电子商务中英文翻译

第一篇：电子商务中英文翻译

工商企业管理二班

王建稳

12292330051

E-commerce is coming of age

The 21st century are the information time, the tertiary industry unceasingly rise in the various countries' proportion, specially service industry, information service industry becomes for the 21stcentury the leading industries, this has caused the electronic commerce production and the development in the global information is under the influence which the situation drives, the various countries' electronic commerce unceasing improvement and the consummation, the electronic commerce is a focal point which each country and each big company capture.And, along with the whole world electronic commerce swift and violent development, the electronic commerce scale expands day by day, if US in 2000 the electronic commerce amounts to 488.7 billion US dollars, Japanese 31.9 billion US dollars, German 20.6 billion US dollars.Thereupon, the various countries unceasingly opens sends out the form to be diverse, the characteristic each different electronic commerce solution.But, because various countries and some international organization to electronic commerce understanding existence difference, thus the formulation and implementation development electronic commerce policy also has the obvious difference between the country and the country electronic commerce live agent lacks the effective coordinated mechanism to develop slowly, simultaneously a country interior electronic commerce activity also because of lacks the effective policy safeguard to receive the restriction.Therefore, the research discussion electronic commerce present situation and the formulation implementation appropriate electronic commerce policy question extremely is urgent.But in our country, the computer and the network technology popularization and the development, the electronic commerce rapidly rises, the multitudinous information technology enterprise, the venture capital company, the production circulation enterprise develops the electronic commerce in abundance.Looked from national Economical trade committee to more than 630 enterprises' investigations that, at present enterprise in Internet application and development electronic commerce aspect, eastern area enterprise good to middle area, middle is markets.But many record shops and travel agents could be in for a tougher time.Erik Blachford, the head of IAC’s travel side and boss of Expedia, the biggest internet travel agent, thinks online travel bookings in America could quickly move from 20% of the market to more than half.Mr Bezos reckons online retailers might capture 10-15% of retail sales over the next decade.That would represent a massive shift in spending.How will traditional shops respond? Michael Dell, the founder of Dell, which leads the personal-computer market by selling direct to the customer, has long thought many shops will turn into showrooms.There are already signs of change on the high street.The latest Apple and Sony stores are designed to display products, in the full expectation that many people will buy online.To some extent, the online and offline worlds may merge.Multi-channel selling could involve a combination of traditional shops, a printed catalogue, a home-shopping channel on TV, a phone-in order service and an e-commerce-enabled website.But often it is likely to be the website where customers will be encouraged to place their orders.One of the biggest commercial advantages of the internet is a lowering of transaction costs, which usually translates directly into lower prices for the consumer.So, if the lowest prices can be found on the internet and people like the service they get, why would they buy anywhere else?

One reason may be convenience;another, concern about fraud, which poses the biggest threat to online trade.But as long as the internet continues to deliver price and product information quickly, cheaply and securely, e-commerce will continue to grow.Increasingly, companies will have to assume that customers will know exactly where to look for the best buy.This market has the potential to become as perfect as it gets.Certain products or services appear more suitable for online sales;others remain more suitable for offline sales.While credit cards are currently the most popular means of paying for online goods and services, alternative online payments will account for 26% of e-commerce volume by 2009 according to Celent.Many successful purely virtual companies deal with digital products,(including information storage, retrieval, and modification), music, movies, office supplies, education, communication, software, photography, and financial transactions.Examples of this type of company include: Google, eBay and Paypal.Other successful marketers such as use Drop shipping or Affiliate marketing techniques to facilitate transactions of tangible goods without maintaining real inventory.Examples

include numerous sellers on eBay.Virtual marketers can sell some non-digital products and services successfully.Such products generally have a high value-to-weight ratio, they may involve embarrassing purchases, they may typically go to people in remote locations, and they may have shut-ins as their typical purchasers.Items which can fit through a standard letterbox — such as music CDs, DVDs and books — are particularly suitable for a virtual marketer, and indeed Amazon.com, one of the few enduring dot-com companies, has historically concentrated on this field.Products such as spare parts, both for consumer items like washing machines and for industrial equipment like centrifugal pumps, also seem good candidates for selling online.Retailers often need to order spare parts specially, since they typically do not stock them at consumer outlets--in such cases, e-commerce solutions in spares do not compete with retail stores, only with other ordering systems.A factor for success in this niche can consist of providing customers with exact, reliable information about which part number their particular version of a product needs, for example by providing parts lists keyed by serial number.Purchases of pornography and of other sex-related products and services fulfill the requirements of both virtuality(or if non-virtual, generally high-value)and potential embarrassment;unsurprisingly, provision of such services has become the most profitable segment of e-commerce.There are also many disadvantages of e-commerce.one of the main ones is fraud.This is where your details(name, bank card number, age, national insurance number)are entered into what look to be a safe site but really it is not.These details can then be used to steal money from you and can be used to buy things on line that you are completely unaware of until it is too late.this information is leaked into the wrong hands.People are able to steal your identity, and commit more fraud crimes under your name.Finally there are many problems with e commerce some of which are:Failure understands customers why they buy and how they buy.Even a product with a sound value proposition can fail if producers and retailers do not understand customer habits, expectations, and motivations.E-commerce could potentially mitigate this potential problem with proactive and focused marketing research, just as traditional retailers may do.Failure consider the competitive situation.One may have the will to construct a viable book e-tailing business model, but lack the capability to compete with Amazon.Inability predicts environmental reaction.What will

competitors do? Will they introduce competitive brands or competitive web sites? Will they supplement their service offerings? Will they try to sabotage a competitor's site? Will price wars

break out? What will the government do? Research into competitors, industries and markets may mitigate some consequences here, just as in non-electronic commerce.Over-estimation of resource competence.Can staff, hardware, software, and processes handle the proposed strategy? Have e-tales failed to develop employee and management skills? These issues may call for thorough resource planning and employee training.Products less suitable for e-commerce include products that have a low value-to-weight ratio, products that have a smell, taste, or touch component, products that need trial fittings — most notably clothing — and products where color integrity appears important.Nonetheless, Tesco.com has had success delivering groceries in the UK, albeit that many of its goods are of a generic quality, and clothing sold through the internet is big business in the U.S.Also, the recycling program Cheapcycle sells goods over the internet, but avoids the low value-to-weight ratio problem by creating different groups for various regions, so that shipping costs remain low.译文：

电子商务是时代的到来

21世纪是信息时代，第三产业不断上升，在各国的比重，特别是服务业，信息服务业成为，21世纪的主导产业，这导致了电子商务的产生和发展，在全球信息该驱动器的情况的影响下，各国的电子商务不断的改进和完善，电子商务是每一个国家和每一个大公司捕捉的焦点。并且，随着全球电子商务的迅猛发展，电子商务的规模日益扩大，如果美国在2000年的电子商务金额为488.7十亿美元，日本31.9十亿美元，德国20.6十亿美元。于是，不断地打开各国散发出的形式多样，特色各不同的电子商务解决方案。但是，由于各个国家和一些国际组织对电子商务的理解存在差异，因此制定和实施发展电子商务的政策也有国家和国家电子商务活剂缺乏有效的协调机制，发展缓慢，同时区别明显一个国家内部的电子商务活动也因缺乏有效的政策保障，受到制约。因此，本研究探讨电子商务现状和制定实施恰当的电子商务的政策问题极为迫切。但在我国，计算机和网络技术的普及和发展，电子商务迅速崛起，众多的信息技术企业，风险投资公司，生产流通企业开展电子商务的丰富。从国家经济贸易委员会，看着630多名企业的调查，目前企业在互联网的应用和发展电子商务方面，东部地区企业向好中间区域，中间是市场。但是，许多唱片店和旅行社可以在一个艰难的时期。埃里克Blachford，IAC的旅游侧面和Expedia的老板的头上，最大的网上旅行社，认为在美国的在线旅游预订可以从市场的20％快速移动到一半以上。贝佐斯先生认为网上零售商可能在未来十年捕捉零售销售的10-15％。这将是一个巨大的转变开支。如何将传统的商店应对？迈克尔·戴尔，戴尔，它通过直接销售给客户引领个人电脑市场的创始人，一直以为很多商店会变成陈列室。目前已经变化对高街的迹象。最新的苹果和索尼专卖店的目的是展示产品，在充满了期待，很多人会在网上购买。从某种程度上说，在线和离线世界可能合并。多渠道销售可能涉及的传统商店的组合，打印目录，在电视上的家庭购物频道，电话，为了服务和启用的电子商务网站。但往往可能是凡客将被鼓励把他们的订单的网站。一个对互联网的最大的商业优势是降低交易成本，通常直接转化为消费者更低的价格。所以，如果以最低的价格可以在互联网上找到，喜欢他们得到的服务，为什么他们会买别的地方？其中一个原因可能是方便;另外，关注欺诈行为，这对网上交易的最大威胁。但只要互联网继续快速提供价格和产品信息，便宜和安全，电子商务将继续增长。越来越多的企业将不得不假定客户将确切地知道到哪里寻找最佳的购买。这个市场有可能成为因为它得到完美的潜力。某些产品或服务显得更适合在网上销售;其他人仍更适合线下销售。虽然信用卡是目前支付的在线商品和服务的最流行的手段，另一种在线支付将根据Celent的占电子商务体积26 ％到2009年。许多成功的纯粹虚拟企业应对数码产品，（包括信息存储，检索和修改），音乐，电影，办公用品，教育，通信，软件，摄影和金融交易。这种类型的公司的例子包括：谷歌，eBay和Paypal。其他成功的营销，如使用直运或联属网络营销技巧，以促进有形商品的交易不维护真正的库存。示例

包括在eBay上众多卖家。虚拟营销人员能够成功地卖掉一些非数字化的产品和服务。这类产品一般具有较高的价值与重量比，它们可能涉及尴尬的采购，他们通常会去的人在偏远地区，而且它们可能会有关闭插件作为其典型的购买者。它可以适合通过标准的信箱项目特别适合于虚拟营销，确实Amazon.com，少数经久不衰达康公司之一，历来集中在这一领域。产品如备件，既像洗衣机消费项目和工业设备，如离心泵，似乎也适合进行网上销售。零售商往往需要订购备件特殊，因为它们通常不会在消费者直销现货它们最显着的衣服-并在色彩的一致性出现重要的产品。尽管如此，Tesco.com已成功在英国提供杂货，尽管它的许多货物都是一个通用的质量，并通过互联网销售的服装是大企业在美国的同时，回收计划Cheapcycle销售商品在互联网上，但避免了通过创建不同的群体对不同区域的低价值重量比的问题，从而使运输成本仍然很低。

第二篇：中英文翻译

Fundamentals This chapter describes the fundamentals of today’s wireless communications.First a detailed description of the radio channel and its modeling are presented, followed by the introduction of the principle of OFDM multi-carrier transmission.In addition, a general overview of the spread spectrum technique, especially DS-CDMA, is given and examples of potential applications for OFDM and DS-CDMA are analyzed.This introduction is essential for a better understanding of the idea behind the combination of OFDM with the spread spectrum technique, which is briefly introduced in the last part of this chapter.1.1 Radio Channel Characteristics Understanding the characteristics of the communications medium is crucial for the appropriate selection of transmission system architecture, dimensioning of its components, and optimizing system parameters, especially since mobile radio channels are considered to be the most difficult channels, since they suffer from many imperfections like multipath fading, interference, Doppler shift, and shadowing.The choice of system components is totally different if, for instance, multipath propagation with long echoes dominates the radio propagation.Therefore, an accurate channel model describing the behavior of radio wave propagation in different environments such as mobile/fixed and indoor/outdoor is needed.This may allow one, through simulations, to estimate and validate the performance of a given transmission scheme in its several design phases.1.1.1 Understanding Radio Channels In mobile radio channels(see Figure 1-1), the transmitted signal suffers from different effects, which are characterized as follows: Multipath propagation occurs as a consequence of reflections, scattering, and diffraction of the transmitted electromagnetic wave at natural and man-made objects.Thus, at the receiver antenna, a multitude of waves arrives from many different directions with different delays, attenuations, and phases.The superposition of these waves results in amplitude and phase variations of the composite received signal.Doppler spread is caused by moving objects in the mobile radio channel.Changes in the phases and amplitudes of the arriving waves occur which lead to time-variant multipath propagation.Even small movements on the order of the wavelength may result in a totally different wave superposition.The varying signal strength due to time-variant multipath propagation is referred to as fast fading.Shadowing is caused by obstruction of the transmitted waves by, e.g., hills, buildings, walls, and trees, which results in more or less strong attenuation of the signal strength.Compared to fast fading, longer distances have to be covered to significantly change the shadowing constellation.The varying signal strength due to shadowing is called slow fading and can be described by a log-normal distribution [36].Path loss indicates how the mean signal power decays with distance between transmitter and receiver.In free space, the mean signal power decreases with the square of the distance between base station(BS)and terminal station(TS).In a mobile radio channel, where often no line of sight(LOS)path exists, signal power decreases with a power higher than two and is typically in the order of three to five.Variations of the received power due to shadowing and path loss can be efficiently counteracted by power control.In the following, the mobile radio channel is described with respect to its fast fading characteristic.1.1.2 Channel Modeling The mobile radio channel can be characterized by the time-variant channel impulse response h(τ , t)or by the time-variant channel transfer function H(f, t), which is the Fourier transform of h(τ , t).The channel impulse response represents the response of the channel at time t due to an impulse applied at time t − τ.The mobile radio channel is assumed to be a wide-sense stationary random process, i.e., the channel has a fading statistic that remains constant over short periods of time or small spatial distances.In environments with multipath propagation, the channel impulse response is composed of a large number of scattered impulses received over Np different paths，Where

and ap, fD,p, ϕp, and τp are the amplitude, the Doppler frequency, the phase, and the propagation delay, respectively, associated with path p, p = 0,..., Np − 1.The assigned channel transfer function is

The delays are measured relative to the first detectable path at the receiver.The Doppler Frequency

depends on the velocity v of the terminal station, the speed of light c, the carrier frequency fc, and the angle of incidence αp of a wave assigned to path p.A channel impulse response with corresponding channel transfer function is illustrated in Figure 1-2.The delay power density spectrum ρ(τ)that characterizes the frequency selectivity of the mobile radio channel gives the average power of the channel output as a function of the delay τ.The mean delay τ , the root mean square(RMS)delay spread τRMS and the maximum delay τmax are characteristic parameters of the delay power density spectrum.The mean delay is

Where

Figure 1-2 Time-variant channel impulse response and channel transfer function with frequency-selective fading is the power of path p.The RMS delay spread is defined as Similarly, the Doppler power density spectrum S(fD)can be defined that characterizes the time variance of the mobile radio channel and gives the average power of the channel output as a function of the Doppler frequency fD.The frequency dispersive properties of multipath channels are most commonly quantified by the maximum occurring Doppler frequency fDmax and the Doppler spread fDspread.The Doppler spread is the bandwidth of the Doppler power density spectrum and can take on values up to two times |fDmax|, i.e.，1.1.3Channel Fade Statistics The statistics of the fading process characterize the channel and are of importance for channel model parameter specifications.A simple and often used approach is obtained from the assumption that there is a large number of scatterers in the channel that contribute to the signal at the receiver side.The application of the central limit theorem leads to a complex-valued Gaussian process for the channel impulse response.In the absence of line of sight(LOS)or a dominant component, the process is zero-mean.The magnitude of the corresponding channel transfer function

is a random variable, for brevity denoted by a, with a Rayleigh distribution given by

Where

is the average power.The phase is uniformly distributed in the interval [0, 2π].In the case that the multipath channel contains a LOS or dominant component in addition to the randomly moving scatterers, the channel impulse response can no longer be modeled as zero-mean.Under the assumption of a complex-valued Gaussian process for the channel impulse response, the magnitude a of the channel transfer function has a Rice distribution given by

The Rice factor KRice is determined by the ratio of the power of the dominant path to thepower of the scattered paths.I0 is the zero-order modified Bessel function of first kind.The phase is uniformly distributed in the interval [0, 2π].1.1.4Inter-Symbol(ISI)and Inter-Channel Interference(ICI)The delay spread can cause inter-symbol interference(ISI)when adjacent data symbols overlap and interfere with each other due to different delays on different propagation paths.The number of interfering symbols in a single-carrier modulated system is given by

For high data rate applications with very short symbol duration Td < τmax, the effect of ISI and, with that, the receiver complexity can increase significantly.The effect of ISI can be counteracted by different measures such as time or frequency domain equalization.In spread spectrum systems, rake receivers with several arms are used to reduce the effect of ISI by exploiting the multipath diversity such that individual arms are adapted to different propagation paths.If the duration of the transmitted symbol is significantly larger than the maximum delay Td τmax, the channel produces a negligible amount of ISI.This effect is exploited with multi-carrier transmission where the duration per transmitted symbol increases with the number of sub-carriers Nc and, hence, the amount of ISI decreases.The number of interfering symbols in a multi-carrier modulated system is given by

Residual ISI can be eliminated by the use of a guard interval(see Section 1.2).The maximum Doppler spread in mobile radio applications using single-carrier modulation is typically much less than the distance between adjacent channels, such that the effect of interference on adjacent channels due to Doppler spread is not a problem for single-carrier modulated systems.For multi-carrier modulated systems, the sub-channel spacing Fs can become quite small, such that Doppler effects can cause significant ICI.As long as all sub-carriers are affected by a common Doppler shift fD, this Doppler shift can be compensated for in the receiver and ICI can be avoided.However, if Doppler spread in the order of several percent of the sub-carrier spacing occurs, ICI may degrade the system performance significantly.To avoid performance degradations due to ICI or more complex receivers with ICI equalization, the sub-carrier spacing Fs should be chosen as

such that the effects due to Doppler spread can be neglected(see Chapter 4).This approach corresponds with the philosophy of OFDM described in Section 1.2 and is followed in current OFDM-based wireless standards.Nevertheless, if a multi-carrier system design is chosen such that the Doppler spread is in the order of the sub-carrier spacing or higher, a rake receiver in the frequency domain can be used [22].With the frequency domain rake receiver each branch of the rake resolves a different Doppler frequency.1.1.5Examples of Discrete Multipath Channel Models Various discrete multipath channel models for indoor and outdoor cellular systems with different cell sizes have been specified.These channel models define the statistics of the 5 discrete propagation paths.An overview of widely used discrete multipath channel models is given in the following.COST 207 [8]: The COST 207 channel models specify four outdoor macro cell propagation scenarios by continuous, exponentially decreasing delay power density spectra.Implementations of these power density spectra by discrete taps are given by using up to 12 taps.Examples for settings with 6 taps are listed in Table 1-1.In this table for several propagation environments the corresponding path delay and power profiles are given.Hilly terrain causes the longest echoes.The classical Doppler spectrum with uniformly distributed angles of arrival of the paths can be used for all taps for simplicity.Optionally, different Doppler spectra are defined for the individual taps in [8].The COST 207 channel models are based on channel measurements with a bandwidth of 8–10 MHz in the 900-MHz band used for 2G systems such as GSM.COST 231 [9] and COST 259 [10]: These COST actions which are the continuation of COST 207 extend the channel characterization to DCS 1800, DECT, HIPERLAN and UMTS channels, taking into account macro, micro, and pico cell scenarios.Channel models with spatial resolution have been defined in COST 259.The spatial component is introduced by the definition of several clusters with local scatterers, which are located in a circle around the base station.Three types of channel models are defined.The macro cell type has cell sizes from 500 m up to 5000 m and a carrier frequency of 900 MHz or 1.8 GHz.The micro cell type is defined for cell sizes of about 300 m and a carrier frequency of 1.2 GHz or 5 GHz.The pico cell type represents an indoor channel model with cell sizes smaller than 100 m in industrial buildings and in the order of 10 m in an office.The carrier frequency is 2.5 GHz or 24 GHz.COST 273: The COST 273 action additionally takes multi-antenna channel models into account, which are not covered by the previous COST actions.CODIT [7]: These channel models define typical outdoor and indoor propagation scenarios for macro, micro, and pico cells.The fading characteristics of the various propagation environments are specified by the parameters of the Nakagami-m distribution.Every environment is defined in terms of a number of scatterers which can take on values up to 20.Some channel models consider also the angular distribution of the scatterers.They have been developed for the investigation of 3G system proposals.Macro cell channel type models have been developed for carrier frequencies around 900 MHz with 7 MHz bandwidth.The micro and pico cell channel type models have been developed for carrier frequencies between 1.8 GHz and 2 GHz.The bandwidths of the measurements are in the range of 10–100 MHz for macro cells and around 100 MHz for pico cells.JTC [28]: The JTC channel models define indoor and outdoor scenarios by specifying 3 to 10 discrete taps per scenario.The channel models are designed to be applicable for wideband digital mobile radio systems anticipated as candidates for the PCS(Personal Communications Systems)common air interface at carrier frequencies of about 2 GHz.UMTS/UTRA [18][44]: Test propagation scenarios have been defined for UMTS and UTRA system proposals which are developed for frequencies around 2 GHz.The modeling of the multipath propagation corresponds to that used by the COST 207 channel models.HIPERLAN/2 [33]: Five typical indoor propagation scenarios for wireless LANs in the 5 GHz frequency band have been defined.Each scenario is described by 18discrete taps of the delay power density spectrum.The time variance of the channel(Doppler spread)is modeled by a classical Jake’s spectrum with a maximum terminal speed of 3 m/h.Further channel models exist which are, for instance, given in [16].1.1.6Multi-Carrier Channel Modeling Multi-carrier systems can either be simulated in the time domain or, more computationally efficient, in the frequency domain.Preconditions for the frequency domain implementation are the absence of ISI and ICI, the frequency nonselective fading per sub-carrier, and the time-invariance during one OFDM symbol.A proper system design approximately fulfills these preconditions.The discrete channel transfer function adapted to multi-carrier signals results in

where the continuous channel transfer function H(f, t)is sampled in time at OFDM symbol rate s and in frequency at sub-carrier spacing Fs.The duration

s is the total OFDM symbol duration including the guard interval.Finally, a symbol transmitted onsub-channel n of the OFDM symbol i is multiplied by the resulting fading amplitude an,i and rotated by a random phase ϕn,i.The advantage of the frequency domain channel model is that the IFFT and FFT operation for OFDM and inverse OFDM can be avoided and the fading operation results in one complex-valued multiplication per sub-carrier.The discrete multipath channel models introduced in Section 1.1.5 can directly be applied to(1.16).A further simplification of the channel modeling for multi-carrier systems is given by using the so-called uncorrelated fading channel models.1.1.6.1Uncorrelated Fading Channel Models for Multi-Carrier Systems These channel models are based on the assumption that the fading on adjacent data symbols after inverse OFDM and de-interleaving can be considered as uncorrelated [29].This assumption holds when, e.g., a frequency and time interleaver with sufficient interleaving depth is applied.The fading amplitude an,i is chosen from a distribution p(a)according to the considered cell type and the random phase ϕn,I is uniformly distributed in the interval [0,2π].The resulting complex-valued channel fading coefficient is thus generated independently for each sub-carrier and OFDM symbol.For a propagation scenario in a macro cell without LOS, the fading amplitude an,i is generated by a Rayleigh distribution and the channel model is referred to as an uncorrelated Rayleigh fading channel.For smaller cells where often a dominant propagation component occurs, the fading amplitude is chosen from a Rice distribution.The advantages of the uncorrelated fading channel models for multi-carrier systems are their simple implementation in the frequency domain and the simple reproducibility of the simulation results.1.1.7Diversity The coherence bandwidth of a mobile radio channel is the bandwidth over which the signal propagation characteristics are correlated and it can be approximated by

The channel is frequency-selective if the signal bandwidth B is larger than the coherence bandwidth.On the other hand, if B is smaller than , the channel is frequency nonselective or flat.The coherence bandwidth of the channel is of importance for evaluating the performance of spreading and frequency interleaving techniques that try to exploit the inherent frequency diversity Df of the mobile radio channel.In the case of multi-carrier transmission, frequency diversity is exploited if the separation of sub-carriers transmitting the same information exceeds the coherence bandwidth.The maximum achievable frequency diversity Df is given by the ratio between the signal bandwidth B and the coherence bandwidth，The coherence time of the channel is the duration over which the channel characteristics can be considered as time-invariant and can be approximated by

If the duration of the transmitted symbol is larger than the coherence time, the channel is time-selective.On the other hand, if the symbol duration is smaller than , the channel is time nonselective during one symbol duration.The coherence time of the channel is of importance for evaluating the performance of coding and interleaving techniques that try to exploit the inherent time diversity DO of the mobile radio channel.Time diversity can be exploited if the separation between time slots carrying the same information exceeds the coherence time.A number of Ns successive time slots create a time frame of duration Tfr.The maximum time diversity Dt achievable in one time frame is given by the ratio between the duration of a time frame and the coherence time, A system exploiting frequency and time diversity can achieve the overall diversity

The system design should allow one to optimally exploit the available diversity DO.For instance, in systems with multi-carrier transmission the same information should be transmitted on different sub-carriers and in different time slots, achieving uncorrelated faded replicas of the information in both dimensions.Uncoded multi-carrier systems with flat fading per sub-channel and time-invariance during one symbol cannot exploit diversity and have a poor performance in time and frequency selective fading channels.Additional methods have to be applied to exploit diversity.One approach is the use of data spreading where each data symbol is spread by a spreading code of length L.This, in combination with interleaving, can achieve performance results which are given for

by the closed-form solution for the BER for diversity reception in Rayleigh fading channels according to [40]

Whererepresents the combinatory function，and σ2 is the variance of the noise.As soon as the interleaving is not perfect or the diversity offered by the channel is smaller than the spreading code length L, or MCCDMA with multiple access interference is applied,(1.22)is a lower bound.For L = 1, the performance of an OFDM system without forward error correction(FEC)is obtained, 9

which cannot exploit any diversity.The BER according to(1.22)of an OFDM(OFDMA, MC-TDMA)system and a multi-carrier spread spectrum(MC-SS)system with different spreading code lengths L is shown in Figure 1-3.No other diversity techniques are applied.QPSK modulation is used for symbol mapping.The mobile radio channel is modeled as uncorrelated Rayleigh fading channel(see Section 1.1.6).As these curves show, for large values of L, the performance of MC-SS systems approaches that of an AWGN channel.Another form of achieving diversity in OFDM systems is channel coding by FEC, where the information of each data bit is spread over several code bits.Additional to the diversity gain in fading channels, a coding gain can be obtained due to the selection of appropriate coding and decoding algorithms.中文翻译 1基本原理

这章描述今日的基本面的无线通信。第一一个的详细说明无线电频道，它的模型被介绍，跟随附近的的介绍的原则的参考正交频分复用多载波传输。此外，一个一般概观的扩频技术，尤其ds-cdma，被给，潜力的例子申请参考正交频分复用，DS对1。分配的通道传输功能是

有关的延误测量相对于第一个在接收器检测到的路径。多普勒频率

取决于终端站，光速c，载波频率fc的速度和发病路径分配给速度v波αp角度页具有相应通道传输信道冲激响应函数图1-2所示。

延迟功率密度谱ρ（τ）为特征的频率选择性移动无线电频道给出了作为通道的输出功能延迟τ平均功率。平均延迟τ，均方根（RMS）的时延扩展τRMS和最大延迟τmax都是延迟功率密度谱特征参数。平均时延特性参数为

有

图1-2时变信道冲激响应和通道传递函数频率选择性衰落是权力页的路径均方根时延扩展的定义为 同样，多普勒频谱的功率密度（FD）的特点可以定义

在移动时变无线信道，并给出了作为一种金融衍生工具功能的多普勒频率通道输出的平均功率。多径信道频率分散性能是最常见的量化发生的多普勒频率和多普勒fDmax蔓延fDspread最大。多普勒扩散是功率密度的多普勒频谱带宽，可价值观需要两年时间| fDmax|，即

1.1.3频道淡出统计

在衰落过程中的统计特征和重要的渠道是信道模型参数规格。一个简单而经常使用的方法是从假设有一个通道中的散射，有助于在大量接收端的信号。该中心极限定理的应用导致了复杂的值的高斯信道冲激响应过程。在对视线（LOS）或线的主要组成部分的情况下，这个过程是零的意思。相应的通道传递函数幅度

是一个随机变量，通过给定一个简短表示由瑞利分布，有

是的平均功率。相均匀分布在区间[0，2π]。

在案件的多通道包含洛杉矶的或主要组件除了随机移动散射，通道脉冲响应可以不再被建模为均值为零。根据信道脉冲响应的假设一个复杂的值高斯过程，其大小通道的传递函数A的水稻分布给出

赖斯因素KRice是由占主导地位的路径权力的威力比分散的路径。I0是零阶贝塞尔函数的第一阶段是一致kind.The在区间[0，2π]分发。

1.1.4符号间（ISI）和通道间干扰（ICI）

延迟的蔓延引起的符号间干扰（ISI）当相邻的数据符号上的重叠与互相不同的传播路径，由于不同的延迟干涉。符号的干扰在单载波调制系统的号码是给予

对于高数据符号持续时间很短运输署<蟿MAX时，ISI的影响，这样一来，速率应用，接收机的复杂性大大增加。对干扰影响，可以抵消，如时间或频域均衡不同的措施。在扩频系统，与几个臂Rake接收机用于减少通过利用多径分集等，个别武器适应不同的传播路径的干扰影响。

如果发送符号的持续时间明显高于大的最大延迟运输署蟿最大，渠道产生ISI的微不足道。这种效果是利用多载波传输的地方，每发送符号的增加与子载波数控数目，因此，ISI的金额减少的持续时间。符号的干扰多载波调制系统的号码是给予

可以消除符号间干扰由一个保护间隔（见1.2节）的使用。

最大多普勒在移动无线应用传播使用单载波调制通常比相邻通道，这样，干扰对由于多普勒传播相邻通道的作用不是一个单载波调制系统的问题距离。对于多载波调制系统，子通道间距FS可以变得非常小，这样可以造成严重的多普勒效应ICI的。只要所有子载波只要是一个共同的多普勒频移金融衍生工具的影响，这可以补偿多普勒频移在接收器和ICI是可以避免的。但是，如果在对多普勒子载波间隔为几个百分点的蔓延情况，卜内门可能会降低系统的性能显着。为了避免性能降级或因与ICI卜内门更复杂的接收机均衡，子载波间隔财政司司长应定为

这样说，由于多普勒效应可以忽略不扩散（见第4章）。这种方法对应于OFDM的1.2节中所述，是目前基于OFDM的无线标准遵循的理念。

不过，如果多载波系统的设计选择了这样的多普勒展宽在子载波间隔或更高，秩序是在频率RAKE接收机域名可以使用[22]。随着频域RAKE接收机每个支部耙解决了不同的多普勒频率。

1.1.5多径信道模型的离散的例子

各类离散多与不同的细胞大小的室内和室外蜂窝系统的信道模型已经被指定。这些通道模型定义的离散传播路径的统计信息。一种广泛使用的离散多径信道模型概述于下。造价207[8]：成本207信道模型指定连续四个室外宏蜂窝传播方案，指数下降延迟功率密度谱。这些频道功率密度的离散谱的实现都是通过使用多达12个频道。与6频道设置的示例列于表1-1。在这种传播环境的几个表中的相应路径延迟和电源配置给出。丘陵地形导致最长相呼应。

经典的多普勒频谱与均匀分布的到达角路径可以用于简化所有的频道。或者，不同的多普勒谱定义在[8]个人频道。207信道的成本模型是基于一个8-10兆赫的2G，如GSM系统中使用的900兆赫频段信道带宽的测量。造价231[9]和造价259[10]：这些费用是行动的延续成本207扩展通道特性到DCS1800的DECT，HIPERLAN和UMTS的渠道，同时考虑到宏观，微观和微微小区的情况为例。空间分辨率与已定义的通道模型在造价259。空间部分是介绍了与当地散射，这是在基站周围设几组圆的定义。三种类型的通道模型定义。宏细胞类型具有高达500〜5000米，载波频率为900兆赫或1.8 GHz的单元尺寸。微细胞类型被定义为细胞体积约300米，1.2 GHz或5 GHz载波频率。细胞类型代表的Pico与细胞体积小于100工业建筑物和办公室中的10 m阶米室内信道模型。载波频率为2.5 GHz或24千兆赫。造价273：成本273行动另外考虑到多天线信道模型，这是不是由先前的费用的行为包括在内。

CODIT [7]：这些通道模型定义的宏，微，微微蜂窝和室外和室内传播的典型案例。各种传播环境的衰落特性是指定的在NakagamiSS）的不同扩频码L是长度，如图1-3所示的系统。没有其他的分集技术被应用。QPSK调制用于符号映射。移动无线信道建模为不相关瑞利衰落信道（见1.1.6）。由于这些曲线显示，办法，AWGN信道的一对L时，对MC-SS系统性能有很大价值。

另一种实现形式的OFDM系统的多样性是由前向纠错信道编码，在这里，每个数据位的信息分散在几个代码位。附加在衰落信道分集增益，编码增益一个可因适当的编码和解码算法的选择。

第三篇：中英文翻译

蓄电池 battery 充电 converter 转换器 charger

开关电器 Switch electric 按钮开关 Button to switch 电源电器 Power electric 插头插座 Plug sockets

第四篇：中英文翻译

特种加工工艺

介绍

传统加工如车削、铣削和磨削等，是利用机械能将金属从工件上剪切掉，以加工成孔或去除余料。特种加工是指这样一组加工工艺，它们通过各种涉及机械能、热能、电能、化学能或及其组合形式的技术，而不使用传统加工所必需的尖锐刀具来去除工件表面的多余材料。

传统加工如车削、钻削、刨削、铣削和磨削，都难以加工特别硬的或脆性材料。采用传统方法加工这类材料就意味着对时间和能量要求有所增加，从而导致成本增加。在某些情况下，传统加工可能行不通。由于在加工过程中会产生残余应力，传统加工方法还会造成刀具磨损，损坏产品质量。基于以下各种特殊理由，特种加工工艺或称为先进制造工艺，可以应用于采用传统加工方法不可行，不令人满意或者不经济的场合：

1.对于传统加工难以夹紧的非常硬的脆性材料； 2.当工件柔性很大或很薄时； 3.当零件的形状过于复杂时；

4.要求加工出的零件没有毛刺或残余应力。

传统加工可以定义为利用机械（运动）能的加工方法，而特种加工利用其他形式的能量，主要有如下三种形式： 1.热能； 2.化学能； 3.电能。

为了满足额外的加工条件的要求，已经开发出了几类特种加工工艺。恰当地使用这些加工工艺可以获得很多优于传统加工工艺的好处。常见的特种加工工艺描述如下。

电火花加工

电火花加工是使用最为广泛的特种加工工艺之一。相比于利用不同刀具进行金属切削和磨削的常规加工，电火花加工更为吸引人之处在于它利用工件和电极间的一系列重复产生的（脉冲）离散电火花所产生的热电作用，从工件表面通过电腐蚀去除掉多余的材料。

传统加工工艺依靠硬质刀具或磨料去除较软的材料，而特种加工工艺如电火花加工，则是利用电火花或热能来电蚀除余料，以获得所需的零件形状。因此，材料的硬度不再是电火花加工中的关键因素。

电火花加工是利用存储在电容器组中的电能（一般为50V/10A量级）在工具电极（阴极）和工件电极（阳极）之间的微小间隙间进行放电来去除材料的。如图6.1所示，在EDM操作初始，在工具电极和工件电极间施以高电压。这个高电压可以在工具电极和工件电极窄缝间的绝缘电介质中产生电场。这就会使悬浮在电介质中的导电粒子聚集在电场最强处。当工具电极和工件电极之间的势能差足够大时，电介质被击穿，从而在电介质流体中会产生瞬时电火花，将少量材料从工件表面蚀除掉。每次电火花所蚀除掉的材料量通常在10-5～10-6mm3范围内。电极之间的间隙只有千分之几英寸，通过伺服机构驱动和控制工具电极的进给使该值保持常量。化学加工

化学加工是众所周知的特种加工工艺之一，它将工件浸入化学溶液通过腐蚀溶解作用将多余材料从工件上去除掉。该工艺是最古老的特种加工工艺，主要用于凹腔和轮廓加工，以及从具有高的比刚度的零件表面去除余料。化学加工广泛用于为多种工业应用（如微机电系统和半导体行业）制造微型零件。

化学加工将工件浸入到化学试剂或蚀刻剂中，位于工件选区的材料通过发生在金属溶蚀或化学溶解过程中的电化学微电池作用被去除掉。而被称为保护层的特殊涂层所保护下的区域中的材料则不会被去除。不过，这种受控的化学溶解过程同时也会蚀除掉所以暴露在表面的材料，尽管去除的渗透率只有0.0025～0.1 mm/min。该工艺采用如下几种形式：凹坑加工、轮廓加工和整体金属去除的化学铣，在薄板上进行蚀刻的化学造型，在微电子领域中利用光敏抗蚀剂完成蚀刻的光化学加工(PCM)，采用弱化学试剂进行抛光或去毛刺的电化学抛光，以及利用单一化学活性喷射的化学喷射加工等。如图6.2a所示的化学加工示意图，由于蚀刻剂沿垂直和水平方向开始蚀除材料，钻蚀（又称为淘蚀）量进一步加大，如图6.2b所示的保护体边缘下面的区域。在化学造型中最典型的公差范围可保持在材料厚度的±10%左右。为了提高生产率，在化学加工前，毛坯件材料应采用其他工艺方法（如机械加工）进行预成形加工。湿度和温度也会导致工件尺寸发生改变。通过改变蚀刻剂和控制工件加工环境，这种尺寸改变可以减小到最小。

电化学加工

电化学金属去除方法是一种最有用的特种加工方法。尽管利用电解作用作为金属加工手段是近代的事，但其基本原理是法拉第定律。利用阳极溶解，电化学加工可以去除具有导电性质工件的材料，而无须机械能和热能。这个加工过程一般用于在高强度材料上加工复杂形腔和形状，特别是在航空工业中如涡轮机叶片、喷气发动机零件和喷嘴，以及在汽车业（发动机铸件和齿轮）和医疗卫生业中。最近，还将电化学加工应用于电子工业的微加工中。

图6.3所示的是一个去除金属的电化学加工过程，其基本原理与电镀原理正好相反。在电化学加工过程中，从阳极（工件）上蚀除下的粒子移向阴极（加工工具）。金属的去除由一个合适形状的工具电极来完成，最终加工出来的零件具有给定的形状、尺寸和表面光洁度。在电化学加工过程中，工具电极的形状逐渐被转移或复制到工件上。型腔的形状正好是与工具相匹配的阴模的形状。为了获得电化学过程形状复制的高精度和高的材料去除率，需要采用高的电流密度（范围为10～100 A/cm2)和低电压（范围为8～30V）。通过将工具电极向去除工件表面材料的方向进给，加工间隙要维持在0.1 mm范围内，而进给率一般为0.1～20 mm/min左右。泵压后的电解液以高达5～50 m/s的速度通过间隙，将溶解后的材料、气体和热量带走。因此，当被蚀除的材料还没来得及附着到工具电极上时，就被电解液带走了。

作为一种非机械式金属去除加工方法，ECM可以以高切削量加工任何导电材料，而无须考虑材料的机械性能。特别是在电化学加工中，材料去除率与被加工件的硬度、韧性及其他特性无关。对于利用机械方法难于加工的材料，电化学加工可以保证将该材料加工出复杂形状的零件，这就不需要制造出硬度高于工件的刀具，而且也不会造成刀具磨损。由于工具和工件间没有接触，电化学加工是加工薄壁、易变形零件及表面容易破裂的脆性材料的首选。激光束加工

LASER是英文Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation 各单词头一个字母所组成的缩写词。虽然激光在某些场合可用来作为放大器，但它的主要用途是光激射振荡器，或者是作为将电能转换为具有高度准直性光束的换能器。由激光发射出的光能具有不同于其他光源的特点：光谱纯度好、方向性好及具有高的聚焦功率密度。

激光加工就是利用激光和和靶材间的相互作用去除材料。简而言之，这些加工工艺包括激光打孔、激光切割、激光焊接、激光刻槽和激光刻划等。

激光加工（图6.4）可以实现局部的非接触加工，而且对加工件几乎没有作用力。这种加工工艺去除材料的量很小，可以说是“逐个原子”地去除材料。由于这个原因，激光切削所产生的切口非常窄。激光打孔深度可以控制到每个激光脉冲不超过一微米，且可以根据加工要求很灵活地留下非常浅的永久性标记。采用这种方法可以节省材料，这对于贵重材料或微加工中的精密结构而言非常重要。可以精确控制材料去除率使得激光加工成为微制造和微电子技术中非常重要的加工方法。厚度小于20 mm的板材的激光切割加工速度快、柔性好、质量高。另外，通过套孔加工还可有效实现大孔及复杂轮廓的加工。

激光加工中的热影响区相对较窄，其重铸层只有几微米。基于此，激光加工的变形可以不予考虑。激光加工适用于任何可以很好地吸收激光辐射的材料，而传统加工工艺必须针对不同硬度和耐磨性的材料选择合适的刀具。采用传统加工方法，非常难以加工硬脆材料如陶瓷等，而激光加工是解决此类问题的最好选择。

激光切割的边缘光滑且洁净，无须进一步处理。激光打孔可以加工用其他方法难以加工的高深径比的孔。激光加工可以加工出高质量的小盲孔、槽、表面微造型和表面印痕。激光技术正处于高速发展期，激光加工也如此。激光加工不会挂渣，没有毛边，可以精确控制几何精度。随着激光技术的快速发展，激光加工的质量正在稳步提高。

超声加工

超声加工为日益增长的对脆性材料如单晶体、玻璃、多晶陶瓷材料的加工需求及不断提高的工件复杂形状和轮廓加工提供了解决手段。这种加工过程不产生热量、无化学反应，加工出的零件在微结构、化学和物理特性方面都不发生变化，可以获得无应力加工表面。因此，超声加工被广泛应用于传统加工难以切削的硬脆材料。在超声加工中，实际切削由液体中的悬浮磨粒或者旋转的电镀金刚石工具来完成。超声加工的变型有静止（传统）超声加工和旋转超声加工。

传统的超声加工是利用作为小振幅振动的工具与工件之间不断循环的含有磨粒的浆料的磨蚀作用去除材料的。成形工具本身并不磨蚀工件，是受激振动的工具通过激励浆料液流中的磨料不断缓和而均匀地磨损工件，从而在工件表面留下与工具相对应的精确形状。音极工具振动的均匀性使超声加工只能完成小型零件的加工，特别是直径小于100 mm 的零件。

超声加工系统包括音极组件、超声发生器、磨料供给系统及操作人员的控制。音极是暴露在超声波振动中的一小块金属或工具，它将振动能传给某个元件，从而激励浆料中的磨粒。超声加工系统的示意图如图6.5所示。音极/工具组件由换能器、变幅杆和音极组成。换能器将电脉冲转换成垂直冲程，垂直冲程再传给变幅杆进行放大或压抑。调节后的冲程再传给音极/工具组件。此时，工具表面的振动幅值为20～50μm。工具的振幅通常与所使用的磨粒直径大致相等。

磨料供给系统将由水和磨粒组成的浆料送至切削区，磨粒通常为碳化硅或碳化硼。另外，除了提供磨粒进行切削外，浆料还可对音极进行冷却，并将切削区的磨粒和切屑带走。

Nontraditional Machining Processes Introduction

Traditional or conventional machining, such as turning, milling, and grinding etc., uses mechanical energy to shear metal against another substance to create holes or remove material.Nontraditional machining processes are defined as a group of processes that remove excess material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp cutting tool as it is used in traditional manufacturing processes.Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to be machined by traditional machining processes.Using traditional methods to machine such materials means increased demand for time and energy and therefore increases in costs;in some cases traditional machining may not be feasible.Traditional machining also results in tool wear and loss of quality in the product owing to induced residual stresses during machining.Nontraditional machining processes, also called unconventional machining process or advanced manufacturing processes, are employed where traditional machining processes are not feasible, satisfactory or economical due to special reasons as outlined below: 1.Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining;2.When the workpiece is too flexible or slender;3.When the shape of the part is too complex;4.Parts without producing burrs or inducing residual stresses.Traditional machining can be defined as a process using mechanical(motion)energy.Non-traditional machining utilizes other forms of energy;the three main forms of energy used in non-traditional machining processes are as follows: 1.Thermal energy;2.Chemical energy;3.Electrical energy.Several types of nontraditional machining processes have been developed to meet extra required machining conditions.When these processes are employed properly, they offer many advantages over traditional machining processes.The common nontraditional machining processes are described in the following section.Electrical Discharge Machining(EDM)

Electrical discharge machining(EDM)sometimes is colloquially referred to as spark machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking or wire erosion.It is one of the most widely used non-traditional machining processes.The main attraction of EDM over traditional machining processes such as metal cutting using different tools and grinding is that this technique utilizes thermoelectric process to erode undesired materials from the workpiece by a series of rapidly recurring discrete electrical sparks between workpiece and electrode.The traditional machining processes rely on harder tool or abrasive material to remove softer material whereas nontraditional machining processes such as EDM uses electrical spark or thermal energy to erode unwanted material in order to create desired shapes.So, the hardness of the material is no longer a dominating factor for EDM process.EDM removes material by discharging an electrical current, normally stored in a capacitor bank, across a small gap between the tool(cathode)and the workpiece(anode)typically in the order of 50 volts/10amps.As shown in Fig.6.1, at the beginning of EDM operation, a high voltage is applied across the narrow gap between the electrode and the workpiece.This high voltage induces an electric field in the insulating dielectric that is present in narrow gap between electrode and workpiece.This causes conducting particles suspended in the dielectric to concentrate at the points of strongest electrical field.When the potential difference between the electrode and the workpiece is sufficiently high, the dielectric breaks down and a transient spark discharges through the dielectric fluid, removing small amount of material from the workpiece surface.The volume of the material removed per spark discharge is typically in the range of 10-5 to 10-6 mm3.The gap is only a few thousandths of an inch, which is maintained at a constant value by the servomechanism that actuates and controls the tool feed.Chemical Machining(CM)

Chemical machining(CM)is a well known non-traditional machining process in which metal is removed from a workpiece by immersing it into a chemical solution.The process is the oldest of the nontraditional processes and has been used to produce pockets and contours and to remove materials from parts having a high strength-to-weight ratio.Moreover, the chemical machining method is widely used to produce micro-components for various industrial applications such as microelectromechanical systems(MEMS)and semiconductor industries.In CM material is removed from selected areas of workpiece by immersing it in a chemical reagents or etchants, such as acids and alkaline solutions.Material is removed by microscopic electrochemical cell action which occurs in corrosion or chemical dissolution of a metal.Special coatings called maskants protect areas from which the metal is not to be removed.This controlled chemical dissolution will simultaneously etch all exposed surfaces even though the penetration rates of the material removed may be only 0.0025-0.1mm/min.The basic process takes many forms: chemical milling of pockets, contours, overall metal removal, chemical blanking for etching through thin sheets;photochemical machining(pcm)for etching by using of photosensitive resists in microelectronics;chemical or electrochemical polishing where weak chemical reagents are used(sometimes with remote electric assist)for polishing or deburring and chemical jet machining where a single chemically active jet is used.A schematic of chemical machining process is shown in Fig.6.2a.Because the etchant attacks the material in both vertical and horizontal directions, undercuts may develop(as shown by the areas under the edges of the maskant in Fig.6.2b).Typically, tolerances of ±10% of the material thickness can be maintained in chemical blanking.In order to improve the production rate, the bulk of the workpiece should be shaped by other processes(such as by machining)prior to chemical machining.Dimensional variations can occur because of size changes in workpiece due to humidity and temperature.This variation can be minimized by properly selecting etchants and controlling the environment in the part generation and the production area in the plant.Electrochemical Machining(ECM)

Electrochemical metal removal is one of the more useful nontraditional machining processes.Although the application of electrolytic machining as a metal-working tool is relatively new, the basic principles are based on Faraday laws.Thus, electrochemical machining can be used to remove electrically conductive workpiece material through anodic dissolution.No mechanical or thermal energy is involved.This process is generally used to machine complex cavities and shapes in high-strength materials, particularly in the aerospace industry for the mass production of turbine blades, jet-engine parts, and nozzles, as well as in the automotive(engines castings and gears)and medical industries.More recent applications of ECM include micromachining for the electronics industry.Electrochemical machining(ECM), shown in Fig.6.3, is a metal-removal process based on the principle of reverse electroplating.In this process, particles travel from the anodic material(workpiece)toward the cathodic material(machining tool).Metal removal is effected by a suitably shaped tool electrode, and the parts thus produced have the specified shape, dimensions, and surface finish.ECM forming is carried out so that the shape of the tool electrode is transferred onto, or duplicated in, the workpiece.The cavity produced is the female mating image of the tool shape.For high accuracy in shape duplication and high rates of metal removal, the process is operated at very high current densities of the order 10-100 A/cm2,at relative low voltage usually from 8 to 30 V, while maintaining a very narrow machining gap(of the order of 0.1 mm)by feeding the tool electrode with a feed rate from 0.1 to 20 mm/min.Dissolved material, gas, and heat are removed from the narrow machining gap by the flow of electrolyte pumped through the gap at a high velocity(5-50 m/s), so the current of electrolyte fluid carries away the deplated material before it has a chance to reach the machining tool.Being a non-mechanical metal removal process, ECM is capable of machining any electrically conductive material with high stock removal rates regardless of their mechanical properties.In particular, removal rate in ECM is independent of the hardness, toughness and other properties of the material being machined.The use of ECM is most warranted in the manufacturing of complex-shaped parts from materials that lend themselves poorly to machining by other, above all mechanical methods.There is no need to use a tool made of a harder material than the workpiece, and there is practically no tool wear.Since there is no contact between the tool and the work, ECM is the machining method of choice in the case of thin-walled, easily deformable components and also brittle materials likely to develop cracks in the surface layer.Laser Beam Machining(LBM)

LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.Although the laser is used as a light amplifier in some applications, its principal use is as an optical oscillator or transducer for converting electrical energy into a highly collimated beam of optical radiation.The light energy emitted by the laser has several characteristics which distinguish it from other light sources: spectral purity, directivity and high focused power density.Laser machining is the material removal process accomplished through laser and target material interactions.Generally speaking, these processes include laser drilling, laser cutting, laser welding, and laser grooving, marking or scribing.Laser machining(Fig.6.4)is localized, non-contact machining and is almost reacting-force free.This process can remove material in very small amount and is said to remove material “atom by atom”.For this reason, the kerf in laser cutting is usually very narrow , the depth of laser drilling can be controlled to less than one micron per laser pulse and shallow permanent marks can be made with great flexibility.In this way material can be saved, which may be important for precious materials or for delicate structures in micro-fabrications.The ability of accurate control of material removal makes laser machining an important process in micro-fabrication and micro-electronics.Also laser cutting of sheet material with thickness less than 20mm can be fast, flexible and of high quality, and large holes or any complex contours can be efficiently made through trepanning.Heat Affected Zone(HAZ)in laser machining is relatively narrow and the re-solidified layer is of micron dimensions.For this reason, the distortion in laser machining is negligible.LBM can be applied to any material that can properly absorb the laser irradiation.It is difficult to machine hard materials or brittle materials such as ceramics using traditional methods, laser is a good choice for solving such difficulties.Laser cutting edges can be made smooth and clean, no further treatment is necessary.High aspect ratio holes with diameters impossible for other methods can be drilled using lasers.Small blind holes, grooves, surface texturing and marking can be achieved with high quality using LBM.Laser technology is in rapid progressing, so do laser machining processes.Dross adhesion and edge burr can be avoided, geometry precision can be accurately controlled.The machining quality is in constant progress with the rapid progress in laser technology.Ultrasonic Machining(USM)

Ultrasonic machining offers a solution to the expanding need for machining brittle materials such as single crystals, glasses and polycrystalline ceramics, and for increasing complex operations to provide intricate shapes and workpiece profiles.This machining process is non-thermal, non-chemical, creates no change in the microstructure, chemical or physical properties of the workpiece and offers virtually stress-free machined surfaces.It is therefore used extensively in machining hard and brittle materials that are difficult to cut by other traditional methods.The actual cutting is performed either by abrasive particles suspended in a fluid, or by a rotating diamond-plate tool.These variants are known respectively as stationary(conventional)ultrasonic machining and rotary ultrasonic machining(RUM).Conventional ultrasonic machining(USM)accomplishes the removal of material by the abrading action of a grit-loaded slurry, circulating between the workpiece and a tool that is vibrated with small amplitude.The form tool itself does not abrade the workpiece;the vibrating tool excites the abrasive grains in the flushing fluid, causing them to gently and uniformly wear away the material, leaving a precise reverse from of the tool shape.The uniformity of the sonotrode-tool vibration limits the process to forming small shapes typically under 100 mm in diameter.The USM system includes the Sonotrode-tool assembly, the generator, the grit system and the operator controls.The sonotrode is a piece of metal or tool that is exposed to ultrasonic vibration, and then gives this vibratory energy in an element to excite the abrasive grains in the slurry.A schematic representation of the USM set-up is shown in Fig.6.5.The sonotrode-tool assembly consists of a transducer, a booster and a sonotrode.The transducer converts the electrical pulses into vertical stroke.This vertical stroke is transferred to the booster, which may amplify or suppress the stroke amount.The modified stroke is then relayed to the sonotrode-tool assembly.The amplitude along the face of the tool typically falls in a 20 to 50 μm range.The vibration amplitude is usually equal to the diameter of the abrasive grit used.The grit system supplies a slurry of water and abrasive grit, usually silicon or boron carbide, to the cutting area.In addition to providing abrasive particles to the cut, the slurry also cools the sonotrode and removes particles and debris from the cutting area.

第五篇：中英文翻译机器人

中英文翻译机器人

机器人 工业机器人是在生产环境中用以提高生产效率的工具，它能做常规的装配线工作，或能做那些对于工人来说是危险的工作，例如，第一代工业机器人是用来在核电站中更换核燃料棒，如果人去做这项工作，将会遭受有害放射线的辐射。工业机器人亦能工作在装配线上将小元件装配到一起，如将电子元件安装在电路印刷板，这样，工人就能从这项乏味的常规工作中解放出来。机器人也能按程序要求用来拆除炸弹，辅助残疾人，在社会的很多应用场合履行职能。机器人可以认为是将手臂末端的工具、传感器和（或）手爪移到程序指定位置的一种机器。当机器人到达位置后，他将执行某种任务。这些任务可以是焊接、密封、机器装料、拆卸以及装配工作。除了编程以及系统的开停之外，这些工作可以在无人干预下完成。如下叙述的是机器人系统基本术语： 机器人是一个可编程、多功能的机器手，通过给要完成的不同任务编制各种动作，它可以移动零件、材料、工具以及特殊装置。这个基本定义引导出后续段落的其他定义，从而描绘出一个完整的机器人系统。预编程位置点是机器人为完成工作而必须跟踪的轨迹。在某些位置点上机器人将停下来做某写操作，如装配零件、喷涂油漆或焊接。这些预编程点贮存在机器人的贮存器中，并为后续的连续操作所调用，而且这些预编程点像其他程序数据一样，可在日后随工作需要而变化。因而，正是这种可编程的特征，一个工业机器人很像一台计算机，数据可在这里储存、后续调用与编辑。机械手上机器人的手臂，它使机器人能弯曲、延伸、和旋转，提供这些运动的是机器手的轴，亦是所谓的机器人的自由度。一个机器人能有 3—16 轴，自由度一词总是与机器人轴数相关。工具和手爪不是机器人自身组成部分，但它们安装在机器人手臂末端的附件。这些连在机器人手臂末端的附件可使机器人抬起工件、点焊、刷漆、电弧焊、钻孔、打毛刺以及根据机器人的要求去做各种各样的工作。机器人系统还可以控制机器人的工作单元，工作单元是机器人执行任务所处的整体环境，包括控制器、机械手、工作平台、安全保护装置或者传输装置。所有这些为保证机器人完成自己任务而必需的装置都包括在这一工作单元中。另外，来自外设的信号与机器人通讯，通知机器人何时装配工件、取工件或放工件到传输装置上。机器人系统有三个基本部件：机械手、控制器和动力源。A.机械手 机械手做机器人系统中粗重工作，它包括两个部分：机构和附件，机械手也有联接附件基座，图 1 表示了一机器人基座与附件之间的联接情况。图 1 机械手基座通常在工作区域的地基上，有时基座也可以移动，在这种情况下基座安装在导轨或轨道上，允许机械手从一个位置移动到另外一个位置。正如前面所提到的那样，附件从机器人基座上延伸出来，附件就是机器人的手臂，它可以是直接型，也可以是轴节型手臂，轴节型手臂也是大家所知的关节型手臂。机械臂使机械手产生各轴的运动。这些轴连在一个安装基座上，然后再连到托架上，托架确保机械手停留在某一位置。在手臂的末端上，连接着手腕（图 1），手腕由辅助轴和手腕凸缘组成，手腕是让机器人用户在手腕凸缘上安装不同工具来做不同种工作。机械手的轴使机械手在某一区域内执行任务，我们将这个区域为机器人的工作单元，该区域的大小与机器手的尺寸相对应，（图 2）列举了一个典型装配机器人的工作单元。随着机器人机械结构尺寸的增加。工作单元的范围也必须相应增加。图 2 机械手的运动由执行元件或驱动系统来控制。执行元件或驱动系统允许个轴在工作单元内运动。驱动系统可用电气、液压和气压动力，驱动系统所产生的动力经机构转变为机械能，驱动系统与机械传动链相匹配。有链、齿轮和滚珠丝杠组成的机械传动链驱动着机器人的各轴。B.控制器 机器人控制器是工作单元的核心。控制器储存着预编程序供调用、控制外设，及与厂内计算进行通讯以满足产品经常更新的需要。控制器用于控制机器手运动和在工作单元内控制机器人外设。用户可通过手持的示教盒将机械手运动的程序编入控制器。这些信息储存在控制器的存储器中以备后续调用，控制器储存了机器人系统的所有编程数据，它能储存几个不同的程序，并且所有这些程序均能编辑。控制器要求能够在工作单元内外设进行通信。例如控制器有一个输入端，它能标识某个机加工操作何时完成。当该加工循环完成后，输入端接通，告诉控制器定位机械手以便能抓取已加工工件，随后，机械手抓取一未加工件，将其放置在机床上。接着，控制器给机床发出开始加工的信号。控制器可以由根据事件顺序而步进的机械式轮鼓组成，这种类型的控制器可用在非常简单的机械系统中。用于大多数人系统中的控制器代表现代电子学的水平，是更复杂的装置，即它们是由微处理器操纵的。这些微处理器可以是 8 位，16 位或 32 位处理器。它们可以使得控制器在操纵工程中显非常柔性。控制器能通过通信线发送信号，使它能与机械手各轴交流信息，在机器人的机械手和控制器之间的双向交流信息可以保持操作和位置经常更新，控制器亦能控制安装在机器人手腕上的任何工具。控制器也有与厂内各计算机进行通信的任务，这种通信联系使机器人成为计算机辅助制造（CAM）系统的一个组成部分。存储器。基于微处理器的系统运行时要与固态的存储装置相连，这些存储装置可以是磁泡，随机存储器、软盘、磁带等。每种记忆存储装置均能贮存、编辑信息以备后续调用和编辑。C.动力源 动力源是给机器人和机器手提供动力的单元。传给机器人系统的动力源有两种，一种是用于控制器的交流电，另一种是用于驱动机械手各轴的动力源，例如，如果机器人的机械手是有液压和气动驱动的，控制信号便传送到这些装置中，驱动机器人运动。对于每一个机器人系统，动力是用来操纵机械手的。这些动力可来源与液压动力源、气压动力源或电源，这些能源是机器人工作单元整体的一部分。

robot The industr ial robot is a tool t hat is used in t he manufact ur ing environment to increase product ivit y.It can be used to do rout ine and tedious assembly line jobs, or it can per form jobs t hat might be hazardous to t he human worker.For example ,one of t he first indust r ial robot was used to replace t he nuclear fuel rods in nuclear power plant s.A human doing t his job might be exposed to har mful amount s of radiat ion.The indust r ial robot can also operat e on t he assembly line, putt ing toget her small component s, such as placing electronic component s on a pr int ed circuit board.Thus, t he human worker can be relieved of t he rout ine operat ion of t his t edious t ask.Robot s can also be programmed to defuse bombs, to serve t he handicapped, and to per for m funct ions in numerous applicat ions in our societ y.The robot can be t hought of as a machine t hat will move an endoperat ed.t hese microprocessors are eit her 8-bit , 16-bit ,or 32-bit processors.t his power allows t he controller to be ver y flexible in it s operat ion.The cont roller can send elect ric signals over communicat ion lines t hat allow it to t alk wit h t he var ious axes of t he manipulator.This t wo-way communicat ion bet ween t he robot manipulator and t he cont roller maint ains a const ant updat e of t he end t he operat ion of t he syst em.The cont roller also controls any tooling placed on t he end of t he robot ’s wr ist.The cont roller also has t he job of communicat ing wit h t he different plant comput ers.The communicat ion link est ablishes t he robot as part a comput er-assist ed manufact ur ing(CAM)syst em.As t he basic definit ion st at ed, t he robot is a reprogrammable, mult ifunct ional manipulator.Therefore, t he controller must contain some of memor y stot age.The microprocessor-based syst ems operates in conjunct ion wit h solid-st at e divices.These memor y devices may be magnet ic bubbles, random-access memony, floppy disks,or magnet ic tape.Each memor y storage device stores program infor mat ion fir or for edit ing.C.power suppy The power supply is t he unit t hat supplies power to t he controller and t he manipulator.The t ype of power are delivered to t he robot ic syst em.One t ype of power is t he AC power for operat ion of t he cont roller.The ot her t ype of power is used for dr iving t he var ious axes of t he manipulator.For example, if t he robot manipulator is cont rolled by hydraulic or pneumat ic drives, cont rol singals are sent to t hese devices causing mot ion of t he robot.For each robot ic syst em, power is required to operat e t he manipulator.This power can be developed from eit her a hydraulic power source, a pneumat ic power source,or an elect ric power source.There power sources are part of t he total component s of t he robot ic work cell.