第一篇：涉外合同的英语语言特色
摘要
实务中有不少涉外经济合同纠纷是因各方对合同文字的理解不一而引起的,究其原因,主要是起草者对合同语言的特殊性缺乏应有的了解,结果导致合同语言的模糊性和不确定性。本文从词法、句法及应用等三个层面对英文经贸合同语言的特殊性及其变化规律进行探讨,以期能有助于对此类合同的阅读和起草。
关键词：涉外合同；语言特征；阅读和起草
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ABSTRACT In practice, the occurrence of inconsistency in interpretation of the contract English has resulted in a good few cases of disputes.In essence, it is largely due to the draftsman's failure to have a deep-in understanding of the underlying features of the contract language, which might lead to the ambiguities and uncertainties of the contract wording.This paper tries to analyze the linguistic features of English business contracts at the morphological, syntactical and discourse levels respectively with a view to rendering a help in the reading and drafting the contracts.Keywords：contract English;language features;reading anddrafting
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Contents 1.Introduction......................................................................................................................1 2.Literature review..............................................................................................................2 2.1 Study of contract..............................................................................................................2 2.2 Study of legal English......................................................................................................3 2.3 Study of contract English.................................................................................................3 2.4 The study of the stylistic features of contract English in China......................................4 3.The language features of contract English.....................................................................6 3.1 The lexical features..........................................................................................................6 3.1.1 Formal words................................................................................................................6 3.1.2 Archaic Words...............................................................................................................7 3.1.3 Synonyms......................................................................................................................8 3.1.4 Abbreviations................................................................................................................8 3.2 The syntax features..........................................................................................................9 3.2.1 Active voice...................................................................................................................9 3.2.2 Present tense................................................................................................................10 3.2.3 Shall+verb...................................................................................................................10 3.3 The sentential features....................................................................................................11 3.3.1 Declarative sentences..................................................................................................11 3.3.2 Long sentences............................................................................................................12 3.3.3 Conditional clauses.....................................................................................................13 4.Implications....................................................................................................................15 4.1 Implication for reading contract English.......................................................................15 4.2 Implication for drafting contract....................................................................................16 5.Conclusion.......................................................................................................................17 Acknowledgements.............................................................................错误！未定义书签。References...........................................................................................................................18
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1.Introduction
Language is much more than merely a means of communication.It is also a way of signaling, consciously or unconsciously, that we come from a particular area, or belong to a certain social group.[1]51 Every field of expertise develops its own language features.[2]36 The language of English used in contracts, or contract English, is an important branch of legal English.Legal English means the language of the law of England, America, and some other countries whose official language is English.These common law system countries have a history about several hundred years to express law in English.Legal English is a type of legal language with overlap of linguistics and the science of law.[3]6
With China's carrying out the policy to promote reform and opening to the outside world, the establishment of market economy, the rapid development of our communication with foreign countries and China's entry to the WTO, there are more and more opportunities for us to communicate with those countries whose official language is English.When communicating with individuals, legal persons or other organizations from the English speaking countries, we often need to sign English contracts with them.Contract plays an important role in international economic and trade activities, as all achievements thereof will be finally embodied in it.How to correctly draft and understand contract language is of great importance to individuals and business organizations.There are a few books and papers dedicated to general principles of stylistic features of English for law, but none addresses questions of contract English in sufficient detail to be of significant practical use to the English contract learners in China.My dissertation attempts to present a comparatively detailed analysis of stylistic features of contract English with the expectation to better help contract learners or businessmen understand and draft English contract.中国最大的论文知识平台www.xiexiebang.com
2.Literature review 2.1 Study of contract
Contract English, like English as a whole, is not static.It has undergone and is still undergoing enormous changes.The definition of contracts given by Karla C.Shippey[4]155: A Commercial Contract, in simplest terms, is merely an agreement made by two or more parties for the purpose of transacting business.In the eye of scholars the word contract is used in common speech, which simply refers to a writing containing terms on which the parties have agreed.Contract is often used in a more technical sense to mean “a promise, or a set of promises for the breach of which the law gives a remedy, or the performance of which the law in some way recognizes a duty.” Put quite simply, a contract is an agreement which the courts will enforce.[5]5
A contract, in the simplest definition, is a promise enforceable by law.The promise may be to do something or to refrain from doing something.The making of a contract requires the mutual assent of two or more persons, one of them ordinarily making an offer and another accepting.If one of the parties fails to keep the promise, the other is entitled to legal recourse against him.The law of contracts has to do with such questions as whether a contract exists, what the meaning of it is, whether a contract has been broken, and what compensation is due the injured party.[6]6 Many contracts use the word agreement in the title.In some contexts the two words, contract and agreement, are synonyms and can be used interchangeably.While contract and agreement may both be used to mean a formal and legally enforceable arrangement, agreement may also refer to an informal arrangement not supported by consideration, such as an agreement between friends to play tennis on Saturday morning.So an agreement is really the main ingredient of a contract.But it is not every agreement that becomes a contract.To be a contract, that agreement must be enforceable in taw.中国最大的论文知识平台www.xiexiebang.com
2.2 Study of legal English
When we move into the domain of legal English, we must consider another continuum, the so-called general English.What precisely is general English is difficult to define.The concept is often left unspecified and regarded as an implicit norm, apparently based on intuitive knowledge of what is common use.[7]12 Special English, of which legal English is one example, is often understood as being in some significant respects deviant from general English.That's to say, legal English is based on the general English with its own stylistic features.More recently, some linguists have begun to analyze certain language varieties in terms of sublanguages.One definition of this term is a “language used in a body of texts dealing with a circumscribed subject area in which the authors of the documents share a common vocabulary and common habits of word usage，The term carries with it the idea that the sublanguage is a subset, or part, of the language as a whole.Some characteristics that have been attributed to sublanguages include: they have a limited subject matter;(2)they contain lexical, syntactic, and semantic restrictions;(3)they allow ”deviant“ rules of grammar that are not acceptable in the standard language;and(4)certain constructions are unusually frequent.[1]142-143 Most of these features seem to apply to legal English so we can also say that legal English is a sublanguage of English.2.3 Study of contract English
Generally speaking, contract English is an important branch of legal English, which is the language of the contract of England, America, and some other countries whose official language is English.Since English is universally accepted as a commercial language, it is a usual practice in our foreign trade to conclude contracts in both English and Chinese languages;that is first to draft a contract in one language and then to render it into the other.There are a number of worthwhile guides to forensic linguistics in general, given their broad scope they are of great help to the English contract learners.Lord Mansfield[8]3, one of the most famous English judges, once observed that ”most of the
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disputes in the world arise from words“.He told us the significance of language.If one can command contract English quite well, it may be easier for him to read the English contract.It is highly possible that he could study and understand English contracts better than those who know little about contract English.A contract refers to an agreement establishing, modifying and terminating the civil rights and obligations between subjects of equal footing.The language for contract is different from that for basic English or literature.In the Five Clocks, the American linguist Martin Joos[9]36 advances the five stylistic varieties in English: the Frozen Style, the Formal Style, the Consultative Style, the Casual Style and the Intimate Style.The style of Contract English can be considered as the first one, which is the Frozen Style because the language habits of the profession cause lawyers(contract drafters)to frequently choose one means of expression over other possibilities.There are a few books and papers dedicated to general principles of stylistic features of English for law, such as the field's main journal, Forensic Linguistics[8], books as Investigating English Style written by David Crystal[10] , The Elements of Legal Style written by Bryan, A.Garner[11], so on and so forth.2.4 The study of the stylistic features of contract English in China
For many years, the study of the stylistic features of contract English is limited.In our country, there are few books or articles talking about the language of contract.However,with China's carrying out the policy to promote reform and opening to the outside world and China's entry the WTO, there are more and more opportunities for us to communicate with those countries whose official language is English.When communicating with people or other organizations from the English speaking countries, we often need to sign English contracts with them.English contracts are becoming more and more important in our daily life.And people began to do more study on contract English.The language of contracts is not easy to understand.Wu Weiping [12] points out, “Most people know it difficult reading legal documents(in a narrow sense).In fact non-legal documents like contracts, trade brands are also difficult to read.” Due to the importance of contracts and difficulty of contractual language, more and more people have been turning their attention to them.Many school students, especially those majoring in business English are learning English of contracts and at the same time many scholars take profound interest in the study it.Many books and articles are
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published and provide assistance in students’ learning of the variety of English.Chen Jingying[13] describes the syntax features of the contract English.Hu Genshen[14] points out that many Latinate words are adopted in every possible case to replace synonyms of ordinary English to display formality and preciseness.Besides, Liao Yin[6] says that in business contracts, complicated prepositional phrases are often used insteadof ordinary ones.For example, the participants in the joint ventures shall commence discussion with regard to the extension of the period of existence of the venture and in the event of their agreeing upon such extension, they shall record such agreement in a written document signed by all of them not later than three years prior to the expiry of the current period.According to Fu Weiliang[15]，long sentences in English business contracts can define the rights and obligations of the concerned parties in an exact way, thus avoiding any possible misunderstanding and ambiguity.中国最大的论文知识平台www.xiexiebang.com
3.The language features of contract English English is now established as the leading international language.Legal English, as everybody knows, is playing a significant part in our Chinese people's life.With the development of the technology and economy and with the deepening of the policy of opening door to the outside world, frequent foreign exchanges and business transactions are increasing day by day between China and foreign countries.Inter-personal and inter-entity relations involved have to be defined and bound by contracts.In the business field, the staff concerned is required to execute the contract to cooperate with the foreign transactions.Thus, we can succeed in building our country into a prosperous one.One of the keys to the better command of contract is to acquire a deep and comprehensive realization of its stylistic features.Based on studies done by home and abroad researchers, the following part is trying to present a relatively comprehensive analyisis on the stylistic features of contract English.3.1 The lexical features
The goal of contract English is not the beautiful language, but the precise logic and professional statements, as well as clearly and rational thinking.The lexicon of contract English contracts is characterized by precision, formality and clarity.This part, based on the analysis of typical examples, attempts to explore English contracts from the aspects of formal words, archaic words, synonyms and abbreviations.3.1.1 Formal words
Formal words also called as literary words or learned words, mainly appearing in formal writings, such as theoretical works, formal addresses and legal documents.Compared with general English, contract English is very formal.There are a lot of formal words, which are rarely used in general English, but used in contract.Here we list just a small sampling:
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Formal Words
Informal Words Purchase
Buy Modify/alter
Change Terminate
End Proceed
Go Render
Make Commence
Start/begin Approximately
About Demonstrate
Show Notify
Tell
[16]322
In the following three sentences, commence, terminate, at the commence of, upon the completion of, with regard to, in the event of, prior to mean respectively: begin, end, at the beginning of, at the end of, about, in case of, before.The former words are more formal than the latter ones, which make the contract sound formal.(1)The Agreement shall commence on this day and automatically terminate upon the bankruptcy or insolvency of either of the parties hereto.(2)Party A shall pay to Party B forty per cent of the total price for work, i.e., two hundred and eighty thousand(280,000.00)U.S.dollars only at the commence of construction work of Party A's plant;and sixty per cent of the total price for work, i.e., four hundred and twenty thousand(420,000.00)U.S dollars only upon the completion of the work.(3)The participants in the Joint Venture shall commence discussion with regard to the extension of the period of existence of the Venture and in the event of their agreeing upon such extension, they shall record such agreement in written document signed by, all of them not later than three years prior to the expiry of the current Period.3.1.2 Archaic Words
Contract English has long been featured by a prominent archaic trait: words composed by ”here“, ”there“ and ”where“ followed by one or several propositions.In these words, ”here“ means ”this“, ”there“ equals ”that“, while ”where“ refers to ”what“ or ”which“.For example: Archaic words
Modern meaning
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Hereafter
After this Hereby
By means of this/By that means Hereof
Of this Hereinafter
Later in this contract Thereafter
After that Thereinafter
In that part of contract Whereof
Of which Whereby
By what;by which[16]365-366 Look at the following sentence: The parties to the contract shall, in accordance with the principle of good faith, execute the rights and perform the obligations hereof.[17]42.The contract is not defensible and is in danger of leaks without ”hereof “.The word ”hereof “leads to economy of expression since it replaces the longer phrase ”of the contract“ in the example to modify and limit ”rights and obligations“.3.1.3 Synonyms
Using synonyms in legal English occurs very often.The purpose of this kind of use is not only to respect the tradition, but also to seek exactitude and completion of meaning.As it has been mentioned by many linguists, legal English adheres much to tradition.There are many more such synonymous pairs: terms and conditions, settle claims and debts, import duty and tax, customs and usages, missing and disappeared person, willful and malicious injury, elderly and aged, able covenants, libel and slander, goods and chattels, etc.For examples:(1)They declared the contract null and void.(2)The packing and wrapping expenses shall be borne by the buyer.3.1.4 Abbreviations
When draftsmen draft contract, they use lots of abbreviations in order to make full use of simple, quick and efficient method to rush at the commerce opportunity.Therefore, the use of abbreviations is becoming wilder and wilder and the scope is
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larger and larger.We can find abbreviations in everywhere such as politics, economy, trade, law, transportation, insurance for the sake of expressing more conveniently.Generally speaking, abbreviations are capitalized.In drafting contract, abbreviations prove to be helpful for spelling but at the same time cause the trouble in understanding.Abbreviations are typical features of business contract.In our samples, we have many:(1)The price shall be based on CIF basis.(CIF= Cost, Insurance, Freight)(2)In case by M/T or T/T.(M/T=metric ton)(T/T= telegraphic transfer)(3)On FOB-basis.(FOB= free on board)(4)W.P.A.(WRA= with particular average)(5)L/C.(L/C= letter of credit)
3.2 The syntax features 3.2.1 Active voice We can easily find that active voice is the dominance in foreign contract.In foreign contract, active voice is a very striking feature.Because contract is an agreement, enforceable by law between two or more people or groups.Foreign contract also serves to concentrate the minds of the parties in deciding a number of important things, such as who bears a particular risk, who should insure against that risk, who should perform some tasks and who should do other tasks, and so on.[16]235 It is required that the language has logical clarity and precise reasoning so as to be understood by the public.In order to achieve the conciseness, the business contract is generally expressed in a straightful way with lots of active voice.Active voice involves the speakers as 'private person' with their own thoughts, feelings and experiences, and not as 'public persons'.Active voice denotes the sense of unaffectedness, unequivocality, directness and powerfulness.For examples:(1)The sellers shall send together with the shipment one copy each of the above-mentioned documents.(2)Sellers agree to sell the undenmentioned goods on terms and conditions stipulated Below.(3)Whereas Party A agrees to sell to Party B products.(4)The ”effective date“ as used herein shall mean the date determined under Article 10
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hereof.Compared with the active voice, passive voice is not used as frequently as active voice.Passive voice is primarily non-personal or factual, it doesn't involve the speakers as 'private persons'.The emphasis is on the facts and events and not on the speaker's involvement in them.3.2.2 Present tense
In English, there are only two tenses: simple past and simple present.We commonly assume that the tense of a verb tells us when the action it refers to takes, took, or will take place.Present-tense implies a lack of distance between the narrator and the events.It is not true that the English present tense exclusively, even refers to events which are actually happening at the time of speaking or writing.The simple present tense is the most predominant tense of the 12 traditional verb tenses in business contract.This tense is used frequently in contract drafting.It is noticeable that the simple present tense is mainly utilized to denote the concept of ”timeless“ and ”generalizations“.[18]56 General statements suit for any particular time frame.In business contract, the present tense indicates that the law is always speaking.Many examples can be found in the samples:(1)The sellers shall present the following documents to the paying bank for negotiation.(2)Party B guarantees that the machines and equipment are unused.(3)Party B desires to obtain such technical data.(4)The terms and conditions of this contract are breached by either party.3.2.3 Shall+verb
The word, shall, typically expresses the future.Traditionally, it is used only in the first person(I shall and we shall).A contract is a legal document that defines the rights and liabilities of the parties concerned.”Shall“ confers a duty to do an affirmative act.It implies a type of legal right or duty rather than the future tense or the modal meaning of volition.[19]22
Commonly, the modal ”shall+verb“ is used to express obligations, which serves to detail the obligations of one or more parties to a contract.In Chinese, 应该or 得is
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often used in defining the rights and liabilities,while in English ”shall+verb“ is often used.Of course there are other words such as should or will also have a similar meaning.However, shall is more compulsive and emphasized and means a legal liability.If one fails to fulfill something, it will result in a legal enforcement and remedy.Business contract tends to use the structure ”shall+verb“ more frequently.Like the following examples: 1)The persons employed Party A shall be responsible to the Manager of Party A.甲方雇佣的一切人员都必须向甲方的经理负责。
2)Party A shall, at most favorable prices, supply Party B with spare parts of the leased equipment.甲方应以最优惠的价格向乙方供应所租设备的备件。
3)This Contract shall become effective upon and from the date on which it is signed.本合同签字之日起开始生效。
4)The Seller shall have the right to increase the price of the goods specified in this contract at any time.卖方有权随时提高本合同的货物价格。
3.3 The sentential features 3.3.1 Declarative sentences
In terms of function, all sentences can be divided into four groups :(a)Declarative sentences: to make a statement, to state a factual event.(b)Interrogative sentences: to ask a question.(c)Imperative sentences: to give commands or instructions.(d)Exclamatory sentences: to show strong feelings towards something.[20]56
As we know, contract relates to agreements or promises it should be objective and show no personal emotions.Thus declarative sentences are used to make statements, give explanation and make judgments.They make up the most part of the total.In English contracts there is no necessity for inquiry, therefore interrogative and imperative sentences are seldom found.For examples:(1)This Agreement is made and entered into by and between ABC Co.and XYZ Co..(2)The L/C shall be valid until the 15th day after the shipment.中国最大的论文知识平台www.xiexiebang.com
(3)The Seller shall deliver the goods before July 31,1997.(4)The period of Lease is two years beginning from the date the Lessee accepts the
equipment on examination.3.3.2 Long sentences
Long sentences with complex structures can express complicated opinions.A mild variation in sentence length shows the writer's emotional state of mind and his objective way of narrating.[20] In contract, sentences trend to be extremely long.When people reading a contract, it's not easy for them to find many short sentences.There are two advantages to use long sentences in contract: First, the long sentences can make the contract more formal and logical.Second, long sentences with some adverbial or attributive clauses can be used to define the rights and obligations of the Parties.Therefore, a large number of information has been compressed into a single sentence, which accounts for its length and grammatical complexity.Look at the following sentence: In case that one or both parties are impossible to perform the duties provided herein on account of force majeure, the party(or Parties)in contingency shall inform the other party(or each other)of the case immediately and may, provided the case is duly verified by the competent-authorities, delay in performance of or not perform the relevant duties hereunder and may be partially or entirely exempted from the liability for breach of this agreement.[1]57
This sentence has 76 words, accounting for its length and grammatical complexity,it express a huge amount of information.At the very beginning, it is an adverbial clause introduced by in case that.The predicate of the principal clause is composed of three coordinate parts: shall inform...，and may...delay...or not perform…and may be...exempted from....In the adverbial clause, the past participle phrase provided herein is the attribute used to modify the duties.In the clause, the prepositional phrase on account of force majeure is used to express the cause.In addition, the second predicate followed by a conditional clause introduced by provided.All that is mentioned above proves that the long, complex sentence can express complicated meaning logically.[1]57-58
In contract, there are also short sentences which can express the idea precisely and clearly.So the combination of long and short sentences makes the language of
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contract vivid and full of change.3.3.3 Conditional clauses
Contracts are written documents indicating the agreement between the parties on their rights and obligations.Usually, there are various conditions when carry out these rights and obligations.Only these conditions are met can the rights and obligations be carried out.So many conditional clauses are used in contracts.There are usually four kinds of conditional clauses:(a)Condition of supposition: This type of clauses usually led by ”if“, ”should“, ”in case/in case of', “in the event of/that” to expressthe supposed conditions on which each party to the contract can enjoy the rights or should perform the obligations.The emphasis here for these kinds of sentences is on the main clause.If any products or any part of the products is not in compliance with the standards of quality as the result of the inspection, the Manufacturer shall supply the buyer free of charge with replacement for all parts not complying with the standards of quality.[16]394
经检验，发现产品的任何部分的质量不合格，制造商必须免费更换所有质货物。
(b)Condition of prerequisite: This type of conditional clauses is usually led by “provided(that)” to indicate a kind of possibility.When translating such clauses into Chinese version, “provided(that)” is usually translated into “如果.........”.They express the specific condition whose existence is a precondition on which each party to a contract may carry out some activity.Thus the emphasis for these kinds of sentences is on the subordinate clauses which are more important.Looking the following sentence:
The Seller, provided that Buyer so agrees, may retain the whole or part of the said incomplete equipment, fabricated or unfabricated parts, work in process, and other material referred to in paragraph(D)of this Article the amount to be paid by the Buyer shall be reduced by a sum equal to the value of the property so retained.[16]403
如果买方同意，卖方可以部分或全部地保留上述未完成的设备、已加工好或未加工好的零件以及正在进行的工作和本条(D)款所述的其他材料，这将因此使买方少支付这部分货物的费用。
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(c)Condition of exception: This type of conditional clauses are usually led by “except”, “with the exception that”, “in the absence of” and “unless”.They express that one party to a contract can be free from the restriction of some articles or clauses of the contract under some special conditions.From pragmatic viewpoint, such conditional clauses usually can complement the provisions and imply disjunctive meaning.Except for reason of force majure, the plant shall operate for more than 10 days in a month.[16]412
除因人力不可抗拒之原因外，工厂每月开工应多于10天。
(d)Condition of fact: clauses of this type are usually led by whereas, in consideration of and subject to to express some conditions that already exist.中国最大的论文知识平台www.xiexiebang.com
4.Implications
4.1 Implication for reading contract English
When reading the English contracts, many people feel that it is very difficult for them to understand completely.If they can know something about the language features of contract English, the following difficulties can be overcome.(1)Difficulty in reading the long English contract
Compared with Chinese contract, English contract is longer.English speaking countries are common law countries.In these countries the statutory laws are not as many as in China.In order to avoid the disputes or have the disputes satisfactorily solved in future, the rights and obligations of Parties are written in much greater detail in contract in common law countries than those in China, which makes the contract very long.The following two points can help people overcome the difficulty in reading long English contract:(i)To divide the contract into parts
When a long contract is divided into small parts, which will be comparatively easy to read and understand.As a complete and valid contract, in general, there are three components: the head, the body, and the tail.When we read a contract, it's very important for us to recognize the head and the tail because the body of the contract is located between the head and the tail, and the head and the tail of a contract, with their obvious characteristics, are very easy to find.(ii)To read the body of the contract clause by clause.The body of a contract is broken into sections, each of which may in turn consist of one or more subsection.Furthermore, one can subdivide the text of any section or
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subsection into “enumerated clauses.” Subdividing the body of a contract, taking the form of sentences as clause, makes it neat, much easier to read.In this way, we can read the contract step by step.(2)Difficulty in reading the long and complex sentences
The sentences in an English contract are very long and complex, some of which are written in several lines even several pages.To deal with this problem, there is no way out, just to analyze the components of the sentence patiently, to know the functions of different components, and to find where the principal clause is, where the subordinate clause is and what kind of subordinate clause it is, etc.(3)Difficulty in interpreting the archaic words
There are a great number of archaic words in contract.These archaic words, such as whereas, hereby, thereto, in witness whereof are very difficult to interpret even after we look them up in the dictionary.When we see this kind of words in contract, we should know that the use of these archaic words can avoid the repetition of something which has been mentioned above or before and makes the description more precisely.The detail information can refer to 3.1.2 of the thesis.4.2 Implication for drafting contract
In Davidson's book Precedents and Forms in Conveyancing, [21]70 he lists five principles in drafting contract.The forth one is “The ordinary and accustomed forms of documents and technical language should be used”.And “Legal language should be precise and accurate.Every phrase should have a clear meaning and all the phrases should be so connected as not to give rise to ambiguity.Aim at accuracy.Omit superfluous phrases.Give correct references and adhere strictly to the rules of grammar as by the use of apt words.” is the fifth one.[22]129-130
In Contract Law, Tay Swee Kian and Tang See Chim mentioned the two problems should be solved in drafting contract:
One is the use of long uncommon words or long sentences in contract.The other is the use of too many archaic words.They say, “Such archaic word or expressions as whereby，hereinafter that are not customarily used in everyday life should be replaced by words in current use.It is not wise to have too many of them.” [22]129-130
From my point of view, the long sentences, archaic words and technical terms are the features of contract English, without them the contract English is not different
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from the general English.Short sentences cannot always be used in legal documents because technical legal expressions may sometimes have to be used in preference to short sentences and the archaic words, if carefully but not superfluously used, can be an aid to exact expression.5.Conclusion
The language of legal English is generally complicated and technical, and, therefore, difficult for the people to understand.Contracts have no exception.The idea of making legal language easier to read and understand is not new.The lexicon features of business contracts can be summarized as adoption of formal words, usage of archaic words and synonyms.The syntax features of business contracts can be summarized as adoption of declarative sentences, long sentences, passive voice, and present tense.China, as a member country of the WTO, is playing an increasingly important role in international business.It is almost certain that the study of business contracts will become an important topic in China.In this thesis, apart from elaborating on the language features of English business contracts from the lexicon and syntax levels, the author proposes the criteria for understanding and drafting of English business contracts.中国最大的论文知识平台www.xiexiebang.com
References
[1] TIERSMA M.Legal language[M].Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999.[2] GIBBONS J.Forensic Linguistics[M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2003.[3] Garner A.The Elements of Legal Style[M].Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.[4] KARLA S.A Short Course in International Contracts [M].California: World Trade Press, 2002.[5] MELLINKOFF D.The language of the law[M].Boston: Little Brown, 1963.[6] 廖英.合同与合同英语[M].杭州: 浙江大学出版社, 2004.[7] HILTUNEN R.Chapters on Legal English[M].Tiedakatemia: Academic, 1990.[8] GIBBONS J.Forensic Linguistics[M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2003.[9] JOOS M.The Five Clocks[M].London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1961.[10] CRYSTAL D.Investigating English Style[M].London: Sweet&Maxwell Limited, 1997.[11] GARNER A.The Elements of Legal Style[M].Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.[12] 吴伟平.语言与法律[M].上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002.[13] 陈静英.外经贸合同的语言特点及篇章结构[[J].成都大学学报, 1998(2): 74.[14] 胡庚申.合同英语[M].天津: 天津科技翻译出版公司, 2002.[15] 傅伟良.对外经济合同英文写作课程建设研究与实践[M].北京第二外国语学院学报, 1999(5): 57-62.[16] 胡庚申.国际商务合同起草与翻译[M].北京: 外文出版社, 2004.[17] 傅伟良.对外经济合同英文写作[M].北京: 石油工业出版社, 2000.[18] SIMON D, JONATHAN M.Contracts, Co-operation, and Competition: studies in economics, management, and law[M].London: Oxford University Press, 1997.[19] ADAMS A.Legal Usage in Drafting Corporate Agreements [M].Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001.[20] 李蕾.外经贸合同的语言特点及篇章结构[J].外经贸合同语言特点及篇章成都大学学报（社科版）, 1998.[21] CHARLES D.Precedents and Forms in Conveyancing[M].London: W.Maxwell, 1876.[22] 葛亚军.合同英语手册[M].天津: 天津科技翻译出版公司, 2002.中国最大的论文知识平台www.xiexiebang.com
第二篇：涉外英语合同的语言特色
涉外英语合同的语言特色
一、多用正式或法律上的用词，比如：
At the request of Party B, Party A agrees to send technicians to assist Party B to install the equipment.应乙方要求，甲方同意派遣技术人员帮助乙方安装设备。assist 较 help 正式；
The personnel shall not to partake in any political activities in Iraq.所有人员不得参加伊拉克国内的任何政治活动。partake in 较 take part in 正式；
The Employer shall render correct technical guidance to the personnel.雇主应该对有关人员给予正确技术指导。render 较 give 正式；
Party A shall repatriate the patient to China and bear the cost of his passage to Guangzhou.甲方应将病人遣返中国并负责其返回广州的旅费。repatriate 较 send back 正式；
This Contract shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of China.本合同受中国法律管辖，并按中国法律解释。construe 较 explain, interpret 正式；
The Employer may object to and require the Contractor to replace forthwith any of its authorized representatives who is incompetent.雇主认为承包人委派的授权代表不合格时，可以反对并要求立即撤换。require较ask正式；公文体forthwith 较 at once 正式；
The Chairperson may convene an interim meeting based on a proposal made by one-third of the total number of directors.董事长可以根据董事会过1/3董事的提议而召集临时董事会议。convene, interim 都是正式用词。
In case one party desires to sell or assign all or part of its investment subscribed, the other party shall have the preemptive right.如一方想出售或转让其投资之全部或部分，另一方有优先购买权。法律用词assign 较 transfer 正式.In processing transactions, the manufacturers shall never have title either to the materials or the finished products.加工贸易中，厂方无论是对原料还是成品都无所有权。法律用词title 较 ownership 正式.The term “Effective date” means the date on which this Agreement is duly executed by the parties hereto.“生效期”指双方合同签字的日子。法律用词execute 较 sign 正式.与口头表述不同，合同是法律性的正式书面文件，使用正式的、法律的用词是必要的。合同起草者应多加强这方面的学习。用词方面(2)
二、多使用“here”，“there”，“where”等前缀：
hereafter = after this time;今后
hereby = by means/reason of this;特此 herein = in this;此中，于此
hereinafter = later in this contract;在下文 thereafter = afterwards;此后，后来
thereby = by that means;因此；由此；在那方面 therein = from that;在那里；在那点上
thereinafter = later in the same contract;以下；在下文 whereby = by what;by which;由是；凭那个 wherein = in what;in which;在哪里；在哪点上 „„
是不是有点头昏眼花？初学时确实容易搞混，告诉你个小窍门，here 代表 this，there 代表 that，where 代表 what/which，就容易记多了。用词方面(3)
三、多用“shall”代替“will”或“should”加强语气和强制力。
This Contract shall become effective upon and from the date on which it is signed.本合同签字生效。This Contract shall be written in English in four copies.Each party shall keep two copies.本合同应以英文写成，一式四份，双方各持两份。
合同中，shall并非单纯表示将来时，而常用来表示法律上可强制执行的义务，具有约束力，宜译为“应”、“应该”、“必须”； will无论语气还是强制力要比shall弱，宜译为“将”、“原”、“要”；should通常只用来表示语气较强的假设、比如“万一”。用语方面(1)
一、力求严谨，明白无误：
The following documents shall be deemed to form and be read and construed as an integral part of this Contract.下列文件应被认为、读作、解释为本合同的组成部分；
This Contract can only be altered, amended or supplemented in accordance with documents signed and sealed by authorized representatives of both parties.本合同只能按照双方授权代表签名盖章的文件进行修改或增补；
All activities of ABC Co.shall be governed by the laws, decrees and pertinent rules and regulations of China.ABC公司的一切活动必须受中国的法律、法令和有关规章条例的管辖。
二、多用主动语态，少用被动语态：
Party B is hereby appointed by Party A as its exclusive sales agent in Singapore.(不宜)乙方被甲方委托为在新加坡的独家销售代理商；
Party A hereby appoints Party B as its exclusive sales agent in Singapore.(适宜)甲方委托乙方为在新加坡的独家销售代理商；
三、多用现在时，少用将来时，尽管很多条款规定的是合同签订以后的事项： Licensee may terminate this Contract 90 days after a written notice thereof is sent to Licensor upon the happening of one of the following events: 当有下列事件之一发生，被许可人提前90天向许可人发送书面通知后，可以终止合同：
Licensor becomes insolvent or a liquidator of Licensor is appointed;许可人无力偿付债务或其破产清算人以被指定；
The patent described in Article 2 is not issued within 30 days from signing this Contract;and 第二条规定的专利未在签约后30天之内发布；
Licensor fails to perform its obligations under this Contract.许可人未能履行其合同义务。
四、直接表达方式用得多，间接表达方式用的较少：
This Article does not apply to bondholders who have not been paid in full.（用得少）
本条款不适用于尚未全部偿付的债券持有者。
This Article applies only to bondholders who have been paid in full.（用得多）
本条款只适用于已全部偿付的债券持有者。
五、尽量使用一个动词，避免使用“动词+名词+介词”的同意短语：
Party A shall make an appointment of its representative within 30 days after signing the Contract.甲方应于签约后30天内指派其授权代表。宜用appoint代替 make an appointment of.Party A will give consideration to Party B's proposal of exclusive agency.甲方愿意考虑乙方独家代理的建议。宜用consider代替give consideration to.六、下列特殊用语使用频繁(1)： WHEREAS 鉴于
正式而重要的合同，尤其是英美法系的合同，多用它在前文中引出签约背景和目的，起连词作用： WHEREAS the Employer is desirous that manpower can be rendered available for the construction of High-Rise Residential Complex in Baghdad, Iraq;鉴于雇主欲请劳动力建造伊拉克巴格达的高层住宅综合大楼；
WHEREAS the Contractor is desirous to provide the manpower for the Works;鉴于承包人想为此工程提供劳动力；
WITNESS 证明
在合同前文中常用作首句的谓语动词：
This Agreement, made by...WITNESSES WHEREAS..., it is agreed as follows: 本协议由„„签订证明：鉴于„„特此达成协议如下：
IN WITNESS WHEREOF 作为所协议事项的证据： 该短语常用于合同的结尾条款：
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties have executed this Contract in duplicate by their duly authorized representatives on the date first above written.作为所协议事项的证据，双方授权代表于上面首次写明的日期正式签订本协议一式两份。
六、下列特殊用语使用频繁(2)： IN CONSIDERATION OF 以„„为约因/报酬
约因是英美法系的合同有效成立要件之一，没有则合同不能依法强制履行。但是，大陆法系的合同则无此规定。
Now Therefore, in consideration of the premises and the covenants herein, contained, the parties hereto agree as follows: 兹以上述各点和契约所载条款为约因，订约双方协议如下：
In consideration of the payment to be made by Party A to Party B, Party B hereby covenants with Party A to complete the building in conformity with the provisions of the Contract.乙方特此立约向甲方保证按合同规定完成工程建设，以取得甲方所付的报酬。
NOW, THEREFORE 兹特 此短语用于WHEREAS条款之后引出具体协议事项的常用开头语，并与其后hereby的结合。如果无HEREAS条款，则本短语可省略：
NOW, THEREFORE, it's hereby agreed and understood as follows； 兹特协议和谅解如下：
NOW THESE PRESENTS WITNESS 兹特立约为据
本句话也是用于WHEREAS条款之后引出具体协议事项。
PRESENTS = the present writings 是主语，WITNESS是谓语：
NOW THESE PRESENTS WITNESS that it is hereby agreed between the parties hereto as follows: 兹特立约为据，并由订约双方协议如下：
IN THE PRESENCE OF 见证人
本短语只在有见证人时使用—在订约双方当事人签名的下方由见证人签名作证，一般是相关的律师（Attorney）或公证处（Notary Public）: IN THE PRESENCE OF the parties hereto have hereunder set their respective hands and seals: 作为协议事项的证据，订约双方各自签名盖章如下： For and on behalf the first Party（甲方代表）： The EMPLOYER（雇主）„ Capacity（职位）„
In the Presence of（见证人）„ Capacity（职位）„ Address（地址）„
For and on behalf of the Second party（乙方代表）: The CONTRACTOR（承包人）„ Capacity（职位）„
In the Presence of（见证人）„ Capacity（职位）„ Address（地址）„.
第三篇：浅谈涉外合同英语特色
摘要
在国际经济贸易活动中，商务合同是一种重要的法律文件依据,商贸英语已成为必不可少的语言交际工具,它也是英文经济贸易合同的基点。国际商务合同的种类繁多，涉及面广，内容复杂。这类合同都是涉外交易性质，有其自身的特点，即条理性、规范性和专业性。商务合同对翻译的质量提出很高的要求，也增加了其难度。本文用大量的例句，对商务合同英语的准确性、严谨性、规范性做了浅显的分析。并且简单介绍了涉外合同英语严肃、正式与严谨、准确两方面的特点，并从词汇的角度论证古体词与比较正式的词语使沙外合同英语严肃、正式;成对词、词语重复则使涉外合同英语严谨、准确。
关键词：涉外英语合同 专业 严谨 规范
目录
前言.....................................................3 第一章 涉外合同英语结构特点..............................4 第二章 涉外合同英语的用词特点............................5
（一）用词正式........................................5
（二）用词专业........................................6
（三）古词语的使用....................................7
（四）外来语..........................................8
（五）关键性的词常采用同(近)义词连用，避免一词多义....9
（六）同义词和近义词并列.............................9 第三章 涉外合同英语的用语特点...........................10
（一）多用主动语态，少用被动语态.....................10
（二）多用现在时，少用将来时，尽管很多条款规定的是合同签订以后的事项.........................................11
（三）直接表达方式用得多，间接表达方式用的较少.......11
（四）尽量使用一个动词，避免使用“动词+名词+介词”的同意短语.................................................12 第三章 涉外合同英语的句子特点...........................12
（一）句子冗长，结构复杂.............................12
（二）句子中状语的位置...............................13 结语....................................................14 参考文献................................................15
浅谈涉外合同英语特色
前言
语言学界的功能主义认为，语言是人类的交际工具，是人类社会生活的一个部分。社会生活的复杂多样性以及语言使用的环境的多样性决定了语言并不是刻板、毫无变化和差别的统一体，而是一个包括多种语体的复合体。根据交际领域和社会功能的不同，英语可分为科技体英语、文学体英语、新闻报道体英语、广告体英语、法律体英语、宗教体英语和公文体英语等等。著名的语言学家(J.ft.Firth)指出，“人类行为中有多少个专门系统，就有多少套语言，就有多少套同特殊的语言联系在一起的社会行为”。每一套特殊的语言实际上就是一种不同的语体，不同的语体在句法、词汇等方面有不同的特征。合同属于法律性文献。合同涉及公司企业间的合同契约、合资经营到个人间的租借房屋、参加人寿保险、赊购货物等等，所有这些活动，都要有一种书面语言来记录和规定，明确规定当事人双方(或各方)的权利和义务。合同语言是执行这种社会职能的一种变体。在合同语言履行其社会职能的过程中，人们需要了解规定和义务的确切含义和范围，也要防范有的人会出于某种考虑而有意曲解合同文书的含义，利用合同文书中某些词汇的不确定性和模糊性来逃避职责、夸大权益。在合同文书中，全部内容和条款必须字面化、外部化，也就是说，合同文书的内容和条款须通过语言文字体现出来，因此，合同文书必须严谨，做到词义准确，丝毫不允许词义模棱两可而产生歧义。同时，对于词义准确、语义确凿的刻意追求，形成了合同语言的严肃、正式，甚至保守。严肃、正式和严谨、准确就构成了合同文书的语体特征。本文拟简单探讨合同英语中如何通过词汇来体现合同英语的严肃、正式与严谨、准确。第一章 涉外合同英语结构特点
合同类法律文件用以规定当事人的权利与义务，是预防与解决争议的依据。合同英语行文慎密而准确，历史悠久，深含法律文化底蕴。，中文的合同开头一般先罗列当事人的名称、姓名、住所或营业场所，然后是合同正文，结尾是当事人印章、授权代表签字、职务及签字日期。而英语合同一般以下面这类句式为开头：
This agreement/contract is made and entered in to this ____ day of _____（month），_______（year）by and between Party A（hereinafter called “ Party A ”）and Party B（hereinafter called “ Party B ”）
然后是开始陈述： WHEREAS„THEREFORE
„ It is hereby agreed as follows： 或以：，WITNESSETH，WHEREAS„
NOW THEREFORE，for and in consideration of the mutual covenants and agreements contained herein，the parties hereby covenant and agree as follows：，接着是正文，最后是证明部分：
IN WITNESS WHEREOF，the parties hereto have hereunto set their Hands the day and years first above written.，随后还包括当事人和见证人的签字。第二章 涉外合同英语的用词特点
（一）用词正式
合同英语系正式英语，与普通语体不同。合同英语中使用了不少很正式的词汇，这些词汇在普通语体的场合使用不多。
例如：，“因为”的短语多用“by virtue of “，远远多于”due to“一般不用”because of “；
“财务末”一般用“at the close of the fiscal year”，而不用“in the end of the fiscal year”；，“在„„之前”一般用“prior to”，而不用“before”；，“关于”常用“as regards”，“concerning”或“relating to”，而不会用“about”；
“事实上”用“in effect”，而不用“in fact”；
“开始”用“commencement”，而不用“start”或“begin”； “停止做”用“cease to do”，而不用“stop to do”；
“何时开会并由某某主持”的表述为：The meeting shall be convened and presided by sb.其中“召开”不用“hold 或call”，而用“convene”； “主持”不用“chair”或“be in charge of ”，而用“preside”；
其他事项”用“miscellaneous”，而不用“other matters/events”； “理解合同”用“construe a contract” 或“comprehend a contract”，而不用“understand a contract”；
“认为”用“deem”，用“consider”少，不用“think”或“believe”； “愿意做”用“intend to do”或“desire to do”，而不用“want to do”，“wish to do”。
例句：
1)This contract shall be governed and construed in accordance with the taws of China.本合同应受中国法律管辖，并按中国法律解释。2)Party A shall pay to Party B forty per cent of the total price for work，t.e.，two hundred and eighty thousand(viz.2$0,000.00)U.S.dollars only at the commence of construction work of Party A’s plant，and sixty per cent of the total price for work，t.e.，four hundred and twenty thou-sand(viz.420,000.00)U.S.dollars only upon the eonnpletion of the work二甲方在建厂工程开始时，付给乙方工程总价百分之四十，即美元二十八万元(280,000.00)整，在建厂工程完毕时，付给乙方工程总价百分之六十，即美元四十二万元(420,000.00)整。3)The Buyer or the Chartering agent shall no听the Seller by telegram or telex, 10 days prior to the arrival of the carrying vessel at the port of shipment, of the contract number.买方或船务代理应在船只抵达装货港口前十天，用电报或电传的方式将合同编号通知卖方。4)The term ”Effective date“ means the date on which this Agreement is duly executed by the parties hereto.“生效日”指订约双方签署本协议的日子。
以上四个例子中的“construed”，”at the commence of“ , ”upon the completion of“ ,“ prior construed to” , “executed”的含义分别相当于“explained” , “at the beginning of” , “at the end of’和“before” , “signed”。但前者属于比较正式的词汇，在法律或合同文书中经常出现，而后者属于普通词汇，在普通文书中使用率效高。通过使用这些正式程度较高的词汇，提高了合同文书的正式程度。
（二）用词专业
合同用词不以大众是否理解和接受为转移，它是合同语言准确表达的保障。如合同出现的“瑕疵”、“救济”、“不可抗力”、“管辖”、“损毁”、“灭失”等就可能让非行业人士费解，在英语以上表达分别为defect、remedy、force majeure/Act of God、jurisdiction、damage and/or loss）。另外几乎每个合同都少不了hereinafter referred to as，whereas，in witness whereof，for and on behalf of，hereby，thereof 等虚词。这也是合同英语的一大特色。
其它例子还有：
“赔偿”用“indemnities”，而不用“compensation”
“不动产转让”用“conveyance”，而不用“transfer of real estate” “房屋出租”用“tenancy”，而“财产出租”用“lease of property” “停业”用“wind up a business”或“cease（名词是cessation）a business”，而不用“end/stop a business”
专利许可中的“特许权使用费”只用“royalties”
还款或专利申请的“宽限期”英文“grace”，“当事人在破产中的和解”用“composition”
以实物出资为“investment in kind”
“依照合同相关规定”一般说“pursuant to provisions contained herein”或“as provided herein”等，不说“according to relevant terms and conditions in the contract”
“合同任何一方当事人不得转让本合同”英文表述为“Neither party hereto may assign this contract”，其中“hereto”表示“to the contract”，选用“Neither party to the contract”较少。
（三）古词语的使用
合同英语属于一种比较正规和严肃的书面语体，正式程度很高，其用词严谨，古体词的使用率很高，例如: License Agreement This AGREEMENT, made and entered into this 5th day of 1998，by and between ABC Co.，Ltd.，a corporate organized and existing under the laws of Japan with its principal office at Tokyo(hereinafter called “Party A”)，and XYZ Co.，Ltd.，a corporation organized and existing under the laws of the state of California, having its principal office at Los Angeles(hereinafter called “Party B“)，WITNESSETH WHEREAS Party A has extensive experience and manufacturing information concerning the production of and owns various Patents of U.S.Nos.;WHEREAS Party B is interested in and desirous of obtaining a license to use Party A’s manufacturing information and know一how as well as a license under Party A' s patent rights;NOW ,THEREFORE, for and in consideration of the premises and the covenants here in after provided for and to be faithfully performed，the parties hereto agree as follows: 合同前文中的WITNESSETH 意为“证明”，它仍保留古英语第三人称单数的词尾形式，是合同英语力求严肃的一个表现。但合同英语最突出的古体形式是那些由here , there和where加上一个或几个介词构成的复合副词，如上例中的hereinafter, hereto, therefore等。这些词在其他语体中已经匿迹，只有在法律或合同中才大量出现。
Here+prep.这类词有hereto, hereof, herein, hereinafter, hereinabove, hereunder等，here相当于this，指本文献、合同或有关文件，因此，”hereto”相当于to this, “here of’相当于of this，依此类推。
合同英语中使用这些词来指文书中的一部分或双方，对于行文语义的准确性是十分必要的。古体副词的大量使用提高了它的正式程度，也反映了它拘泥于传统的守旧性。
（四）外来语
英语的法律词汇中的外来语主要涉及法语和拉丁语。源自法语的，如verdict，warrant，statut，ranson等。是十一世纪诺曼底人征服英国后英语自法语法律词汇中借用的。另外，基督教于公元597年传入英国。因此拉丁语中的法律词汇也随之渗入到英语中。如basis．declaration。register，prior等。许多法语和拉丁语进入英语后在语音上和词形上与英语同化，成为英语词汇的组成部分．但还有一些法律词汇未被同化，现在还常常用到，如force majeure(不可抗力)、saisie(查封、扣押)等来自法语；而ad diem(在指定日期)、statu quo(现状)等来自拉丁语。实际上业内人士往往认为外来语、IEl体词等的使用可使合同语言高贵而庄重。
（五）关键性的词常采用同(近)义词连用，避免一词多义
1、Party B is hereby appointed by Party A as its exclusive sales agent in Singapore.（不宜）
乙方被甲方委托为在新加坡的独家销售代理商；
2、Party A hereby appoints Party B as its exclusive sales agent in Singapore.（适宜）
（六）同义词和近义词并列
FOR value RECEIVED，the undersigned does hereby sell，transfer，assign and set over to ______ all his right，tile and interest in and to a certain contract dated ______，19____ by and between the undersigned and ______，a copy of which is annexed hereto.在这里的同义词和近义词并列（如sell，transfer，assign and set over，right和 tile and interest），在英文合同里十分普遍。这是出于严谨和杜绝漏洞的考虑，有的也属于合同用语的固定模式。如：
This agreement is made and entered into by and between Party A and Party B.句中“made and entered into”和“by and between”两组分别属于同义词和相关词并列。
For and in consideration of mutual covenants and agreements contained herein，the parties hereby covenant and agree as follows： 句中“for and in consideration of ”，“covenants and agreements”三组同义司和近义词并列。
The parties have agreed to vary the Management on the terms and subject to the conditions contained herein.这里的“on the terms”和“subject to the conditions”是一个意思都表示“依照本协议的条款规定”。合同条款的固定模式是“terms and conditions”
再例如：，“Party A wishes to be released and discharged from agreement as from the effective date”，一句中的“release”和“discharge”意思几乎相同。
并列的词还有：
Ships and vessels Support and maintenance Licenses and permits charges，fees，costs and expenses Any and all any duties，obligations or liabilities the partners，their heirs，successors and assigns Control and management of the partnership applicable laws，regulations，decrees，directives，and rules 第三章 涉外合同英语的用语特点
（一）多用主动语态，少用被动语态
1、Party B is hereby appointed by Party A as its exclusive sales agent in Singapore.（不宜）
乙方被甲方委托为在新加坡的独家销售代理商；
2、Party A hereby appoints Party B as its exclusive sales agent in Singapore.（适宜）
（二）多用现在时，少用将来时，尽管很多条款规定的是合同签订以后的事项
1、Licensee may terminate this Contract 90 days after a written notice thereof is sent to Licensor upon the happening of one of the following events： 当有下列事件之一发生，被许可人提前90天向许可人发送书面通知后，可以终止合同：
2、Licensor becomes insolvent or a liquidator of Licensor is appointed； 许可人无力偿付债务或其破产清算人以被指定；
3、The patent described in Article 2 is not issued within 30 days from signing this Contract；第二条规定的专利未在签约后30天之内发布；
4、Licensor fails to perform its obligations under this Contract.许可人未能履行其合同义务。
（三）直接表达方式用得多，间接表达方式用的较少
1、This Article does not apply to bondholders who have not been paid in full.（用得少）
本条款只适用于已全部偿付的债券持有者。
2、This Article applies only to bondholders who have been paid in full.（用得多）
本条款不适用于尚未全部偿付的债券持有者。
（四）尽量使用一个动词，避免使用“动词+名词+介词”的同意短语
1、Party A shall make an appointment of its representative within 30 days after signing the Contract.甲方应于签约后30天内指派其授权代表。宜用appoint代替 make an appointment of.2、Party A will give consideration to Party B’s proposal of exclusive agency.甲方愿意考虑乙方独家代理的建议。宜用consider代替give consideration to.第三章 涉外合同英语的句子特点
（一）句子冗长，结构复杂
合同具有法律属性，用于规定合同各方的权利和义务以及其他相关事宜，对各方都具有法律约束力。因此，为避免产生任何误解和歧义，同时又要考虑到各种不同情况和排除各种例外情形．必须逻辑严密、结构严谨、滴水不漏的表达各部分之间的关系。这使得合同英语的语句变得相应复杂冗长。长句多，远远超出英语句子的平均长度(174”单词)。复合句多．包含很多的从句和修饰成分，结构上叠床架屋。有的句子相当长。往往一个句子就是一个段落。如：
Where servants，agents or subcontractors of the Company carry out work under the direction of the Client，the Client shall be fully responsible for。and indemnify and hold harmless the Company against any claim，loss or damage of any kind，whether arising in contract，in negligence，in equity or by statute or under any law connected in any way with the Services，Project or relationship established by this Agreement
译文：公司员工、代理人或分包商在客户指导下履行工作的，客户对因公司员工、代理人或分包商的作为或不作为而造成的任何索赔、灭失及损毁，无论是基于合同、过失、衡平法、制定法而发生还是基于与服务、项目或本协议确立的关系相关的法律规定而发生，也无论程度大小，均应承担全部责任，必须就此向公司赔偿，并保证公司免于损失。
该句共69个词，是以where；Jl导的条件状语从句开始的。从句部分并不费解。而主句部分就不容易理解了。实际上主句的谓语有两个．一是shall be fully responsible for。表示对句子的宾语部分应当承担责任；二是must indemnify and hold harmless。表示对句子的宾语部分，必须赔偿并保证其免于损失。剩下来的一大堆则是列出责任范围(any claim，loss or damage of any kind)和赔偿发生的依据(in contract，in negligence，in equity or by statute or under any law connected in any way with the Services，Projector relationship established by this Agreement)。
（二）句子中状语的位置
合同英语的句子具有结构严谨、句式较长的特点．为了做到准确、严密、清楚、易解，句子中状语的用法有其自己的一定规则，其位置与普通英语中的频度副词(如：often、sometimes、always、never、seldom)的位置相同，一般应放在shall、may等情态动词之后，行为动词之前。如果英语句子是复合句。主句的状语位置与从句的状语位置不同。主句的状语应放在shall之后，动词之前。如： 1)shareholders shall in accordance with the proportions of their capital contribution．exercise voting rights at shareholders’ meetings． 译文：股东应按照出资比例于股东会会议行使表决权。此外。从句中状语的位置与主句中状语的位置不同。从句中的状语通常位于连词之后从句句子之前。如果把从句中状语放在从句句末又在主句之前。那么势必引起对合同条款理解的差异。从而可能导致合同争议或纠纷。因此。把从句中的状语放在连词之后，可避免上述误解。并使意思表达更加明确。如：
2)If，in the course of securities trading，an employee of a securities company violates trading rules under the instructions of the company or by taking advantage of his position，the securities company to which the employee belongs shall bear full liability therefore． 译文：证券公司的从业人员在证券交易活动中。按其所属的证券公司的指令或者利用职务违反交易规则的，有所属的证券公司承担全部责任。
作为法律文件，合同极具周密性，每一种情况，或条件、或要求、或例外及解决办法都要尽可能考虑到。因而大量结构复杂、冗长重叠的状语表达常常出现于合同语言中，成为合同草拟或翻译的一大难点。准确的掌握各种状语结构的位置。可使译文表达最大限度地符合合同语言的行文规范。
结语
以上文字仅就合同英语几个突出的文体特点作了粗浅探讨，仍需进一步的积累和研究。笔者认为：与其他专业英语一样，合同英语的实践性很强。要写出或译出规范而专业的合同英语，不仅要掌握其文体方面的特征和规律。更需大量的实践和不断的总结。
参考文献
方梦之文体与翻译〔M).上海外语教育出版社.1998 方梦之.英语科技文体:范式与应用〔M〕.上海外语教育出版社.1998.侯维瑞.英语语体〔M〕.上海外语教育出版社.1998.刘季春，实用翻译教程〔M〕.中山大学出版社.1998.徐有志.现代英语文体学〔M〕.河南大学出版社.1992.易治贤.涉外经济合同英译的重复法.中国科技翻译〔J〕.1999，(2).魏华.浅谈法律合同英语语言特点及翻译（J）.甘肃科技纵横, 2007,(06).孙雄刚.浅议商务英语的词汇特色[J].琼州学院学报, 2010,(03).李文涛.商务合同的翻译探析[J].中国商贸, 2010,(10).汪洋.浅析商务合同英语的词汇与句法翻译技巧[J].科教文汇(上旬刊), 2009,(04).朱奕,王月红.英语商务合同的文体特征及翻译方法探析[J].才智, 2010,(01).孙春立.国际商务合同中三种意义上的翻译[J].对外经贸实务, 2010,(01).黄始谋.漫谈商务英语合同的翻译和理解[J].商场现代化, 2007,(13).How to Make an English Contract，English contract for foreign instructors, Contract English，论文题目：浅谈涉外合同英语特色
系 别：江苏省联合职业技术学院经贸系
专 业：国际商务
班 级：国商
姓 名：戴佳欣
学 号：
指导教师：梁宏州
完成时间： D063 23 2011年5月13日
第四篇：涉外合同
涉外合同按繁简不同，尽管可以采取不同书面形式，如正式合同（Contract）、协议书（Agreement）、确认书（Confirmation）、备忘录（Memorandum）、订单（Order）等等，但是一般都包含如下几个部分：
一、合同名称（Title）
二、前文（Preamble）
1.订约日期和地点
Date and place of signing
2.合同当事人及其国籍、主营业所或住所
Signing parties and their nationalities, principal place of business or residence addresses
3.当事人合法依据
Each party's authority，比如，该公司是“按当地法律正式组织而存在的”（a corporation duly organized and existing under the laws of XXX）
4.订约缘由/说明条款
Recitals or WHEREAS clause
三、本文（Body）
1.定义条款（Definition clause）
2.基本条款（Basic conditions）
3.一般条款（General terms and conditions）
a.合同有效期（Duration）
b.合同的终止（Termination）
c.不可抗力（Force Majeure）
d.合同的让与（Assignment）
e.仲裁（Arbitration）
f.适用的法律（Governing law）
g.诉讼管辖（Jurisdiction）
h.通知手续（Notice）
i.合同修改（Amendment）
j.其它（Others）
四、结尾条款（WITNESS clause）
1.结尾语，包括份数、使用的文字和效力等（Concluding sentence）
2.签名（Signature）
3.盖印（Seal）
以上的格式和内容并非一成不变，当事人可以根据各自交易情况做出调整或增删。
用词方面
一、多用正式或法律上的用词，比如：
· At the request of Party B, Party A agrees to send technicians to assist Party B to install the equipment.应乙方要求，甲方同意派遣技术人员帮助乙方安装设备。assist 较 help 正式；
· The personnel shall not to partake in any political activities in Iraq.所有人员不得参加伊拉克国内的任何政治活动。partake in 较 take part in 正式；
· The Employer shall render correct technical guidance to the personnel.雇主应该对有关人员给予正确技术指导。render 较 give 正式；
· Party A shall repatriate the patient to China and bear the cost of his passage to Guangzhou.甲方应将病人遣返中国并负责其返回广州的旅费。repatriate 较 send back 正式；
· This Contract shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of China.本合同受中国法律管辖，并按中国法律解释。construe 较 explain, interpret 正式；
· The Employer may object to and require the Contractor to replace forthwith any of its authorized representatives who is incompetent.雇主认为承包人委派的授权代表不合格时，可以反对并要求立即撤换。require较ask正式；公文体forthwith 较 at once 正式；
· The Chairperson may convene an interim meeting based on a proposal made by one-third of the total number of directors.董事长可以根据董事会过1/3董事的提议而召集临时董事会议。convene, interim 都是正式用词。
· In case one party desires to sell or assign all or part of its investment subscribed, the other party shall have the preemptive right.如一方想出售或转让其投资之全部或部分，另一方有优先购买权。法律用词assign 较 transfer 正式.· In processing transactions, the manufacturers shall never have title either to the materials or the finished products.加工贸易中，厂方无论是对原料还是成品都无所有权。法律用词title 较 ownership 正式.· The term “Effective date” means the date on which this Agreement is duly executed by the parties hereto.“生效期”指双方合同签字的日子。法律用词execute 较 sign 正式.与口头表述不同，合同是法律性的正式书面文件，使用正式的、法律的用词是必要的。合同起草者应多加强这方面的学习。
二、多使用“here”，“there”，“where”等前缀：
hereafter = after this time;今后
hereby = by means/reason of this;特此
herein = in this;此中，于此
hereinafter = later in this contract;在下文
thereafter = afterwards;此后，后来
thereby = by that means;因此；由此；在那方面
therein = from that;在那里；在那点上
thereinafter = later in the same contract;以下；在下文
whereby = by what;by which;由是；凭那个
wherein = in what;in which;在哪里；在哪点上
……
是不是有点头昏眼花？初学时确实容易搞混，告诉你个小窍门，here 代表 this，there 代表 that，where 代表 what/which，就容易记多了。
三、多用“shall”代替“will”或“should”加强语气和强制力。
· This Contract shall become effective upon and from the date on which it is signed.本合同签字生效。
· This Contract shall be written in English in four copies.Each party shall keep two copies.本合同应以英文写成，一式四份，双方各持两份。
合同中，shall并非单纯表示将来时，而常用来表示法律上可强制执行的义务，具有约束力，宜译为“应”、“应该”、“必须”； will无论语气还是强制力要比shall弱，宜译为“将”、“原”、“要”；should通常只用来表示语气较强的假设、比如“万一”。
用语方面
一、力求严谨，明白无误：
· The following documents shall be deemed to form and be read and construed as an integral part of this Contract.下列文件应被认为、读作、解释为本合同的组成部分；
· This Contract can only be altered, amended or supplemented in accordance with documents signed and sealed by authorized representatives of both parties.本合同只能按照双方授权代表签名盖章的文件进行修改或增补；
· All activities of ABC Co.shall be governed by the laws, decrees and pertinent rules and regulations of China.ABC公司的一切活动必须受中国的法律、法令和有关规章条例的管辖。
二、多用主动语态，少用被动语态：
· Party B is hereby appointed by Party A as its exclusive sales agent in Singapore.(不宜)
乙方被甲方委托为在新加坡的独家销售代理商；
· Party A hereby appoints Party B as its exclusive sales agent in Singapore.(适宜)
甲方委托乙方为在新加坡的独家销售代理商；
三、多用现在时，少用将来时，尽管很多条款规定的是合同签订以后的事项：
· Licensee may terminate this Contract 90 days after a written notice thereof is sent to Licensor upon the happening of one of the following events:
当有下列事件之一发生，被许可人提前90天向许可人发送书面通知后，可以终止合同：
1.Licensor becomes insolvent or a liquidator of Licensor is appointed;
许可人无力偿付债务或其破产清算人以被指定；
2.The patent described in Article 2 is not issued within 30 days from signing this Contract;and
第二条规定的专利未在签约后30天之内发布；
3.Licensor fails to perform its obligations under this Contract.许可人未能履行其合同义务。
四、直接表达方式用得多，间接表达方式用的较少：
· This Article does not apply to bondholders who have not been paid in full.（用得少）
本条款不适用于尚未全部偿付的债券持有者。
· This Article applies only to bondholders who have been paid in full.（用得多）
本条款只适用于已全部偿付的债券持有者。
五、尽量使用一个动词，避免使用“动词+名词+介词”的同意短语：
· Party A shall make an appointment of its representative within 30 days after signing the Contract.甲方应于签约后30天内指派其授权代表。宜用appoint代替 make an appointment of.· Party A will give consideration to Party B's proposal of exclusive agency.甲方愿意考虑乙方独家代理的建议。宜用consider代替give consideration to.六、下列特殊用语使用频繁：
1.WHEREAS 鉴于
正式而重要的合同，尤其是英美法系的合同，多用它在前文中引出签约背景和目的，起连词作用：
WHEREAS the Employer is desirous that manpower can be rendered available for the construction of High-Rise Residential Complex in Baghdad, Iraq;
鉴于雇主欲请劳动力建造伊拉克巴格达的高层住宅综合大楼；
WHEREAS the Contractor is desirous to provide the manpower for the Works;
鉴于承包人想为此工程提供劳动力；
2.WITNESS 证明
在合同前文中常用作首句的谓语动词：
This Agreement, made by ……
WITNESSES
WHEREAS……, it is agreed as follows:
本协议由……签订证明：鉴于……特此达成协议如下：
3.IN WITNESS WHEREOF 作为所协议事项的证据：
该短语常用于合同的结尾条款：
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties have executed this Contract in duplicate by their duly authorized representatives on the date first above written.作为所协议事项的证据，双方授权代表于上面首次写明的日期正式签订本协议一式两份。
4.IN CONSIDERATION OF 以……为约因/报酬
约因是英美法系的合同有效成立要件之一，没有则合同不能依法强制履行。但是，大陆法系的合同则无此规定。
Now Therefore, in consideration of the premises and the covenants herein, contained, the parties hereto agree as follows:
兹以上述各点和契约所载条款为约因，订约双方协议如下：
In consideration of the payment to be made by Party A to Party B, Party B hereby covenants with Party A to complete the building in conformity with the provisions of the Contract.乙方特此立约向甲方保证按合同规定完成工程建设，以取得甲方所付的报酬。
5.NOW, THEREFORE 兹特
此短语用于WHEREAS条款之后引出具体协议事项的常用开头语，并与其后hereby的结合。如果无HEREAS条款，则本短语可省略：
NOW, THEREFORE, it's hereby agreed and understood as follows；
兹特协议和谅解如下：
6.NOW THESE PRESENTS WITNESS 兹特立约为据
本句话也是用于WHEREAS条款之后引出具体协议事项。
PRESENTS = the present writings 是主语，WITNESS是谓语：
NOW THESE PRESENTS WITNESS that it is hereby agreed between the parties hereto as follows:
兹特立约为据，并由订约双方协议如下：
7.IN THE PRESENCE OF 见证人
本短语只在有见证人时使用-在订约双方当事人签名的下方由见证人签名作证，一般是相关的律师（Attorney）或公证处（Notary Public）:
IN THE PRESENCE OF the parties hereto have hereunder set their respective hands and seals:
作为协议事项的证据，订约双方各自签名盖章如下：
For and on behalf the first Party（甲方代表）：
The EMPLOYER（雇主）…
Capacity（职位）…
In the Presence of（见证人）…
Capacity（职位）…
Address（地址）…
For and on behalf of the Second party（乙方代表）:
The CONTRACTOR（承包人）…
Capacity（职位）…
In the Presence of（见证人）…
Capacity（职位）…
Address（地址）….涉外合同的其他表达方式
涉外合同还采用下列表达方式，使其更加完整、简洁、醒目、结构严谨、主次分明：
1.采用大小标题、分章、分条、分款、分项书写。
2.使用附录（Annex）、一览表（Schedule）等形式详列某些必要的细节作为合同的组成部分。
3.在合同前文之后使用定义（Definition）条款-把合同中反复出现的用语加以界定意义并赋予简称，既避免解释上的分歧，又能使合同简洁：
Article 1: Definitions
1.1 The Terms as used herein shall have the following meanings: 1.1.1 The term “Products” means the products specified in Annex 2.1.1.2 The term “components” means any assembled or unassembled parts of the Products.4.合同某些需要强调的部分用大写字母书写以资醒目；
This AGREEMENT … WITNESSES that WHEREAS … and WHEREAS … NOW THEREFORE, in consideration of it is hereby agreed as follows:
5.用“括号+简称”的方式把合同中反复出现的重要词语简化，以达到准确、简洁的目的：
Foreign Advance Broadcasting Ltd of Amsterdam, Holland(hereinafter called 'LICENSOR“)and China Broadcasting Products Factory(hereinafter called ”LICENSEE“)agree to sign this Contract with the terms and conditions as follows:
6.用”数字+文字“的方式把合同中某些重要的金额、数量、期限等加以强调，以资醒目：
US $ 4500(Say US.Dollars Four Thousand Five Hundred only)
INVESTOR will assist CHINESE, PARTY to construct a paper mill in Guangdong Province, China, with a planned capacity of One Million(1000000)metric tons per year.9
涉外合同撰写人员的其他注意事项：
一、要能草拟多样的涉外合同：
· 要能写各种标的的合同，如以资金、技术、劳务、信息、运输等为标的的合同；
· 要能写各种贸易方式的合同-不但会写单项贸易合同，也要会写包括多项贸易方式的合同，如包括商品购买、技术转 让、安装维修培训服务在内的整套设备进口合同。
· 要能草拟符合各国法律要求的合同-较为复杂的英美法系的合同；较为简单的大陆法系的合同；有所差别的社会主义 法系的合同。
二、正确理解和使用合同的形式:
涉外合同订立的形式有口头和书面两种，使用哪一种要看国家法律的规定。鉴于我国涉外经济法第七条规定涉外合 同需以书面形式订立，所以通过信函、电报、传真达成的协议，也要签订确认书，才会受到我国法律的保护。
三、简化合同格式和内容:
坚持使用书面合同的原则的同时，可以根据实际情况简化合同格式和内容，简化的原则如下：
· 贸易方式较简单的交易，可使用简便的表格式合同-将常用合同项目预先印成表格，然后把协商同意的内容逐项填入表中，送请对方核对签字；
· 与大陆法系国家或其他国家的商人签约，没必要使用英美法系合同前文中的订约缘由条款。比如，可将”This Agreement, made …… WHEREAS …… and WHEREAS …… NOW, THEREFORE, in consideration of …… it is hereby agreed as follows:“的冗长文句简化为：”This Agreement is made …… It is mutually agreed as follows:“
· 有了”签约地点“，一般可省去”适用法律“和”诉讼管辖“条款；
· ”通知手续“和”完整条款“，若不是重要正式合同，可省略；
· 已有双方合法代表亲笔签字，合同可以不再盖印；
· 注意：合同的基本条款不能省略；不要因简化而忽略了合同的合法性、全面性、明确性和严密性。
四、合同用词和用语的改革:
与基础英语相比，合同的词语较复杂、繁冗、晦涩、难读。因此，国外，特 别是美国要求法律文件的格式和语言应 当现代化的呼声愈来愈强烈。Robert E.Swindle早在美国1980年出版的The Business Communicator一书中就写到：” …… legal and quasilegal documents can and are being written in everyday language.Several leading companies are rewriting their legal forms voluntarily, and the State of New York recently passed a law requiring that businesses write consumer contracts in nontechnical language.Additionally, the President of the United States has directed all administrative agencies to write future regulations in what he termed plain English for a change."
作为非英美发系的非英语国家，我们应该怎麽应对？Steven认为，万事都有个渐变的过程，长年累月沉淀下来的习惯不是一下就能改变的。所以我们首先还是应该先通晓传统的英语合同格式和用语，在精通的基础上，才能谈得上根据实际情况进行进一步的格式和用语方面的改革，否则，一切都是经不起推敲的。
第五篇：合同英语特色介绍
上海市建筑业劳动合同
（推荐文本2008版 —— 适用于无固定期限）
甲方（用人单位）名称：
法定代表人：
注册地址：
联系电话：
办公地址：
联系电话：
乙方（劳动者）姓名：
身份证号：
身份证住址：
联系电话：
在沪住址：
根据《中华人民共和国劳动合同法》和国家有关规定，甲乙双方遵循合法、公平、平等自愿、协商一致、诚实信用的原则，订立本劳动合同。
一．劳动合同的类别、期限和试用期
1.合同类别：无固定期限，自_____年____月____日起。
2.试用期：自_____年____月____日起，至_____年____月____日止。
二．工作岗位、职务、工作地点和工作时间
1.乙方工作岗位：____________，担任职务：____________。
2.工作地点：______________________________________________。
3.在符合规定的条件下，或经双方协商一致后，甲方可对乙方的工作岗位、职务及工作地点进行调整。双方应对调整情况进行书面确认，作为本合同附件。
4.甲方根据国家有关工时方面的规定，结合甲方的生产需要，合理安排乙方的工作时间，并确保乙方平均每周至少休息1天。
三．劳动报酬和支付方式
1.甲方根据本单位的工资分配制度，确定乙方正常工作时间的基本工资执行第___项：
①月工资：______元/月。
②日工资：____元/日，待工工资：____元/日。双方未约定待工工资的，待工日执行日工资标准。
其中试用期基本工资为：① _________元/月。② ____元/日，待工工资：____元/日。
2.甲方根据本单位的工资分配制度，可另行书面约定绩效工资的计算方法和支付方式，作为本合同附件。甲方应对乙方的工作进行考核，并按 1
时支付乙方的绩效工资。
3.甲方安排乙方加班的，按照国家有关规定向乙方支付加班费。
4.甲方按月结算乙方工资，并在下一个月___日前以货币形式支付，由乙方签字确认。工资发放清单由甲方存档保管。
5.甲方根据乙方的工作年限、工作表现、岗位变化、职务变化等情况，适时调整乙方的工资，调整情况应得到乙方的确认，并作为本合同的附件。
6.甲方确保乙方的劳动报酬不低于国家有关最低工资标准的规定和集体合同规定的标准。
四．甲方的权利和义务
1.甲方依法制定完善的规章制度，实施对乙方的管理。甲方应当将有关规章制度告知乙方。
2.甲方和工会组织或职工代表签订的集体合同，适用于乙方。
3.甲方为乙方提供符合规定的劳动防护用品和其他劳动条件，并按照国家建筑施工安全生产的规定，在施工现场采取必要的安全措施，为乙方创造安全工作的环境。
4.甲方按照国家有关规定对女职工和未成年工实行特殊劳动保护。
5.甲方按规定为乙方创造岗位培训的条件，对乙方进行安全生产、职业技能、遵纪守法、道德文明等方面的教育。乙方参加甲方安排的培训活动视同出勤，甲方不得克扣乙方的基本工资。
6.甲方为乙方缴纳法定的社会保险，甲方确保乙方在本合同有效期内不漏保。
7.甲方根据有关规定为乙方进入施工现场工作创造必要条件，办理好各项手续。
8.甲方对乙方的出勤、工作、违纪等情况做好记录，作为奖罚乙方的依据。
五．乙方的权利和义务
1.乙方应当自觉遵守有关法律、法规和甲方依法制定的规章制度，严格遵守安全操作规程，服从甲方的管理，按时完成规定的工作数量，达到规定的质量标准。
2.乙方应当积极参加甲方安排的岗位培训活动，不断提高各方面素质。
3.乙方对甲方管理人员违章指挥、强令冒险作业的，有权拒绝工作。乙方对危害生命安全和身体健康的劳动条件，有权对甲方提出批评、检举和控告。
六．劳动合同的解除和终止
1.终止本合同，应当符合法律、法规的相关规定。
2.双方协商一致，可以解除本合同。甲乙双方单方面解除本合同，应当符合法律、法规的相关规定。
3.解除、终止劳动合同时，甲方应当出具解除、终止劳动合同的证明书。
4.合同解除或终止时，甲方应当结清乙方的工资。符合经济补偿条件的，甲方应当按规定向乙方支付经济补偿金。
七．劳动争议处理
甲乙双方在履行本劳动合同时发生争议的，可先协商解决；不愿协商或者协商不成的，可在规定的时限内向当地（工作地点或者甲方工商注册地）劳动争议仲裁委员会申请仲裁。对仲裁裁决不服的，可以自收到仲裁裁决书之日起十五日内向当地人民法院提起诉讼。
八．其他约定
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
九．其它
1.本合同与国家法律法规及有关规定相违背的内容，依照国家法律法规及有关规定执行。
2.本合同及附件均一式2份，甲乙双方各执1份。自甲乙双方签字、盖章之日起生效。
甲方（盖章）：乙方（签字）：
法定代表人或者
委托代理人签字：
签约日期：年月日
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