外文口腔资料（范文）

第一篇：外文口腔资料（范文）

有关口腔科进展的杂志

1.The British Dental Journal 数据库：nature http://

3.Journal of Dental Research 数据库：HighWire Press牙科影响因子最高的杂志2.956, 其影响因子最高曾达4。牙科个方面 http://

牙周粘膜方面

1.Pigment Cell Research http://

4.Seminars inOrthodontics(sciencedirect)正畸专题讨论，内容涉及临床和基础，每期一个专题。

http:// 网上现有的免费杂志

www.xiexiebang.com 里面收录了3本正畸的杂志，angle 杂志

journal of orthodontics Virtual Journal of Clinical Orthodontics 其它专业的口腔杂志

Australian Dental Journal BMC Oral Health Brazilian Dental Journal Den norske tannlegeforenings Tidende International Poster Journal of Dentistry and Oral Medicine Journal of Applied Oral Science Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice Journal of Dental Education Journal of the Canadian Dental Association New York State Dental Journal

第二篇：引进外资外文翻译资料

河南科技学院新科学院

2013届本科毕业生论文（设计）

英文文献及翻译

Foreign capital inflows and welfare in an economy with

imperfect competition

学生姓名：王艳杰

所在院系：经济系

所学专业：国际经济与贸易

导师姓名：侯黎杰

完成时间： 2013年4月15日

Foreign capital inflows and welfare in an economy with imperfect competitionAbstract:This paper examines the resource allocational and welfare effects ofexogenous inflows of foreign capital in a general-equilibrium model witholigopolistic competition and unemployment.Although the welfare impact for theshort run is ambiguous and dependent upon the strength of excess profits and scale economies relative to unemployment in manufacturing, in the long run additional inflows of foreign capital always improve national welfare with capital mobility.Hence, attracting foreign capital remains a sound policy for economies characterized by imperfect competition, scale economies,and regional unemployment.Keywords:Internationalcapitalmobility;Imperfectcompetition;Welfare

1.Introduction

The welfare effects of exogenous inflows of foreign capital in the presence of trade restrictions have been extensively studied.Brecher and Diaz Alejandro(1977)show that when imports are subject to tariffs, an introduction of foreign capital inflows accentuates the tariff distortion and hence reduces national welfare if the import-competing sector is relatively capital-intensive.In contrast, Dei(1985)shows that when imports are restricted by quotas,foreign capital inflows in the presence of foreign-owned capital always improve welfare by depressing the rental and solowering the payments to existing foreign-owned capital.Recently, Neary(1981), using a common framework for both tariffs and quotas, obtains more general resultsof foreign capital inflows;the welfare effect of such inflows depends crucially on whether foreign-owned capital exists initially in the home country.In addition, Khan(1982)and Grinols(1991)have examined the effects of foreign capital inflows for a generalized Harris-Todaro economy under tariff protection.Khan finds that the result by Brecher and Diaz Alejandro is still valid even in the presence of unemployment, whereas Grinols argues that increased foreign capital need not be detrimental to welfare if the opportunity costs of labor are sufficiently low.Noteworthy is that the models used by these authors are all based upon the premise of perfect competition along with constant returns-to-scale technology.Although perfect competition serves as a useful assumption in crystallizing theoretical insights, it nevertheless fails to depict many of the real-world phenomena.The real-world economy is characterized, to a large extent, by imperfect competition and economies of scale.The policy implications of imperfect competition and economies

of scale have been examined in the recent literature(see, for example, Brander and Spencer(1985)), mostly dealing with developedeconomies.Krueger(1984)in her survey points out that though market imperfections exist indeveloped nations, the imperfections are far more serious and pervasive in developingcountries.Rodrik(1981), in an illuminating paper, reports that most developing nations have very high four-firm concentration ratios.He finds that a developing economy is typically characterized by(1)restricted entry in manufacturing partlybecause of the absence of serious antitrust policies;(2)high protection of the manufacturing sector by quotas rather than tariffs;and(3)imperfect home capital markets and, thus, sluggish movements of capital among sectors.The purpose of the present paper is to develop a model to incorporate these key features of imperfect competition characterizing a developing economy.In addition to the above-mentioned features as noted by Rodrik, we also introduce in our framework sector-specific unemployment frequently observed in a developing nation.The model will then be utilized to examine the welfare implications of foreign capital inflows.It will be shown that foreign capital inflows in the presence of a given quota may be detrimental to welfare in the short run in which capital is sector-specific;the inflows, however, are in the long run necessarily welfare improving with inter sectoral capital mobility.Since perfect competition is a limiting case of imperfect competition modeled in this paper, Dei’s result regarding welfare-improving foreign capital can be viewed as a special case of the present analysis.We construct a general-equilibrium model to capture the key salient features of imperfect competition for developing economies in Section 2.The resource-alloc-ational effects of foreign capital inflows in the presence of quantitative restrictions are examined in Section 3.The welfare impact of foreign capital inflows is discussed in Section 4.Section5 presents concluding remarks.2.Concluding remarks

This paper has examined the effects of inflows of foreign capital on home resource allocation and welfare in a general-equilibrium framework.The home country is characterized by oligopolistic competition, scale economies, and regional unemployment.Although the welfare effect of foreign capital for the short run is somewhat indeterminate and is dependent on the magnitude of the effects of excess profits and scale economies(relative to the unemploymenteffect in manufacturing),the inflows of foreign capital always improve welfare for such economies in the long run with capital mobility.Our results, which stand in sharp contrast to those derived in the presence of tariffs(Beecher and Dial Alejandro, 1977), lend support to the finding of Deｉ(1985).Dei’s key result is generalized to economies with imperfect competition in the short run and imperfect competition, along with regional unemployment, in the long run.The use of quasi linear preferences in this paper serves to focus on the price effect by suppressing the income effects on the demand for goods.It may be noted thatwhen the income effects are presented in the model via more general preferences, the demand for goods would be further raised in the case of inter sectoral mobility of capital.Hence, foreign capital inflows would be more welfare-improving in the long run.Bakra, R.N.and N.Naevi, 1987, Urban unemployment and the gains from trade,Economic 54, 381-3Y6.Bela di, H., 1988, Variable returns to scale, urban unemployment and welfare,Southern Economic Journal 55, 412-423.Brander, J.A.and B.J.Spencer, 1985, Export subsidies and international marketshare rivalry, Journal of International Economics 18, X3-100.Beecher, R.A.And C.F.Dial Alejandro 1977,Tariffs,foreign capital and immiserizing growth, Journal

译文：

外国资本流入和福利经济的不完全竞争

摘要：本文探讨了在寡头竞争和失业的一般均衡模型下，资源配置和外国资本流入的福利效益。虽然福利影响短期内是不确定的，而且它依赖于超额利润的强度并取决于制造业中失业人数的规模经济，从长远来看，额外的资本流入总是能提高国民福利与资本流动。因此，吸引外资对于具有不完全竞争、规模经济和区域失业特点的经济忍让是一个良好的政策。

关键词： 国际资本流动； 不完全竞争；福利

1、引言

在贸易限制领域，外国资本流入的福利效应已经被广泛研究。布雷赫尔和迪亚兹﹒亚历杭德罗（1977）表明，当进口受制于关税，外国资本流的引进加剧了关税失真，因此若果进口竞争部门是相对的资本密集型企业就会降低减少国家福利。相反，DEI（1985）表明，当进口受配额限制，外商独资领域的外国资本流入总是能通过压低租金来改善福利，因此也降低了给现有的外商独资资本的支付。最近，通过使用一个关税和配额的共同框架，尼尔瑞（1981）获得了更多外国资本的流入的一般结论；流入资本的这种福利效应很大程度上取决于外商独资资本最初在本国的福利效应。此外，柯汗（1982）和格里诺尔斯（1991）探讨了外国资本流入对一个广义的在关税保护下的哈里斯——托达罗经济的影响。柯汗发现布雷赫尔和迪亚兹﹒亚历杭德罗的结果即使在失业存在的情况下仍然是有效的，而格里诺尔斯认为，增加外国资本必须不损害福利，如果劳动力的机会成本足够低。

值得注意的是，这些作者所使用的模型都是基于完全竞争与规模报酬不变的前提。尽管完全竞争是具体的理论见解中的一个有用假设，但它无法描绘现实世界中的许多现象。真实经济的特点，在很大程度上，是不完全竞争和规模经济。对不完全竞争和规模经济的政策含义已经出现在最近的文献研究（见，例如，Brander和Spencer（1985）），主要是用来处理发达经济体。

克鲁格（1984）在她的调查种指出，尽管在发达国家存在市场缺陷，但这种缺陷在发展中国家更为严重和普遍。洛迪克（1981），在一篇启蒙论文中，报告说大多数发展中国家都有很高的四企业集中率。他认为，发展型经济体的典型特征是（1）限制制造业企业的进入部分原因是由于严重的反垄断政策的缺失；（2）通过配额而不是关税来加强制造业的保护；（3）不完善的国内资本市场，因此，部门间的资本流动缓慢。

本文的目的是建立一个模型，把这些表征发展型经济的不完全竞争特点融合在一起。除了上述洛迪克提出的特点，我们也将在我们的框架中介绍在发展中国

家观察到的特定行业的经常性失业。该模型然后会被用来研究外国资本流入的福利效益。它将表明，从短期来看，在一个给定配额的情况下特定行业的资本流入可能有损于福利；但是从长远来看，资本流入必然改善部门之间的资本流动。由于完全竞争是是本文中的不完全竞争的一种极限情况，DEI的关于改善福利的外资的研究结果可以被看做是目前分析情况下的一个特殊案例。在第二部分我们构建了一个一般均衡模型来捕获发展型经济体关于不完全竞争的显著特征。第三节讨论了在数量限制情况下外国资本流入的资源配置效益。外国资本的流入对福利的影响在4节讨论。第五节提出结论性意见。

2、结束语

本文在一般均衡框架考察外国资本流入对国内资源的分配和福利的影响。本国的特点是寡头竞争，规模经济，以及地区性失业。虽然从短期来看外国资本流入的福利效益是不确定的，依赖于超额利润的影响和规模经济的效益（相对于制造业中的失业效应），从长期来看，外国资本流入总是能改善这种经济体资本流动的福利。

我们的研究结果，和那些起源于关税存在的观点形成鲜明对比（布雷赫尔和迪亚兹Alejandro，1977），支持ＤＥＥ的发现（1985）。DEI的关键结果短期内伴随着不完全竞争的广义经济，长期来看伴随着区域失业。

在本文中，准线性偏好的使用致力于通过抑制商品需求的收入效应而获得的价格效益。可以指出的是，当收入效益在模型中被通过更一般的喜好而展现出来，在跨部门资本流动情况下，商品需求将被更进一步的提高。因此，外国资本流入将更多的从长远来改善福利。

参考文献

[1]巴特拉，注册护士和N.纳克维，1999，城市失业和贸易，经济54的收益，381-3y6。

[2]Beladi，H.，1988，规模报酬可变，城市失业和福利，南方经济杂志55，412-423。

[3]布兰德，J.A.，B.J.斯宾塞，2003，出口补贴和国际市场份额的竞争，国际经济学杂志18，x3-100。

[4]布雷彻，迪亚兹Alejandro 1977，关税，外国资本和贫困化增长，杂志

第三篇：外文期刊数据库资料调研

外文期刊数据库

【正题名】: Preparation and tribological properties of nanometer magnesium borate as lubricating oil additive

【作者】: Z.S.Hu;R.Lai;F.Lou;L.G.Wang;Z.L.Chen;G.X.Chen;J.X.Dong

【刊名】: Wear

【年卷期】: 2002, vol.252, no.5-6

【出版年】: 2002

【ISSN】: 0043-1648

【页码】: p.370-374

【分类号】: TH117

【关键词】: Nanoparticle;Magnesium borate;Tribology

【正文语种】: eng

【文摘】:Nanoparticle magnesium borate with a particle size of about 10 nm was prepared using ethanol supercritical fluid drying technique and was characterized with TEM, XRD and X-ray small angle scattering.Tribological properties of the nanoparticle magnesium borate, using as lubricating oil additive, were evaluated using a four-ball and a block-on-ring tribotester.The wear scar was characterized with SEM and XPS.Results indicate that the wear resistance and load carrying capacity of the 500 SN base oil were improved and the friction coefficient of the oil was decreased by the additive.FeB were formed on sliding surface.【正题名】: Synthesis and tribological properties of ferrous octoxyborate as antiwearand friction-reducing additive of lubricating oil

【作者】: Z.S.Hu;Y.Yie;L.G.Wang;G.X.Chen;J.X.Dong

【刊名】: Tribology letters

【年卷期】: 2000, vol.8, no.1

【出版年】: 2000

【ISSN】: 1023-8883

【页码】: p.45-50

【分类号】: TH117

【关键词】: Synthesis;Ferrous octoxyborate;Tribology;Boron-containing compound

【正文语种】: eng

【文摘】:An oil-soluble compound containing ferrous iron and boron-ferrousoctoxyborate was synthesized.The antiwear and friction-reducing properties of the compound as alubricating oil additive were evaluated using a four-ball and a block-on-ring tribotester.Results indicated that both the wear resistance and the load-carrying capacity of a 500 SN base oil were improved and its friction coefficient was decreased by the additive.The wear scar, alter being cleaned using an ultrasonic bath in ligroin and in distilled water, was characterized with SEM and XPS.Diboron trioxide, FeB and Fe{sub}2B were all found to have been deposited on the wear-scar surface.It was this deposition that provided the oil with excellent antiwear and friction-reducingproperties.【正题名】: Preparation of magnesium borate succinimide and its characteristics as alubricating oil additive

【作者】: Yonggang Shi;Junxiu Dong

【刊名】: Lubrication Science

【年卷期】: 2000, vol.12, no.4

【出版年】: 2000

【ISSN】: 0954-0075

【页码】: p.357-361

【分类号】: TH117

【关键词】: Succinimide;Magnesium borate;Antioxidant;Acid neutralisation;Antifriction;Antiwear;Lubricating oils;Chemistry

【正文语种】: eng

【文摘】:Succinimide has for a long time been widely used for ashless dispersants in engine lubricating oils.However, this kind of dispersant does not have particularly good antioxidant, antifriction, antiwear or acid neutralisation properties.In this paper, a method is suggested for modifying succinimide so as to obtain improved antioxidant, acid neutralisation, antifriction, and antiwear properties.Magnesium borate cannot be dissolved in mineral lubricating oil.In the presence of succinimide, however, it will exist in a lubricating oil in the form of acolloid or complex.Therefore, in the present work, magnesium oxide, boric acid, and water were mixed together with succinimide.In the reaction process, some of the magnesium borate formed in situ will be surrounded by succinimide, forming stable colloids;the remainder will react with thesuccinimide, forming well distributed complexes in the lubricating oil.The presence of water is very important for this process.At least four moles of water are needed for one mole of magnesium borate.The resulting material has been evaluated as a lubricating oil additive.The experiments have shown that this kind of material possesses good antioxidant, acid neutralisation, antifriction,and antiwear properties, apparently due to the introduction of magnesium borate.The introduction of the magliesium borate does not influence the good dispersant properties of the succinimide.【正题名】: A study of N and S heterocyclic compound as a potential lubricating oil additive

【作者】: Junyan Zhang;Weimin Liu;Qunji Xue;Tianhui Ren

【刊名】: Wear

【年卷期】: 1999, vol.224, no.1

【出版年】: 1999

【ISSN】: 0043-1648

【页码】: p.160-164

【分类号】: TH117

【关键词】: Lubricant additive;Wear tests;Surface analysis

【正文语种】: eng

【文摘】:S-[2-(2-hydroxygenacetyl)thiobenzothiazol-1-yl]pentanyl xanthates wassynthesized as potential lubricating oil additive.The friction and wear behaviors of thesynthesized compound as an additive in liquid paraffin were evaluated with a four-ballmachine.Thetribochemical reaction of the additive with a metal surface was investigated by X-ray photoelectronspectroscopy.It was found that the novel compound as an additive in liquid paraffin was effectivein improving the tribological performance.【申请号】:EP89305805A

【申请日期】:19890608

【公开（告）号】:EP0347103A1

【公开（告）日期】:19891220

【主分类号】:C10M159/20

【副分类号】:C10M159/20,C10M159/22,C10M159/24,C10N030/04,C10N070/00

【优先权】:19880614-GB8814009

【国家代码】:EP

【发明人】:OCONNOR SEAN PATRICK,CRAWFORD JOHN,CANE CHARLES

【申请人】:BP CHEMICALS ADDITIVES

【发明名称】:A process for the production of a lubricating oil additive concentrate.【摘要】:A process for the production of a lubricating oil additive concentratehaving a TBN greater than 300 which process comprises reacting at elevated temperature component(A)a defined mixture selected from defined sulphurised or non-sulphurised acids or calcium saltsthereof，component(B)an alkaline earth metal base added either in a single addition or in aplurality of additions at intermediate points during the reaction，component(C)at least onecompound which is(i)water，(ii)a polyhydric alcohol having 2 to 4 carbon atoms，(iii)a di-(C3or C4)glycol，(iv)a tri-(C2-C4)glycol，(v)a mono-or poly-alkylene glycol alkyl ether of theformula(I)R(OR<1>)xOR<2>(I)wherein R is a C1 to C6 alkyl group，R<1>is an alkylene group，R<2> is hydrogen or a C1 to C6 alkyl group and x is an integer from 1 to 6，(vi)a C1 to C20monohydric alcohol，(vii)a C1 to C20 ketone，(viii)a C1 to C10 carboxylic acid ester，or(ix)aC1 to C20 ether，component(D)a lubricating oil，component(E)carbon dioxide added subsequentto the，or each，addition of component(B)，component(F)a defined carboxylic acid orderivative，component(G)at least one compound which is(i)an inorganic halide or(ii)anammonium alkanoate or a mono-，di-，tri-or tetra-alkyl ammonium formate or alkanoate providedthat when component(G)is(ii)，component(F)is not an acid chloride，the weight ratios of allcomponents being such as to produce a concentrate having a TBN greater than 300.【欧洲主分类号】:C10M159/20

【欧洲副分类号】:C10M159/22,C10M159/24

【

同

族

专利】:AT118240-19950215,AU630355-19921029,AU3641489-19891221,DE68921024-19950323,DE68921024-19950601,EP0347103-19891220,JP2034690-19900205 【申请号】:EP90402981A

【申请日期】:19901023

【公开（告）号】:EP0425367A1

【公开（告）日期】:19910502

【主分类号】:C10M159/20

【副分类号】:C10M159/20,C10M163/00,C10N010/02,C10N070/00

【优先权】:19891026-FR8914053

【国家代码】:EP

【发明人】:BOURGOGNON HENRI,HOORNAERT PIERRE,REY CLAUDE,RODES CHRISTIAN

【申请人】:ELF AQUITAINE

【发明名称】:Overbased lubricating oil additive containing a copper derivate or acopper and boron derivate，method of preparation and compositions containing said additive.【摘要】:The oxidation-promoting effect of the overbased additives can beattenuated or even eliminated by incorporation into the overbased additive of a copper carboxylateoriginating from aliphatic carboxylic acids containing a linear or branched C7-C10 chain.Thesecopper carboxylates can also be employed in the form of combination with a boron derivative.【欧洲主分类号】:C10M159/20

【欧洲副分类号】:C10M163/00

【

同

族

专利】:EP0425367-19910502,ES2045856-19940116,FR2653780-19910503,JP3153794-19910701 【申请号】:EP94306507A

【申请日期】:19940901

【公开（告）号】:EP0643126A2

【公开（告）日期】:19950315

【主分类号】:C10M159/22A

【副分类号】:C10M159/22A

【优先权】:19930910-GB9318810

【国家代码】:EP

【发明人】:CANE CHARLES,COOK STEPHEN JAMES

【申请人】:BP CHEMICALS ADDITIVES

【发明名称】:Highly overbased lubricating oil additive concentrates，theirpreparation and use.【摘要】:An additive concentrate having a TBN greater than 300 suitable forincorporation into a finished lubricating oil composition comprising:-(I)a lubricating oilsoluble sulphurised or non-sulphurised alkaline earth metal hydrocarbyl phenate derived either froma hydrocarbyl phenate or its precursors and modified by reaction to incorporate:(i)analdehyde，and(ii)from greater than 2 to less than 40% by weight based on the weight of theconcentrate of either(a)at least one carboxylic acid having the formula:-wherein R is aC10 to C24 alkyl or alkenyl group and R<1> is either hydrogen，a C1 to C4 alkyl group or a-CH2-COOH group，or an anhydride or ester thereof，or(b)a di-or polycarboxylic acid containingfrom 36 to 100 carbon atoms or an anhydride or ester thereof，and(II)a lubricating oil，wherein the amount of lubricating oil(II)in the additive concentrate is such that the ratio of theweight of the additive concentrate to the weight of the hydrocarbyl phenate or its precursors fromwhich the modified sulphurised or non-sulphurised phenate is derived is at least 3.0.【欧洲主分类号】:C07G017/00

【欧洲副分类号】:C10M159/22

【同族专利】:EP0643126-19950315,JP7197066-19950801

第四篇：出租车计价器毕业设计外文资料

ABSTRACT In this paper, a multi-channel taximeter that is able to deal with more than one passenger simultaneously is proposed.In order to demonstrate the theory of operation of the proposed system, a complete design for an experimental three-channel taximeter(whose prototype has been built under grant from the Egyptian Academy for Scientific and Technological Research)is presented.System location, outline, block diagrams as well as detailed circuit diagrams for the experimental taximeter are also included.1.INTRODUCTION Transporting people in the morning from their homes to their works and back in the afternoon has become a big problem in big cities especially in undeveloped countries.As a partial solution of this problem, the authorities in some countries had, unofficially, left the taxicab drivers to carry different passengers to different places at the Same time.For example, a taxicab with four seats may carry four different passengers without any relation between them except that their way of travelling is the same.Accordingly, it has become very difficult to rely on the present conventional single-channel taximeter to determine the fare required from each passenger separately.Accordingly, an unfair financial relation was created between the taxicab driver, owner, passengers and the state taxation department.Under these circumstances, taxicab drivers force the passengers to pay more than what they should pay.In some cases passengers had to pay double fare they should pay.With the present conventional single-channel taximeter, taxicab owners are not able to determine the daily income of their taxicab.In some cases(a taxicab with four seats)they may only get one quarter of the income of the taxicab(collected by the taxicab driver).From which they should pay the salary of the taxicab driver as well as the cost of fuel, minor and major repairs in addition to the car depreciation.As a matter of fact the position of the taxicab owners is not so bad as it seems.A general agreement has been reached between the taxicab drivers and owners such that the drivers should guarantee a fixed daily income to the owners as well as the paying for the cost of fuel as well as the minor repaires.Even though the taxicab drivers still share the large portion ofthe income of the taxicab.Also with the presence of the single-channel taximeter, it has become very difficult for the state taxation department to know the yearly income of the taxicab and accordingly it has become very difficult to estimate the taxes to be paid by the taxicab owners.In order to face this problem, the state taxation department had to impose a fixed estimated taxes for each seat of the taxicab whatever the income of the taxicab.In this paper, we introduced a multichannel taximeter that can deal with more than one passenger simultaneously.I t should be pointed out that by the term passenger we mean a one person or a group of related persons.I t should also be pointed out that our proposed multi-channel taximeter is not, simply, a multi display readouts.As a matter of fact it contains logic circuits that automatically changes the fare per killometer of travelling distance or per minutes of 'waiting time according to the number of passengers hiring the taxicab.In the following part and as an example, we will present a complete design for a three-channel taximeter.Block diagrams as well as detailed circuit diagrams of the experimental three-channel taximeter are also included.A prototype has been built under grant from the Egyptian Academy for Scientific and Technological Research.2.AN EXPERIMENTAL THREECHANNEL TAXIMETER Theory of operation of our experimental device to work as an electronic digital taximeter is based on t h e fact thathe speedometer cable rotates one revolution for each meter of travelling distance.Accordingly, if the speedometer cable is coupled with a speed sensor that generates a single pulse for each meter of travelling distance, then our taximeter could be three up counter modules associated with a speed sensor unit.However, our experimental taximeter is not simply a three display readouts.As a matter offact it contains logic circuits that automatically changes the fare per kilometer of travelling distance or per minutes of waiting time according to the number of passengers hiring the taxicab.The device may be splitted into two main parts: The first is the speed sensor unit which may be located anywhere in the taxicab such that an easy coupling to the speedometer cable can be achieved.The second unit contains the main electronic circuit, the displayand control panel.The unit should be located somewhere in front of both the driver and the passengers.A possible components locations is shown in Figure 1.A.Speed Sensor Unit The main function of this unit is to supply train of pulses whose frequency is proportional to the angular rotation of the wheels.A possible form of a speed sensor is shown in Figure 2.If may consist of a tj.pica1 permanent magnet sine wave generator with its output connected to a pulse shapping circuit(two general purpose silicon diodes, 1K ohms resistor and a schmit trigger inverter).In order to find some way to detect the movement of the taxicab, the output of the sine wave generator is rectified through a general purpose silicon diode Dl then smoothed by a 1000 F capacitor.The output voltage at terminal Q is then limited to the value of 4.7 volts by using a Ik ohms resistor as well as a zener diode ZD.The level of the voltage at terminal Q would be high whenever the taxicab is moving and will be zero otherwise.This voltage can be used for the automatic switching from distance fare to time fare.B.Main Electronic and Display Unit A suggested shape for the main electronic and display unit is shown in Figure 3.The control and display panel contains all ' controls necessary for operating the taximeter as well as four readout displays.The first channel will give the sum of money required from the first passenger, while the second and third readouts are for the second and third passengers, respectively.The fourth readout will give the total income of the taxicab.The contents of the last readout should be nonvolatile and be able to be retained even during parking the taxicab.The channel rotary selector switchs 1 , 2 and 3 have fully clockwise/anticlockwise positions.In the fully anticlockwise position, the counter of the corresponding readout is blancked and disabled.In the fully clockwise position, the counter is unblanked, cleared to zero and enabled to be ready for counting the sum of money required from the first, second and third passengers, respectively.Pushing the total sum pushbutton 4 unblanks the fourth readout enabling any person to retain the readout corresponding to the total income.After the release of the pushbutton, the fourth readout will be blanked again.This unit also contains the main electronic circuit which will be fully described in the following section.3.DESCRIBTION OF THE MAIN ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT The general block diagram of the main electronic circuit is shown in Figure 4.It consists of five subcircuits designated by the symboles CTI up to CT4supporting circuits, these are: The number of passenger deticition circuit CTI, travelling distance scaling circuit CT2, waiting time scaling circuit CT3, circuit CT4 which generates clock pulses for the display circuit.A.Number of Passengers Detection Circuit CT1 As shown from the general block diagram, the circuit CTI has three inputs I, 2 and 3 as well as three outputs J, K and L.The function of the circuit is to supply a high level voltage at terminals J, K or L if and only if one, two or three passengers are hiring the taxicab, respectively.The term passenger, here, means one person or a group of related persons.When a passenger is getting into the cab, we simply turn on a free readout display by turning the corresponding rotary selector switch to a fully clockwise direction.This will automatically disconnect the corresponding terminal I, 2 or 3 from ground.The logical relation between various input terminals I, 2 and 3 and the output terminals J, K and L is shown in Table 1.As a combinational circuit we start the design by deriving a set of boolean functions.A possible simplified boolean functions that gives minimum number of inputs to gates may be obtained from Table I.A possible logical diagram that is based on the above derived expressions is shown in Figure 5.It consists of two inverters, four 2-input AND, to3-input AND two 3-input OR gates B.Tavelling Distance Scaling Circuit CT2 As shown from the block diagram of Figure 4, the circuit CT2 has four input J, K, L and E and one output M.The function of the circuit is to supply a single pulse at the output M for a certain number of pulses generated at the output of the speed sensor(certain number of meters travelled by the taxicab), according to the number of passengers hiring the car.A suggested fare per kilometer of travelling distance is shown in colomn two of Table 2.the circuit, in this case, should supply a single pulse at the output M for every 100, 125 or 143 pulses generated at the input terminal E according to the level of voltage at input terminale 3, K or L, respectively.Our circuit could be, as shown in Figure 5, three decade counters, connected as a three digit frequency divider whose dividing ratios 100, 125 and 143 are automatically selected by the voltage level at terminals J, K and L, respectively.A possible circuit diagram that may verify the above function is shown in Figure 6.It consists of three decade counters type 7490, one BCD-to decimal decoder type 7445, three 4-input AND, one 3-input ANDone 2-input AND two 3-input OR gates.C.Time Scaling Circuit CT3 As shown in the block diagram, the time scalingcircuit will have four inputs J, K, L and F and one output N.The function of this circuit and accordingto colomn three of Table 2(fare per 2 minuts of waiting time)is to supply a single pulse at the output N for every 120, 240 or 360 pulses supplied at the input terminal F from the I Hz clock according to level of voltage at inputs J, K and L, respectively.Time scaling circuit would be similar to the distance scaling circuit but with different diving ratios.A Possible circuit diagram is shown in figure 7.It consists, in this case, of three decade counter type 7490, two 3-input AND, one 5-input AND, one 2-input AND one 3-input OR gates.D.Circuit CT4 Which Generates Clock Pulses for Display Circuit The function of this circuit is to supply one, two or three pulses at the output terminal R for each pulse generated at any of the terminals N or M, according to the voltage level at the input terminals J, K or L, respectively.The output P will receive a pulse for each pulse generated at any of the input terminals N or M.This function can be performed by the circuit shown in Figure 8, it consists of one ripple counter type 7493, one half of a dual JK masterslave flip-flops circuit type 7476, three inverters, three 2-input AND, one 3-input AND, one 2-input OR and one 3-input OR gates.When a pulse is generated at either input terminals N or M, a high level voltage will be generated at the output Q of the flip-flop.This will g a t e t h e I Khz signal to be connected to the input A of the ripple counter as well as to the output terminal R.When one, two or three pulses are counted by the ripple counter, according to the level of voltage at the input terminals J, K and L, respectively, a high is generated to reset the counter and change the state of the flip-flopsuch that Q becomes low.Hence, the 1 KHz signal is disabled to reach the outputerminal R or the input A of the ripple counter.In order to ensure the proper function of the circuit, the flip-flop should be cleared whenever a new channel is operated.This has been achieved by the input 5 and will be explained later when describing the function of the channels rotary selector switchs.E.Display Circuit As shown in Figure 2, the display panel would contain three 4-digit displays that give the sum of money required from each passenger separately as well as a one six-digit display that gives the total income of the taxicab.A possible wiring diagram for the display circuit is shown in Figure 9.Rotating any of the rotary selector switches to fully clockwise direction will supply the corresponding display by5 volts through terminals 1, 2 and 3, respectively.The corresponding display will be unblanked by supplying a low level of voltage through terminals A, C and G, respectively.Keeping terminals 8, D and H, respectively, at low level will keep them reset to zero.The corresponding display is then enabled by removing the low voltage from terminals B, D, and H, respectively, to be ready for counting the sum of money required from the corresponding passenger starting from zero.The counting pulses for these three displays are supplied through terminal P.The total sum display will be enabled whenever any of the three displays is enabled(this is done by a 3-input OR gate as shown in Figure 8).Retaining the contents of the last display will be done by unblanking it by supplying a low level of voltage to terminal I as shown in Figure 10 b.F.Changing Over Between Time and Distance Fares In the following part, two different methods for changing over between time andistance fares are suggested: The first is to switch to time fare whenever the distance fare is less than the time fare.Hence, a simple look to fares table(Table 2)can show that time fare should be used whenever the taxicab moves with speed less than 50 m/min.A possible circuit that can perform this switching action is shown in Figure IO c.It contains one rpm limit switch and a one inverter as well as two 2-input AND gates.The contacts of the limit switch are normally closed and will be opened whenever the angular speed of the speedometer cablexceeds 50 rmp.The second alternation is to connect the input of the inverter in Figure 10 c.to the output terminal Q of the speedometer circuit, Figure 2.In this case, the switching into time fare will be done whenever the taxicab is at stand still.G.Function of the Rotary Selector Switches The voltage levels that should be supplied by the terminals of the rotary selector switches in order to ensure proper operation by the electronic circuit are given in Table 3.Connection of three rotary selector switches each witb four decks of five poles each, that satisfy the logic function of Table 3, is shown in Figure 10 a.Rotating any of the three switches into fully clockwise direction will pass through five positions.The function of the rotary selector switches can be described starting from the first position passing through variousteps until reaching the final position as follows: Initial position: In this position a low voltage level is applied to terminals I, 2 and 3, this will disconnect the 5 volts supply from the three first displays, set the three inputs of the number of passenger detection circuit CTI to low level.A low voltage level is applied to terminals 8, D and H, this is to ensure that the total income display is disabled.Voltage levels at terminals A, C, G and S are at no care condition.Step I: Rotating any of the rotary selector switches one step toward clockwise direction will supply 5 volts to the corresponding display, provides a high level voltage at terminals 1, 2 or 3 indicating that one passenger have entered the taxicab.A high level voltage should be applied to terminals A, C or G in order to ensure that the corresponding display is still blanked.Other terminals B, D, H and S are kept unchanged.Step 2: Rotating the rotary selector switch one step further, will change the state of voltages at terminal A, C or G to be at low level and unblanks the corresponding display.States of voltages at terminals I, 2, 3 and S are remained unchanged.Terminals B, D and H should be remained at low level to ensure that the corresponding readout is cleared to zero while unblanking the display.

第五篇：中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

平设计任何时期平面设计可以参照一些艺术和专业学科侧重于视觉传达和介绍。采用多种方式相结合，创造和符号，图像和语句创建一个代表性的想法和信息。平面设计师可以使用印刷，视觉艺术和排版技术产生的最终结果。平面设计常常提到的进程，其中沟通是创造和产品设计。共同使用的平面设计包括杂志，广告，产品包装和网页设计。例如，可能包括产品包装的标志或其他艺术作品，举办文字和纯粹的设计元素，如形状和颜色统一件。组成的一个最重要的特点，尤其是平面设计在使用前现有材料或不同的元素。平面设计涵盖了人类历史上诸多领域，在此漫长的历史和在相对最近爆炸视觉传达中的第20和21世纪，人们有时是模糊的区别和重叠的广告艺术，平面设计和美术。毕竟，他们有着许多相同的内容，理论，原则，做法和语言，有时同样的客人或客户。广告艺术的最终目标是出售的商品和服务。在平面设计，“其实质是使以信息，形成以思想，言论和感觉的经验”。在唐朝（618-906）之间的第4和第7世纪的木块被切断打印纺织品和后重现佛典。阿藏印在868是已知最早的印刷书籍。在19世纪后期欧洲，尤其是在英国，平面设计开始以独立的运动从美术中分离出来。蒙德里安称为父亲的图形设计。他是一个很好的艺术家，但是他在现代广告中利用现代电网系统在广告、印刷和网络布局网格。于1849年，在大不列颠亨利科尔成为的主要力量之一在设计教育界，该国政府通告设计在杂志设计和制造的重要性。他组织了大型的展览作为庆祝现代工业技术和维多利亚式的设计。从1892年至1896年威廉•莫里斯凯尔姆斯科特出版社出版的书籍的一些最重要的平面设计产品和工艺美术运动，并提出了一个非常赚钱的商机就是出版伟大文本论的图书并以高价出售给富人。莫里斯证明了市场的存在使平面设计在他们自己拥有的权利，并帮助开拓者从生产和美术分离设计。这历史相对论是，然而，重要的，因为它为第一次重大的反应对于十九世纪的陈旧的平面设计。莫里斯的工作，以及与其他私营新闻运动，直接影响新艺术风格和间接负责20世纪初非专业性平面设计的事态发展。谁创造了最初的“平面设计”似乎存在争议。这被归因于英国的设计师和大学教授Richard Guyatt，但另一消息来源于20世纪初美国图书设计师William Addison Dwiggins。伦敦地铁的标志设计是爱德华约翰斯顿于1916年设计的一个经典的现代而且使用了系统字体设计。在20世纪20年代，苏联的建构主义应用于“智能生产”在不同领域的生产。个性化的运动艺术在 2 俄罗斯大革命是没有价值的，从而走向以创造物体的功利为目的。他们设计的建筑、剧院集、海报、面料、服装、家具、徽标、菜单等。Jan Tschichold 在他的1928年书中编纂了新的现代印刷原则，他后来否认他在这本书的法西斯主义哲学主张，但它仍然是非常有影响力。Tschichold，包豪斯印刷专家如赫伯特拜耳和拉斯洛莫霍伊一纳吉，和El Lissitzky 是平面设计之父都被我们今天所知。他们首创的生产技术和文体设备，主要用于整个二十世纪。随后的几年看到平面设计在现代风格获得广泛的接受和应用。第二次世界大战结束后，美国经济的建立更需要平面设计，主要是广告和包装等。移居国外的德国包豪斯设计学院于1937年到芝加哥带来了“大规模生产”极简到美国;引发野火的“现代”建筑和设计。值得注意的名称世纪中叶现代设计包括阿德里安Frutiger，设计师和Frutiger字体大学;保兰德，从20世纪30年代后期，直到他去世于1996年，采取的原则和适用包豪斯他们受欢迎的广告和标志设计，帮助创造一个独特的办法，美国的欧洲简约而成为一个主要的先驱。平面设计称为企业形象;约瑟夫米勒，罗克曼，设计的海报严重尚未获取1950年代和1960年代时代典型。从道路标志到技术图表，从备忘录到参考手册，增强了平面设计的知识转让。可读性增强了文字的视觉效果。设计还可以通过理念或有效的视觉传播帮助销售产品。将它应用到产品和公司识别系统的要素像标志、颜色和文字。连同这些被定义为品牌。品牌已日益成为重要的提供的服务范围，许多平面设计师，企业形象和条件往往是同时交替使用。教科书的目的是本科目，如地理、科学和数学。这些出版物已布局理论设计说明和图表。一个常见的例子，在使用图形，教育是图表人体解剖学。平面设计也适用于布局和格式的教育材料，使信息更容易和更容易理解的。平面设计是应用在娱乐行业的装饰，景观和视觉故事。其他的例子娱乐设计用途包括小说，漫画，电影中的开幕和闭幕，在舞台上节目的和道具的安排。这也包括艺术品在T恤衫的应用和其他物品的出售。从科学杂志报道，提出意见和事实往往是提高图形和深思熟虑的组成视觉信息-被称为信息的设计。报纸，杂志，博客，电视和电影纪录片，可以使用平面设计通知及娱乐。随着网络，信息与经验的交互设计的工具，Adobe和Flash正越来越多地被用来说明的背景新闻。一个平面设计项目可能涉及程式化和介绍现有的文字，或者事先存在的意向或图像开发的平面设计师。例如，一家报纸的故事始于记者和摄影记者，然后成为平面设计师的工作安排到一个合理的页面布局，并确定是否有任何其他图形元素应当要求。在一本杂志的文章或广告，往往是平面设计师或艺术总监将委员会摄影师或插图创建原始文件只是被纳入设计规划。现代设计的做法已经扩展到了现代的计算机，例如在使用所见的用户界面，通常被称为交互式设计，或多媒体设计。任何图形元素用于设计之前，图形元素必须是源于通过视觉艺术技能。这些图形通常（但并不总是）被设计师开发。视觉艺术的作品主要是视觉性的东西从使用传统的传播媒介、摄影或电脑产生的艺术。平面设计原则可以适用于每一个人的版画艺术元素，并最终组成。3 印刷术是艺术，工艺和技术型，修改类型字形，并安排类型的设计。类型字形（字符）的创建和修改使用各种说明方法。这项安排的类型是选择字体、大小、线长、主要的（行距）和文字的间距。刷术是由排字工机，排字，印刷工人，图形艺术家，艺术总监，工作者和办事员。直到数字时代，印刷成为一个专业的领域。数字化开辟了新的视觉设计师和用户。排版设计师平面设计的一部分，是在网页设计中是图形设计，处理安排风格（内容）的要素。从早期的照明网页手工复制书籍的中世纪和程序，以错综复杂的现代杂志和目录布局，适当的网页设计公司长期以来一直是考虑的印刷材料，与印刷媒体，内容通常包括类型（文字，图片（照片）偶尔发生持有者图形的内容，没有印刷油墨，如模具/激光切割，烫金压印或盲目压花。平面设计师常常专心研究于界面设计，如网页设计和软件设计，最终用户的交互性是一个设计考虑的布局或接口。视觉沟通技巧、互动沟通技巧与用户互动得相结合和在线品牌推广，平面设计师往往与软件开发和网络开发人员创建的外观和风格的网站或软件应用程序，来加强用户或网络网站的访问者互动体验。版画是在纸上，其他有机材料或者表面上印刷艺术品的过程。每一张不会被复制，但时最初的因为它不是一个复制的另一艺术作品，并在技术上称为留下深刻的印象。绘画或素描，另一方面，创造了独特的原始艺术品。版画是由一个单一的原始表面创造的，在技术上已经作为基质而被已知。常见的矩阵包括：金属板，通常是铜或锌的雕刻或蚀刻石料，用于光刻;块木刻的木材，油毡和织物板的丝网印刷。但也有许多其他种类，讨论如下：作品从一个单一的印刷板创造一个版本，在现代通常每个签署和编号，形成限量。打印也可编制成册，作为艺术家的书籍。一个单一的打印可能是产品的一种或多种技术。色彩学领域是如何在打印机上和显示器上用眼睛识别颜色和如何解释和组织这些色彩。眼睛的视网膜被两个被命名为视杆和视锥的感光体涵盖。视杆对光很敏感但是对颜色不是很敏感。视锥却与视杆恰恰相反。他们对光不太敏感，但是颜色可以被感知。随着科技的发展，人们越来越认识到环境问题日益严重，大气污染、森林破坏、水土流失、土地沙漠

化、水资源污染、大量物种灭绝、石油、天然气、煤等资源枯竭。作为工业设计师，应该有强烈的环境 保护意识，使得自己的设计建立在不破坏环境及节约自然资源的基础上。

其中，温室效应、臭氧层破坏和酸雨是当今全球性的三大环境问题。

温室效应就是大气变暖的效应其形成原因是太阳短波辐射可以透过大气射入地面，而地面增暖后放

出的长波辐射却被大气中的二氧化碳就像一层厚厚的玻璃，把地球变成了一个大暖房。甲烷、臭氧、氯、氟烃以及水汽等也对温室效应有所贡献。随着人口的急剧增加和工业的迅速发展，越来越多的二氧化碳 排入大气中；

又由于森林被大量砍伐，大气中原本应被森林吸收的二氧化碳没有被吸收，致使二氧化碳 逐渐增加，温室效应也不断增强。温室效应的后果十分严重，自然生态将随之发生重大变化，荒漠将扩

大，土地侵蚀加重，森林退向极地，旱涝灾害严重，雨量增加；温带冬天更湿、夏天更旱；热带也将变 得更湿，干热的亚热带变得更干旱，迫使原有水利工程重新调整。沿海将受到严重威胁。由于气温升高，两极冰块将融化，使海平面上升，将会淹没许多城市和港口。

臭氧层破坏现象引起科学界及整个国际社会的震动。美国的两位科学家 Monila 和 Rowland 指出，正是人为的活动造成了今天的臭氧洞。元凶就是现在所熟知的氟利昂和哈龙。

酸雨目前已成为一种范围广泛、跨越国界的大气污染现象。酸雨破坏土壤，使湖泊酸化，危害动植

物生长；刺激人的皮肤，诱发皮肤病，引起肺水肿、肺硬化；会腐蚀金属制品、油漆、皮革、纺织品和 含碳酸盐的建筑。

总而言之，人类生活的环境已经日益恶化。

而恶化的原因大部分属于人类本身的不良生活方式和不 尊重客观规律，急功近利，对于地球资源的使用没有科学的计划性，而且在设计、制造产品以及日常生

活中缺乏保护环境的意识，以至于自毁家园，其危害不仅于当代，而且严重影响了子孙后代的生存。

环境问题在很大程度上是由于人们的不良设计、生活方式造成的后果。于是给设计师们提出了一个

严肃的问题：作为设计师，应肩负起保护环境的历史重任！

工业在为人类创造大量物质财富的同时，也给世界带来了灾难。工业设计在为人类创造了现代生活

方式的同时，也加速了资源、能源的消耗，并对地球的生态平衡造成了巨大的破坏。

所以，作为工业设计师，建立环境意识体现了其道德和社会责任心。设计师必须对自己的设计负责，必须把人类的健康幸福，自然与人类的和谐共存作为设计中心遵循的原则。

设计师还必须掌握必要的材料、工艺、化工、制造等方面的知识，使得其设计不对环境造成危害而 成为可能。

“可持续发展设计” 这一概念的提出，对于人性的回归及世界真正意义上的发展具有划时代的意义。他体现了设计师的道德与责任，已成为 21 世纪设计发展的总趋势。从此，人类传统工业文明发展模式

转向现代生态文明发展模式。它是社会进步，经济增长，环境保护三者之间的协同。

可持续发展是人们应遵循的一种全新的伦理、道德和价值观念。其本质在于：充分利用现代科技，大力开发绿色资源，发展清洁生产，不断改善和优化生态环境，促使人与自然的和谐发展，人口、资源 和环境相互协调。

解决可持续反展问题是一个技术创新和行为模式转变的问题。

可持续发展战略是解决在不危害未来几代人的需求前提下，尽量满足当代人的需求的问题。实现目

前利益与长远利益的统一，为子孙后代留下发展空间。

目前可持续发展战略考虑的问题有：循环性、绿色能源、生态效率。

绿色设计源于人们对于现代技术文化所引起的环境及生态破坏的反思。绿色设计着眼于人与自然的

生态平衡关系，在设计过程的每一个决策中都充分考虑到环境效益，尽量减少对环境的破坏。

对工业设计师而言，绿色设计的核心是“ 3R ”，即“减少”（Reduce）、“再循环”(Recycle)和“再 利用”（Reuse)。不仅要尽量减少物质和能源的消耗、减少有害物质的排放，而且要使产品及零件能够 5 方便的分类回收，并再生循环或重新利用。

绿色设计不仅是一种技术层面的考虑，更重要的是一种观念 上的变革。

要求设计师放弃那种过分强调产品在外观上标新立异的做法，而将重点放在真正意义上的创 新上面，已一种更为负责的方法去创造产品的形态，用更简洁、长久的造型使产品尽可能地延长其使用 寿命。

从材料方面要考虑： 原材料的存量和可再生性，获取材料时的环境能源的消耗与污染，后续加工时

环境材料的易加工性，低能耗性、低污染性，报废时的可回收性。

从加工制造方面要考虑：加工制造阶段需要将污染减至最少，或将污染消灭在生产过程初始阶段。

从包装、运输、销售等方面要考虑：包装的环境性能、绿色包装，良好的可运输性、降低自重、减 少能耗，当地化生产及减少物流过程消耗。

从产品的使用阶段考虑： 使用中的能耗、资源消耗。

产品更新换代时环境性能的模块化、可重组性、产品的使用模式等因素。

从产品的报废阶段考虑：易拆卸性，便于分解和分类，材料可回收性和可再利用性，零部件可重组 性或移作它用等因素。

清洁的能源：如考虑太阳能、水电、风力的清洁燃料；清洁的材料，涉及低污染、无毒、易降解和 可回收性；清洁的制造过程，考虑低能耗、少排放的制造；清洁的产品，涉及使用中节能、环保、报废 后的回收。

零部件的再生利用湿可持续战略的有力措施。事实证明： 报废的产品拆卸后，经分析，其中材料在

改进设计后可重用和经翻新后可重用的比例可以提高。

比如：一辆报废车中，金属材料占 80 ％，其中，有色金属占 3 ％～ 4.7 ％。世界钢产量中的 45 ％是 由废钢铁生产出的。中国钢产量的 25 ％是由废钢铁生产的。

产品全生命周期管理是指从人对产品的需求开始，到产品淘汰报废的全部生命历程。其中包括产

品需求分析产品计划、概念设计、产品设计、数字化仿真、工艺准备、工艺规划、生产测试和质量监控、销售与分销、使用、维护与维修，以及报废与回收等主要阶段。将先进的管理理念和一流的信息技术有

机融入到现代企业的工业和商业运作中，从而使企业在数字经济时代能够有效地调整经营手段和管理方式，以发挥企业前所未有的竞争优势。帮助企业进行产品创新，赢得市场，并获得额外利润，以提高企业产品的价值。

GRAPHIC DESIGN The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and presentation.Various methods are used to create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages.A graphic designer may use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result.Graphic design often refers to both the process by which the communication is created and the products which are generated.Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements, product packaging and web design.For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece.Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.Graphic Design spans the history of humankind from the caves of Lascaux to the dazzling neons of Ginza.In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art.After all, they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same benefactor or client.In advertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services.In graphic design, “the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human experience.” During the Tang dynasty(618–906)between the 4th and 7th century A.D.wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts.A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book.In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate graphic design from fine art.Piet Mondrian is known as the father of graphic design.He was a fine artist, but his use of grids inspired the modern grid system used today in advertising, print and web layout.In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures.He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.From 1892 to 1896 William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement, and 2 made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium.Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art.The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its obsession with historical styles.This historicism was, however, important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design.Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general.Who originally coined the term “graphic design” appears to be in dispute.It has been attributed to Richard Guyatt, the British designer and academic, but another source suggests William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century The signage in the London Underground is a classic of the modern era and used a font designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production.The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes.They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc.Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography.He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential.Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and El Lissitzky are the fathers of graphic design as we know it today.They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century.The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application.A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging.The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a “mass-produced”minimalism to America;sparking a wild fire of “modern”architecture and design.Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger;Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity；and Josef Müller-Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1960s era.3 From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals, graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge.Readability is enhanced by improving the visual presentation of text.Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication.It is applied to products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, and text.Together these are defined as branding(see also advertising).Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongside corporate identity, and the terms are often used interchangeably.Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math.These publications have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams.A common example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of human anatomy.Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling.Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, opening credits and closing credits in film, and programs and props on stage.This could also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information-known as information design.Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform and entertain.With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer.For example, a newspaper story begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to organize the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be required.In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout.Contemporary design practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to as interactive design, or multimedia design.Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by means of visual art skills.These graphics are often(but not always)developed 4 by a graphic designer.Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media, to photography or computer generated art.Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element individually as well as to the final composition.Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type.Type glyphs(characters)are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques.The arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading(line spacing)and letter spacing.Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers.Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation.Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement and style treatment of elements(content)on a page.Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long been a consideration in printed material.With print media, elements usually consist of type(text), images(pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.Graphic designers are often involved in interface design, such as web design and software design when end user interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface.Combining visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create both the look and feel of a web site or software application and enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor.Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces.Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print.Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an impression.Painting or drawing, on the other hand, create a unique original piece of artwork.Prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix.Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching;stone, used for lithography;blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing.But there are many other kinds, discussed below.Works printed from a single