供应商质量管理文献翻译(外文翻译,中英对照)

第一篇：供应商质量管理文献翻译(外文翻译,中英对照)

互利共赢的供应商质量控制

前言

近年来，随着对供应链的重视，供应商管理正逐渐成为企业和学术界的关注对象，IS09000族标准以及QS 9000标准都对供应商的管理提出了相应的要求，与供应商管理有关的研究成果正逐渐增多，一些软件巨头也推出了供应商关系管理的软件，但是在这些研究成果和应用软件中，涉及到的供应商质量控制的内容只是一些最基本的要求，而供应商质量控制恰恰是供应商管理的最基本、最重要的内容。另一方而，质量管理界对质量控制的研究取得了大量的成果，遗憾的是这些成果大多依然局限于企业的内部控制，仅仅研究从企业内部各环节如何改善产品的质量，而基于供应链的角度来研究质量控制的成果尚不多见。因此，系统地研究经济全球化形势下供应商质量控制的理论与方法，将有助于推动我国企业产品质量的快速提高和供应链竞争优势的形成与巩固。

1、质量与企业共存

质量一直是一个随着时代的变化而不断变化的概念，人们对质量的认识也往往因关注点不同而有所不同。如，早在1908年，通用汽车公司的工程师们在皇家汽车俱乐部会员们的面前拆解了3辆凯迪拉克轿车，并把这些零件混在一起，而后从中选择零件重新组装成车，然后驾车绝尘而去。这令在场的会员极为震惊，认为凯迪拉克车质量之高令人惊叹。显然在当时，汽车零件具有互换性是一种了不起的质量特性，这也是福特公司的N型车和T型车取得辉煌成功的重要原因。时至今日，即使农用三轮车的零部件也具有极高的互换性，零部件的标准化和互换性已经是理所当然的事情，不再是吸引顾客的重要质量特性。可见质量的内涵是不断变化的。那么究竟什么是质量呢?（1）市场竟争就是企业间对“顾客”的争夺，在日益激烈的“顾客”争夺战中，质量、价格、交付(交付日期、方式和手段)和服务是企业常用的四个法宝，其中质量是根本，离开质量其他三项将变得毫无意义，因此可以说质量己成为市场竞争的焦点。它反映了产品是否能够反映顾客需求、能否满足顾客需求，从面决定了产品的市场前途。有鉴于此，质量己成为一项全球性运动，世界上所有优秀企业无一不把质量作为企业战略的关键内容，从战略的角度来规划质量。

（2）对于企业经营者来说，认识到质量对企业的重要意义只是经营企业的第一步，重要的是如何利用科学的方法来保证产品和服务的质量，使顾客满意，来保证过程和工作的质量来获互利共炭的供应商质量控制得良好的业绩。

众所周知，企业管理是社会生产力发展到一定程度的历史产物，质量管理作为企业管理的组成部分，同样也是社会发展的客观要求，特别是顾客处于主导地位的今天，要使顾客满意，就必须有过硬的产品质量和服务质量，这就要求企业积极推行先进的质量管理理论与方法，不断进行质量管理创新。

2、企业与供应商质量控制

随着生产社会化的不断发展，企业的生产活动分工越来越细，专业化程度越来越强，促使生产技术水平越来越高，产品质量得到大幅度改善。通常，某一产品不可能由一个企业从最初的原材料开始加工直至形成顾客最终使用的产品，往往是通过多个企业分工协作来完成。另外，先进生产方式的广泛应用，如准时生产、敏捷制造、零库存等，使企业与供应商的关系愈加紧密，企业与供应商的关系也由单纯的买卖关系向互利共底的合作关系演变。

ISO 9000族标准自1987年诞生以来受到了世界各国的一致追捧，全球约50多万家企业通过ISO 9001质量管理体系认证足以说明这套管理标准在引领国际管理潮流方面的巨大成功。在备受企业欢迎的新版标准ISO 9000:2000中，互利的供应商关系被作为八项质量管理原则之一，充分体现了供应商关系管理在企业经营实践中的作用和价值。企业要贯彻这一原则，就必须从思l 想上认识到供应商的重要性，重视与供应商良好关系的培育，并采取有力措施与之建立一种互利共赢的合作性关系。

3、供应商选择

选择合适的供应商是对供应商进行质量控制最有效手段，如果供应商选择不当，无论后续的控制方法多么先进、控制手段多么严格，都只能起到事倍功半的效果。因此要对供应商进行质量控制首先必须科学合理地选择供应商。

（1）企业在生产经营过程中，所需要的原材料和零部件不可能都由自己生产提供，决定其中哪些应由供应商提供不是一个简单的买不买的问题，因为这涉及企业的业务流程，甚至涉及到企业与供应商之间的业务流程再造，属于企业战略层次的问题。因而对零部件的自产和外购的选择必须综合考虑企业的经营环境、企业自身实际情况以及供应商的总体情况。

1）经营环境分析

企业对于零部件自产还是外购的决策需要建立在对其经营环境的准确分析和把握的基础之上。企业所在行业的整体状况与发展态势、国家宏观经济形势、企业产品的社会需求现状及未来预侧等因素都会影响到企业产品的产销量。而预期的企业产销量是企业进行各项决策如互利共赢的供应商质量控制投资规模、设备配置的主要依据，也是企业零部件自产与外购决策的重要依据。另外，竞争对手的零部件自产与外购情况也是企业进行决策的重要参考依据。

2)市场供应情况

零部件的社会供应状况也是企业决定自产还是外购的重要依据。企业与其供应商的关系的实质就是相互依存的关系，正如一家势力雄厚、规模巨大的企业会吸引很多供应商在其周围投资设厂一样，具有完善配套供应商的区域也常常吸引大的企业甚至跨国公司前来投资办厂。某种零部件的社会供应能力、价格、质量和服务水平在很大程度上影响着企业的自产与外购决策。因此，企业应全面了解其产品中零部件的社会供应情况，注意从互联网上、展览会、供应商来信等渠道收集供应商的企业介绍、产品样本、获奖证书、代理商授权书、营业执照、产品实物质量水平以及市场行情等方面的信息。然后，按照供应商提供物资种类，可分别建立原材料、零部件、包装材料等不同类别的潜在供应商档案。

（2）供应商的检测设备是供应商赖以测量、分析和改进的基础条件。如果供应商不具备必要的检测手段，就无法提供真实准确的质量数据，供应商的质量控制就如空中楼阁。所以，在初选供应商时，了解供应商的检测设备的配备情况和先进程度同样是十分必要的。

（3）过程能力指数和过程性能指数是反映供应商生产过程质量保证能力的两个重要参数。过程能力指数反映供应商短期的过程能力满足公差要求的程度。过程性能指数反映供应商长期的过程能力满足公差要求的程度。供应商是否进行过程能力指数和过程性能指数的计算分析，可以在一定程度上反映其是否在生产过程中进行了预防控制。过程能力指数和过程性能指数的变化则可以反映供应商的质量保证能力和质量改进潜力的大小，在很大程度上反映供应商的实力和管理水平。因此，调查供应商的过程能力指数和过程性能指数是选择供应商的重要依据。

4、供应商的质量控制

质量管理的一项重要原则是“过程方法”，企业为了有效运作，必须识别并管理许多相互关联的过程，特别是这些过程之间的相互作用。供应商是过程管理的源头之一，是过程输入的重要因素，因而，供应商提供的产品质量如何，对于企业的过程质量、体系质量和产品质量具有举足轻重的作用。

（1）产品开发设计阶段，根据不同产品的不同要求，在产品开发设计建议书或产品设计开发任务书中提出先行试验项目和课题，有针对性地为采用新原理、新结构、新材料、新工艺，进行先行试验，为了确保试验的效果和以后批量生产的需要，这一阶段的一项重要工作就是对供应商进行初步控制，确保在新产品设计的各个阶段以及批量生产时，都能够有适合新产品或新服务需要的合格供应商。

l（2）企业在批量生产过程中，对供应商的质量控制主要包括监控供应商的过程能力指数和过程性能指数、监控供应商的测量系统、审核供应商的质量管理体系、进货质量检验、推动供应商的质量改进、以及来自供应商的不合格品的处置和质量问题的解决等活动。

1）批量生产阶段，供应商提供的产品或服务的质量直接决定了企业向顾客提供的产品或服务的质量特性，企业在供应商合作的过程中，应监控供应商的质量保证能力的变化，为了使监控有效，企业应就此与供应商达成一致，并遵循协商一致的标准和程序进行。监控的目的一般有两个，一是防止供应商的质量保证能力出现下降的情况，确保最终产品或服务的质量，实现顾客满意;二是与供应商共同发现改进的机会，寻找改进的切人点，在更高层次上创造价值。

由于在批量生产阶段供应商大批量连续供货，采购产品的质量、价格、供货的及时性等对企业产品的质量和企业实现其经营方针、目标都有十分重要的作用，为了更加科学地评价和选择供应商，这一阶段的供应商评价应尽量采用定量分析的方法。根据产品和服务的不同，定量分折的方法也不同，以下简单介绍常用的过程能力分析、测量系统分析、质量管理体系评价、水平对比法和优秀模式等方法。

①供应商过程能力分析

过程能力是指过程加工质量方面的能力，而不是加工数量方面的能力。在批量生产阶段，为了保证批量生产的产品满足顾客的需求和期望，供应商生产过程的稳定性就十分重要了，决定供应商是否有能力稳定地连续提供符合质量要求的产品的众多因素中，供应商的过程能力是一个决定性的因素。因为当供应商的过程能力不足时，供应商提供合格产品只是个良好的愿望，即便是加大检验力度，也只能是在短期内有效，难以持续。所以，对过程能力不足，短期改进无望的供应商，应该停止合作。

②供应商测量系统分析

企业对供应商的质量控制，包括对供应商的选择、评价和控制，都离不开数据和对数据的分析，缺少足够的数据，仅仅靠经验和直觉对供应商进行选择和评价，其风险是不言而喻的。对供应商的评价和控制所使用的数据大多是由测量提供的，如果测量数据失真或误差很大，都会导致采购行为的缺陷或失败。因此，在批量生产阶段，为了确保采购的质量，应该对供应商的测量系统进行监控。

2）与供应商的沟通

与供应商沟通的方式是多种多样的，但是这些方式的目的是一致的，企业和供应商共同关注顾客，建立企业和供应商共同满意的融洽的合作伙伴关系，共同对产品和服务进行持续的改进，以便及时、有效地适应市场的变化。满足顾客的需求和期望，实现企业和供应商共同的价值，共同追求并实现卓越。

（3）不合格品的判定、分析和处置

虽然有了以上各种控制措施，但是不合格品的出现仍然是正常现象，除单件或少数几件产品、安全性要求较高的产品等少数产品以外，在许多情况下不合格品的出现是难以完全避免的。这时候就要根据不合格的性质、对最终产品的影响程度、供应商的信誉等因素对不合格品进行必要的评审，然后采取适当的措施处置不合格品，以防止不合格品的非预期使用或交付当出现不合格品以后，要分析产生不合格的囚素，采取纠正和预防措施。防止不合格的再次发生。对由于异常因素发生的不合格品，供应商要采取相应的措施，消除这些异常因素。

1）一致的技术标准和抽样方案

使用、提出和制定规格的部门必须合理地描述出拟采购的产品是什么，以便使供应商得到准确的理解，使采购人员能够准确地采购所需的产品。根据ISO 9001:2000标准的要求和企业的实际情况，这些技术标准一般是由设计、采购、管理、生产等部门制定，但在采购的实施时，采购部门要使用这些标准，因此.采购部门从一开始就应该介入这些标准的策划、起草和修订，否则，一旦这此标准止式发布实施，可能会使采购部门处于被动的地位，给采购工作带来麻烦。

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2）不合格品的质量责任

当采购产品出现超出技术规范规定界限的不合格时，企业和供应商应在协商的原则下确定不合格产品的原因、商定解决产品质量的办法，并据此进行改进。当企业与供应商对不合格的认定分歧很大，双方无法协商解决，需要诉诸法律时，不合格产品质量责任的性质就发生了变化，必要时不排除需要追究某一方的法律责任。所以对产品技术要求和其他采购信息，企业一定要表述清除、完整、准确，并经过授权人员评审后再与供应商沟通，在与供应商达成一致的前提下再签订合同，并妥善保存采购、检验文件和记录。

3）不合格品的控制

当出现不合格品，如果是抽样检验，且不合格品的数量小于或等于合格判定数时，这种不合格属于正常现象，只要将不合格品更换成合格品，就应该判定交验批合格，企业应根据文件要求接受该批产品。这些个别的不合格产品可能属于正常波动引起的不合格，可以不必专门查找原因供应商可以作为止常的质量改进，逐步提高过程能力，减少这些不合格。

5、供应商的契约化控制

为了保证顾客对产品与服务的满意，企业必须对产品形成的全过程进行严格的管理与控制。为了使整个供应链中每一个环节，即合作伙伴，明确他们对质量的责任与义务，并保证实现，伙伴之间必须以契约的形式形成承诺，并按照承诺的内容测量质量与服务。这里所说的契约仅指得到相关方签署的，规定供应链各环节之间质量责任的文件化条款，包括合同和协议。严肃合理的契约对双方不仅起到可靠的约束作用，而且可以有效保护双方的利益。

（1）保证契约内容与标准、法规和企业制度的统一性

契约可引用或借鉴既定的法律、法规或规章制度、标准等。如可规定进厂检验抽样标准执行GB2828 抽样标准;电器产品安全性能必须符合GB4706等。如发现有与相关法律、法规、标准、制度不一致之处，发现方应及时提出修改。如在执行过程中发现不一致，发现方应及时通知不知情方，并按符合法律、法规、标准、制度的方式执行。

（2）契约内容应实际有效

起草与签署契约时，必须考虑产品形成过程中的实际情况，考虑契约执行的可操作性。有些协议在制定时可能需要考虑的因素较多，规定需较为详细，但如果过于繁琐，缺乏可操作性，反而起不到应有的作用。例如，某公司需从供应商采购大量的加工轴承用的钢材。由于轴承对材料要求较严，加工精度较高，公司为保证质量，在协议中要求对方对每一批材料进行化学成分分析和物理性能试验。供应商如果引进整套试验设备，势必耗费大量的成本，同时要配备相应的技术人员。如果不增加资源配置，那么每次都要送社会检验机构检验，支付昂贵的试验费用。象这种契约，如果供应商仔细审验的话，他就会考虑进行利润-成本-风险分析，在价格上提高要求。这种协议履行起来就有较大难度，同时也容易引起一些不必要的纠纷，不利于供应链的稳固和质量价值链的形成。

（3）契约应明确双方的权利和责任，鼓励供应商的持续改进与创新

契约中应明确供需双方的权利和责任，同时也应规定必要的奖惩性条款，一方面约束供应商的质量行为，另一方面鼓励供应商不断提高产品质量。对供应商的奖惩包括两种类型。其一是因质量责任的划分而产生的奖惩;其二是根据业绩考核而产生的奖惩。在实际的操作中，适当的奖励可能会产生意想不到的管理效果。某供应商的产品在顾客手中出现了较为严重的质量问题，企业立即通知供应商分析原因，采取整改措施。供应商接通知后，积极地派人到现场进行协助调查和分析，使问题很快得到了解决。本来根据双方的协议规定，该供应商除应承担全部质量责任外，还应承担数额不菲的罚款。但企业考虑到该供应商是自己的重要供应商，一直合作很顺利，质量稳定，决定奖励供应商对质量问题的快速反应和积极的态度，免除了所有的罚款。结果年终评定发现该供应商的产品合格率比上年有较大幅度的提高。

（4）契约的内容应公正、公平

l 契约应是经过双方充分协商达成的共识，不应只是一方对另一方的宣言或要求，内容要经过双方认可和确认。另外，契约内容应涵盖从产品开发、试制、检验、包装运送到不合格品处理、售后服务的全过程，所以契约可包含多个层次，如供货合同、质量保证协议、技术协议、售后服务协议等。

6、供应商的业绩评定与动态管理

供应商作为产品实现的重要资源之一必然要讲求其有效性。2000版ISO9000标准就把管理体系的有效性作为一个重点来考虑，因此对供应商进行业绩评定十分重要，它是进行动态管理、择选劣汰的依据。

（1）评定方法

按照采购要求，对关键材料、主要材料和次要材料定期进行质量缺陷分级评定。规定关键参数的缺陷分记为3分，主要缺陷为2分，次要缺陷为1分。一批材料中根据规定的抽样方法最大分数为6分。质量工程师据此对供应商进行等级评定，并向供应商发出通知。这种方法操作简单，节省人力，但评价指标偏少。

（2）动态管理

根据业绩记录，定期对所有供应商进行动态分级评定。将所有供应商划分为A、B、C、D四级，根据材料价值、质量要求、加工难易程度、社会供应状况等因素确定供应商定点个数。定点个数为1的A类供应商，订单分配为100%;定点个数为1的B类供应商，订单分配为100%，但需开发该材料的新供应商;定点个数为2的A、B类供应商分别分配订单60%和40%;定点个数为3的A、B、C类供应商分别分配订单55%、30%和15%;D类供应商应被淘汰。这种分级评定与管理将供货订单与供应商绩效、材料分级结合起来，使订单的分配比较科学合理。当然，这种方法对企业管理的整体水平也提出了很高的要求。

l Mutually beneficial supplier quality control Preface In recent years, with the emphasis on the supply chain, vendor management is becoming a business and academia about the object, IS09000 standards QS 9000 family of standards and vendor management are all put forward the corresponding requirements, and supplier management-related Research is gradually increased, the software giant also introduced a number of supplier relationship management software, but in these research results and application software, related to the quality control of the content provider is only the most basic requirements, and supplier quality control Supplier management is precisely the most fundamental and important content.The other party, quality management, quality control sector made a lot of research results, unfortunately, most of these results is still limited to the company's internal controls, only the link from the internal study how to improve product quality, and based on supply chain Point of view of the results of quality control is still rare.Therefore, the systematic study of the economic globalization supplier quality control theories and methods, will help promote China's rapid increase in product quality and supply chain formation and consolidation of competitive advantage.1、Quality and corporate co-existence Quality has been a change with the times changing the concept of people's understanding of quality is often due to concerns vary.For example, as early as 1908, GM engineers at the Royal Automobile Club members in front of dismantling the three Cadillac cars, and these components mixed together, and then choose the parts re-assembled into a car, then driving Pull away.This makes the presence of members of a very shocked that the high quality Cadillac amazing.Obviously at the time, with interchangeable parts is a great quality features, this is Ford's Model N Model T achieved brilliant success and an important reason.Today, even if the farm also has a very high tricycle parts interchangeability, standardization and interchangeability of parts is already a matter of course, is no longer an important quality characteristics to attract customers.Visible quality content is constantly changing.So what is the quality?（1）Market competition among enterprises is the “customer ” of the competition, in the increasingly fierce “customers” in the battle, quality, price, delivery(delivery dates, means and methods)and the service is commonly used in the four magic, where quality is Simply leave the quality of the other three will become meaningless, it can be said the quality has become the focus of market competition.It reflects whether a product can reflect the customer needs, can meet customer needs, from the surface determines the future of products in the market.In view of this, quality has become a global movement, all the world's best companies are all the quality as a key element of corporate strategy, from a strategic perspective to planning quality.（2）For business operators, it recognizes the importance of quality on business enterprises is the first step, it is important how to use scientific methods to ensure l product and service quality, customer satisfaction, to ensure the quality of the process and work to Be mutually beneficial and win-win supplier quality control with good results.As we all know, corporate management is the development of social productive forces to a certain degree of historical product, quality management as an integral part of business management, is also the objective requirement of social development, especially in today's dominant customer, make customer satisfaction, there must be strong Product quality and service quality, which requires enterprises to actively implement the advanced quality management theories and methods of continuous quality management innovation.2、Quality control of enterprises and suppliers With the continuous development of socialization of production, the production activities of the division of labor is getting smaller, growing degree of specialization, prompting increasing the level of production technology, product quality has been greatly improved.Typically, a product can not be from a business started from the initial processing of raw materials until the formation of the product end-use customers, often through multiple corporate division of labor to complete.In addition, the extensive application of advanced production methods, such as JIT, agile manufacturing, zero inventory, so that the relationship between enterprises and suppliers increasingly close relationship between companies and suppliers are from a simple buyer-seller relationship to the mutual cooperation between the end of a total evolution of.ISO 9000 family of standards since its inception in 1987 has been the consistent pursuit of the world, more than 50 million businesses around the world through the ISO 9001 quality management system certification standards sufficient to explain this management trend in the leading international management's great success.Welcome to the new business in much the standard ISO 9000:2000, the mutually beneficial supplier relationships is one of eight quality management principles as a fully embodied the supplier relationship management practice in the business role and value.Enterprises to implement this principle, we must recognize the ideological importance of supplier and attach importance to good relations with suppliers cultivation, and to take effective measures with the establishment of a mutually beneficial and win-win cooperative relations.3、Vendor Selection Choose the right supplier is a supplier of the most effective means of quality control, supplier selection if improper, no matter how advanced the follow-up control, controls how strict, can only play a less effective results.So to the quality control of suppliers must first be scientific and rational choice of suppliers.（1）Enterprises in the production process, raw materials and parts needed for production can not be provided by their own to decide which of them should be suppliers of buying a not a simple issue because it involves business processes, even involving Between enterprises and suppliers to the business process reengineering, strategic-level issues in enterprises.Thus parts of the self-produced and purchased options to be taken into account the business environment, the l actual situation of their own and suppliers in general.1）Analysis of business environment Enterprises are outsourcing parts production for the decision or need to create in the accurate analysis of their operating environment and grasp basis.The overall position of companies and the industry development trend, the national macroeconomic situation, the social needs of enterprise products for predicting the future status and other factors will affect production and sales of enterprise products.Anticipated production and sales of enterprise decision-making enterprise for the mutual benefit of suppliers, such as quality control of the scale of investment, mainly based on device configuration, but also business and outsourcing parts production for an important basis for decision making.In addition, competitors and the outsourcing of parts production for corporate decision-making situation is an important reference.2）Market supply Supply situation in parts of the social enterprise decision is an important basis for self-produced or purchased.Business relationships with its suppliers is the essence of interdependence, as a strong power, large-scale enterprises will attract many suppliers set up plants in their surroundings, like, a complete set of regional suppliers often attract large enterprises and even Multinational companies to invest and set up factories.Some parts of the social supply capacity, price, quality and service levels of the enterprise is largely self-produced and outsourcing decisions.Therefore, enterprises should fully understand the social components of their products, availability, attention from the Internet, exhibitions, suppliers and other channels to collect letters from suppliers of business introduction, product samples, award certificates, power of attorney agents, business license, Products quality level and market conditions and other information.Then, in accordance with the types of suppliers to provide materials, were established to raw materials, components, packaging materials, such as different types of potential suppliers file.（2）Testing equipment supplier which the supplier measurement, analysis and improvement of basic conditions.If the supplier does not have the necessary means of detection, we can not provide true and accurate quality data, quality control of suppliers like castles in the air.Therefore, in the primary suppliers to understand the supplier's testing equipment and advanced levels with the situation is also very necessary.（3）Process capability index and process performance index of the production process is reflected in supplier quality assurance capabilities of the two important parameters.Process capability index reflects the ability of suppliers to meet short-term course of the degree of tolerance requirements.Process performance index reflects the ability of suppliers to meet long-term process requirements of the degree of tolerance.Does the supplier to process capability index and process performance index calculation and analysis, to a certain extent, reflect the production process is conducted in the prevention and control.Process capability index and the change process performance index can reflect the ability of the supplier quality assurance and quality improvement of the size of the potential, l largely reflecting the strength and supplier management.Therefore, the investigation supplier process capability index and process performance index is an important basis for selection of suppliers.4、Supplier Quality Control Quality management is an important principle is the “process approach”, enterprises in order to function effectively, must identify and manage the many interrelated processes, especially the interaction between these processes.Supplier is one of the sources of process management is an important factor in the process input, and thus, the quality of suppliers to provide products for business process quality, system quality and product quality has a pivotal role.（1）Product development and design stage, according to the different requirements of different products, product development, design or product design and development of proposals put forward in the book first pilot project tasks and issues, targeted for the introduction of new principles, new structures, new materials, new processes, The first test, in order to ensure test results and future production needs, an important task at this stage is that of the suppliers under control, to ensure that all stages of new product design and mass production, are to have fit the new Product or service needs of qualified suppliers.（2）Enterprises in the production process, quality control of suppliers include monitoring supplier process capability and process performance index, monitor supplier measurement system, the audit supplier quality management system, purchase quality inspection, and promote supplier Quality improvement, and defective products from suppliers, disposal and quality of problem solving and other activities.1）Production stage, suppliers of products or services directly determine the quality of the business to provide customers with the quality of the product or service features, enterprises in the process of suppliers, vendors should monitor changes in the quality assurance capabilities, in order to Monitoring effective, enterprises should reach agreement on this with the supplier, and follow the agreed standards and procedures.The purpose of monitoring generally have two, one supplier's quality assurance to prevent the decline in capacity, to ensure that the quality of the final product or service to achieve customer satisfaction;the second is working with vendors to find opportunities for improvement, looking for people to improve the cutting Point, at a higher level to create value.Production stage due to high volume supplier of continuous availability, purchase products, quality, price, availability, timeliness and other quality products for enterprises and businesses realize their operating principles, and target has a very important role, in order to more scientific Evaluation and selection of suppliers, supplier evaluation at this stage should be a quantitative analysis.According to the different products and services, quantitative differences in methods of folding points, the following brief analysis of commonly used process capability, measurement system analysis, quality management system assessment, comparing the level of law and good models and other methods.①Supplier process capability analysis l Process capability refers to the ability of the process of processing quality, rather than the number of processing capacity.In the production stage, in order to ensure mass production of products to meet customer needs and expectations, supplier stability of the production process is very important to determine whether the supplier has ability to consistently meet the quality requirements to provide continuous product of many factors, Supplier process capability is a decisive factor.Because when the supplier's process capability is insufficient, to provide qualified products supplier is only a good will, even if efforts to increase testing, can only be effective in the short term, unsustainable.Therefore, lack of process capability, supplier of short-term improvement of hopelessness, should stop cooperation.②Measurement System Analysis provider Company quality control of suppliers, including supplier selection, evaluation and control, are inseparable from the data and analysis of the data, the lack of sufficient data, experience and intuition alone the supplier selection and evaluation of the risk Is self-evident.Supplier evaluation and control of the data used are mostly provided by the measure, if the measurement error of the data distortion or large, will lead to purchases defect or failure.Therefore, in the mass production stage, in order to ensure the quality of procurement, suppliers should monitor the measurement system.2）Communication with suppliers Way of communicating with suppliers are diverse, but the purpose of these approaches is consistent, enterprise customers and suppliers of common concern, the establishment of enterprises and suppliers satisfaction of harmonious cooperation partnership for sustainable products and services Improvements in order to timely and effectively adapt to market changes.Meet customer needs and expectations of enterprises and suppliers of common values and common aspirations and achieve excellence.（3）Determination of nonconforming product, analysis and disposal of Even with these various control measures, but there is still substandard products is a normal phenomenon, in addition to single or a few pieces of products, products with higher security requirements and a few other products, in many cases, the emergence of non-conforming product Is hardly avoidable.This time will be based on the nature of failure, the degree of influence on the final product, the supplier's reputation and other factors necessary for the assessment of nonconforming product, and then take appropriate measures to deal with nonconforming product to prevent unintended non-conforming product When a nonconforming use or delivery of goods after the prisoners failed to analyze the factors have to take corrective and preventive measures.To prevent the failure from happening again.Anomalies occur due to defective products, suppliers to take appropriate measures to eliminate these abnormal factors.1）Consistent technical standards and sampling plan Use, and develop specifications proposed department must reasonably describe what the products to be purchased, to enable vendors to get an accurate understanding of the procurement staff to purchase the required products l accurately.According to ISO 9001:2000 standards and the actual situation, the technical standard is normally provided by the design, procurement, management, production and other departments to develop, but in the implementation of the procurement, the procurement departments should use these standards, so.Procurement from Beginning, these standards should be involved in the planning, drafting and revision, otherwise, if only for publish this implementation of this standard, may make the purchasing department in a passive position, to the procurement of trouble.2）Responsibility for substandard quality of goods When purchasing products in excess of unqualified technical specification limits, companies and suppliers should be identified in consultation with substandard products under the principle of reason, the agreed approach to solve product quality and make improvements accordingly.When the enterprise failed and suppliers found great differences on the two sides can not be resolved through consultation, need to resort to the law, the substandard nature of the responsibility of product quality changes, if necessary, do not rule out the need to pursue a party's legal responsibility.Therefore, the product requirements and other procurement information, enterprises must express clear, complete, accurate, and after review by authorized personnel to communicate with suppliers, in agreement with the supplier under the premise of re-signing of the contract, and retain procurement, Inspection documents and records.3）Control of nonconforming product When nonconforming product, if it is sampling, and the number of unqualified or less qualified to determine the number, this failure is a normal phenomenon, as long as the replacement of defective products into the qualified product, you should determine the approved inspection Qualified enterprises should be based on documents required to accept the batch.The failure of these individual products may be part of the normal fluctuations of the failure, you can not find the cause of the specialized supplier of quality can be improved as the only constant, and gradually improve the process capability and reduce the failure.5、Control of contract suppliers In order to ensure customer satisfaction with products and services, companies must form the whole process of product management and strict control.In order to make the whole supply chain, every link, that is, partners, specifically the quality of their responsibilities and obligations, and to ensure implementation of the contract between the partners must be in the form of the formation of commitment, and commitment to the contents of the measure in accordance with quality and service.Mentioned here refers only to the contract signed by the relevant parties to provide the quality of the supply chain responsibilities between the terms of documentation, including contracts and agreements.Serious and reasonable contract for both sides not only play the role of reliable constraints, and can effectively protect the interests of both.（1）Content and standards to ensure that contracts, regulations, and the unity of enterprise system l Contract may be quoted or learn from the established laws, regulations or rules and regulations, standards.Such as to require incoming inspection standards GB2828 random sample of standard;electrical products must comply with GB4706 and other security features.If found with the relevant laws, regulations, standards, system inconsistencies found shall timely changes.If found inconsistencies in the implementation process, that party shall promptly notify the innocent party, according to compliance with laws, regulations, standards, institutional manner.（2）Content of the contract should be practical and effective Drafting and signing of contract, we must consider the actual process of product formation, considering the operability of contract enforcement.Some protocols may need to consider in the development of many factors that need more detailed provisions, but if too cumbersome, the lack of maneuverability, but would not achieve its proper role.For example, a company should purchase from a supplier of processing a large number of bearing steel.As bearing on the material requirements more stringent, higher precision, quality assurance company, ask for in the agreement for each batch of material chemical composition analysis and physical properties.If the introduction of full set of suppliers of test equipment, is bound to spend a lot of cost, while equipped with the appropriate technical staff.If you do not increase the allocation of resources, so each must be sent to community inspection institutions, to pay for expensive testing costs.Like this contract, if the supplier careful testing, he will consider the profitsrisk analysis, the price increase request.Such an agreement more difficult to perform up there, but also easily lead to unnecessary disputes, is not conducive to the stability and quality of supply chain value chain formation.（3）Contract should be clear rights and responsibilities of both parties, to encourage suppliers to continuous improvement and innovation Contract should be clear rights and responsibilities of both supply and demand, but also should provide the necessary incentive provisions, on the one hand the quality of binding behavior of suppliers, on the other hand encourage suppliers to continuously improve product quality.Incentive of suppliers, including two types.One is the division of responsibility for the quality of the resulting rewards and punishments;the other is based on performance appraisal and reward and punishment generated.In the actual operation, the appropriate reward management may produce unexpected results.A supplier of the product in the hands of customers appeared more serious quality problems, companies immediately notify the supplier of the cause and take corrective measures.Suppliers take notice, sent to the site to actively assist in the investigation and analysis of the problem was quickly resolved.According to the agreement originally provided that the supplier should bear all the responsibility for quality in addition, we must also bear the amount of money in fines.However, taking into account the supplier companies is their key suppliers, have been working very smoothly, stable quality, decided to reward quality supplier of rapid response and a positive attitude, eliminating all of the fine.Year-end evaluation results found that the rate of qualified products suppliers are more substantial than the increase over the previous year.l（4）The contents of the contract should be fair and equitable Contract should be negotiated through the full consensus of both parties, not just one party against another or request a declaration, content to go through both the recognition and confirmation.In addition, the contract terms should cover product development, trial production, testing, packaging, delivery to non-conforming product processing, service the whole process, so the contract can contain multiple levels, such as supply contracts, quality assurance agreements, technology agreements, service Agreement.6、Supplier performance evaluation and dynamic management Suppliers as an important resource for product realization is bound to emphasize its effectiveness.2000 put the ISO9000 standard management system effectiveness to consider as a priority, so the assessment of supplier performance is important, it is the dynamic management, eliminating the basis by choosing inferior.（1）Evaluation Method Accordance with the procurement requirements of key materials, the main material and secondary materials on a regular basis for quality assessment of defect classification.Provisions of sub-critical parameters of the defects recorded as 3 points, 2 points for major defects, minor defects was 1.Some materials, in accordance with the provisions of the sampling method the maximum score is 6 points.Quality Engineer accordingly suppliers rating, give notice to the supplier.This method is simple, save manpower, but the index below normal.（2）Dynamic Management Based on performance records, all suppliers on a regular basis for dynamic classification assessment.All suppliers will be divided into A, B, C, D four, according to the material value, quality, ease of processing, social availability and other factors point to determine the number of the supply agreement.A fixed number of classes is 1 supplier order allocation was 100%;fixed number of Class B-1 supplier order allocation is 100%, but the need to develop new supplier of the material;fixed number of 2 A, B type distribution of order suppliers respectively 60% and 40%;fixed number 3 of the A, B, C category vendors were assigned the order 55%, 30% and 15%;D class of suppliers should be eliminated.The assessment and management of hierarchical order with the supplier to supplier performance, material grade combine to make more scientific and rational allocation of orders.Of course, this method the overall level of enterprise management also made very high demands.l

第二篇：交通运输外文翻译外文文献

交通事故分析的可能性和局限性

S.Oppe 关键字：后果;目的;描述;限制;关注;事故分析;可能性

摘要：交通事故的统计数字，尤其国家一级的数据对监控和预测事故的发展，积极或消极检测事故的发展，以及对定义安全目标和评估工业安全特别有益。事故分析是应用非常有限的分析，是前瞻性分析和回顾性分析，能够对新开发的交通安全系统和特殊过程的安全措施进行评价。目前迫切需要一个将实时事故分析与研究相结合的行为。将自动检测和视频录制相结合的研究交通事故的科研论文会比较容易接受。这种类型的研究最终会对交通理念有个完善的认识。

1．简介

本文主要是基于个人的经验，研究有关交通安全、安全分析以及事故分析等在研究中的作用。由这些经验推导出的哲学思考就像通过研究和统计得出的实践观点。而这些调查数字已经在其他地方发表了。

在缺少直接观察的事故中，许多方法论问题的产生，导致不能直接测试对结果持续讨论。通过看事故视频来讨论是富有成效的。事实证明，用来解释事故的大部分有关信息就是事故中缺少的记录。深入研究还无法回忆起所有的必要的用来测试有关事故发生的假设数据。尤其是车-车相撞发生的车祸，这是在荷兰城市道路交叉口录制的视频，一辆从岔路驶来的汽车与主干路的汽车相撞，下列问题可以问：为什么汽车来自次干路上，突然加速后又几乎停止，撞上了在左侧主路的一辆汽车呢？为什么没有注意到正在驶来的车？是不是因为两车从右边驶来，司机因为前面的交叉为他们提供了可能性而斤斤计较？难道他向左看过，但他认为停在拐角处的绿色货车能让他停下来？当然，交通状况并不复杂。目前这个事故中没有骑自行车或行人在拥挤路口分散他的注意。如果停着的绿色车能够在五分钟内消失，这两辆车可能就不会相撞。在事故发生的相关条件下，几乎不可能观察下一个交通行为，因为交通事故是不可预见的。由于新的视频设备和自动检测事故设备的不断发展，如在收集数据方面不需要很高的成本就能变得越来越逼真。必要的增加数据类型也能更好的解释交通中存在的危险因素。关于事故分析的可能性和限制性的问题是不容易回答的，我们不能确切的分析交通事故。因为事故分析涵盖了每一个活动中的不同背景，并根据不同的信息来源范围来补充资料，特别是收集事故的数据，背景资料等，我们首先要看看在交通安全领域的活动周期然后再回答事故分析的可能性与限制。这些行为主要是与交通系统的安全管理有关，有些则是相关的研究活动。

应该用下面的步骤来加以区分： ——检测交通安全问题；

——描述问题和它的主要特征； ——分析其原因分析和改进建议； ——选择和执行安全措施； ——评价所采取的措施。

虽然这个周期可以由同一人或一群人做出来，而问题在每个阶段（政治/管理或科学）都有不同的背景。我们用事故分析来描述这一阶段。做这个决定是重要的。很多关于分析结果的方法的讨论由于忽视之间的区别而成为徒劳的。政治家或道路管理人员对道路的个别事故不是很留意。他们对事故的看法往往都是一视同仁，因为总的结果比整个事故中的每个人的因素重要。因此，每次事故看做一个个体，之间相互协调就会达成安全的结果。

研究人员研究事故发生时一连串事件中每个人的兴趣。希望从中得到关于每次事故的详细信息并能发现其发生的原因和有关的条件。政治家们希望只是因为细节决定行动。在最高一级事故总数减少。信息的主要来源是国家数据库及其统计学处理系统。对他来说，统计意外数字及其统计的波动来进行事故分析。这适用于事故分析中的交通安全领域。因此，我们将首先描述了事故的这些方面。2．事故的性质和它们的统计特性

事故基本概念是意外，不管是其发生的原因还是引起事故出现的过程。两个简单的假设通常是来描述交通事故的形成过程：

-事故发生的概率与以往发生的事故之间是独立；-事故发生在时间上是同性质的

如果这两个假设成立，那么事故是泊松分布。第一个假设与大多数的批判不符。事故是罕见的事件，因此不会受到以前事故的影响。在某些情况下，有一个直接的因果链（例如，大量的车开到一起）这一系列的事故被认为是一个个体事故但包含许多的车。这个假设并不适用于统计人员伤亡。伤亡人数往往与同一事故有关，因此，独立性假设不成立。第二个假设乍一看似乎不太容易理解。穿越空间或在不同地点发生的的事故同样具有可能性。然而，假设需要很长一段时间并且没有缓缴期。其性质是根据理论的假设。如果其短时间内能成立，那么它也适用于长时间，因为泊松分布变量的总和，即使他们的泊松率是不同的，但也属于泊松分布。对于这些时期的总和泊松率则等于为这些地方的泊松率的总和。假设与一个真正的情况相比较计数，无论是从一两个结果还是总情况来看都有一个基本情况比较符合。

例如，对比在一年中特定的一天例如下一天，下一个星期的一天发生的交通事故。如果条件是相同的（同一时间，交通情况相同，同样的天气条件等），那么由此产生的意外数字是相同的泊松过程的结果。这一假设可以通过估算进行测试的两个观测值的基础上（估计是两个值的平均值）的速度参数。概率理论能够

考虑到这两个观察值的平均，用于计算的平等假设的可能性。这是一个相当强大的统计过程。泊松假设是研究了很多次，来获得证据支持。它已经应用于许多情况，数的差异表明在安全性的差异然后确定是否发生意外。这一程序的主要目的是检测在安全分歧。这可能是一个时间上的差异，或不同的地方或不同的条件。这种差异可以指导改进的过程。由于主要关注的是，以减少意外的发生，这种分析可能导致对治疗中最有前途的领域。为这样一个测试应用程序的必要条件是，那意外的数字进行比较是大到足以证明存在的分歧。在许多地方情况下，一个应用程序是不可能的。事故黑点分析往往阻碍了这一限制，例如，如果应用这种测试，找出事故是否在特定的位置数是高于平均水平。该程序的描述，也可以使用，如果发生意外乃根据数的特点找到有前途的安全目标。不仅聚集，而且还与分类泊松假设成立，而意外数字可以相互测试的泊松假设的基础。这种测试是相当麻烦的，因为每个特定的情况下，每一个不同的泊松参数，即，对所有可能结果的概率必须计算应用测试。然后，泊松分布近似为正态分布，均值和方差等于泊松参数。一旦均值和方差的正态分布，给出了所有的测试可以改写了标准零均值和

方差的正态分布条件。没有任何更多的必要计算，但测试统计，需要利用表绘制。3.行车安全政策事故统计的应用

分析那些假设的基础上描述的测试程序的类型及其优点。这种应用最好的例子是为一个国家或地区进行超过一年的安全监测，用事故的总体数据（最终的特定类型，如死亡事故）与前几年的数据相比较。根据数年的事故序列，能够分析出它的发展趋势，并大致预测以后几年的事故数量。一旦建立了这样一种趋势，那么在误差范围内未来一年或几年都可以预见。从一个给定趋势的偏差也可以进行预测新的事件。最有名的是斯米德在1949年进行的分析。我们将讨论这个事故类型分析更详细的内容。

1、该测试应用推广到高阶分类。Foldvary和Lane（1974），在衡量强制佩戴安全带的效果，谁是最早应用于值的4路表高阶相互作用的总卡方分配的。

2、测试不局限于总体影响，但卡方值就可以分解模型内子假说。另外，在双向表，卡方总可以分解成零件表互动的作用。对1的优势。和2。比以前的情况是，这对许多相互关联的（子）表和相应的智广场卡方检验是由大量分析，取而代之的是一个一卡方的确切划分。

3、投入更多关注的是参数估计。例如，在卡方分割使人们有可能以测试有关行参数的线性或二次限制或趋势的不连续性。

4、分析的单位是从数到广义加权计数。这对于道路安全分析，那里一段时间，道路使用者的数量，地点或公里数的车辆往往是必要的修正有利。最后一个选项是没有发现在许多统计软件包。安徒生1977年给出了一个用于道路双向安全分析表的例子。工资保障运动的一个计算机程序。这一级没有说明事故原因分

析。它会尝试检测安全问题需要特别注意。所需的基本信息包括事故数字，来形容不安全总额，暴露的数据来计算风险，并找到一个高风险的情况下或（团体）道路使用者。

4.事故分析研究目的

交通安全的研究是有关的事故及其后果的发生。因此，人们可能会说，研究对象是意外。然而研究人员的兴趣较少集中在这个最后的结果本身，而是多在进程更多的结果（或不结果）的事故。因此，最好是把作为他的研究对象，在流量的重要事件。一个在交通意外的过程，结果是，该实际发生是由研究者未落观测研究的主要问题。

调查一宗交通意外，他将努力重建了间接来源的事件，如涉及的道路使用者，所提供的资料或目击者有关情况，车辆，道路和司机的特点。因此这不是科学独特的，也有一个间接的研究对象的研究更多的例子。但是，第二个困难是，该研究的对象不能被诱发。有系统的控制实验手段研究只对问题方面的可能，而不是问题本身。

间接观察和缺乏系统的控制组合使调查人员很难发现在什么情况下造成事故的因素。虽然研究人员主要是在事故处理领导有兴趣，他几乎完全信息的后果，它的产品，意外。此外，事故背景是复杂的。一般来说，可分为以下几个方面：

-考虑到交通系统，交通量和组成国家，道路使用者，他们的速度，天气条件下，路面情况，车辆，道路使用者和他们的相互作用的演习，意外可以或无法预防。

-由于发生事故，也对这样的速度和车辆质量的因素，大量的不同，碰撞角度，对道路使用者和他们的脆弱性，影响等位置的保护，伤害是严重或或多或少物质损失是多还是少可观。虽然这些方面不能独立研究从理论的角度看，它也从由此产生的结果的优势，区分交通情况有潜在危险的数字，是由有一个意外的可能性，在这种潜在的危险局势，给定一个特定事故。

这个概念框架是对风险的关于个别道路使用者，以及上级的决定控制器的决定制定的一般基础。在风险的数学公式，我们需要一个明确的概率空间的介绍，基本事件（的情况），可能导致事故组成，每个类型的事件的概率，最终收在一次事故中，最后的具体成果，损失，鉴于事故的类型。

另一种方法是看事故特征组合，然后找出关键因素。这种类型的事故分析是通过分析事故的共组或子群来开展。事故本身是一个研究的单位，但也要研究道路因素：道路位置，道路设计（如一个弯道）等。

原文出处：SWOV institute for road safety research Leidschendam（会议记录），记录者，S.Oppe.POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF ACCIDENT

ANALYSIS

S.Oppe Keyword：Consequences;purposes;describe;Limitations;concerned;Accident Analysis;possibilities Abstraet：Accident statistics, especially collected at a national level are particularly useful for the description, monitoring and prognosis of accident developments, the detection of positive and negative safety developments, the definition of safety targets and the(product)evaluation of long term and large scale safety measures.The application of accident analysis is strongly limited for problem analysis, prospective and retrospective safety analysis on newly developed traffic systems or safety measures, as well as for(process)evaluation of special short term and small scale safety measures.There is an urgent need for the analysis of accidents in real time, in combination with background behavioural research.Automatic incident detection, combined with video recording of accidents may soon result in financially acceptable research.This type of research may eventually lead to a better understanding of the concept of risk in traffic and to well-established theories.1.Introduction.This paper is primarily based on personal experience concerning traffic safety, safety research and the role of accidents analysis in this research.These experiences resulted in rather philosophical opinions as well as more practical viewpoints on research methodology and statistical analysis.A number of these findings are published already elsewhere.From this lack of direct observation of accidents, a number of methodological problems arise, leading to continuous discussions about the interpretation of findings that cannot be tested directly.For a fruitful discussion of these methodological problems it is very informative to look at a real accident on video.It then turns out that most of the relevant information used to explain the accident will be missing in the accident record.In-depth studies also cannot recollect all the data that is necessary in order to test hypotheses about the occurrence of the accident.For a particular car-car accident, that was recorded on video at an urban intersection in the Netherlands, between a car coming from a minor road, colliding with a car on the major road, the following questions could be asked:Why did the driver of the car coming from the minor road, suddenly accelerate after coming almost to a stop and hit the side of the car from the left at the main road? Why was the approaching car not noticed? Was it because the driver was preoccupied with the two cars coming from the right and the gap before them that offered him the possibility to cross? Did he look left before, but was his view possibly blocked by the green van parked at the corner? Certainly the traffic situation was not complicated.At the moment of the accident there were no 5

bicyclists or pedestrians present to distract his attention at the regularly overcrowded intersection.The parked green van disappeared within five minutes, the two other cars that may have been important left without a trace.It is hardly possible to observe traffic behaviour under the most relevant condition of an accident occurring, because accidents are very rare events, given the large number of trips.Given the new video equipment and the recent developments in automatic incident and accident detection, it becomes more and more realistic to collect such data at not too high costs.Additional to this type of data that is most essential for a good understanding of the risk increasing factors in traffic, it also important to look at normal traffic behaviour as a reference base.The question about the possibilities and limitations of accident analysis is not lightly answered.We cannot speak unambiguously about accident analysis.Accident analysis covers a whole range of activities, each originating from a different background and based on different sources of information: national data banks, additional information from other sources, specially collected accident data, behavioural background data etc.To answer the question about the possibilities and limitations, we first have to look at the cycle of activities in the area of traffic safety.Some of these activities are mainly concerned with the safety management of the traffic system, some others are primarily research activities.The following steps should be distinguished:description of the problem and its main characteristics;selection and implementation of safety measures;the probability of an accident to occur is independent from the occurrence of previous accidents;-the occurrence of accidents is homogeneous in time.If these two assumptions hold, then accidents are Poisson distributed.The first assumption does not meet much criticism.Accidents are rare events and therefore not easily influenced by previous accidents.In some cases where there is a direct causal chain(e.g., when a number of cars run into each other)the series of accidents may be regarded as one complicated accident with many cars involved.The assumption does not apply to casualties.Casualties are often related to the same accident and therefore the independency assumption does not hold.The second assumption seems less obvious at first sight.The occurrence of accidents through time or on different locations are not equally likely.However, the assumption need not hold over long time periods.It is a rather theoretical assumption in its nature.If it holds for short periods of time, then it also holds for long periods, because the sum of Poisson distributed variables, even if their Poisson rates are different, is also Poisson distributed.The Poisson rate for the sum of these periods is then equal to the sum of the Poisson rates for these parts.The assumption that really counts for a comparison of(composite)situations, is whether two outcomes from an aggregation of situations in time and/or space, have a comparable mix of basic situations.E.g., the comparison of the number of accidents on one particular day of the year, as compared to another day(the next day, or the same day of the next week etc.).If the conditions are assumed to be the same(same duration, same mix of traffic and situations, same weather conditions etc.)then the resulting numbers of accidents are the outcomes of the same Poisson process.This assumption can be tested by estimating the rate parameter on the basis of the two observed values(the estimate being the average of the two values).Probability theory can be used to compute the likelihood of the equality assumption, given the two observations and their mean.This statistical procedure is rather powerful.The Poisson assumption is investigated many times and turns out to be supported by a vast body of empirical evidence.It has been applied in numerous situations to find out whether differences in observed numbers of accidents suggest real differences in safety.The main purpose of this procedure is to detect differences in safety.This may be a difference over time, or between different places or between different conditions.Such differences may guide the process of improvement.Because the main concern is to reduce the 7

number of accidents, such an analysis may lead to the most promising areas for treatment.A necessary condition for the application of such a test is, that the numbers of accidents to be compared are large enough to show existing differences.In many local cases an application is not possible.Accident black-spot analysis is often hindered by this limitation, e.g., if such a test is applied to find out whether the number of accidents at a particular location is higher than average.The procedure described can also be used if the accidents are classified according to a number of characteristics to find promising safety targets.Not only with aggregation, but also with disaggregation the Poisson assumption holds, and the accident numbers can be tested against each other on the basis of the Poisson assumptions.Such a test is rather cumbersome, because for each particular case, i.e.for each different Poisson parameter, the probabilities for all possible outcomes must be computed to apply the test.In practice, this is not necessary when the numbers are large.Then the Poisson distribution can be approximated by a Normal distribution, with mean and variance equal to the Poisson parameter.Once the mean value and the variance of a Normal distribution are given, all tests can be rephrased in terms of the standard Normal distribution with zero mean and variance one.No computations are necessary any more, but test statistics can be drawn from tables.3.The use of accident statistics for traffic safety policy.The testing procedure described has its merits for those types of analysis that are based on the assumptions mentioned.The best example of such an application is the monitoring of safety for a country or region over a year, using the total number of accidents(eventually of a particular type, such as fatal accidents), in order to compare this number with the outcome of the year before.If sequences of accidents are given over several years, then trends in the developments can be detected and accident numbers predicted for following years.Once such a trend is established, then the value for the next year or years can be predicted, together with its error bounds.Deviations from a given trend can also be tested afterwards, and new actions planned.The most famous one is carried out by Smeed 1949.We will discuss this type of accident analysis in more detail later.1.The application of the Chi-square test for interaction is generalised to higher order classifications.Foldvary and Lane(1974), in measuring the effect of compulsory wearing of seat belts, were among the first who applied the partitioning of the total Chi-square in values for the higher order interactions of four-way tables.2.Tests are not restricted to overall effects, but Chi-square values can be decomposed regarding sub-hypotheses within the model.Also in the two-way table, the total Chisquare can be decomposed into interaction effects of part tables.The advantage of 1.and 2.over previous situations is, that large numbers of Chi-square tests on many interrelated(sub)tables and

corresponding Chi-squares were replaced by one analysis with an exact portioning of one Chi-square.3.More attention is put to parameter estimation.E.g., the partitioning of the Chi-square made it possible to test for linear or quadratic restraints on the row-parameters or for discontinuities in trends.4.The unit of analysis is generalised from counts to weighted counts.This is especially advantageous for road safety analyses, where corrections for period of time, number of road users, number of locations or number of vehicle kilometres is often necessary.The last option is not found in many statistical packages.Andersen 1977 gives an example for road safety analysis in a two-way table.A computer programme WPM, developed for this type of analysis of multi-way tables, is available at SWOV(see: De Leeuw and Oppe 1976).The accident analysis at this level is not explanatory.It tries to detect safety problems that need special attention.The basic information needed consists of accident numbers, to describe the total amount of unsafety, and exposure data to calculate risks and to find situations or(groups of)road users with a high level of risk.4.Accident analysis for research purposes.Traffic safety research is concerned with the occurrence of accidents and their consequences.Therefore, one might say that the object of research is the accident.The researchers interest however is less focused at this final outcome itself, but much more at the process that results(or does not result)in accidents.Therefore, it is better to regard the critical event in traffic as his object of study.One of the major problems in the study of the traffic process that results in accidents is, that the actual occurrence is hardly ever observed by the researcher.Investigating a traffic accident, he will try to reconstruct the event from indirect sources such as the information given by the road users involved, or by eye-witnesses, about the circumstances, the characteristics of the vehicles, the road and the drivers.As such this is not unique in science, there are more examples of an indirect study of the object of research.However, a second difficulty is, that the object of research cannot be evoked.Systematic research by means of controlled experiments is only possible for aspects of the problem, not for the problem itself.The combination of indirect observation and lack of systematic control make it very difficult for the investigator to detect which factors, under what circumstances cause an accident.Although the researcher is primarily interested in the process leading to accidents, he has almost exclusively information about the consequences, the product of it, the accident.Furthermore, the context of accidents is complicated.Generally speaking, the following aspects can be distinguished: Given an accident, also depending on a large number of factors, such as the speed and mass of vehicles, the collision angle, the protection of road users and their vulnerability, the location of impact etc., injuries are more or less severe or the material damage is more or less substantial.Although these aspects cannot be studied independently, from a theoretical point of view it has advantages to distinguish the number of situations in traffic that are potentially dangerous, from the probability of having an accident given such a potentially dangerous situation and also from the resulting outcome, given a particular accident.This conceptual framework is the general basis for the formulation of risk regarding the decisions of individual road users as well as the decisions of controllers at higher levels.In the mathematical formulation of risk we need an explicit description of our probability space, consisting of the elementary events(the situations)that may result in accidents, the probability for each type of event to end up in an accident, and finally the particular outcome, the loss, given that type of accident.A different approach is to look at combinations of accident characteristics, to find critical factors.This type of analysis may be carried out at the total group of accidents or at subgroups.The accident itself may be the unit of research, but also a road, a road location, a road design(e.g.a roundabout)etc.

第三篇：1300外文文献翻译

Agricultural Land and Regulation in the Transition Economy of Russia Ekaterina Gnedenko1 & Michael Kazmin2 Published online: 7 July 2015 # International Atlantic Economic Society 2015 JEL Classification C10.L33.O57.Q00 This research note explores the link between farmland conversion and existing land regulation in Russia.We conclude that land regulation is lagging the new market trends in the transition economy of Russia.As market forces continue to penetrate the economy, apparent managerial and statutory problems with regard to local land-use planning and regulation preclude more effective use of land.Responding to the need for attracting investment in agriculture, the Russian Ministry of Science and Education provided funds for our research project that involves primary data collection and econometric analysis of the interdependencies between governmental policies and farmland loss.Our unique dataset contains socioeconomic, demographic and spatial geographic 2010 data for 39 municipal districts in the Moscow metropolitan region.The econometric analysis of this data set is used to explore the relationship among farmland quantity, its assessed value, the share of privatized farmland, farmland tax,and land-use zoning in the simultaneous equations framework.While the Russian market for real estate has developed quickly, the market for agricultural land is still thin.Farmland deals are limited, partly because of the lingering uncertainty about farmland property rights.The state-owned farmland is still significant.Our Moscow regional data suggest a strong positive relationship between the fraction of privatized farmland and farmland acreage, although the fraction of individually and collectively privatized farmland is only 57 %.The direct sale of farmland to foreigners is prohibited decreasing potential foreign investment as well.As a result, the area occupied by agricultural lands has been steadily decreasing and deteriorating in quality.During the period 1990 to 2005, tillable lands in Russia have shrunk by 10.5 million hectares(7.9 % of tillable lands).Lacking experience and adequate knowledge, local governments are stuck with the land conservation policies available to the former USSR.In particular, in an attempt to contain the loss of prime farmland, the regulators retain old land-use zoning laws prohibiting the change of land status.However, strong development pressures and widespread corruption often annihilate the desirable effect of zoning.The results of our econometric analysis indicate that the proximity to Moscow city and population growth both have a significant negative effect on the amount of farmland, even in the strictlyzoned-for agriculture districts, suggesting strong urban pressure in the capital region of Moscow.The estimated elasticity of farmland acreage with respect to population growth is −0.3.A corrupt practice of illegal changes in land status is reflected in the fact that the lands still classified as farmland in the Federal Register of Land are turned into residential or industrial areas.This signals a management problem which could be perhaps resolved by the introduction of more flexible zoning and an increase in the range of responsibilities of local governments and their property rights to land.The other economic instrument indispensable in land policy, land assessment, is also based on the former practices of the Communist period following a federally mandated general formula that takes into account soil productivity criteria, topographic features of the landscape, and the presence of irrigation, but still has little in common with the market price of farmland.When the agricultural land tax is calculated as the percentage of the assessed value of farmland, which is often below its real market value, local authorities are not interested in developing local agricultural infrastructure or increasing agricultural land base because they will not be able to reap any significant tax benefits from it.Coupled with the low federally mandated upper limits on tax rates(0.3 % of the assessed value of agricultural and residential lands)this leads to insufficient local tax revenues and overreliance on intergovernmental transfers.According to our data for the Moscow region, although localities tend to impose the maximum allowable tax rate, the average share of land tax revenues in local budgets is a mere 5 %.It is not surprising as the average assessed value of farmland across municipalities is 1000 times less than the ongoing average sales price, according to data we collected.The insignificant local land tax revenues caused by the underestimated land value lead to insufficient local infrastructure investment, which further suppresses the value of farmland and hastens its conversion.The results of the econometric analysis indicate lack of statistical significance between the assessed value of farmland and farmland quantity in the Moscow region, making the farmland tax rate an ineffective instrument in land policy.This missing link between the farmland quantity and existing land policies may render these policies not just ineffective but even wasteful.Innovative approaches such as the retention of development rights by the government might represent a temporary solution.The increasing reliance on local governance in solvinglocal problems would imply improved land-use and public finance planning and,perhaps, a slower farmland conversion trend.俄罗斯经济转型中的农业用地与监管

Ekaterina Gnedenko1 & Michael Kazmin2。在线出版:2015年7月7日。国际大西洋经济学会2015。冻胶分类C10。L33。O57。Q00 本研究报告探讨了俄罗斯农地转换与现有土地规制之间的关系。我们的结论是，土地监管滞后于俄罗斯转型经济的新市场趋势。由于市场力量继续渗透经济，在地方土地利用规划和管理方面显然存在管理和法律问题，妨碍了更有效地利用土地。为了应对吸引农业投资的需要，俄罗斯科学和教育部为我们的研究项目提供了资金，该项目涉及对政府政策和农田损失之间相互依赖关系的主要数据收集和计量分析。我们独特的数据集包含社会经济、人口和空间。2010年莫斯科都市地区39个市辖区的地理数据。通过对该数据集的计量分析，探讨了在联立方程框架下，耕地数量、其评估值、私有化耕地占比、农地税和土地利用区划之间的关系。

虽然俄罗斯房地产市场发展迅速，但农业用地市场仍很薄弱。农田交易是有限的，部分原因是土地产权的不确定性挥之不去。国有农田仍然很重要。我们的莫斯科地区数据显示，私有化耕地和耕地面积的比例之间存在着强烈的正相关关系，尽管单独和集体私有化耕地的比例仅为57%。禁止向外国人直接出售农田，也禁止减少潜在的外国投资。因此，农地占用的面积一直在稳步下降，质量也在不断恶化。在1990年至2005年期间，俄罗斯的可耕种土地减少了1050万公顷(占耕地面积的7.9%)。

由于缺乏经验和足够的知识，地方政府只能依靠前苏联提供的土地保护政策。特别是，为了遏制主要农田的流失，监管机构保留了禁止改变土地状况的旧土地用途分区法。然而，强大的发展压力和广泛的腐败往往会消灭分区制的理想效果。我们的计量分析结果表明，靠近莫斯科城市和人口增长对农田的数量有显著的负面影响，即使是在严格的农业地区，这表明莫斯科的首都地区的城市压力很大。在人口增长方面，耕地面积的估计弹性为0.3。非法改变土地状况的一种腐败做法，反映在土地仍然被归为联邦土地登记册上的土地的土地被转变为住宅或工业区的事实。这标志着一个管理问题，也许可以通过引进更灵活的分区和增加地方政府的责任范围和土地的财产权来解决。

其他经济工具不可或缺的土地政策、土地评估,也是基于前实践后共产主义时期的联邦法律规定的一般公式,考虑土壤生产力标准,地貌景观的灌溉的存在,但仍然没有与市场价格的农田。农业土地税计算时的评估价值的百分比农田,这通常是低于其实际市场价值,当地政府发展当地的农业基础设施不感兴趣或增加农业用地基地,因为他们将无法获得任何重大税收优惠。再加上联邦政府规定的低税率(占农业和居住用地评估价值的0.3%)，这将导致当地税收收入不足，并过度依赖政府间转移。根据我们对莫斯科地区的数据，虽然地方倾向于征收最高允许的税率，但地方预算的土地税收收入的平均份额仅为5%。据我们收集的数据显示，由于各城市的农田平均分摊价值比目前的平均销售价格低1000倍，这并不令人惊讶。

由于土地价值被低估而导致的地方土地税收不显著，导致地方基础设施投资不足，进一步抑制了农田价值，加快了土地流转。经济计量分析结果表明，在莫斯科地区，耕地和耕地数量的评估价值缺乏统计意义，使得农地税率在土地政策中是无效的。耕地数量和现有土地政策之间缺失的联系可能使这些政策不仅无效，甚至是浪费。政府保留发展权利等创新办法可能是一种临时解决办法。在解决地方问题上日益依赖地方治理，将意味着改善土地利用和公共财政规划，也许还会减缓农地转换的趋势。

第四篇：园林景观外文文献翻译

景观设计风格和园林价值保护之间的关系：德国魏玛历史公园的案例研究

Martin Kümmerling, Norbert Müller 景观管理与生态恢复部门以及URBIO总公司，德国埃尔福特应用技术大学

关键词：生物多样性；历史公园；园艺；城市公园；植被； 摘要：

城市公园可以通过被引入植物的种植成为入侵源。另一方面，城市公园作为生物多样性的热点地区，可以支持保护濒危和罕见的分类单元。即使历史城市公园首先被评估为遗产，但它们依然为生态系统和积极的审美以及社会价值服务。

虽然在欧洲有许多研究是关于设计的，公园的哲学和历史背景就像生物多样性的研究一样，几乎没有研究提出景观设计原则如何影响了公园的生物保护价值。因为在欧洲，公园的景观风格是一个最具影响力的历史景观设计风格，我们将我们的研究集中在德国魏玛的“伊尔姆河畔公园”。它创建于18世纪晚期，并且在1998年被联合国教科文组织列为世界遗产的一部分。

我们的研究问题是: 1.哪些设计原则、植物原料和技术实施被使用在创建和管理公园的过程中？

2.对于公园的生物保护尤其是濒危植物物种和栖息地的保护来说，当前什么才是具有价值的？

3.设计原则和现代公园的价值之间是什么关系？

我们将我们的结果与类似的公园景观做一对比，并对未来可持续的公园设计和公园恢复管理给出建议。

1.引言

园艺是植物物种入侵的一个主要来源（Dehnen-Schmutz, Touza,Perrings, & Williamson, 2007;Mack & Erneberg, 2002;Reichard & White, 2001）。城市公园可以被入侵源通过种植引入分类单元而入侵（Saumel Kowarik,& Butenschon,2010）。另一方面，在城市地区公园可以作为生物多样性的热点地区（Cornelis & Hermy,2004），可以支持保护濒临灭绝的稀有类群（Kowarik, 1998;Kunick, 1978;Li, Ouyang, Meng, & Wang, 2006;Reidl, 1989）。尽管历史悠久的城市公园作为文物古迹是它最重要的价值，但它们在生态系统服务和积极的审美以及社会价值方面的作用也是被肯定的（e.g.Bolund & Hunhammar, 1999;Chiesura,2004）。

虽然在欧洲有许多关于设计的研究，公园的哲学和历史背景（e.g.Gothein,1928;Turner, 2005）以及生物多样性（e.g.Cornelis & Hermy, 2004;Ignatieva & Konechnaya, 2004;Nath, 1990）的研究几乎没有提出景观设计原则的问题如何影响了公园的生物保护价值。在18世纪末和19世纪初我们把研究的焦点放在了公园，因为在欧洲公园景观风格是最具影响力的历史景观设计潮流之一。位于德国蔚玛的“伊尔姆河畔公园”创建于18世纪晚期，自1998年以来，被联合国教科文组织列为世界遗产的一部分，它被称作“经典魏玛”。我们选择它来研究是因为： 1.这是那个时期一个“典型”的公园； 2.拥有几个世纪以来没有更改的设计风格；

3.在公园设计上有丰富的历史资料并且使用了有质疑的植物。在图林根的公共档案局初始搜索（自1567年以来都位于公园附近）证实了这种怀疑。我们的研究问题是: 1.哪些设计原则、植物原料和技术实施被使用在创建和管理公园的过程中？ 2.对于公园的生物保护尤其是濒危植物物种和栖息地的保护来说，当前什么才是具有价值的？

3.设计原则和现代公园的价值之间是什么关系？

我们将我们的结果与类似的公园景观做一对比，并对未来可持续的公园设计和公园恢复管理给出建议。

2.研究地点

“伊尔姆河畔公园”坐落在德国中部的魏玛（215m.a.s.l.），公园的起源可以追溯到1778年。对于许多欧洲的历史公园来说，“伊尔姆河畔公园”是建在以前的一个规整花园的位置上（几何式的），它被设计在卡尔奥格斯特公爵的宫殿旁边。当时公园位于魏玛的郊区，1860年魏玛城开始扩展，公园便开始位于城市边界内。

在魏玛公爵的城市宫殿、北部的城市中心、现在oberweimar的suburbanised村以及南方的高级住宅区之间，公园形成了伊尔姆河的泛滥平原的一部分（图一为公园概况）。它周长1.5公里，占地约0.48平方公里。泛滥平原的土壤是冲积土，山谷两边所包含的钙质材料就像Keuper和含有石灰物质的贝壳。

图1 “伊尔姆河畔公园”栖息地地图

3.方法

3.1．设计的历史、植物引种和公园管理

通过历史文献研究来获得重要的设计原则信息，植物材料（包括引进外来观赏物种的起源和时间）和被用于“伊尔姆河畔公园”的创建和发展过程之中的管理技术。这些未发表的文件包括被保存在图林根公共档案馆的申请报告、管理笔记和前任园丁和设计师的相关档案，以及再版的历史性的蚀刻画和魏玛经典基金会收集的图纸。

另外魏玛经典基金会（特别是Beyer & Seifert, 1995）中的地方文献被用来将历史性文件中的发现与它们所处的时代联系起来。还非正式访谈了现任和前任园丁关于管理技术和植物使用的情况。

3.2．生物保护的评价 3.2.1 植物区系和植被的实地测绘

目前对植被和植物区系进行的实地测绘是在2006年五月—十月，用来对公园的植物多样性进行评估。公园分为不同的生境类型：草坪、草地和草场、灌灌丛、林地、生态交错带（草地边缘）、墙壁/岩石、路径和车道上的植物群落、河岸和水体，然后对每种生境类型进行随机采样。样品的数量基于每个栖息地的大小类型而不同(图3)。样本块的大小是用最小面积方法决定的（Dierschke,1994），每个样地植物种类的频率记录参照“Braun-Blanquet”方法（Dierschke,1994）。总共436个采样点建立，此外，在2006年五月—十月和2007年三月—五月进行了20次检测，记录了所有自发的维管植物类群。

436个样本块是用来确定最常见的种类，木本植物只有种子和树苗被计算。魏玛经典基金会登记（1996 —2007年出版）的公园的树被用来计算成年树木的分布频率。

植物的命名通常遵循Jager和Werner（2005）原则，但在公园里发现的分类群不列在这里，Erhardt、Gotz、Bodeker and Seybold（2002）被使用。3.2.2 在区域和欧洲级别上评价生物保护状态

评估生物保护公园的贡献方面，我们编制了在公园发现的濒危植物和栖息地，用于当地的图林根的红色数据列表（Korsch & Westhus,2001;Westhus & van Hengel,2001）中。此外我们调查了被图林根自然保护法（ThürNatG,2006）和欧洲栖息地的指令保护的植物物种和栖息地（欧盟委员会，2007年）。

评价公园作为植物入侵的潜在来源（生物入侵的定义遵循Richardson et al.,2000），我们将我们的数据与图林根州环境杂草的地区列表（Müller, Westhus, & Armft,2005）做了比较。

4．结果

4.1．设计的历史，引进的植物和管理

4.1.1 有关生物多样性的设计原则

随着欧洲景观设计的流行，Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach的Carl August公爵（1757 至1828）决定建设一个公园作为一个理想的田园景观，包括不同类型的景观：大小不同的开放和密闭空间、视觉上和周围的景观连接的形状和结构。它是根据英国经典景观公园原则——隐藏公园与自然的界限而设计，这些观点也应该在步行或骑马穿过公园时随处可见。

因此公园的主要设计原则是使用现有的自然地形和文化景观，它由在泛滥平原上暂时淹没并且经常收割和放牧的草原（草地和牧场）组成，还有在山坡上的果园和草地以及因山坡太陡而不能用于粮食生产的小树林斑块。公园规模增加时，新的景观被加载到之前的耕地上，因此这些栖息地可以定义为人为创造出来的。公园内森林栖息地的范围扩大到可以创造一个更好的氛围以及更大的并且多种多样的风景。

典型的设计元素是远景，通常延长这些切线来通过公园内森林地带，它有连接特殊节点（雕塑和展馆）和从不同位置打开新视野的特性。

公园里从来没有封闭的围栏或高墙，使得建立一个和周围环境之间无缝过渡的公园。“伊尔姆河畔公园”、蒂尔福特公园和贝尔维迪宫，加上一些沿伊尔姆河残存的森林形成的绿色走廊穿过魏玛，这就是公爵自修建公园以来的意图。4.1.2 引进的植物

因为大面积的公园是由现有的泛滥平原森林发展而来，并且草地原生植物多样性得到了保护。新的森林斑块、乔灌木树种原生林的出现是来自公园内靠近魏玛中部的公爵森林和种植在公爵苗圃的（图林根的公共档案馆未发表）。

由于视觉捕捉（特别指设计）和对植物的好奇心在19世纪第二阶段特别流行，非原生植物被引入与原生植物作比较。主要在有代表性的建筑和纪念碑附近种植了外来植物，也沿着公园开放区域的边缘种植。外来树种包括许多所谓的“英国木材”，从北美进口的树种像红花槭、赤栎、北美乔松。蔷薇属的许多品种种植的数量不多仅仅用于装饰目的，罗贝里草被种植在小池塘。

二战后公园里的植物苗圃被关闭了，从那时就开始大量的从欧洲以及海外引进植物材料。

4.1.3 管理技术

在历史时期，草地和树林是由当地的农民和牧民管理的，他们放牧绵羊、山羊和牛以及生产干草，观赏植物床周围的建筑物是由园丁和短工管理。

目前，部分河滩上的草地和山谷东部的斜坡仍每年收割两次，干草被卖给农民或用于堆肥。河滩上的草地用来给绵羊和山羊放牧仍然是公园的一个管理方式，车道的植被用除草剂来控制，墙植被定期清除。如果有必要，树的维护和复兴树林只是保障游客的安全和保护一些重要的优美景观，没有被游客使用和没有重要景观的地区则没有管理。

20世纪下半叶以来，增加娱乐用途和缺乏资金导致公园的集约化管理。例如在西部所有不同的草地一些经常割草坪（每年收割两次）和一些在泛滥平原的已经转化为频繁的收割草地（每年收割二十次次）。这一直持续到今天，已经导致草地丰富的植物多样性产生了重大的损失。

4.2．植物和栖息地多样性

公园植物区系的调查取得了479类维管植物。在这些里约59%（281分类群）都是本地图林根州的；15%是非原生植物（74）和26%的非本地种植的类群（124）。与图林根州的地区植物区系相比（Korsch et al.,2002）公园含有18%（355分类群）。

比较植物类群的起源及其在采样点的分布频率，（比较图2）很明显最常见的物种更多的还是本地的（主要是无处不在的类群和公园主要栖息地的类群特征）并不是非原生种群。车前子主要亚种主要是最常见的非原生类群，1500年前在德国被引入种植（Jager & Werner, 2005），是践踏植物群落、草坪、牧场和河岸栖息地的特征种类。下一个出现最频繁的非原生类群是小凤仙花、紫凤仙、雪果、欧洲七叶树和红瑞木。两种凤仙花在图林根被认为是杂草（Müller et al., 2005）。雪果、欧洲七叶树和红瑞木是观赏种，迄今为止它们还没有完全适应图林根。但它们已经在公园内种植，并通过管理控制使它们不再出现问题。

图2自然类群（N=306）的样地内记录（N=436），按照出现频率分组

在“伊尔姆河畔公园” 魏玛经典基金会记录了94个类群的3192 种树（最后更新到2006）。原生和非原生种群的数量比例是28%（26）和72%（68），但个体的比例和数量是原生的为73%（2344）非原生的为27%（848）。最常见的原生种是白蜡（409株）、欧洲小叶椴（305）、挪威槭（281）。白蜡和挪威槭在再生树种中也是最常见的。也是最常见的树种的再生。最常见的非原生种群是欧洲七叶树（273株）、刺槐（78）和加拿大杨（70）。这三个类群在公园里繁殖，后者只能通过分株来繁殖。这三个物种占主导地位，其它非原生树种种植只存在非常少的数量。

草地和森林栖息地作为公园的主导，覆盖面积分别为近三分之二和三分之一（见图1为栖息地分布概况）。这是栖息地中在物种总数和种数平均增幅方面拥有最高植物多样性的物种（图3）。由于被作为各种风景景观的组合而设计，所以公园里有许多交错的群落。它包含许多不同的植被类型，实际上物种总数是高的（图3），虽然每个样地里的平均物种数量很低。所有现存的其它栖息地，即水体、墙壁和岩石、践踏植物群落（车道、路径）和观赏种植园占据的区域小得多。

图3栖息地的植物物种丰富度

4.3．植物和栖息地的生物保护的价值

4.3.1 濒危、珍稀物种

图林根红色名单中列出了公园里包含的三个本地物种（Korsch & Westhus,2001）：欧洲黑杨（极度濒危）、Rosa jundzillii Besser和葡萄风信子（都是脆弱的）。被归为非本地的暗花老鹳草也列为濒危物种。欧洲黑杨很少出现在伊尔姆山谷内的冲积森林山谷，R.jundzillii和葡萄风信子在森林公园以外也很少被发现。在歌德避暑别墅的花园中暗花老鹳草经常出现在群落交错区和干草原，但公园的其他地方没有发现。

公园里有一种典型的罕见种类是紫叶山毛榉。根据这个公园的历史文件，野生的各种欧洲山毛榉是在图林根北部的山区被发现的，在卡尔奥格斯特公爵执政时期它被作为一个特色植物带到公园。

四个受法律保护的植物物种（ThurNatG,2006）出现在欧洲中部公园里的山毛榉森林和它们的郊区：大花头蕊兰、雪割草、卵叶对叶兰和 凹鸽巢兰。还常青树紫杉是珍稀保护物种，可定期在山毛榉森林中被发现。两个报春花，欧洲报春和野生郁金香在几个世纪前被引进用作观赏目的，现在已经被归为受法律保护的濒危物种。

在“伊尔姆河畔公园”中并没有发现栖息地法规附件II中的植物种类（欧盟委员会,2007）。4.3.2 濒危和罕见的栖息地

图林根的介子草地和广袤的干湿草原作为具有历史文化性的濒危物种栖息地景观被列入红色名录（Westhus & van Hengel,2001），被图林根的法律（ThurNatG,2006）和欧洲栖地法规的附件1所保护（欧盟委员会,2007年）。

这些濒危物种栖息地占据三分之一的“伊尔姆河畔公园”。最古老的和最不受区域干扰的公园之一是“蛇草甸”，历史记录显示甚至在公园创建前草原也并没有被破坏。它是介子草地和干草原的结合体并在两者之间转换，也是在整个公园中具有最高植物多样性的地区（见图3,草地和牧场的柱状图）。因此“蛇草甸”表明公园可能是当代对具有历史文化性的栖息景观地重要的保护。这个草地是18世纪原始设计中一个非常重要的部分。这个公园的创造者的目的是让草地看起来尽可能的自然。

公园最频繁的交错群落类型之一是一种喜温树种，在图林根的红色名录中被列为弱势树种（Westhus & van Hengel,2001）并且受到法律保护（ThurNatG,2006）。4.3.3 环境杂草

在图林根州公园里有七个外来种，被认为是环境杂草（Müller et al., 2005）。只有3种被种植在公园：欧洲黑松、刺槐和加拿大杨。前两个被认为是栖息地多样性的威胁，而在图林根州第三个被认为是基因多样性的严重威胁。在公园的建设中这三个物种仅仅因为好奇心而被种植的数量并不多，但后来种植的数量有所增加。例如常绿杨是在18世纪末被首次引入的，但更多的是在20世纪下半叶为取代倾倒的欧洲黑杨标本而种植，因为他们便宜而且容易获得。

另有四种偶然出现的环境杂草即瘤果匙荠、紫凤仙、加拿大一枝黄花和虎杖，在公园创建的不同阶段并没有种植它们，但可能是在以后某个时间有意或无意的被引进了。紫凤仙在公园里是一个严重的问题，因为它密集地生长在河岸，覆盖了原生河岸植被。

图林根州环境杂草的列表（Müller et al.,2005）还包括分类群，被分成了潜在的环境杂草和对生境多样性的威胁。这个列表上有9个分类群在公园里出现，它们中的六个种植的数量已经很少了：臭椿、灰桤木、美国黑樱桃、复叶槭、亮叶十大功劳和欧丁香。最后的三种不被认为是对栖息地有害的种而在公园里被再次种植。其它3个类群大狼杷草、大型一枝黄花、小凤仙花是公园里最常见的非原生植物，但因为它被森林植被限制并且在原生植被后生长（早花隐芽植物）所以不被认为是一种公园生物多样性的威胁。

4.4．从前的景观设计和当前在生物保护价值之间的关系

我们发现如下一些公园设计和现代生物多样性保护价值之间的关系。历史公园“伊尔姆河畔公园”的主要设计原则是基于欧洲历史文化和自然景观的一种理想景观的发展，源自并根植于现代文化景观和它的生境以及与之匹配的公园现有景观。各种与远景相连的景观的组合导致了各种不同尺寸的林地和草地生境成一种类似马赛克状的分布。这就会产生大量的边缘效应（过渡带）从而创建各种各样的生态位。

因此在超过两个世纪保持连续性的管理制度是维持设计和公园里物种丰富的历史文化景观的一个重要因素。年龄以及干扰和园艺领域的物种丰富度之间的联系已经被其他作者指出（Li et al., 2006;Zerbe et al., 2003）。

前者泛滥平原森林地区及周边草地的大部分已被纳入景观设计并且被整合在公园里。周围的森林和草原上大部分用于种植的植物，在品种数量和特性上，都是本土物种。在大多数情况下非原生植物的每个种只种植了很少的数量。今天在图林根州有七种被认为是环境杂草的种植在公园里。在大多数情况下，它们对生物多样性是没有威胁的因为通过积极的管理可以预防它们再生。

5.讨论

除了大量的灰色文献，现在很少有评价英国园林风格的公园存在的价值。在柏林面积为0.67平方公里的“孔雀岛”被Sukopp调查（1968），面积为0.27平方公里的奥格斯堡“西本蒂施公园” Müller 和 Waldert 调查（1998），波茨坦公园的无忧宫、巴贝尔斯堡和诺伊尔加滕的草原总规模为5.07平方公里（Peschel, 2000）。几个在圣彼得堡的公园及其郊区被Ignatieva和Konechnaya调查（2004）。包括：帕夫洛夫斯基公园、在皇村的Ekaterininsky 和Alexandrovsky公园、奥拉宁鲍姆公园、在彼得夏宫的亚历山大公园、加特契纳公园和Shuvalovsky公园。上述所有文件（和我们自己的研究）显示了这些历史公园丰富的原生植物物种和栖息地的多样性以及濒危生物多样性维持的能力。这些在中欧和东欧历史公园植物区系的调查也证明传统草原和一般草本植物的价值不如树木和灌木。然而，我们的研究与其他欧洲研究结果证明，草原和珍稀物种和历史悠久的设计风格有直接的关系，也有植物方面和历史方面的意义。

我们的研究和俄罗斯的景观公园（Ignatieva & Konechnaya,2004）的比较也显示出相似之处不仅在设计原则方面（设计与自然），而且在管理和维护制度（割草和放牧）方面也类似。在德国和俄罗斯公园存在的某些相似的物种表明这两个国家之间种子可能通过经常在德国圣彼得堡工作过的园丁而发生了混合和交换。

所有上述公园的各种栖息地对历史文化的濒危栖息地景观都起到了保护作用，因为他们体现在在今天的农村风景。对“伊尔姆河畔公园”、“Siebentischpark”和“波茨坦的公园”的特殊保护价值是具有多种类型的濒危草原。每个历史公园都有自己的珍稀濒危植物以及独特的植物群落。例如，像湿地和原始森林的自然栖息地对 “孔雀岛”来说尤为重要。唯一管理开放草原的是帕夫洛夫斯基公园。有非常罕见的Poa chaixii 和 Luzula Luzuloides组成的地被在奥拉宁鲍姆公园应该被保护，而在加特契纳公园只有在公园范围内生长，在周围景观中很少被发现。

对于历史公园生物多样性的一个普遍观点（Kowarik,1998）强调现存的自然栖息地的重要性（例如水栖息地和露出的岩石）。

用和“伊尔姆河畔公园”一样的方式，作为濒危和珍稀（而且往往受法律保护）植物物种避难所的重要性在上述公园中确定。在俄罗斯公园中所有的珍稀濒危植物都有标出，以确保在恢复项目中被保护和保存。

欧洲和世界其它地区的现代园林景观经常采用英国园林风格设计原则的简化版本，全部使用相同的植物，并导致区域生物多样性和身份的丧失（Ignatieva,2010），研究表明历史的英国园林景观风格公园有助于维护该区域生物多样性和特性。

我们研究的目标之一也是提高参与历史公园恢复的从业者的意识，以及公民和政客（使用公园者）对一个公园生态系统的所有组成部分的生物多样性的重要性的认识。人们应该接受关于保护草原和稀有植物作为一个独特的资产的重要性。我们的结论应作为负责管理历史公园的专家的指导。在全球化和致密化的城市环境下，历史公园的价值应该等同于花园和公园艺术的纪念碑以及区域生物多样性的热点地区。

6.结论

历史悠久的英国风景园林风格公园是一个例子，告诉我们合理的可持续设计如何在城市工业区内提供重要的生物保护区域。从我们的研究结果来看，对未来公园设计和历史公园的恢复提出如下建议：

1.现有的地形和土壤条件以及现有栖息地（如中欧的森林和草地斑块）必须集中在一个公园的设计或在公园修复项目中进行，而不是从头开始。2.公园内使用的绝大多数的种子和植物应该（甚至土生土长得更好）是原生的来支持本地生物多样性以及区域特性。

3.相比之下非本土的观赏植物应只是少量运用而不是公园的主要组成部分。4.使用已经认识或被怀疑的非本地植物时必须避免环境杂草的使用。5.低强度公园的管理，尤其是自然或半自然栖息地中，区域生物多样性至关重要。

对于今后恢复或重建项目的规划者应该知道所有的珍稀濒危植物物种的位置并且他们应该在所有施工过程中采取措施尽量避免或减少对这些物种的损害。

致谢

本文的主题来自2010年5月在日本名古屋召开的第二届URBIO会议上关于“景观设计对生物多样性的影响”的介绍。我们感谢Maria Ignatieva（瑞典），Glenn Stewart（新西兰）和两个匿名评论者提出的宝贵意见。我们也要感谢魏玛古典基金会在对“伊尔姆河畔公园”数据收集时的支持与合作。

第五篇：文献综述、外文翻译

上市公司财务风险的评价及控制的文献综述

0704043046

会计074

唐明婷

中国从资本市场建立开始，上市公司也随之不断地发展，上市的公司从行业、类型到地区、规模都呈现多样化趋势。中国的上市公司，特别是上市公司中的ST公司，存在着严重的财务风险问题，财务风险比较大，对上市公司的发展会有很大的影响。因此对上市公司财务风险问题的研究是十分重要的。通过对这一领域大量文献的研究，从企业财务风险的成因、评价体系及控制三个角度综述，加强分析，以期对上市公司财务风险的理论和实践研究提供借鉴和指导。

（一）国外研究综述

西方古典经济学家在十九世纪就已经提出了风险的概念，认为风险是经营活 动的副产品，经营者的收入是其在经营活动中承担风险的报酬。从狭义上看，企业的财务风险是指由于利用负债给企业带来的破产风险或普通股收益发生大幅度变动的风险。这种观点立足于企业筹资时过多举债或举债不当。西方国家强调全面风险管理的观念是从资金运动到资本经营整个体系的过程，对财务风险的控制包括风险预警、风险识别、危机处理等内容。

美国经济学家富兰克.H.奈特(Frank H.Knight)在1921年出版的(Risk，Uncertainty and Profit)一书中认为：风险是指“可度量的不确定性”。而“不确定性”是指不可度量的风险。风险的特征是概率估计的可靠性，概率估计的可靠性来自所遵循的理论规律或稳定的经验规律。与可计算或可预见的风险不同，不确定性是指人们缺乏对事件的基本知识，对事件可能的结果知之甚少，因此，不能通过现有理论或经验进行预见和定量分析①。

②Ross, Westerfield, Jordan(1995)在《Fundamentals of Corporate Finance》提到债务筹资会增加股东的风险，使用债务筹资所产生的这部分额外风险称为公司股 ①

[美] Frank H.Knight,王宇，王文玉译.《风险、不确定性和利润》[M]．中国人民大 学出版社．2005； ② 此段原文如下：“The debt finacing increases the risks borne by the stockholders.The extra risk that arises from the use of debt finacing is called the financial risk of the firm equity.In other word,financial risk is the equity risk that comes from the financial policy(i.e.capital structure)of the f1rm.”Ross,Westerfield,Jordan,Fundamentals of Corporate Finance,1995 东的财务风险。也就是说，财务风险是指由于公司财务政策(如资本结构)所产生的权益风险。

③James C.Van Horn, John M.Wachowicz Jr(2001)在《Fundamental of Financial Management》里面更宽泛地说明了财务风险包括可能丧失偿债能力的风险，以及由于使用财务杠杆而导致的每股收益变动。

美国学者小阿瑟·威廉姆斯（C.Arthur Willianms)和理查德·M.汉斯（Richard M.Heins)在1985年合著的《Risk Management and Insurance》中将风险定义为：“在给定情况和特定时间内，那些可能发生的结果间的差异。如果肯定只有一个结果发生，则差异为零，风险为零；如果有多种可能结果，则有风险，且差异越大，风险越大。”④这种观点强调，风险是客观存在的事物，可以从客观角度来衡量。

在财务控制方面，国外学者的研究有：美国数学家诺伯特∙维纳1948年创立的控制论；1932年FitzPatrick开展的一元判定研究；Altman在1968年首先创立的zeta模型等。

总体看来，国外财务风险研究起步早，理论体系完善，应用领域广，且研究成果多且系统。如，国外的多家风险管理协会、风险管理学院对企业风险管理事务、专业证书考试制度极具贡献，其中，美国全球风险专业人员协会每年举办财务风险管理人员专业证书考试，多家协会和学会出版风险管理方面的刊物杂志，还出版较多的财务性风险管理书籍等。

（二）国内研究综述

1989年北京商学院的刘恩禄、汤谷良发表的“论财务风险管理”[7]，第一次全面论述了财务风险的定义、特性及财务风险管理的步骤和方法。

财政科学研究所的向德伟博士在1994年发表了“论财务风险”[8]，全面而细致地分析了财务风险产生的原因，认为“财务风险是一种微观风险，是企业经营风险的集中体现”，“企业财务风险，按照财务活动的基本内容来划分，包括筹资风险、投资风险、资金回收风险和收益分配风险四项”，为更深一层推进财务 ③ 此段原文如下：“Broadly speaking,financial risk encompasses both the risk of possible insolvency and the added variability in earnings per share that is induced byt he use of financial leverage.” James C.Van Horne,John M.Wachowicz Jr,Fundamental of Financial Management,2001 ④小阿瑟·威廉姆斯等著，陈伟等译．《风险管理与保险》[M]．中国商业出版社．1990：4； 风险理论奠定了基础。

唐晓云在2000年发表了“略论企业财务风险管理”[9]，认为企业财务风险是指在各项财务活动中，由于各种难以预料或控制的因素的影响，财务状况具有不确定性，从而使企业蒙受损失的可能性。她进一步将财务风险分为筹资风险、投资风险、现金流量风险和外汇风险四种。

以上观点虽然对财务风险的分类不同，但都认为，企业财务风险是因企业财务活动中各种不确定因素的影响，使企业财务收益与预期收益发生偏离，因而造成蒙受损失的机会和可能。企业财务活动的组织和管理过程中的某一方面和某个环节的问题，都可能促使这种风险转变为损失，导致企业盈利能力和偿债能力的降低。这种观点是一种广义观。

胡华在2004年发表了“现代企业财务风险的原因及防范”[10]，认为财务风险的成因是由以下五点构成的：

1．负债经营是财务风险产生最为根本的原因。

2．企业资产流动性弱、现金流量短缺，是财务风险产生的最为直接的原因。3．企业经营不善、投资失误是导致财务风险产生、财务状况恶化最为重要的催化剂。

4．企业资本结构不合理是财务风险产生、财务危机出现最为综合的因素。5．外部环境的多变性是企业财务风险产生的重要外因。

2009年，王宏发表了“浅谈公司财务风险的成因及防范”[11]，认为造成财务风险原因的是以下四个方面：

1．企业财务管理的宏观环境复杂多变,而企业管理系统不能适应复杂多变的宏观环境

2．企业财务管理人员对财务风险的客观性认识不足 3．财务决策缺乏科学性导致决策失误 4．企业内部财务关系不明

根据我国学者们的观点不难推出，分析企业财务风险的成因离不开企业的内外部环境因素的影响，所以本文也将从上市公司的内外部环境来分析财务风险发生的原因。

易晓文（1999）发表了“上市公司财务评价指标体系研究”[12]，作者在文章中对公司财务评价指标体系的内容及指标的选取进行了初步分析、研究。

桂文林,舒晓惠,伍超标（2005）发表了“上市公司财务评价历史分析和展望”[13]，以上市公司财务评价现实意义为前提, 系统地分析了上市公司财务评价指标体系的构建、各种评价方法的比较以及实证研究三项主要内容。并在此基础上, 为进一步发展上市公司财务评价的实证研究提供新的思路。

2009年西北大学的孙金莉发表了“基于企业现金流量的财务预警指标体系研究”[14]，在认真研究了建立企业现金流量财务预警系统的原则和程序，以及建立健全企业现金流量财务预警机制的基础上，构建了企业现金流量财务预警系统。

李季在2010年发表了“上市公司财务危机预警指标研究”[15]，作者认为目前为止国外已开发出若干财务危机评价模型,有的模型在信贷风险评价与管理企业资信评估等实务中已得到广泛应用。而我国对财务危机预警指标仍使用传统的经验范式,因而探索我国企业财务危机预警指标体系对我国经济体制改革深化具有较强理论意义与较紧迫的现实意义。

景红华（2010）发表了“财务困境研究应基于现金流量指标”[16]，认为现金是企业赖以生存的基础，现金流量是企业财务的报警器，企业的生存和发展在很大程度上取决于现金，因此，财务困境研究应基于现金流量指标。

通过阅读大量关于企业财务风险评价体系的相关资料的，了解到，要知道企业财务风险状况如何，必须从偿债能力指标、营运能力指标、盈利能力指标及现金流量风险指标方面来研究。

童宏宾在2004年发表了“企业财务风险成因及控制”[17]，简单地从规避风险、转移风险和提高企业的盈利能力三个方面来对上市公司的财务风险作出控制。

王海翔（2005）发表了“论企业财务风险及其控制”[18]，较全面地从MM理论和期权理论来研究企业财务风险的控制。

吴景杰、施绍梅（2005）发表了“财务风险的控制”[19]，认为在运用理论方法进行财务风险分析时,需要管理人员对具体环境、方法的切合性及某些条件进行合理假设和估计。另外，在采取防范和规避风险的对策时，也必须以规范、科学的管理为基础，否则因使用对策不当反而有可能招致更大的风险。2009年盛九春和叶波二人发表了“现代企业财务风险的防范和控制”[20]，总结了三点防范与控制的措施：

1．完善财务管理系统，提高财务决策的科学化水平2．强化财务风险防范意识，树立正确的财务风险观念 3．建立健全企业财务风险识别与预警系统

孔远英（2010）发表了“关于企业财务风险控制的几点建议”[21]，认为企业发生财务危机是一个逐步显现、缓慢恶化的过程，它的发生具有一定的先兆，因此具有可预测性。为了规避和防范财务风险，企业有必要对财务风险进行充分的认识和分析，及时纠正、改进、并制定相应的对策，有效地完善财务风险预警机制。

我国学者对于财务风险控制问题的解决几乎都离不开规避和防范，观点不一，本本文会在此基础上提出中国上市公司财务风险控制存在的问题及提出对研究有价值的策略。

三、评述与启示

东南亚金融危机以来，国家安全己成为各国关注的焦点之一。国家经济安全必须从防范金融危机、财政危机着手，这已为人们所重视，但人们常忽略金融危机与财政危机的基础是财务危机。财务危机主要表现为公司资本循环周转被打乱而导致的支付危机，它常常潜伏于财务风险之中[12]。

资本市场的繁荣为企业实现跨越式发展提供了无限可能。大型上市公司舞弊的丑闻尚未消散，次贷危机引发的金融海啸又席卷了全球。而此前的短短几年间，我国资本市场迎来了空前繁荣，众多上市公司增发新股，许多尚不具备上市条件的公司也在积极整改包装上市。尽管股市是否出现明显泡沫尚存在争议，但是没有健康的盈利增长，这种繁荣是难以维系的。谋求资本市场的长远发展必须从上市公司的财务风险着手。有效的控制财务风险可以均衡各方利益，规范上市公司行为，使其健康有序的运行。

学者们的研究提高了我们对企业财务风险的重视，并且更有助于我们开拓企业财务风险控制的新思路、新方法，使其在我国企业中得以更好地运用。因狭义的观点明显片面地理解力财务风险，所以，本文将采用广义的财务风险观点，它符合人们对财务概念的理解，便于从更宽广的角度来研究财务风险。希望借鉴国内外先进理论，通过对上市公司财务风险的基本分析, 采用一定的方法, 对财务风险加以控制,以达到企业利益最优的目的。

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[11] 王宏．浅谈公司财务风险的成因及防范[J]．内蒙古科技与经济．2009(4)﹕33-34； [12] 易晓文．上市公司财务评价指标体系研究[N]．温州大学学报．1999(3)； [13] 桂文林，舒晓惠，伍超标．上市公司财务评价历史分析和展望[J]．工业技术济．2005(02)； [14] 孙金莉．基于企业现金流量的财务预警指标体系研究[D]．西北大学．2009； [15] 李季．上市公司财务危机预警指标研究[J]．企业家天地(理论版)．2010(09)； [16] 景红华．财务困境研究应基于现金流量指标[J]．新财经(理论版)．2010(10)； [17] 童宏兵．企业财务风险成因及控制[J]．财务与审计．2004(7)﹕61；

[18] 王海翔．论企业财务风险及其控制[D]．首都经济贸易大学．2005﹕13-24； [19] 吴景杰，施绍梅．财务风险的控制[J]．理财杂志．2005(06)﹕32-33；

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外文资料

会计074 0704043046 唐明婷

Financial firm bankruptcy and systemic risk

In Fall 2008 when the Federal Reserve and the Treasury injected $85 billion into the insurance behemoth American International Group(AIG), themoney lent to AIGwent straight to counterparties, and very few funds remained with the insurer.Among the largest recipients was Goldman Sachs, to whomabout $12 billionwas paid to undoAIG’s credit default swaps(CDSs).The bailout plan focused on repaying the debt by slowly selling off AIG’s assets, with no intention of maintaining jobs or allowing the CDSmarket to continue to function as before.Thus, the government’s effort to avoid systemic risk with AIG was mainly about ensuring that firms with which AIG had done business did not fail as a result.The concerns are obviously greatest vis-a-vis CDSs, ofwhich AIG had over $400 billion contracts outstanding in June 2008.In contrast, the government was much less enthusiastic about aiding General Motors, presumably because they believed its failure would not cause major macroeconomic repercussions by imposing losses on related firms.This decision is consistent with the view in macroeconomic research that financialfirmbankruptcies pose a greater amount of systemic risk than nonfinancial firmbankruptcies.For example, Bordo and Haubrich(2009)conclude that “...more severe financial events are associated withmore severe recessions...” Likewise, Bernanke(1983)argues the Great Depressionwas so severe because ofweakness in the banking systemthat affected the amount of credit available for investment.Bernanke et al.(1999)hypothesize a financial accelerator mechanism, whereby distress in one sector of the economy leads to more precarious balance sheets and tighter credit conditions.This in turn leads to a drop in investment, which is followed by less lending and a widespread downturn.Were shocks to the economy always to come in the form of distress at nonfinancial firms, these authors argue that the business downturns would not be so severe.We argue instead that the contagious impact of a nonfinancial firm’s bankruptcy is expected to be far larger than that of a financial firm like AIG, although neither would be catastrophic to the U.S.economy through counterparty risk channels.This is not to say that an episode ofwidespread financial distress among our largest banks would not be followed by an especially severe recession, only that such failures would not cause a recession or affect the depth of a recession.Rather such bankruptcies are symptomatic of common factors in portfolios that lead to wealth losses regardless of whether any firm files for bankruptcy.Pervasive financial fragility may occur because the failure of one firm leads to the failure of other firms which cascades through the system(e.g., Davis and Lo, 1999;Jarrow and Yu, 2001).Or systemic risk may wreak havoc when a number of financial firms fail simultaneously, as in the Great Depression when more than 9000 banks failed(Benston, 1986).In the former case, the failure of one firm, such as AIG, Lehman Brothers or Bear Stearns, could lead to widespread failure through financial contracts such as CDSs.In the latter case, the fact that so many financial institutions have failed means that both the money supply and the amount of credit in the economy could fall so far as to cause a large drop in economic activity(Friedman and Schwartz, 1971).While a weak financial systemcould cause a recession, the recession would not arise because one firm was allowed to file bankruptcy.Further, should one or the other firmgo bankrupt, the nonfinancial firmwould have the greater impact on the economy.Such extreme real effects that appear to be the result of financial firm fragility have led to a large emphasis on the prevention of systemic risk problems by regulators.Foremost among these policies is “too big to fail”(TBTF), the logic of which is that the failure of a large financial institution will have ramifications for other financial institutions and therefore the risk to the economywould be enormous.TBTF was behind the Fed’s decisions to orchestrate the merger of Bear Stearns and J.P.Morgan Chase in 2008, its leadership in the restructuring of bank loans owed by Long Term Capital Management(LTCM), and its decision to prop up AIG.TBTF may be justified if the outcome is prevention of a major downswing in the economy.However, if the systemic risks in these episodes have been exaggerated or the salutary effects of these actions overestimated, then the cost to the efficiency of the capital allocation system may far outweigh any potential benefits from attempting to avoid another Great Depression.No doubt, no regulator wants to take the chance of standing down while watching over another systemic risk crisis, sowe do not have the ability to examine empiricallywhat happens to the economy when regulators back off.There are very fewinstances in themodern history of the U.S.where regulators allowed the bankruptcy of amajor financial firm.Most recently,we can point to the bankruptcy of Lehman,which the Fed pointedly allowed to fail.However,with only one obvious casewhere TBTFwas abandoned, we have only an inkling of how TBTF policy affects systemic risk.Moreover, at the same time that Lehman failed, the Fed was intervening in the commercial paper market and aiding money marketmutual fundswhile AIGwas downgraded and subsequently bailed out.In addition, the Federal Reserve and the Treasury were scaremongering about the prospects of a second Great Depression to make the passage of TARPmore likely.Thuswewill never knowif themarket downturn that followed the Lehman bankruptcy reflected fear of contagion from Lehman to the real economy or fear of the depths of existing problems in the real economy that were highlighted so dramatically by regulators.In this paper we analyze the mechanisms by which such risk could cause an economy-wide col-lapse.We focus on two types of contagion that might lead to systemic risk problems:(1)information contagion,where the information that one financial firmis troubled is associatedwith negative shocksat other financial institutions largely because the firms share common risk factors;or(2)counterparty contagion,where one important financial institution’s collapse leads directly to troubles at other cred-itor firms whose troubles snowball and drive other firms into distress.The efficacy of TBTF policies depends crucially on which of these two types of systemic riskmechanisms dominates.Counterparty contagion may warrant intervention in individual bank failureswhile information contagion does not.If regulators do not step in to bail out an individual firm, the alternative is to let it fail.In the case of a bank, the process involves the FDIC as receiver and the insured liabilities of the firmare very quickly repaid.In contrast, the failure of an investment bank or hedge fund does not involve the FDIC andmay closely resemble a Chapter 11 or Chapter 7 filing of a nonfinancial firm.However, if the nonbank financial firm in question has liabilities that are covered by the Securities Industry Protection Corporation(SIPC), the firmis required by lawunder the Securities Industry Protection Act(SIPA)to liquidate under Chapter 7(Don and Wang, 1990).This explains in large partwhy only the holding company of Lehman filed for bankruptcy in 2008 and its broker–dealer subsidiaries were not part of the Chapter 11 filing.A major fear of a financial firm liquidation, whether done through the FDIC or as required by SIPA, is that fire sales will depress recoveries for the creditors of the failed financial firm and that these fire saleswill have ramifications for other firms in related businesses, even if these businesses do not have direct ties to the failed firm(Shleifer and Vishny, 1992).This fear was behind the Fed’s decision to extend liquidity to primary dealers inMarch 2008 – Fed Chairman Bernanke explained in a speech on financial system stability that“the risk developed that liquidity pressuresmight force dealers to sell assets into already illiquid markets.Thismight have resulted in...[a] fire sale scenario..., inwhich a cascade of failures andliquidations sharply depresses asset prices, with adverse financial and economic implications.”(May 13, 2008 speech at the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta conference at Sea Island, Georgia)The fear of potential fire sales is expressed in further detail in the same speech as a reason for the merger of Bear Stearns and JP Morgan:“Bear...would be forced to file for bankruptcy...[which] would have forced Bear’s secured creditors and counterparties to liquidate the underlying collateral and, given the illiquidity of markets, those creditors and counter parties might well have sustained losses.If they responded to losses or the unexpected illiquidity of their holdings by pulling back from providing secured financing to other firms, a much broader liquidity crisis would have ensued.”

The idea that creditors of a failed firm are forced to liquidate assets, and to do so with haste, is counter to the basic tenets of U.S.bankruptcy laws, which are set up to allow creditors the ability to maximize the value of the assets now under their control.If that value is greatest when continuing to operate, the laws allow such a reorganization of the firm.If the value in liquidation is higher, the laws are in no way prejudiced against selling assets in an orderly procedure.Bankruptcy actually reduces the likelihood of fire sales because assets are not sold quickly once a bankruptcy filing occurs.Cash does not leave the bankrupt firm without the approval of a judge.Without pressure to pay debts, the firm can remain in bankruptcy for months as it tries to decide on the best course of action.Indeed, a major complaint about the U.S.code is that debtors can easily delay reorganizing and slow down the process.If, however, creditors and management believe that speedy assets sales are in their best interest, then they can press the bankruptcy judge to approve quick action.This occurred in the case of Lehman’s asset sale to Barclays, which involved hiring workers whomight have split up were their divisions not sold quickly.金融公司破产及系统性的风险

2008年秋，当美联邦储备委员会和财政部拒绝85亿美金巨资保险投入到美国国际集团时，这边借给美国国际集团的货款就直接落到了竞争对手手里，而投保人只得到极少的一部分资金。在那些大的受益人当中，高盛用12亿美金来撤销美国国际集团的信用违约互换。这一应急方案通过逐步售出美国国际集团的资产来偿还贷款，而不是保住岗位或者是确保短期贷款市场像之前那样持续运转发挥市场效能。因此，政府避免美国国际集团的系统性风险的目的，是为了确保美国国际集团的商业伙伴不至于破产。从这一出发点，很明显是信用违约互换当中最好的一个。也是因为这一点，相比2008年美国国际集团多赢得4000亿的合同。在条款当中，美国政府在援助通用汽车时表现的并没那么积极，可能是因为政府确信，通用的破产把损失强加到相关的合作企业，这样不会对宏观经济产生太大的坏影响。这一决定和宏观经济调查的结果是一致的，即金融公司的破产比非金融公司的破产产生的系统性风险大很多。例如Bordo和 Haubrich提到“越是严重的金融事件越是和严重的经济衰退联系在一起。”同样的，Bernanke反驳道，大萧条如此的让经济衰退是因为银行业的缺陷影响到投资的信用度。Bernanke 假设一种金融加速器机制，在这样的机制中，经济的一个领域破产导致更多的不稳固的资产负债表和紧张的信贷状况。这反过来就导致投资的减少，随之而来的是变少的贷款和普遍的经济衰退。如果对非金融企业的经济冲击都是以破产的形式呈现，这些作者们在辩论经济低迷好似不会很严重的。

我们反而认为非金融企业破产的连锁影响远比金融企业的大，就像美国国际集团。虽然通过竞争对手风险渠道，不会对美国经济产生毁灭性的打击。但并不是说一段时期在大银行间的经济低迷不会伴随冲击很大的经济衰退。只是因为这样是经济失利不会引起经济衰退，也不会影响经济衰退的深度。不管是哪一种类型的企业破产，这样的破产在企业股份中不是常见的导致经济损失的症状。

因为一个公司的倒闭导致其他公司的倒闭形成系统内的一种联级，这样就会产生普遍的经济脆弱的现象。当许多金融公司同时倒闭，系统风险会减弱经济的破坏力度，就像在大萧条时期，9000多家银行倒闭。在前一种案例中，一家公司的倒闭，譬如像美国国际集团，雷曼兄弟，或者贝尔斯登这样的公司倒闭，会导致倒闭现象在金融界蔓延，例如信用违约互换。在后一种案例中，事实是许多金融机构的倒闭意味着不仅仅是货币的供应，而且只要经济活动中的破败，就会降低信用额度。当脆弱的金融系统引起经济的萧条时，经济萧条就不会产生，因为公司可以申请破产。而且如果只是一两个公司的破产，非金融企业会对经济产生更大的影响。

这样极端且真实的影响是金融企业的脆弱性导致调控者特别强调对系统性风险的预防。这些政策当中，最突出的是“太大以至于破产”(TBTF的逻辑)，这一观点的思维方式是，一个大型的金融机构的倒闭将会影响到其分支的金融机构，因此，对经济的风险是很大的。太大而倒闭是2008年随着美国联邦储备委员会决定合并贝尔斯登公司和摩根大通银行之后产生的，在重建银行货代时期的领导是长期资金管理，这一政策的决定是支援美国国际集团。如果结果是阻止了经济的衰退，太大而倒闭的政策将会被证实。然而，如果在这一段时期系统性风险被夸大，或者所采取的措施的益处被高估，资金分配以避免另外一场大萧条的效率代价体系将远远超出任何潜在的利益。

毫无疑问，在观察另外一个系统性风险的时候，没有管理者想乘机撤退。因此当管理者推到一边的时候，我们不能凭经验来考核决定经济状况。当今的美国，很少有管理者同意一家大的金融公司破产的。最近，我们可以看到雷曼兄弟的破产，这是美国联邦储备委员会，逼不得已同意破产的企业。然而，雷曼兄弟的破产是唯一一个显而易见的例子表明太大而倒闭的政策是名不副实的，我们只看到中意政策对系统性风险的微不足道的影响。此外，与此同时因雷曼兄弟的倒闭，此外,与此同时,雷曼兄弟的失败的情况下,美联储正在干预商业市场、促进货币资金,而美国国际集团是跳伞了。而且，美联邦储备局和财政局即将散布第二次大萧条的谣言，以彰显其采取的措施的有效性。因此，我们将永远不知道雷曼兄弟的破产是否会导致市场低迷，以及从雷曼兄弟破产致使人们对破产的恐惧反映到现实的经济上来或者管理者对人们的现实经济体中存在的问题的恐惧进行无限的夸大。

在本论文中，我们分析会引起经济崩溃风险的经济体制。我们关注两种可能引起系统性风险问题的蔓延：（1）信息蔓延，一个金融机构的困境会对其他金融企业产生一系列的消极影响，主要是因为这些企业有许多共同的风险因素。（2）对手蔓延，一个重要的金融机构倒闭直接导致其他信贷机构的危机，这些危机会产生滚雪球效应，引起其他金融企业倒闭。太大而倒闭主义政策的有效性主要依据于这两种系统性风险的控制。对手蔓延会授权干预每一个倒闭的银行，不过信息蔓延就不会。

如果管理者不介入救助某一企业，要不就是任其倒闭。例如一家银行，处理的过程包括以美国联邦储蓄保险公司作为其产业管理人，使其担保的债务在很短的时间里还清。相反，如果破产的是一个投资银行或者是对冲基金没有参与美国联邦储蓄保险公司，这可能是很像第11章和第7章那样的非金融企业。然而，我们所说的非金融企业的债务是由证券行业保护公司承担的，这样的企业是要遵守证券行业保护法令的条例的第7章来停止经济活动。这在很大程度上解释了2008年为什么雷曼兄弟的持股公司申请破产其证券交易子公司不在第11章的备案里面。

对金融企业破产停止运行最大的忧虑在于，减价出售致使倒闭和企业债权人对企业复苏的绝望，这样的减价出售还会使相关联的企业具有负面影响，即便这些企业和倒闭的企业没有直接的关系，不论是否经过美国联邦储蓄保险公司还是被证券行业保护法令所规定的。这些担忧都是由于在2008年3月联邦储备委员会决定扩大停产决定到初级证券交易人。联邦储备委员会的主席在一次关于经济系统稳定性的演讲中说：“形成的风险就是停产的压力可能迫使交易者们变卖财产到不动产市场。这就将导致低价出售的情形。并且金融市场的普遍低迷和运用的停止将会对资产的价格产生很到的影响，对金融和经济都会产生不良影响。”（2008年5月13日在乔治亚州，联邦储蓄银行亚特南大海岛会议上的演讲。）

对低价销售的恐惧也反映在后来同样的对于贝尔斯登和摩根大通现象出现的原因的演讲里面：“熊市„迫使申请破产„这样的状况会迫使熊市的稳固的债权人和竞争对手来制止潜在的倒闭的可能性，如果市场的流通性不足，这些债权人和竞争对手将要承担损失。如果他们对于其资产的损失和突如其来的流动性不足，是通过撤资投资到其他有保障的金融业里面，这样一来，更大的资金流动危机将接踵而来。”

一个倒闭企业的债权人被迫匆匆冻结资产，这是有悖于美国破产法的基本信条的。美国破产法是让债权人能够使其名下的财产达到最大价值。如果在操作过程中达到最大值，法律就会允许该企业重组。如果在价值在停产之后变更高，破产法是绝不会干扰资产的有序变卖。破产其实是减少低价甩卖的可能性，因为资产不是在申请破产批下来之后立即可以变卖的。

倒闭公司的资产只有在得到法官的判决才可以兑现。没有偿还债务的压力，企业可以保持在破产状态几个月，这段时间可以理智地作出采取最好措施的决定。实际上，对美国法律的主要投诉时债务人可以趁机对重组进行无期限拖延并且放慢这一过程。然而，如果债权人和管理层认为迅速的财产变卖是对他们最有益的，那么他们可以给破产鉴定的法官施压来达到判决的火速进行。这样的情形发生在巴克莱银行收购雷曼兄弟的案例上，这一过涉及雇佣可能导致分裂的子公司的个人，只是资产不能尽快售出。