CDs，戏剧比赛和完成办公室工作。但对计算机的最重要的用途是加入Internet.我们不需要离开家去从图书馆借用书或在超级市场做购物。计算机帮助我们居住更加方便的生活。

8.Summer is the great season for all sports in the open air.It is the season for football which is often called the national sport because of its popularity.I usually watch television and read the newspaper reports about the football results of the little leagues.During the summer I like to go to the beach often because it is very close to my home.I usually go there during the summer vacation to relax after many months in school in the city.I feel very comfortable with the familiar quiet life of the villagers.夏天是户外运动最好的季节.这是一个橄榄球的季节,橄榄球由于广受欢迎被称为全民运动.我常常看电视,看报纸,从报道中获得小联盟橄榄球赛的比赛结果.夏日里,我喜欢经常去海滩,因为那里离我家不远.在城里的学校呆了几个月后,暑假我常常去那里放松一下.此处有我很熟悉的村民们的宁静生活,这让我倍感舒适.9.I think smiling is as important as sunshine.Smiling is like sunshine because it can make people happy and have a good day.If you aren’t happy, you can smile, and then you will feel happy.Someone may say, “But I don’t feel happy.” Then I would say, “Please smile as you do when you are happy or play with your friends happily.You will really be happy again.”

Smiling can let you have more friends.So I say, smiling is like a flower.It will give you happiness.我认为微笑是一样重要的象阳光。微笑是象阳光，因为它可能使人愉快和有一个早晨好。如果您不是愉快的，您能微笑，您然后将感觉愉快。某人也许说，“但是我不感到愉快”。然后我会说，“请微笑，您，当您愉快地是愉快或戏剧与您的朋友。您真正地再将是愉快的”。微笑可能让您有更多朋友。如此我说，微笑是象花。它将给您幸福

10.My family are going to Hainan.It's a good seaside city.We are staying there for a week.We are going to the beach and going swimming in the sea.We're visiting Tianya Haijiao，Wanquan River and many other beautiful places.I think we'll have a good time there.国庆节来了，我有七天的假期。

我们一家去海南。那是一个美丽的海滨城市。我们在那里待上一个星期。我们去沙滩，还在海里游泳。我们游览“天涯海角”，菀泉河还有别的许多好地方。我想我们在那里会玩得很开心 11.I'm now living in a small house with my parents.It has three floors with five bedrooms, three bathrooms, two big dining rooms and two living rooms.When my friends come to visit me, I will have enough bedrooms for them.We'll have a good time.Besides that, we will have a swimming pool behind the house and a garden in front of the house.In the morning, my parents can do some exercise in the garden.The air must be very fresh.When we feel tired, we can have a swim in the swimming pool.Life will be easy for us.I'll study harder than before so that the dream can come true.我现在和我的父母生活在一个小房子。

它有三层,有五个卧室,三个卫生间,两个大的餐厅和两个客厅。当我的朋友来看望我,我将有足够的卧室。我们将有一个美好的时光。除此之外,我们将房子后面有一个游泳池和一个花园在房子的前面。在早上,我的父母在花园里可以做一些运动。空气一定很新鲜。当我们感到疲倦的时候,我们可以在游泳池里游泳。生活对我们来说会很容易。我会比以前更努力学习,梦想可以成真。

12.I am now 14 years old.Yesterday was my birthday.My parents had a birthday party.I invited my friends to attend.My mother got up very early in the morning, and began to cook.My father to help her cooking.They are very busy.All my friends arrived, my mother brought food and a cake.My father gave me new clothes and some books as my birthday gift.My friends sang birthday songs for me, gave me some presents.I have a wonderful birthday.我现在14岁。昨天是我的生日。我的父母有一个生日聚会。我邀请朋友们参加。在早上我的妈妈起得很早,开始做饭。我父亲帮她做饭。他们很忙。

我的所有朋友都到了以后,妈妈端上食物和一个蛋糕。爸爸送给我新衣服和书作为生日礼物。我的朋友为我唱生日歌,给了我一些礼物。我有一个美好的生日。

13.I have a busy and interesting summer vacation.I do my homework every day, so I finished my homework ten days before the new term.I also every day and my friends to play table tennis and basketball.I sometimes go to the movies, and my friends went to the park.I browse the Internet, read books and watch TV every evening.I help my parents clean the room and cooking.我有一个忙碌而有趣的暑假。我每天做我的作业,所以我做完作业前十天新学期。我也每天都和我的朋友打乒乓球和篮球。我有时去看电影,和我的朋友去了公园。我浏览互联网,阅读书籍,每天晚上看电视。我帮助我的父母打扫房间和做饭。

14.Hello, boys and girls!My name is lu.I'm 14 years old.My birthday is on November 7.I am a movie fan.I like action movies and science fiction movies.My favorite actor is Jackie chan.He is a great action actor.He has many movies.For example: “the 80 days around the world”, “baby plan andRush hour”.The movie is very exciting.I really like baby plans, because they are exciting.I like action movies very much 你好,男孩和女孩!我的名字是科陆。我14岁。我的生日是11月7日。我是一个电影迷。我喜欢动作电影和科幻电影。我最喜欢的演员是成龙。他是一个伟大的行动的演员。他有许多电影。

为例：《世界各地的80天》,《宝贝计划andRush小时》。这些电影非常令人兴奋。我真的很喜欢宝贝计划,因为它们是令人兴奋的。我非常喜欢动作片电影。

15.It is about half past four.It is time to exercise.The students on the playground.They are playing a football match.Atom is one of them.He is good at football.He in the school football team.Atom and said, I like to play football.It is one of my favorite sports.Panchen and hao-ling wang friend, he is a football fan.Ronaldo is his favourite player.它大约是4点半。是时候运动。学生们在操场上。他们是在玩一场足球比赛。凌动就是其中之一。他擅长足球。他在学校的足球队。凌动说,我喜欢踢足球。它是我最喜欢的运动。**和王浩凌动的朋友,他是一个足球迷。罗纳尔多是他最喜欢的球员。

16.Today is the first day of Chinese New Year.I am wearing new sweaters and shoes.Some people always put the gifts, smiling at everyone.They wear red clothes.You can play with fireworks, but don't play in the room.We can eat a lot of Chinese food, rice dumplings, dumplings.Today is a beautiful day.今天是中国新年的第一天。我穿着新毛衣和鞋子。一些人总是把礼物,对每个人微笑。他们穿着红色的衣服。

你可以玩烟花,但不要在房间里玩。我们可以吃很多中国菜,啊粽子、饺子.今天是一个美好的一天

17.There are 55 students in my class.We study together.We play together.We talk to each other.We help each other.Our class is like a big family.We are very happy.We have a lot of the teacher.They are very kind.They are always good for us.They make us very very hard study.有55名学生在我的班。我们一起研究。我们一起玩。我们相互交谈。我们互相帮助。我们班就像一个大家庭。我们非常高兴。

我们有很多老师。他们非常善良。他们总是对我们好。他们让我们非常非常努力学习。

18.piano and I good at it.So I want to become a piano player.Play the piano is very interesting.And you can learn something of music.Piano can make you like music.A lot of musician and singer are love playing piano.Become a piano play is a hard job.But I believe I can do it.钢琴,我擅长它。所以我想成为一个钢琴家。弹钢琴是非常有趣的。你可以学习一些音乐。钢琴能让你喜欢音乐。许多音乐家和歌手都喜欢弹钢琴。成为一个钢琴演奏是一个辛苦的工作。但是我相信我能做到。

19.Oh!My god.Last Sunday my toothbrush is broken.I can't brush your teeth.So I went shopping with my mother.There are so many toothbrush.Finally, we chose a blue one.I like it very much.So we bought it.My mom says it's good for my teeth.Then we went home.Can I brush my teeth.I'm so happy!哦!我的神。上星期天我的牙刷坏了，我不能刷牙。所以我和我的妈妈去购物.有这么多牙刷。最后,我们选择了一个蓝色的。我非常喜欢它。所以我们买了它。我妈妈说它对我的牙齿有好处。然后我们就回家了。我可以刷我的牙齿。我真快乐!20.We all have neighbors.Neighbors get along well with each other.My neighbour has a daughter.We are the same age, we study in the same school.In the evening we always do homework together.So we often help each other.我们都有邻居。邻居彼此相处得很好。我的邻居有一个女儿。我们是同样的年龄,我们在同一所学校学习。在晚上我们总是在一起做作业。所以我们经常互相帮助。

第三篇：英语中英文翻译

英语中英文翻译

第一篇：

对龙图腾的崇拜在中国大约已绵延了八千多年。中国龙是古人将鱼、蛇、马、牛等动物与云雾、雷电等自然天象集合而成的一种神物。中国龙的形成与中华民族的多元融合过程同步。在中国人的心目中，龙具有振奋腾飞、开拓变化的寓意和团结凝聚的精神。

Dragon totem worship in China has been around for the last 8,000 years.The ancients in China considered the dragon a fetish that combines animals including the fish, snake, horse and ox with cloud, thunder, lightning and other natural celestial phenomena.The Chinese dragon was formed in accordance with the multicultural fusion process of the Chinese nation.To the Chinese, the dragon signifies initiative,innovation and cohesion.第二篇：

长城是人类创造的世界奇迹之一。如果你到了中国却没去过长城，就像到了巴黎没有去看看埃菲尔铁塔，或者就像到了埃及没有去看金字塔一样。人们常说：“不到长城非好汉。”实际上，长城最初只是一些断断续续的城墙，直到秦朝统一中国后才将其连成长城。然而，今天我们看到的长城——东起山海关，西至嘉峪关——大部分都是在明代修建的。

The Great Wall is one of the wonders of the world that was created by human beings!If you come to China without climbing the Great Wall, it„s just like going to Paris without visiting the Eiffel Tower, or going to Egypt without visiting the Pyramids!Men often say, “He who does not reach the Great Wall is not a true man.” In fact, it began as independent walls for different states when it was first built, and did not become the “Great Wall” until the Qin Dynasty when the emperor united China.However, the wall we see today, starting from Shanhaiguan Pass in the east to Jiayuguan Pass in the west, was mostly built during the Ming Dynasty.第三篇：

饺子Dumplings ravioli 是深受中国人民喜爱的传统食品。相传为古代医圣张仲景发明。饺子的制作是包括： 1）擀皮、2）备馅、3）包馅水煮三个步骤。其特点是皮薄馅嫩，味道鲜美，形状独特，百食不厌。民间有“好吃不过饺子”的俗语。中国人接亲待客、逢年过节都有包饺子吃的习俗，寓意吉利。对崇尚亲情的中国人来说，“更岁交子”吃饺子，更是欢度除夕、辞旧迎新必不可少的内容。

Dumplings are one of the Chinese people‟s favorite traditional dishes.According to an ancient Chinese legend, dumplings were first made by the medical saint---Zhang Zhongjing.There are three steps involved in making dumplings: 1)make dumpling wrappers out of dumpling flour;2)prepare the dumpling stuffing;3)make dumplings and boil them.With thin and elastic dough skin, fresh and tender stuffing, delicious

taste, and unique shapes, dumplings are worth eating hundreds of times.There‟s an old saying that claims, “Nothing could be more delicious than dumplings”.During the Spring Festival and other holidays, or when treating relatives and friends, Chinese people like to follow the auspicious custom of eating dumplings.To Chinese people who show high reverence for family love, having dumplings at the moment the old year is replaced by the new is an essential part of bidding farewell to the old and ushering in the new year.第四篇：

闻名于世的丝绸之路是一系列连接东西方的路线。丝绸之路延伸6,000多公里。得名于古代中国的丝绸贸易。丝绸之路上的贸易在中国、南亚、欧洲和中东文明发展中发挥了重要作用。正是通过丝绸之路，中国的造纸、火药、指南针、印刷等四大发明才被引介到世界各地。同样，中国的丝绸、茶叶和瓷器（porcelain）也传遍全球。物质文化的交流是双向的。欧洲也通过丝绸之路出口各种商品和植物，满足中国市场的需要。

The world-renowned Silk Road is a series of routes connecting the East and the West.It extended more than 6,000 kilometers.The Silk Road was named after ancient China‟s silk trade which played an important role in the civilization development of China, South Asia, Europe and the Middle East.It was through the Silk Road that papermaking, gunpowder, compass and printing of the four great inventions of ancient China were introduced around the world.Similarly, Chinese silk, tea and porcelain spread all over the world.Europe also exported various goods and plants through the Silk Road to meet the needs of the Chinese market.第五篇：

中国园林是经过三千多年演化而成的独具一格的园林景观。它既包括为皇室成员享乐而建造的大型花园，也包括学者、商人和卸任的政府官员为摆脱嘈杂的外部世界而建造的私家花园。这些花园构成了一种意在表达人与自然之间应有的调和关系的微缩景观。典型的中国园林周围有围墙，园内有池塘、假山、树木、花草以及各种各样由弯曲的小路和走廊衔接的建筑。散步在花园中，人们可以看到一系列精心设计的景观犹如山水画卷一般展示在面前。

Chinese gardens came into being after three thousand years of evolution and unique landscape.It includes both large garden built for the royal family enjoyment, including academics, businessmen, and former government officials to get rid of the noise of the outside world and build private garden.These gardens constituted an intended to express the human and the nature should be harmonious relations between miniature landscape.A typical Chinese garden surrounded by a fence, garden with ponds, rockeries, trees, flowers and plants, and various buildings connected by winding paths and corridors.Stroll in the garden, people can see a series of carefully designed like landscape picture show in front of the landscape.第六篇：

中国人自古以来就在中秋时节庆祝丰收，这与北美地区庆祝感恩节的习俗十分相似，过中秋节的习俗与唐代早期在中国各地开始流行，中秋节在农历八月十五，是人们拜月的节日，这天夜晚皓月当空，人们合家团聚，共赏明月。2006年，中秋节被列为中国的文化遗产，2008年又被定为公共假日，月饼被视为中秋节不可或缺的美食，人们将月饼作为礼物馈赠亲友或在家庭聚会上享用。传统的月饼上带有“寿”(longevity)、“福”或“和”等字样。

Since ancient times, the Chinese people usually celebrate harvest in the Mid-Autumn, which is similar to the custom of celebrating Thanksgiving in the North America.The tradition of celebrating Mid-Autumn festival became popular throughout China in the early Tang dynasty.The lunar August 15 is a day for people worshiping the moon.On this day, under the dazzling bright moon, families reunite and enjoy the moon‟s beauty.In 2006, Mid-Autumn festival was listed as one of China's cultural heritage, and in 2008, it was classified as a public holiday.Moon cakes, as indispensable delicious food of the festival, were gifts people sent to families and friends during the festival and usually eaten on family gatherings.There are characters of “longevity”，“good fortune”and “harmony” on the Traditional moon cakes.

第四篇：英语政府官员职位中英文翻译

英语政府官员职位中英文翻译

英美虽都是讲英语国家，但同一政府部门的首长名称不同：英国国家元首是国王（King）或女王（Queen），而美国的国家元首是总统（President）。英国内阁的首脑为首相（Prime Minister），其他组成人有：

First Lord of the Treasury 第一财政大臣（首相兼任）

Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs 外交大臣

Lord President of the Council 枢密院大臣

Lord Chancellor 大法官

Chancellor of the Exchequer 财政大臣

Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 兰开斯特公爵郡大臣

Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Commons 掌皇大臣兼下院领袖

Minister of Defense 国防大臣

Secretary of state for Commonwealth Relations 联邦关系事务大臣

Secretary of State for the Colonies 殖民地事务大臣

Secretary of State for Scotland 苏格兰事务大臣

Minister of Labor and National Service 劳工大臣

Minister for Housing and Local Government 住房及地方政府事物大臣

Minister of Town and Country Planning 都市及乡村计划大臣

Minister of Health 卫生大臣

Minister of Education 教育大臣

President of the Board of Trade 贸易大臣

Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries 农业和渔业大臣

Minister of Pensions and National Insurance 年金及国民保险大臣 此外还有非内阁阁员的政府部门首长 ：

First Lord Of the Admiralty 海军大臣

Secretary of State for War 陆军大臣

Secretary of State for Air 空军大臣

Minister of Fuel and Power 燃料电力大臣

Minister of Transport 运输大臣

Minister of Supply 供应大臣

Minister of Economic Affairs 经济事务大臣

Minister of Food 粮食大臣

Minister of Civil Aviation 民航大臣

Minister of Works 工程大臣

Paymaster General 主计大臣

Labor secretary 劳工部长

Postmaster General 邮政大臣

Attorney — General 检查总长

Solicitor — General 副检查总长

Lord Advocate 苏格兰检察总长

美国总统以下设十个行政主管，分掌国政，形成一个内阁：

Secretary of State 国务卿

Secretary of the Treasury 财政部长

Secretary of Defense 国防部长

Attorney General 司法部长

Postmaster General 邮政管理局长

Interior Secretary 内政部长

Agriculture Secretary 农业部长

Commerce Secretary 商务部长

第五篇：中英文翻译

特种加工工艺

介绍

传统加工如车削、铣削和磨削等，是利用机械能将金属从工件上剪切掉，以加工成孔或去除余料。特种加工是指这样一组加工工艺，它们通过各种涉及机械能、热能、电能、化学能或及其组合形式的技术，而不使用传统加工所必需的尖锐刀具来去除工件表面的多余材料。

传统加工如车削、钻削、刨削、铣削和磨削，都难以加工特别硬的或脆性材料。采用传统方法加工这类材料就意味着对时间和能量要求有所增加，从而导致成本增加。在某些情况下，传统加工可能行不通。由于在加工过程中会产生残余应力，传统加工方法还会造成刀具磨损，损坏产品质量。基于以下各种特殊理由，特种加工工艺或称为先进制造工艺，可以应用于采用传统加工方法不可行，不令人满意或者不经济的场合：

1.对于传统加工难以夹紧的非常硬的脆性材料； 2.当工件柔性很大或很薄时； 3.当零件的形状过于复杂时；

4.要求加工出的零件没有毛刺或残余应力。

传统加工可以定义为利用机械（运动）能的加工方法，而特种加工利用其他形式的能量，主要有如下三种形式： 1.热能； 2.化学能； 3.电能。

为了满足额外的加工条件的要求，已经开发出了几类特种加工工艺。恰当地使用这些加工工艺可以获得很多优于传统加工工艺的好处。常见的特种加工工艺描述如下。

电火花加工

电火花加工是使用最为广泛的特种加工工艺之一。相比于利用不同刀具进行金属切削和磨削的常规加工，电火花加工更为吸引人之处在于它利用工件和电极间的一系列重复产生的（脉冲）离散电火花所产生的热电作用，从工件表面通过电腐蚀去除掉多余的材料。

传统加工工艺依靠硬质刀具或磨料去除较软的材料，而特种加工工艺如电火花加工，则是利用电火花或热能来电蚀除余料，以获得所需的零件形状。因此，材料的硬度不再是电火花加工中的关键因素。

电火花加工是利用存储在电容器组中的电能（一般为50V/10A量级）在工具电极（阴极）和工件电极（阳极）之间的微小间隙间进行放电来去除材料的。如图6.1所示，在EDM操作初始，在工具电极和工件电极间施以高电压。这个高电压可以在工具电极和工件电极窄缝间的绝缘电介质中产生电场。这就会使悬浮在电介质中的导电粒子聚集在电场最强处。当工具电极和工件电极之间的势能差足够大时，电介质被击穿，从而在电介质流体中会产生瞬时电火花，将少量材料从工件表面蚀除掉。每次电火花所蚀除掉的材料量通常在10-5～10-6mm3范围内。电极之间的间隙只有千分之几英寸，通过伺服机构驱动和控制工具电极的进给使该值保持常量。化学加工

化学加工是众所周知的特种加工工艺之一，它将工件浸入化学溶液通过腐蚀溶解作用将多余材料从工件上去除掉。该工艺是最古老的特种加工工艺，主要用于凹腔和轮廓加工，以及从具有高的比刚度的零件表面去除余料。化学加工广泛用于为多种工业应用（如微机电系统和半导体行业）制造微型零件。

化学加工将工件浸入到化学试剂或蚀刻剂中，位于工件选区的材料通过发生在金属溶蚀或化学溶解过程中的电化学微电池作用被去除掉。而被称为保护层的特殊涂层所保护下的区域中的材料则不会被去除。不过，这种受控的化学溶解过程同时也会蚀除掉所以暴露在表面的材料，尽管去除的渗透率只有0.0025～0.1 mm/min。该工艺采用如下几种形式：凹坑加工、轮廓加工和整体金属去除的化学铣，在薄板上进行蚀刻的化学造型，在微电子领域中利用光敏抗蚀剂完成蚀刻的光化学加工(PCM)，采用弱化学试剂进行抛光或去毛刺的电化学抛光，以及利用单一化学活性喷射的化学喷射加工等。如图6.2a所示的化学加工示意图，由于蚀刻剂沿垂直和水平方向开始蚀除材料，钻蚀（又称为淘蚀）量进一步加大，如图6.2b所示的保护体边缘下面的区域。在化学造型中最典型的公差范围可保持在材料厚度的±10%左右。为了提高生产率，在化学加工前，毛坯件材料应采用其他工艺方法（如机械加工）进行预成形加工。湿度和温度也会导致工件尺寸发生改变。通过改变蚀刻剂和控制工件加工环境，这种尺寸改变可以减小到最小。

电化学加工

电化学金属去除方法是一种最有用的特种加工方法。尽管利用电解作用作为金属加工手段是近代的事，但其基本原理是法拉第定律。利用阳极溶解，电化学加工可以去除具有导电性质工件的材料，而无须机械能和热能。这个加工过程一般用于在高强度材料上加工复杂形腔和形状，特别是在航空工业中如涡轮机叶片、喷气发动机零件和喷嘴，以及在汽车业（发动机铸件和齿轮）和医疗卫生业中。最近，还将电化学加工应用于电子工业的微加工中。

图6.3所示的是一个去除金属的电化学加工过程，其基本原理与电镀原理正好相反。在电化学加工过程中，从阳极（工件）上蚀除下的粒子移向阴极（加工工具）。金属的去除由一个合适形状的工具电极来完成，最终加工出来的零件具有给定的形状、尺寸和表面光洁度。在电化学加工过程中，工具电极的形状逐渐被转移或复制到工件上。型腔的形状正好是与工具相匹配的阴模的形状。为了获得电化学过程形状复制的高精度和高的材料去除率，需要采用高的电流密度（范围为10～100 A/cm2)和低电压（范围为8～30V）。通过将工具电极向去除工件表面材料的方向进给，加工间隙要维持在0.1 mm范围内，而进给率一般为0.1～20 mm/min左右。泵压后的电解液以高达5～50 m/s的速度通过间隙，将溶解后的材料、气体和热量带走。因此，当被蚀除的材料还没来得及附着到工具电极上时，就被电解液带走了。

作为一种非机械式金属去除加工方法，ECM可以以高切削量加工任何导电材料，而无须考虑材料的机械性能。特别是在电化学加工中，材料去除率与被加工件的硬度、韧性及其他特性无关。对于利用机械方法难于加工的材料，电化学加工可以保证将该材料加工出复杂形状的零件，这就不需要制造出硬度高于工件的刀具，而且也不会造成刀具磨损。由于工具和工件间没有接触，电化学加工是加工薄壁、易变形零件及表面容易破裂的脆性材料的首选。激光束加工

LASER是英文Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation 各单词头一个字母所组成的缩写词。虽然激光在某些场合可用来作为放大器，但它的主要用途是光激射振荡器，或者是作为将电能转换为具有高度准直性光束的换能器。由激光发射出的光能具有不同于其他光源的特点：光谱纯度好、方向性好及具有高的聚焦功率密度。

激光加工就是利用激光和和靶材间的相互作用去除材料。简而言之，这些加工工艺包括激光打孔、激光切割、激光焊接、激光刻槽和激光刻划等。

激光加工（图6.4）可以实现局部的非接触加工，而且对加工件几乎没有作用力。这种加工工艺去除材料的量很小，可以说是“逐个原子”地去除材料。由于这个原因，激光切削所产生的切口非常窄。激光打孔深度可以控制到每个激光脉冲不超过一微米，且可以根据加工要求很灵活地留下非常浅的永久性标记。采用这种方法可以节省材料，这对于贵重材料或微加工中的精密结构而言非常重要。可以精确控制材料去除率使得激光加工成为微制造和微电子技术中非常重要的加工方法。厚度小于20 mm的板材的激光切割加工速度快、柔性好、质量高。另外，通过套孔加工还可有效实现大孔及复杂轮廓的加工。

激光加工中的热影响区相对较窄，其重铸层只有几微米。基于此，激光加工的变形可以不予考虑。激光加工适用于任何可以很好地吸收激光辐射的材料，而传统加工工艺必须针对不同硬度和耐磨性的材料选择合适的刀具。采用传统加工方法，非常难以加工硬脆材料如陶瓷等，而激光加工是解决此类问题的最好选择。

激光切割的边缘光滑且洁净，无须进一步处理。激光打孔可以加工用其他方法难以加工的高深径比的孔。激光加工可以加工出高质量的小盲孔、槽、表面微造型和表面印痕。激光技术正处于高速发展期，激光加工也如此。激光加工不会挂渣，没有毛边，可以精确控制几何精度。随着激光技术的快速发展，激光加工的质量正在稳步提高。

超声加工

超声加工为日益增长的对脆性材料如单晶体、玻璃、多晶陶瓷材料的加工需求及不断提高的工件复杂形状和轮廓加工提供了解决手段。这种加工过程不产生热量、无化学反应，加工出的零件在微结构、化学和物理特性方面都不发生变化，可以获得无应力加工表面。因此，超声加工被广泛应用于传统加工难以切削的硬脆材料。在超声加工中，实际切削由液体中的悬浮磨粒或者旋转的电镀金刚石工具来完成。超声加工的变型有静止（传统）超声加工和旋转超声加工。

传统的超声加工是利用作为小振幅振动的工具与工件之间不断循环的含有磨粒的浆料的磨蚀作用去除材料的。成形工具本身并不磨蚀工件，是受激振动的工具通过激励浆料液流中的磨料不断缓和而均匀地磨损工件，从而在工件表面留下与工具相对应的精确形状。音极工具振动的均匀性使超声加工只能完成小型零件的加工，特别是直径小于100 mm 的零件。

超声加工系统包括音极组件、超声发生器、磨料供给系统及操作人员的控制。音极是暴露在超声波振动中的一小块金属或工具，它将振动能传给某个元件，从而激励浆料中的磨粒。超声加工系统的示意图如图6.5所示。音极/工具组件由换能器、变幅杆和音极组成。换能器将电脉冲转换成垂直冲程，垂直冲程再传给变幅杆进行放大或压抑。调节后的冲程再传给音极/工具组件。此时，工具表面的振动幅值为20～50μm。工具的振幅通常与所使用的磨粒直径大致相等。

磨料供给系统将由水和磨粒组成的浆料送至切削区，磨粒通常为碳化硅或碳化硼。另外，除了提供磨粒进行切削外，浆料还可对音极进行冷却，并将切削区的磨粒和切屑带走。

Nontraditional Machining Processes Introduction

Traditional or conventional machining, such as turning, milling, and grinding etc., uses mechanical energy to shear metal against another substance to create holes or remove material.Nontraditional machining processes are defined as a group of processes that remove excess material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp cutting tool as it is used in traditional manufacturing processes.Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to be machined by traditional machining processes.Using traditional methods to machine such materials means increased demand for time and energy and therefore increases in costs;in some cases traditional machining may not be feasible.Traditional machining also results in tool wear and loss of quality in the product owing to induced residual stresses during machining.Nontraditional machining processes, also called unconventional machining process or advanced manufacturing processes, are employed where traditional machining processes are not feasible, satisfactory or economical due to special reasons as outlined below: 1.Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining;2.When the workpiece is too flexible or slender;3.When the shape of the part is too complex;4.Parts without producing burrs or inducing residual stresses.Traditional machining can be defined as a process using mechanical(motion)energy.Non-traditional machining utilizes other forms of energy;the three main forms of energy used in non-traditional machining processes are as follows: 1.Thermal energy;2.Chemical energy;3.Electrical energy.Several types of nontraditional machining processes have been developed to meet extra required machining conditions.When these processes are employed properly, they offer many advantages over traditional machining processes.The common nontraditional machining processes are described in the following section.Electrical Discharge Machining(EDM)

Electrical discharge machining(EDM)sometimes is colloquially referred to as spark machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking or wire erosion.It is one of the most widely used non-traditional machining processes.The main attraction of EDM over traditional machining processes such as metal cutting using different tools and grinding is that this technique utilizes thermoelectric process to erode undesired materials from the workpiece by a series of rapidly recurring discrete electrical sparks between workpiece and electrode.The traditional machining processes rely on harder tool or abrasive material to remove softer material whereas nontraditional machining processes such as EDM uses electrical spark or thermal energy to erode unwanted material in order to create desired shapes.So, the hardness of the material is no longer a dominating factor for EDM process.EDM removes material by discharging an electrical current, normally stored in a capacitor bank, across a small gap between the tool(cathode)and the workpiece(anode)typically in the order of 50 volts/10amps.As shown in Fig.6.1, at the beginning of EDM operation, a high voltage is applied across the narrow gap between the electrode and the workpiece.This high voltage induces an electric field in the insulating dielectric that is present in narrow gap between electrode and workpiece.This causes conducting particles suspended in the dielectric to concentrate at the points of strongest electrical field.When the potential difference between the electrode and the workpiece is sufficiently high, the dielectric breaks down and a transient spark discharges through the dielectric fluid, removing small amount of material from the workpiece surface.The volume of the material removed per spark discharge is typically in the range of 10-5 to 10-6 mm3.The gap is only a few thousandths of an inch, which is maintained at a constant value by the servomechanism that actuates and controls the tool feed.Chemical Machining(CM)

Chemical machining(CM)is a well known non-traditional machining process in which metal is removed from a workpiece by immersing it into a chemical solution.The process is the oldest of the nontraditional processes and has been used to produce pockets and contours and to remove materials from parts having a high strength-to-weight ratio.Moreover, the chemical machining method is widely used to produce micro-components for various industrial applications such as microelectromechanical systems(MEMS)and semiconductor industries.In CM material is removed from selected areas of workpiece by immersing it in a chemical reagents or etchants, such as acids and alkaline solutions.Material is removed by microscopic electrochemical cell action which occurs in corrosion or chemical dissolution of a metal.Special coatings called maskants protect areas from which the metal is not to be removed.This controlled chemical dissolution will simultaneously etch all exposed surfaces even though the penetration rates of the material removed may be only 0.0025-0.1mm/min.The basic process takes many forms: chemical milling of pockets, contours, overall metal removal, chemical blanking for etching through thin sheets;photochemical machining(pcm)for etching by using of photosensitive resists in microelectronics;chemical or electrochemical polishing where weak chemical reagents are used(sometimes with remote electric assist)for polishing or deburring and chemical jet machining where a single chemically active jet is used.A schematic of chemical machining process is shown in Fig.6.2a.Because the etchant attacks the material in both vertical and horizontal directions, undercuts may develop(as shown by the areas under the edges of the maskant in Fig.6.2b).Typically, tolerances of ±10% of the material thickness can be maintained in chemical blanking.In order to improve the production rate, the bulk of the workpiece should be shaped by other processes(such as by machining)prior to chemical machining.Dimensional variations can occur because of size changes in workpiece due to humidity and temperature.This variation can be minimized by properly selecting etchants and controlling the environment in the part generation and the production area in the plant.Electrochemical Machining(ECM)

Electrochemical metal removal is one of the more useful nontraditional machining processes.Although the application of electrolytic machining as a metal-working tool is relatively new, the basic principles are based on Faraday laws.Thus, electrochemical machining can be used to remove electrically conductive workpiece material through anodic dissolution.No mechanical or thermal energy is involved.This process is generally used to machine complex cavities and shapes in high-strength materials, particularly in the aerospace industry for the mass production of turbine blades, jet-engine parts, and nozzles, as well as in the automotive(engines castings and gears)and medical industries.More recent applications of ECM include micromachining for the electronics industry.Electrochemical machining(ECM), shown in Fig.6.3, is a metal-removal process based on the principle of reverse electroplating.In this process, particles travel from the anodic material(workpiece)toward the cathodic material(machining tool).Metal removal is effected by a suitably shaped tool electrode, and the parts thus produced have the specified shape, dimensions, and surface finish.ECM forming is carried out so that the shape of the tool electrode is transferred onto, or duplicated in, the workpiece.The cavity produced is the female mating image of the tool shape.For high accuracy in shape duplication and high rates of metal removal, the process is operated at very high current densities of the order 10-100 A/cm2,at relative low voltage usually from 8 to 30 V, while maintaining a very narrow machining gap(of the order of 0.1 mm)by feeding the tool electrode with a feed rate from 0.1 to 20 mm/min.Dissolved material, gas, and heat are removed from the narrow machining gap by the flow of electrolyte pumped through the gap at a high velocity(5-50 m/s), so the current of electrolyte fluid carries away the deplated material before it has a chance to reach the machining tool.Being a non-mechanical metal removal process, ECM is capable of machining any electrically conductive material with high stock removal rates regardless of their mechanical properties.In particular, removal rate in ECM is independent of the hardness, toughness and other properties of the material being machined.The use of ECM is most warranted in the manufacturing of complex-shaped parts from materials that lend themselves poorly to machining by other, above all mechanical methods.There is no need to use a tool made of a harder material than the workpiece, and there is practically no tool wear.Since there is no contact between the tool and the work, ECM is the machining method of choice in the case of thin-walled, easily deformable components and also brittle materials likely to develop cracks in the surface layer.Laser Beam Machining(LBM)

LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.Although the laser is used as a light amplifier in some applications, its principal use is as an optical oscillator or transducer for converting electrical energy into a highly collimated beam of optical radiation.The light energy emitted by the laser has several characteristics which distinguish it from other light sources: spectral purity, directivity and high focused power density.Laser machining is the material removal process accomplished through laser and target material interactions.Generally speaking, these processes include laser drilling, laser cutting, laser welding, and laser grooving, marking or scribing.Laser machining(Fig.6.4)is localized, non-contact machining and is almost reacting-force free.This process can remove material in very small amount and is said to remove material “atom by atom”.For this reason, the kerf in laser cutting is usually very narrow , the depth of laser drilling can be controlled to less than one micron per laser pulse and shallow permanent marks can be made with great flexibility.In this way material can be saved, which may be important for precious materials or for delicate structures in micro-fabrications.The ability of accurate control of material removal makes laser machining an important process in micro-fabrication and micro-electronics.Also laser cutting of sheet material with thickness less than 20mm can be fast, flexible and of high quality, and large holes or any complex contours can be efficiently made through trepanning.Heat Affected Zone(HAZ)in laser machining is relatively narrow and the re-solidified layer is of micron dimensions.For this reason, the distortion in laser machining is negligible.LBM can be applied to any material that can properly absorb the laser irradiation.It is difficult to machine hard materials or brittle materials such as ceramics using traditional methods, laser is a good choice for solving such difficulties.Laser cutting edges can be made smooth and clean, no further treatment is necessary.High aspect ratio holes with diameters impossible for other methods can be drilled using lasers.Small blind holes, grooves, surface texturing and marking can be achieved with high quality using LBM.Laser technology is in rapid progressing, so do laser machining processes.Dross adhesion and edge burr can be avoided, geometry precision can be accurately controlled.The machining quality is in constant progress with the rapid progress in laser technology.Ultrasonic Machining(USM)

Ultrasonic machining offers a solution to the expanding need for machining brittle materials such as single crystals, glasses and polycrystalline ceramics, and for increasing complex operations to provide intricate shapes and workpiece profiles.This machining process is non-thermal, non-chemical, creates no change in the microstructure, chemical or physical properties of the workpiece and offers virtually stress-free machined surfaces.It is therefore used extensively in machining hard and brittle materials that are difficult to cut by other traditional methods.The actual cutting is performed either by abrasive particles suspended in a fluid, or by a rotating diamond-plate tool.These variants are known respectively as stationary(conventional)ultrasonic machining and rotary ultrasonic machining(RUM).Conventional ultrasonic machining(USM)accomplishes the removal of material by the abrading action of a grit-loaded slurry, circulating between the workpiece and a tool that is vibrated with small amplitude.The form tool itself does not abrade the workpiece;the vibrating tool excites the abrasive grains in the flushing fluid, causing them to gently and uniformly wear away the material, leaving a precise reverse from of the tool shape.The uniformity of the sonotrode-tool vibration limits the process to forming small shapes typically under 100 mm in diameter.The USM system includes the Sonotrode-tool assembly, the generator, the grit system and the operator controls.The sonotrode is a piece of metal or tool that is exposed to ultrasonic vibration, and then gives this vibratory energy in an element to excite the abrasive grains in the slurry.A schematic representation of the USM set-up is shown in Fig.6.5.The sonotrode-tool assembly consists of a transducer, a booster and a sonotrode.The transducer converts the electrical pulses into vertical stroke.This vertical stroke is transferred to the booster, which may amplify or suppress the stroke amount.The modified stroke is then relayed to the sonotrode-tool assembly.The amplitude along the face of the tool typically falls in a 20 to 50 μm range.The vibration amplitude is usually equal to the diameter of the abrasive grit used.The grit system supplies a slurry of water and abrasive grit, usually silicon or boron carbide, to the cutting area.In addition to providing abrasive particles to the cut, the slurry also cools the sonotrode and removes particles and debris from the cutting area.