长安大学毕业设计英文翻译《Influence of Air Void Distribution on the Moisture》

第一篇：长安大学毕业设计英文翻译《Influence of Air Void Distribution on the Moisture》

毕业设计（论文）

┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 装 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 订 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 线 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 空隙率分布对水分的影响

描述和表征沥青混合料 制备沥青混合试件

实验室使用的沥青混合试件使用PG76-22沥青结合料制造（马林，科珀斯克里斯蒂，得克萨斯州）和经破碎的河道砂石骨料。试件的制备采用两种不同的级配，在旋转压实仪里面的两个压实角，从顶部和底部修剪，以便产生不同的空隙率分布。图1中提出的，在这项研究中所使用的两个级配有12.5mm的最大粒径。表1包括两个级配的混合特性。

旋转压实仪用于压实大小为直径为150mm和高度为165mm的圆柱形试件。如表2详细所诉，压实角为1.25°和2.5°的预备试件属于A级配，而只有一个角度1.25°被用于预备B级配的试件。这些试件是空心的和小幅裁切顶部和底部的尺寸为直径100mm，高150mm。空隙率的百分率由实验室内使用真空密度测定仪系统测量所获得（IntroTek公司，北卡罗来纳州罗利）（美国试验材料学会，2006a）。

预制12种级配类型的试件，以及其中一半使用过程中的含水量影响稍后会详述。因此，对于表2中列出的每种混合类型，其中三次重复试件有效。正如将在后面讨论的，试件被进一步在不同的位置裁切（在表2中的标记中心以及倾斜）直到最终高度为100mm。在这些较小试件中使用渗透性测量和机械测试。

渗透性测量

毕业设计（论文）

┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 装 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 订 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 线 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 渗透性是孔隙介质的一个属性，涉及其传输和排水能力。常水头法被用来测量A级配和B级配混合试件的渗透率（美国材料与试验协会 2006年b）。在测试期间，每个试件用橡胶膜包裹，然后放置在三轴渗透管中，其中的水被用于施加34.5 kPa的横向围压。然后，通过试件将压力施加到诱导水流中，即使在相对较高的水平，例如施加的压力高达275.8kPa，也没有水的流动。

毕业设计（论文）

┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 装 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 订 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 线 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 上可以得到不同的图像，从而能够描述试件的整体。在扫描沥青混合料试件前，用直径为100mm的混凝土芯来校准，因为它的X射线衰减性能类似与被分析的沥青混合料试件。标准试件，也被称为楔形，通常用于纠正的X射线硬化和环形伪影的影响（凯查姆和卡尔森2001年）。使用512频道的探测器其垂直间距为1mm来捕捉图像。图像水平分辨率为0.2mm/ piXel。

图像处理

使用Image-Pro Plus软件（Media Cybernetics公司，贝塞斯达，马里兰州）的IPBasic功能来开发的宏是用来处理和分析图像的（Al-Omari等.2002年）。宏加载的图像及将它们转换为黑色和白色的基础上的用户输入的阈值介于0到255，它表示该图像中的级配等级。如果测得是级配强度低于指定的阈值，被赋的值为0（黑色），如果它高于指定的阈值，它被就会赋予一个值为255（白）。把原始图像转换成黑白构图，其中黑色代表空隙，白色代表骨料和沥青粘结剂。合适的阈值是对应的宏输出的平均空隙率得到的（％AV），使用下面的公式计算，就可以用真空密度测定仪系统得到实验室里测定的空隙率：

其中P =的图像总数；（AV）=图像i的空隙面积；AT=横截面的图像区域。

连通性分析

毕业设计（论文）

┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 装 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 订 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 线 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ X光CT图像也被用来研究空隙率的连通性。临界值的图像被转换成二进制文本文件，所形成的图像的每个像素是由一个数字值的矩阵转换组成的。如果像素表示无效，相应的二进制文件中的数是零，并且如果它表示有效，相应的数字是一。将这些二进制文件公式输入翻译器（康柏电脑公司，休斯顿）以建立算法。该算法首先单独处理每个二进制文件，并扫描每一个数值，当它遇到一个零，它会检查八个附近的号码，如果有更多的零，它们会被组合在一起作为相同无效的部分。一旦每个单独的图像被进行分析，该算法进行分析的垂直的连接，从图像堆栈中的顶部移到底部。对于每一个确定无效对象，它会检查下一个图像中的相同位置和八个附近的号码到该位置。如果有另一个零在其他地方，空隙被认为是连接在竖直方向上。相同的过程再来一次，时间是从图像堆栈中的底部开始，考虑到的任何空气中的路径的曲折度。

该算法的输出文件用Image-Pro Plus软件将它们转换成图像文件处理。由此产生的图像显示连接路径存在或空白影像如果没有连接空隙就会被识别为试件中的空隙。两个A级配和B试件的连通性分析输出产生的空白图像，这意味着所分析的试件中没有连续空隙可检测到的。这一发现支持了在上一节中所讨论的试件的磁导率的不足。

空隙率分布

IPBasic宏计算空隙率百分比每幅图像用公式1计算，平均孔隙半径如下：

这里：Mi=图像上每一个空隙数

初始空隙率分析使用的12个混合A级配试件，其直径为100mm，高为150mm，分别使

毕业设计（论文）

┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 装 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 订 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 线 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 用两个不同的压实角制备。图像分析表明，所有这些试件的空隙率分布百分比、空隙率、空隙率半径，其随深度变化的变化是相似的。因此，决定通过微调试件不同的部位的顶部和底部，增加A级配试件之间的差异。决定微调的位置时，应考虑两个主要因素。首先是有一组试件使用均匀的空隙率分布，另一组用在该领域的中心中观察到的相似分布，用较大的孔隙表面百分比（Tashman等人，2002年）。

毕业设计（论文）

┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 装 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 订 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 线 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 每组各属于不同类型的混合试件被用来描述空隙率分布的平均值。图2表示了的平均空隙率随深度变化，图3表示了为四种类型的混合料的平均孔隙半径随深度变化。在图4中，空气孔隙率之间的关系，提出每个图像中的平均空隙率半径，其中显示的范围，包括每种混合物类型空隙率和空隙率半径。混合料B2的孔隙率具有较高的半径范围（从0.76mm-0.97mm），而混合料A1有最小的范围，包括百分比和半径（分别从4.6-7.1％和从0.67-0.77mm）。混合料B1和B2通过对比孔隙率（4.9-8.8％相对于4.8-8.2％），混合料B2的有较大的空隙半径（0.65-0.85mm相对于0.76mm-0.97mm），如

图

和

4。

毕业设计（论文）

┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 装 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 订 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ 线 ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊ ┊

湿度调节

半数的试件各级配类型和裁剪条件经受水分调节过程中使用压实沥青混合料的抗潮湿诱发的损害测试的标准方法（美国国有公路运输管理员协会，2002）。MC是水分调节的缩写，混合料类型的标注如表2所示。根据标准，试件进行真空饱和应达到一定程度，使得饱和度在70％和80％之间。真空饱和试件至指定的饱和度由所需的时间量来确定，在不同的试验试件进行多次测试通过施加局部真空在650和700 mm汞柱之间。试验表明A级配试件，其直径为100mm和150mm的高度，2分钟的真空饱和时间是足以使试件达到所需的饱和度。对于B级配试件的尺寸为100mm的直径和高度，真空饱和时间需要35秒，使试件达到指定的饱和程度。

第二篇：采矿工程本科毕业设计英文翻译

Use of Mineral Coal for Sorption Sewage Treatment

A.V.Mozolkova Russian University of People’s Friendship.Moscow, Russia E.V.Chekushina Russian University of People’s Friendship.Moscow, Russia A.A.Kaminskaya Russian University of People’s Friendship.Moscow, Russia

Treatment of mining, industrial, household and other sewage is an actual problem for many mining and processing enterprises.Coal-mining industry is not an exception.Usually, at coal enterprises, treatment of mine sewage before it is dumped consists in settling and subsequent filtering.Many pollutants are not removed from the sewage by this method.Hence, dumped water frequently does not satisfy sanitary requirements regarding the permissible content of oil products, dissolved substances and other parameters.For additional cleaning of sewage it is possible to use sorption methods.By these methods water is cleaned of oil products, heavy metals, a number of organic substances and other polluting substances, depending on the used sorbent properties.Both natural and artificial materials can be used as sorbents.Constraint for wide use of sorption methods of sewage treatment in the coal industry is high cost of the majority of sorbents.A number of technologies for obtaining inexpensive and good quality sorbents from coal minerals have been developed.These sorbents can be manufactured directly in coal mines which has additional advantage of reducing transport costs.The processes sorbents may be recycled or burnt.Apart from that production and sale of sorbents can serve the coal-mining enterprises as an additional source of income.One of the most widespread sorbents is activated coal.Quality activated coals are carbon sorbents, having an internal specific surface of more than 500㎡/g, and characterized by iodine adsorption(iodine value)of more than500mg/g.mineral coal, peat and wood can serve as raw materials for activated coal production.Traditional production techniques of activated coal include two basic stages of thermal processing of the initial carbon-containing raw material-carbonization and activation, done in different devices.Both stages are energy-consuming and ecologically dangerous, which explains the high cost of activated coal, received through this technology(1200-4000 dollars/MT).Carbonization is the elimination of volatile substances by heating up to the temperature of 600-900℃, because with volatile components there are basically formed the oxygen and hydrogen, and increase carbon content in initial raw material.Carbonization is done in mining or rotating furnaces with utilization of external form-holder, as a rule, waste gases with temperatures of 600℃ and higher.Activation means increasing the volume and pore surfaces of carbonized material at heterogeneous reaction.The most used reagent is water vapour with the temperature of 900℃ and higher, and the process takes 15-20 hours.Both stages are energy consuming and pose threat to environment.For one tonne of activated coal from 2 up to 4 tonnes of specific fuel like crude oil and natural gas are consumed.From 1000 up to 1500 m³ of processed gasses with high content of SOx(1-2 g/ m³), H2S(200-250mg/ m³), resinous substances(10-40mg/ m³), phenols(50-70mg/ m³), carbon oxides(up to 5%)and also other substances which are carcinogenic and mutagenic are formed and released into the atmosphere during both stages.High-energy consumption and environmental danger, which requires large investments in nature protection activities, result in the high cost of quality-activated coal.Another group of carbon sorbents, which was widespread in the 80’s, consists of inexpensive carbon sorbents used in nature protection technologies and industry.Such sorbents are produced by a one-phase technology, without additional activation.Their adsorption activity is not high(iodine value less than 300mg/g)but the cost is low(250-700 USD/MT).because the price of these sorbents is comparable to the cost of their regeneration, they are used only once and are burnt after saturation.The leaders in the production of such sorbents are Rheinbraun AG(Germany, 200 thousand MT per year)and Australian Char Ltd(Australia, 150 thousand MT per year), which produce brown coal semi-coke used for treatment of wastewater and smoke.In Russia research work in this direction is conducted, but only test works have been done so far, although the quality of carbon sorbents obtained from Kansk-Achinsk coals did not concede to production from Rheinbraun AG and Australian Char.One of the directions of utilization of semi-coke from Kansk-Achinsk coals, production of which was planed at Krasnoyarsc thermal power station 2(device ETX-175), was its utilization as carbon sorbent.The reason for production of inexpensive carbon sorbents by one-phase technologies being not developed in Russia is the absence of demand for this product.This production is basically used for cleaning of sewage, however there is no effective ecological service in Russia, and the penal sanctions of the environmental protection legislation are so insignificant that industrial enterprises do not have ant motivation to invest in nature protection.In1992-1994 the employees from Joint-Stock Company “Carbonica-F”(at that time Open Company “Sibtermo”)have developed a new method of production of carbon sorbents, which considerably from all known technologies.During the research of dynamic effects in a layer evaporator the regime conditions were defined under which the effect of “thermal wave” could be observed in the device.Using this effect, the authors created a layer evaporator in which volatile components of coal were exposed to gasification(incomplete oxidation), and the degree of carbon conversion was adjusted by the mode of injection feed.By changing the regime parameters it was possible to conduct the process as fuel gasification(with only ashes remaining in the end)without any residue, and also as gasification of volatile components of coal, thus receiving so-called semi-coke containing solid coal.From one tonne of Kansk-Achinsk coal with calorific content of 3600-3800 kcal/kg can be produced about 0.33 tonnes of semi-coke with calorific content up to 7000 kcal/kg(as anthracite)and up to 1700 m3 of combustible gas with calorific content of 800-900 kcalJm3, suitable for use as an energy source.Technological process of Joint-Stock Company “Carbonika-F” has a large number of advantages in comparison to the already known methods of obtaining activated coal and semi-coke

1.Simplicity of hardware.One-phase process.The stages of drying, pyrolysis, thermal decomposition of volatile substances and semi-coke cooling are incorporated in one device.The device is auto-metric;it means that external heat-carrier for coal heating is not used.2.Ecological safety.In the technology of Joint-Stock Company “Carbonica-F” all hydrocarbons, including resinous substances, are broken down and gasified inside the device during the formation of combustible gas containing only CO, H2, CO2, N2, H20, H2S and insignificant quantity CH4.Sludge, pyroligneous waters, phenols and other harmful impurities are not formed in this process.3.Because the speed of gas filtration from a layer reactor is low(0,02-0,03 m/s in comparison to 0,5-2,5 m/s for mine furnaces), the process is less dependent on fractional composition of coal, hydraulic resistance of the layer and allows to process fine-grained coals.4.As a result of low speed of filtration the phenomenon of carrying out of fly ashes from the layer does not occur, because the device works as a granular filter.Combustible gas is moved in user-boiler or can move to the gas turbine without preliminary cleaning.The volume of SOx, NOx, CO contained in waste gases is lower than that produced when obtaining equivalent quantity of heat by burning coal.Combustible gas without prior cleaning can be used to produce electric and/or thermal power or as an energy carrier for thermal processes.5.Unlike the already existing technologies, in the given process there is no dump（排空孔）of gaseous heat-carrier(气体热载体)into the atmosphere and consequently（因此）the construction of other additional gas purification systems（更多的天然气净化系统工程）and catalytic burning of carbon oxide(CO)（催化燃烧的碳氧化物）is not required.与现有的技术不同，在以上给出的过程呢个中，没有气体热载体排放的到空中的排空孔，因此，更多的天然气净化系统和催化燃烧的碳氧化物的工程是不必要的。

Test of the solid residue(semi-coke)have revealed, that this material is characterized by large specific surface(more than 500㎡/g)and high adsorption activity(iodine value 500mg/g and higher), and because of these parameter does not concede to quality-activated coal.经过试验的固体残渣（半焦）表明：这种材料的特点是表面积大（大于五百平方米）并且有很强的吸附性（碘值是500毫克每克甚至更高）而且因为这些参数并不退让与高质量的活性炭。

The product received with the technology of Joint-Stock Company “Carbonica-F” is certificated as activated coal ABG(active, brown coal of gasification), for it there were developed technical conditions TU 6-00209591-443-95.The characteristics of ABG activated coal produced from the coal of 62 mark from “Berezovsky-1” opencast colliery.获得技术联合股份公司“Carbonica-F认证的产品被认证为ABG类活性炭（就是具有活性的棕色的气化煤）为此，在此基础上又发展了TU 6-00209591-443-95技术条件。ABG活性炭的特点来自于出产它的来自”Berezovsky-1“露天煤矿的62号煤。

High specific surface and adsorption activity of ABG coal is explained by the fact that both gasification of coal volatile components, and activation of carbon-containing solid residue of gaseous products occur in the device simultaneously.Because gasification products contain up to 20%n of hydrogen whose molecules are smaller than the ones of water vapour, and hence their permeability in pores of semi-coke is higher, activation(heterogeneous reaction)is done not only with vapor, but also with hydrogen, which practically is not present in the traditional technologies.Thus, carbonization stages and activation are combined in one device.气化煤挥发性成分和激活含碳固体残留气体产品同时在装置上发生的事实就解释了ABG煤的高比表面积和强大的吸附特性。因为气化产品包含了20%以上的氢，而这些氢分子比那些水蒸汽要小一些，因此他们在半焦气孔的渗透率就高一些，激活（异构反应）就完成了，不仅与蒸汽，还与氢，而这些实际上是传统技术中不存在的。因此，碳化阶段和激活是在同一装置中同步进行的（相结合的）。

Other positive effect of application of this method of coal processing is that in ”thermal wave“ mode the products of thermal decomposition which contain very toxic resinous substances(coal tar pitch used in experimental medicine for the inoculation of cancer in experiments on mice, brown coal is more toxic), passing through a hot layer of semi-coke(500-700℃)are completely broken down into two and three-nuclei gases H2O, CO2, CO, H2.Measurements done at the working production plant of Joint-Stock Company ”Carbonica-F“ have shown that the gas does not contain hydrocarbons of lines above methane, and also carcinogens, including benzo(a)pirene.其他应用到这种方法的积极效果是在“热波”模式中产品的热分解含有剧毒物质的树脂（煤沥青用于实验医学的接种癌症的实验小鼠，褐色碳毒性更强。）经过一个半焦的热层（500到700摄氏度）完全分解成双核或三核气体：水，二氧化碳，一氧化碳，氢气。测量工作在”Carbonica-F“联合股份公司的工作生产厂完成，这表明了这种气体不仅包含了碳氢化合物甲烷以上的行，也包含了致癌物质，包括：

Cooling of the activated coal from 550 up to 70℃ before discharging is carried out by compulsory circulation of gaseous heat-carrier(waste gases)through a layer of the product and further through shell-and-tube heat exchanger in which water used in closed circuit is also provided.Total process efficiency reaches 95% due to the high degree of utilization, which is associated with utilizing the thermal energy.在把活性炭从高于550摄氏度冷却到70摄氏度的过程以前，Departing waste gases do not undergo any cleaning;there are even no cyclones.Nevertheless, the content of harmful mixtures(NOx 150 mg/m3, SOx 50 mg/m3, ash less than 10 mg/m3)is essentially lower than the established norms and parameters of working boiler and thermal power stations, even those equipped with modern multistage systems of gas purification including electro filters.This is explained by a insignificant ablation of ash from devices, sorption of sulfur compounds in activated corner, and also focus temperature from the user-boiler is lower than 1600℃-“threshold（” 阈值）temperature at which begins the formation of nitrogen oxides due to the oxidation of nitrogen from the air.汽车尾气不经过任何清理，也没有分离器。然而，有害混合物的含量（NOx 150 mg/m3, SOx 50 mg/m3,含灰尘少于10 mg/m3)实质上比规定和工作锅炉和热电站的参数都要低。甚至是那些配备了现代化多级系统的气体净化过滤器。这是用来自仪器燃烧产生的毫无意义的灰尘来解释的，硫磺混合物的吸附作用在激活的一角进行，并且也把用户锅炉法制温度低于1600℃作为重点，而这个温度是空气中的氧化氮形成氮氧化物的开始。

The technology of Joint-Stock Company ”Carbonica-F“ can be used for any not conglomerating coals.”Carbonica-F“联合股份公司的技术可以被用在任意的非聚合煤上。

Similar sorbents or slightly conceding in quality to activated coal are formed by semi-coking of unconglomerated coal.Semi-coke received by using the technology developed and patented at Joint-Stock Company ”Carbonika-F“ is characterised by large specific surface(above 500 m2/g)and high adsorption activity(iodine value 500 mglg and more), and with these parameters does not concede in quality to activated coal.The production of this sorbent is ecologically safe.The producon by-product-combustible gas can be burnt in boilers of thermal power station.类似的吸附剂或是质量稍微差一点的活性炭油由聚合碳的半焦形成。半焦被使用该技术发展和专利的”Carbonika-F"联合股份公司使用，特点是表面积大（大于500平方米/ g），和高吸附活性（碘值500 mglg等）而且这些参数不会影响到活性炭的质量。生产这些吸附剂是具有生态安全性的。产品的副产品会在热电站的锅炉里被燃烧。

Some mineral coals(called mesoporous)have internal pores accessible to water, having the size 3.5-4 manometers(mesopores), forming active surface, sized 50-120 m2/g(unlike all other natural coals with surface of 0.5-1 m2/g).These coals can be used as sorbents without additional activation.They clear water of undissolved and dissolved mineral oil, deep dispersing mixtures, iron, phenol, ions of heavy metals, ammonia, nitrates, benzo(a)pirene and so forth.Sorbent MIU-S received from poorly metamorphosed mesopore coal can be used for 3-7 years with periodic regeneration.Alkali regeneration solution is removed from the fitter without other additional neutralization, because in alkali and acid medium MIU-S presents buffer properties, neutralizing these media.一些矿产煤（叫做孔）有内部吸水孔，面积在50-120 m2/g（不像其他自然界的煤表面积是0.5-1 m2/g）。这些煤无需激活就可以被用作吸附剂。他们可以清理不溶水和融化的矿物油，深层分散混合物，铁，酚，重金属离子，氨，硝酸盐，苯等等。MIU-S吸附剂来自劣质变形孔煤，可以在定期更改新的情况下用3-7年。碱再生解决方案从管工上移除而没有其他而外的失效，因为酸和碱的中介MIU-S存在缓冲性能，能够中和这些媒介。

Specific porous structure of mesopore coals assures sorption extraction of dissolved mineral oil products with concentration lower than 1 mg/l, and thus is not always reachable even with activated coals.具有特殊渗透结构的孔酶能够吸附提取溶解浓度低于1毫克/升的矿物油产品，因此并非总是能获得活性炭。

Using MIU-S filters in drinking water supply systems made the stability of their work in conditions of continuous exploitation evident, maintaining the properties of sorbents at null and sub-zero temperatures and absence of biomass formation.使用MIU-S filters在饮水供应系统中使用MIU-S filters可以使系统工作具有稳定性。可以为储蓄开采创造条件，保证吸附剂在零度或是零下温度条件下都可以持续进行且没有生物的形成。

Besides the abovementioned technologies, sorbents can be obtained from material coal by its briquetting and activation.Raw mineral for briquettes can be coals of any rank.除了上述提到的技术，吸附剂可以从矿物煤中通过成型和活化获得。制作煤球的矿物原料可以是任何一种煤。Thus , sorbents suitable for additional cleaning of sewage are possible to be produced from mineral coals by special processing, and sometimes directly.Production of own sorbents may solve the problem of additional cleaning of sewage in coal enterprises.Mesopore coals can be used as sorbents without additional processing;the other coals need additional activation.The studied sorbents can be used for cleaning sewage water from mineral oil products, organic substances and metal ions.因此，适合附加清洗下水道里的)污物的吸附剂可以通过特殊处理从矿物煤中得到，并且有时候是可以直接得到的，不需要特殊处理。制作自己的吸附剂可以解决煤炭企业附加清洗污水的问题。有孔煤不经过额外的处理就可以直接被用作吸附剂；其他的煤需要额外的处理才行。吸附剂的研究能被用于矿物油产品，有机物质和金属离子的污水处理中。

REFERENCES Kovaleva LB., Matvienko N.G., Solovyeva E.A., Tarnopolskaya M.G.: The Application of Natural Mineral Coal in the Technology of Sewage Treatment from Mineral Oil.World n Mining Ecology.Works of the Congress 1999, pg.310-315.2.Congress o For the preparation of the article have been used materials from the site www.xiexiebang.com.ru, www.miu-sorb.ru

第三篇：安徽理工大学毕业设计英文翻译

安徽理工大学

自动化专业本科毕业设计英文翻译

学院(部)：电气与信息工程学院 专业班级： 自动化0 班 学生姓名： x x x 指导教师： 讲师

年 月 日 Implementation of Fuzzy-PID in Smart Car Control

Abstract—An unmanued smart car control system and the fuzzy-PID control algorithm are produced.A design scheme of fuzzy-PID controller is put forward.The simulation analysis from matlab indicated that the dynamic performance of fuzzy-PID control algorithm is better than that of usual PID.Experimental result of smart car show that it can follow the black guide line well and fast-stable complete running the whole trip.Keywords — fuzzy-PID;smart car;fuzzy controller;fuzzy control 1 Introduction In recent years, many countries are developing unmanned vehicle technology.This gives birth to many new theories and applied technology.Reference[1] presents the theory of turn ahead which uses real-time monitoring speed to change the turn-in point dynamically, then it implements the control strategy to achieve a perfect characteristics of steering.Reference[2] uses edge detection algorithm to extract track information and adopt P control.Reference[3] proposes a efficient, good anti-jamming and adaptive image processing dynamic algorithm which effectively solves the out of track caused by the changes of ambient light and track.Reference[4] reconstructs spatial relationships of track and calibrates camera using nonlinear optimization, then it can measure lateral deviation accurately.The above improve vehicle performance in one way but they are all lack of characteristics of car movement and based on lots of experiments.A fuzzy-PID control algorithm and a design scheme of fuzzy-PID controller are put forward in this paper.At last, the experimental result is given out to prove the validity of fuzzy-PID.2 Hardware system design To implement the design of fuzzy-PID algorithm, it’s necessary to design a hardware system of smart car.Smart car would have a smart control unite which contain detection of guide line, steering angle value, speed value and so on.See details in Fig.1.1

Fig.1 The functional block diagram of smart car 3 Basic principle of fuzzy-PID It’s difficult for usual PID control algorithm to achieve the best effect.Because, the parameters Kp, Ki, Kd can’t adjust to different object or different state of the same object.Fuzzy control is based on fuzzy set and fuzzy logic.Without precise mathematical model it can determine the size of controlled variable according the rule table organized by experience.In general, fuzzy control input variables are based on system error E and error change EC, which is similar to PD control.Such control might have a good dynamic characteristic, but the static performance is not satisfactory.Combining fuzzy control and PID control, this would make a system have both flexibility-adaptablity of fuzzy control and high accuracy of PID control.Fig.2 shows the structure diagram of fuzzy-PID control system, in which fuzzy controller is responsible for selecting a different PID parameter to improve the local performance thus increasing over all performance.2 Design of fuzzy-PID controller Speed drive motor controller design is similar to the following example for steering gear controller design.Fuzzy controller consists of fuzzification, fuzzy-inference and defuzzification, which are based on the knowledge base.[6] Controller input error and error change, output the parameters Kp,Ki,Kd.Suppose the fuzzy set for E is{NB,NM,NS,NO,PO,PS，PM,PB};the fuzzy set for EC、Kp、Ki and Kd is{NB,NM,NS,ZO,PS,PM,PB}.The linguistic meanings are: NB = negative big, NM = negative middle, NS = negative small, NO = negative zero, ZO = zero, PO = positive zero, PS = positive small, PM = positive middle, PB = positive big.So the membership function curves of fuzzy variables E、EC、Kp、Ki and Kd are shown in the Fig.3-Fig.7: 3

It’s necessary to establish rule table after finishing fuzzification.According the description of rule table, 56 fuzzy conditional statements can be summed, which look like If(E is PB)and(EC is PB)then(Kp is PB)(Ki is ZO)(Kd is PB).See details in Tab.1-Tab.3.Then, the last step is defuzzification and making a lookup table.During fuzzy control, the lookup table would be embed into the program.Suppose input value is fixed, the corresponding output value would be found in the table.Actually, this would save much computing time, and the control would become simply.Analysis of experimental results

Experiment used the steering gear model.The simulation circuit were shown in Fig.2.The usual PID and fuzzy PID algorithm were all simulinked in the Matlab.Responding curves obtained were shown in Fig.8 and Fig.9.The experimental result show that compared with the usual PID, the responding time of fuzzy-PID algorithm is shorter without over swing.The system dynamic performance is improved significantly.6 Conclusion and outlook This paper provided a design scheme for controlling a smart car, which is proved practically and superlatively though experiments.Unmanned smart car is due to the development of computer technology, pattern recognition and intelligent control technique.Many countries and research groups are doing research in the area.But it’s a complicated system, which involves a number of technologies.So the development of each technology is important, for it would become the bottleneck of the development of smart car.Stepper motor Stepper motor is the electric pulse signals into angular displacement or linear displacement of the open-loop stepper motor control element pieces.In the case of 8 non-overloaded, the motor speed, stop position depends only on the pulse frequency and pulse number, regardless of load changes, when the driver receives a step pulse signal, it will drive a stepper motor to Set the direction of rotation of a fixed angle, called the “step angle”, which the angle of rotation is fixed step by step operation.Number of pulses can be controlled by controlling the angular displacement, so as to achieve accurate positioning purposes;the same time by controlling the pulse frequency to control the motor rotation speed and acceleration, to achieve speed control purposes.1 Work Induction motor is a stepper motor, does it work is the use of electronic circuits, the DC power supply into a time-sharing, multi-phase timing control current, this current stepper motor power supply, the stepper motor to work properly , The drive is sharing power supply for the stepper motor, the polyphase timing controller.Although the stepper motor has been widely used, but the stepper motor does not like a normal DC motor, AC motor in the conventional use.It must be double-ring pulse signal;power driver circuit composed of the control system can be used.Therefore, it is not easy with a good stepping motor, which involves mechanical, electrical, electronics and computers, and much other specialized knowledge.As the stepper motor actuators, electromechanical integration, one of the key products, widely used in a variety of automatic control systems.With the development of microelectronics and computer technology, increasing demand for stepper motor has applications in all areas of the national economy.2 Categories Now more commonly used include the reaction of step motor stepper motor(VR), permanent magnet stepper motor(PM), hybrid stepper motors(HB)and single-phase stepper motor.3 Permanent magnet stepper motor Permanent magnet stepper motor is generally two-phase, torque, and smaller, usually 7.5 degree step angle or 15 degrees;Permanent magnet stepper motor output torque, dynamic performance, but a large step angle.4 Reaction Stepper Motor

Reaction is generally three-phase stepping motor can achieve high torque output, step angle of 1.5 degrees is generally, but the noise and vibration are large.Reaction by the stepper motor rotor magnetic circuit made of soft magnetic materials, a number of the stator phase excitation winding, the use of permeability changes in torque.Step Motor simple structure, low production costs, step angle is small;but the dynamic performance is poor.Hybrid Stepping Motor Hybrid Step Motor combines reactive, permanent magnet stepper motors of both, it's a small step angle, contribute a large, dynamic performance, is currently the highest performance stepper motor.It is also sometimes referred to as Permanent Magnet Induction Stepping Motor.It consists of two phases and the five-phase: the general two-phase step angle of 1.8 degrees and the general five-phase step angle 0.72 degrees.The most widely used Stepper Motor.Stepper motor drive for energy saving 6 Three-phase stepper motor drive special features:  180% low torque output, low frequency characteristics of a good run  Maximum output frequency 600Hz, high-speed motor control  full range of detection of protection(over voltage, under voltage, overload)instantaneous power failure restart  acceleration, deceleration, such as dynamic change in the stall protection function to prevent  Electrical dynamic parameters of automatic recognition function to ensure stability and accuracy of the system  quick response and high-speed shutdown  abundant and flexible input and output interface and control, versatility  use of SMT production and three full-mount anti-paint treatment process, product stability and high  full range of Siemens IGBT power devices using the latest, to ensure the quality of high-quality 7 Basic principles Usually for the permanent magnet rotor motor, when current flows through the stator windings, the stator windings produce a magnetic field vector.The magnetic field will lead to a rotor angle of the magnetic field makes the direction of a rotor and the stator's magnetic field direction.When the stator magnetic field vector rotating at an angle.As the rotor magnetic field is also transferred from another perspective.An electrical pulse for each input, the motor turning a point forward.It is the angular displacement of the output and input the number of pulses proportional to speed and pulse frequency is proportional to.Power to change the order of winding, the motor will reverse.Therefore, the number of available control pulse, frequency and power the motor windings of each phase in order to control the stepper motor rotation.8 Induction Stepping Motor 8-1 features: Induction, compared with the traditional reactive, structural reinforced with a permanent magnet rotor, in order to provide the working point of soft magnetic materials, and the stator excitation magnetic field changes only need to provide to provide the operating point of the consumption of magnetic materials energy, so the motor efficiency, current, low heat.Due to the presence of permanent magnets, the motor has a strong EMF, the damping effect of its own good, it is relatively stable during operation, low noise, low frequency vibration.Induction can be seen as somewhat low-speed synchronous motor.A four-phase motor can be used for four-phase operation, but also can be used for two-phase operation.(Must be bipolar voltage drive), while the motor is not so reactive.For example: four phase, eight-phase operation(A-AB-B-BC-C-CD-D-DA-A)can use two-phase eight-shot run.Not difficult to find the conditions for C =, D =.a two-phase motor's internal winding consistent with the four-phase motors, small power motors are generally directly connected to the second phase, the power of larger motor, in order to facilitate the use and flexible to change the dynamic characteristics of the motor, its external connections often lead to eight(four-phase), so that when used either as a four-phase motors used, can be used for two-phase motor winding in series or parallel.8-2 classification：Induction motors can be divided in phases: two-phase motor, three phase motor, four-phase motor, five-phase motor.The frame size(motor diameter)can be divided into: 42BYG(BYG the Induction Stepping motor code), 57BYG, 86BYG, 110BYG,(international standard), and like 70BYG, 90BYG, 130BYG and so are the national standards.8-3 the stepper motor phase number of static indicators of terms: very differently on the N, S the number of magnetic field excitation coil.Common m said.Beat number: complete the necessary cyclical changes in a magnetic field pulses or conducting state with n said, or that turned a pitch angle of the motor pulses needed to four-phase motor, for example, a four-phase four-shot operation mode that AB-BC-CD-DA-AB, shot eight four-phase operation mode that A-AB-B-BC-C-CD-D-DA-A.Step angle: corresponds to a pulse signal, the angular displacement of the rotor turned with θ said.θ = 360 degrees(the rotor teeth number of J * run shot), the conventional two, four-phase, the rotor teeth 50 tooth motor as an example.Four step run-time step angle θ = 360 ° /(50 * 4)= 1.8 degrees(commonly called the whole step), eight-shot running step angle θ = 360 ° /(50 * 8)= 0.9 degrees(commonly known as half step.)Location torque: the motor is not energized in the state, its locked rotor torque(as well as by the magnetic field profile of harmonics caused by mechanical error)static torque: the motor under the rated static electricity, the motor without rotation, the motor shaft locking torque.The motor torque is a measure of volume(geometry)standards, and drive voltage and drive power, etc.has nothing to do.Although the static torque is proportional to the electromagnetic magnetizing ampere turns, and fixed air gap between the rotor teeth on, but over-use of reduced air gap, increase the excitation ampere-turns to increase the static torque is not desirable, this will cause the motor heating and mechanical noise.12 智能小车控制中模糊-PID控制的实现

摘要：本文设计了一个自动智能小车控制系统和模糊-PID控制算法。提出了一个设计模糊PID控制器的方案。通过matlab的仿真分析表明,模糊-PID控制算法的性能比一般的PID控制更好。智能小车的试验结果表明它会随黑色的引导线快速并且稳定的走完整个行程。关键词：模糊PID；智能小车；模糊控制器；模糊控制。

1．简介

近年来,许多国家正在研制无人驾驶的车辆技术。产生了许多新的理论和应用技术。文献[1]中提出了一个采用实时检测速度从而准确、动态改变小车转向的理论，从而实现转向完美特性的控制策略。文献[2]中采用边缘检测算法来提取道路信息，并采用了比例控制。文献[3]提出了一种有效、具有良好抗干扰性的、适应性强的动态图像处理算法。这种算法有效的解决了由环境光线变化以及轨道变化所引起的小车偏离轨道现象。文献[4]利用非线性最优化重建了轨道和摄像调整间的空间关系，从而使它能够精确的测量出横向偏差。上述方案都从某种意义上改善了小车的性能，但他们都缺少以小车运动和大量实验为基础的小车的特性。这篇文章中提出了一个模糊控制算法以及模糊PID控制器的设计方法。在本文最后,给出了实验结果来证明模糊PID算法的有效性。

2．硬件系统设计

要实现模糊PID控制算法的设计，有必要设计一个智能小车硬件系统。智能小车应该有由道路检测，转角检测，速度检测等构成的智能控制单元。详见图1。

图1 智能小车原理框图 3．模糊PID控制的基本原则

用一般的PID控制算法来获得最好的响应是不容易的。因为参数Kp、Ki、Kd不适应于不同的对象，或者同一个对象的不同状态。模糊控制是以模糊集合和模糊逻辑为机车的。不需要精确的数学模型，它可以由用经验建立起来的规则表来确定控制变量的大小。一般来说，模糊控制的输入变量基于系统的误差E和系统的误差变化量Ec。这和比例－微分控制相似。这样的控制可能可以获得较好的动态性能，但获得的静态性能不能让人满意。

将模糊控制于PID控制结合起来，这就会使系统即具有模糊控制所具有的灵活的适应特性，又具有PID控制的所具有的较高的精确度。图2给出了模糊PID控制系统的结构图，其中模糊控制器的作用是选择不同的PID参数来改善局部响应，进而改善整体的响应。

图2 模糊PID控制仿真框图

4．模糊PID控制器的设计

速度驱动电机控制器的设计和下面给出的转向机构控制器设计是相似的。模糊控制器由模糊化、模糊推理、去模糊化组成，这些都是以知识库为基础的。控制器输入为误差及误差变化量，输出为参数Kp、Ki、Kd。

假设误差E的模糊集合为{NB NM NS NO PO PS PM PB};误差变化量Ec、参数Kp、Ki、Kd的模糊集合为{NB NM NS ZO PS PM PB}。他们表示的意义为：NB=负大、NM=负中、NS=负小、NO=负零、ZO=零、PO=正零、PS=正小、PM=正中、PB=正大。得到模 糊变量E、EC、Kp、Ki、Kd的隶属度函数曲线如图3至图7所示：

图3 Kp隶属函数响应曲线

图4 Ki隶属函数响应曲线

图5 Kd隶属函数响应曲线

图6 E隶属函数响应曲线

图7 Ec隶属函数响应曲线

在模糊化完成后需要建立规则表，根据规则表的描述，可以总结出56个模糊条件语句，形式例如：如果(E 是 PB)并且(Ec 是 PB)那么(Kp 是 PB)(Ki 是 ZO)(Kd是 PB)。详见表1—表3。

最后一个步骤是去模糊化和建立查询表。在模糊控制中查询表应该嵌入到程序中。假设输入的值是固定的那么可以在表中查出相应的输出值。实际上，这可以节省许多计算时间并使控制简化。

表1 Kp规则表

表2 Ki规则表

表3 Kd规则表

5．实验结果分析

图8 PID控制响应曲线

图9 模糊PID控制响应曲线

实验利用了转向机构模型，它的仿真回路已经由图2给出。我们已经用MATLAB仿真出了一般PID控制算法和模糊PID控制算法，获得的响应曲线如图

8、图9所示。

实验结果表明，同一般得PID控制相比模糊控制的响应时间要短且没有超调的。系统的动态性能有了重大的提高。

6．总结和展望

这篇文章给出了一个控制智能小车的设计方案，并且通过实验从实际上很好的验证了这个方案。

无人驾驶智能小车是以计算机技术、模式识别以及智能控制技术的发展为基础的。许多国家和机构都在做这一方面的研究，但它是一个复杂的系统，它包含了许多方面的技术，所以任何一个技术的发展都是重要的，这可能成为智能车发展的瓶颈。

„„„„„„

步进电机

步进电机是将电脉冲信号转变为角位移或线位移的开环控制元步进电机件。在非超载的情况下，电机的转速、停止的位置只取决于脉冲信号的频率和脉冲数，而不受负载变化的影响，当步进驱动器接收到一个脉冲信号，它就驱动步进电机按设定的方 向转动一个固定的角度，称为“步距角”，它的旋转是以固定的角度一步一步运行的。可以通过控制脉冲个数来控制角位移量，从而达到准确定位的目的；同时可以通过控制脉冲频率来控制电机转动的速度和加速度，从而达到调速的目的。工作原理

步进电机是一种感应电机，它的工作原理是利用电子电路，将直流电变成分时供电的，多相时序控制电流，用这种电流为步进电机供电，步进电机才能正常工作，驱动器就是为步进电机分时供电的，多相时序控制器

虽然步进电机已被广泛地应用，但步进电机并不能象普通的直流电机，交流电机在常规下使用。它必须由双环形脉冲信号、功率驱动电路等组成控制系统方可使用。因此用好步进电机却非易事，它涉及到机械、电机、电子及计算机等许多专业知识。步进电机作为执行元件，是机电一体化的关键产品之一, 广泛应用在各种自动化控制系统中。随着微电子和计算机技术的发展，步进电机的需求量与日俱增，在各个国民经济领域都有应用。分类

现在比较常用的步进电机包括反应式步进电机（VR）、永磁式步进电机（PM）、混合式步进电机（HB）和单相式步进电机等。永磁式步进电机

永磁式步进电机一般为两相，转矩和体积较小，步进角一般为7.5度 或15度； 永磁式步进电动机输出力矩大，动态性能好，但步距角大。反应式步进电机

反应式步进电机一般为三相，可实现大转矩输出，步进角一般为1.5度，但噪声和振动都很大。反应式步进电机的转子磁路由软磁材料制成，定子上有多相励磁绕组，利用磁导的变化产生转矩。

反应式步进电动机结构简单，生产成本低，步距角小；但动态性能差。混合式步进电机

混合式步进电动机综合了反应式、永磁式步进电动机两者的优点，它的步距角小，出力大，动态性能好，是目前性能最高的步进电动机。它有时也称作永磁感应子式步进电动机。它又分为两相和五相：两相步进角一般为1.8度而五相步进角一般为 0.72度。这种步进电机的应用最为广泛。变频器对步进电机的节能改造 三相步进电机专用变频器特点：

■低频转矩输出180%，低频运行特性良好 ■输出频率最大600Hz，可控制高速电机

■全方位的侦测保护功能(过压、欠压、过载)瞬间停电再起动

■加速、减速、动转中失速防止等保护功能

■电机动态参数自动识别功能，保证系统的稳定性和精确性 ■高速停机时响应快

■丰富灵活的输入、输出接口和控制方式，通用性强 ■采用SMT全贴装生产及三防漆处理工艺，产品稳定度高 ■全系列采用最新西门子IGBT功率器件，确保品质的高质量 基本原理

通常电机的转子为永磁体，当电流流过定子绕组时，定子绕组产生一矢量磁场。该磁场会带动转子旋转一角度，使得转子的一对磁场方向与定子的磁场方向一致。当定子的矢量磁场旋转一个角度。转子也随着该磁场转一个角度。每输入一个电脉冲，电动机转动一个角度前进一步。它输出的角位移与输入的脉冲数成正比、转速与脉冲频率成正比。改变绕组通电的顺序，电机就会反转。所以可用控制脉冲数量、频率及电动机各相绕组的通电顺序来控制步进电机的转动。感应子式步进电机

1、特点： 感应子式与传统的反应式相比，结构上转子加有永磁体，以提供软磁材料的工作点，而定子激磁只需提供变化的磁场而不必提供磁材料工作点的耗能，因此该电机效率高，电流小，发热低。因永磁体的存在，该电机具有较强的反电势，其自身阻尼作用比较好，使其在运转过程中比较平稳、噪音低、低频振动小。感应子式某种程度上可以看作是低速同步的电机。一个四相电机可以作四相运行，也可以作二相运行。（必须采用双极电压驱动），而反应式电机则不能如此。例如：四相，八相运行（A-AB-B-BC-C-CD-D-DA-A）完全可以采用二相八拍运行方式.不难发现其条件为C=,D=.一个二相电机的内部绕组与四相电机完全一致，小功率电机一般直接接为二相，而功率大一点的电机，为了方便使用，灵活改变电机的动态特点，往往将其外部接线为八根引线（四相），这样使用时，既可以作四相电机使用，可以作二相电机绕组串联或并联使用。

2、分类

感应子式电机以相数可分为：二相电机、三相电机、四相电机、五相电机等。以机座号（电机外径）可分为：42BYG(BYG为感应子式步进电机代号）、57BYG、86BYG、110BYG、（国际标准），而像70BYG、90BYG、130BYG等均为国内标准。

3、步进电机的静态指标术语 相数：

产生不同对极N、S磁场的激磁线圈对数。常用m表示。拍数：完成一个磁场周期性变化所需脉冲数或导电状态用n表示，或指电机转过一个齿距角所需脉冲数，以四相电机为例，有四相四拍运行方式即AB-BC-CD-DA-AB，四相八拍运行方式即 A-AB-B-BC-C-CD-D-DA-A.步距角：对应一个脉冲信号，电机转子转过的角位移用θ 20 表示。θ=360度（转子齿数J*运行拍数），以常规二、四相，转子齿为50齿电机为例。四拍运行时步距角为θ=360度/（50*4）=1.8度（俗称整步），八拍运行时步距角为θ=360度/（50*8）=0.9度（俗称半步）。定位转矩：电机在不通电状态下，电机转子自身的锁定力矩（由磁场齿形的谐波以及机械误差造成的）静转矩：电机在额定静态电作用下，电机不作旋转运动时，电机转轴的锁定力矩。此力矩是衡量电机体积（几何尺寸）的标准，与驱动电压及驱动电源等无关。虽然静转矩与电磁激磁安匝数成正比，与定齿转子间的气隙有关，但过分采用减小气隙，增加激磁安匝来提高静力矩是不可取的，这样会造成电机的发热及机械噪音。

第四篇：采矿工程毕业设计英文翻译

Underground Mining

Most present-day mining in Europe occurs under 2000 to 4000 ft of overburden, as more easily mined coal deposits have been depleted.At this depth most mines are developed as shaft mines.All personnel, material, and coal have to be hoisted trough these shaft.Considering the two factors of hoisting capacity and required length of shaft, a considerable investment is necessary to reach the coal-bearing strata.The requires huge investments.Openings at this depth have to be equipped with costly supports, and periodic reworking and repair is necessary.Mines not only extend horizontally but also vertically through the development of new levels.The life of the mines is thus extend considerably, and surface installations can be amortize over a longer period.The more limited reserves have forced companies into mining less favorable deposits, and European government require that all possible deposits be mined to conserve the nation’s energy resources.These factor and the large percentage of inclined seams and faults make mining very difficult and costly.The population density and the heavy surface buildup cause additional expense in the form of payments for subsidence damage to surface structures.Therefore, backfilling is frequently practiced to reduce subsidence.The close spacing of faults often severely limits the size of a mining section, forcing frequent moves and excessive development work.The thickness of the overburden results in very high ground pressure.This would require extremely large pillars if the room and pillar method was applied.Additionally, support is required for any opening, adding prohibitive costs to a multiple-entry room and pillar operation.As a result, single-entry longwall operations requiring the minimum number of entries and allowing maximum recovery of resources is the mining method almost exclusively practiced.Shaft mines dominate the European coal mining industry.Shafts 20 to 30 ft in diameter, with circular cross section, lined with masonry, concrete, or steel are the dominant means of gaining access to the coal-bearing strata.They are often extended beyond the last mining level to provide for future expansion.As in the Unite States, shafts are developed by drilling, blasting, and excavating or by large-diameter shaft-boring equipment.Shaft boring is more frequently used, particularly on the smaller and shorter subshaft, which connect the different levels but do not extend to the surface.Haulage in the shaft is usually accomplished by hoisting of the filled mine cars on multistage cages or by skips.Pumping of coal slurry is also done in special cases.The complex system of forces and the resulting rock mechanical problems developed by mining activities at different levels result in significant differences between European and US underground development.The rock mechanical interaction of the extraction operations at the various levels require that all deposits be mined as completely as possible.Pillars left after mining create zones of extreme and often unmanageable ground control problem, as well as a high probability of roof bounce.Since the number of entries is kept to a minimum because of cost, no bleeder systems are provided.If retreat mining is practiced, only two entries are advanced in to a new mining area.Panels are laid out as large as possible.The large-panel layout is used as another means of reducing the number of entries.Minded–out panels are sealed off to prevent spontaneous combustion through the removal of oxygen.The main levels, with extensive entry systems, are used for coal, supply, and personnel haulage and for ventilation.They are often spaced with little regard to the position of the coal seams, because the deposits are reached selectively through other means.In the past, 165-or330-ft intervals were selected while increasing ground pressures and development and maintenance increase substantially, requiring large volumes of air for cooling.As a result, entry cross sections at these levels have to be increase.Fig.9.1 German multilevel, multiseam shaft-type coal mine.Underground facilities：

(1)main shaft with skip hoisting;(2)exhaust ventilation shaft with multistage cage;(3)third-level station;(4)blind shaft with cylindrical storage bin;(5)blind shaft with car-hoisting facilities;(6)main entry;(7)main entry;(8)section or panel entry;(9)road heading machine(10)longwall section with plow;(11)longwall section with shearer;(12)longwall section in a steeply pitching seam mined manually with air picks;(13)longwall section in steeply pitching seam with plow;(14)minded-out gob area;(15)ventilation lock;(16)belt conveyor as main haulage;(17)main car haulage;(18)storage bin and skip-loading facilities;(19)supply haulage with a mono-rail;(20)supply haulage with mine cars;(21)monorail system as personnel carrier;(22)worker-trip cars;(23)pump station.Surface facilities:(a)hoisting tower with overhead hoist;(b)shaft building;(c)head frame;(d)main exhaust fan and diffuser;(e)coal preparation plant with loading facilities;(f)coking coal silo;(g)container vehicle for filling of coke ovens;(h)coke oven battery;(i)coke watering car;(k)coke quenching tower;(l)gas tank;(m)water-treatment plant;(n)refuse pile;(o)power plant;(p)cooling tower;(q)water tower;(r)supply storage area;(s)sawmill;(t)training and teaching center.地下采煤

目前，大部分欧洲的煤矿开采都已经达到了2000到4000英尺，主要是因为浅部容易开采的煤层都已经采完。在这个深度的大部分煤层都已经发展成为要用相关井筒进行开采的地步。所用的人员、材料、煤炭都不得不从井筒采用绞车等提升进行运输。考虑到绞车提升容量以及所需要的井筒长度的两个因素，一个相当大的资金投入对于开采到煤层所处的地层是必需的。这些大范围的地下巷道或隧道的网络的开拓和维护费用需要一笔巨大的投资。在这个深度进行开拓不得不装备一些很昂贵的支架和一些循环型的改造和返修，这些也都是必要的。

采矿不单单是拓宽水平方向而且通过开拓新的水平来拓宽来延深。所以矿井的服务年限被极大地拓宽，并且地表的安装设备费用也能够在很长的一个时期内得以缓冲。

有限的资源储备迫使公司开采要去开采那些并不是很乐观的煤层，并且欧洲各国政府要求采出所有可采的煤层以保护国家的能源。这些因素由于大比率的煤线和断层以至于煤炭的开采非常困难并且价格昂贵。由于人口密度的增长和地表建筑的增加，从而造成地表的沉陷对于建筑物的破坏，以至于增加了额外的成本。因此，采空区填充是最常用的防治地表沉陷的实践措施。过小的断层间距常常严重地限制采区的尺寸，因而不得不频繁搬家，并造成过大的开拓工程量。

上部覆盖层的厚度导致了相当大的地层压力。如果采用房柱式开采方法，就需要留异常巨大的煤柱。另外，任何一个工作面都需要支 架，并且增加了额外的费用对于多种平巷峒室的支撑措施。

地下开采统治着欧洲的煤炭开采工业。井筒直径大约20到30英寸，一般采用钢筋混凝土砌碹的圆形断面，作为主要的连接巷道连接到含煤地层。他们一般被延深到超过最后一个开采水平来满足未来的拓展。如在美国，立井是用打眼、放炮和挖掘方法或用大直径钻井设备来开凿的。钻井时经常被采用的，尤其对于小型的长度较短的连接各个水平但不通往地面的暗井。

井筒中一般采用罐笼中承载矿车或箕斗进行提升。在特殊情况下采用煤泥泵出的形式开采。

这种力的复杂的系统和岩石力学的合成的问题在煤矿开采活动不同的水平在欧洲和美国存在巨大的不同。

在多个水平煤层进行开采时，岩石之间相互力的作用要求尽可能的将煤全部采出。煤矿开采后留下的煤柱形成了一个压力极高并且相当难以维护的空间，具有很高的发生顶板岩石突出的可能性。

由于资金成本的问题，巷道入口的数目保持在最小值。没有回风巷的系统开始形成。如果采用后退式的开采方法，在采煤区段只有两个入口。

区段一般被尽可能的大。大区段的布置方式其实从另一个角度说就是为了减少入口的数目。开采过后的区域一般打上封闭，以切断氧气的来源从而防止采空区煤层自燃。

在布置有众多巷道主要的水平，它被用来运送煤炭、供给以及人员的运输和通风。他们经常空出一部分位置的煤柱不采，因为储量已 经达到并通过别的方法进行有选择性的开采。在过去，165或330英尺的间隔被有选择的当逐渐增加的矿山压力和开拓的维护费用迫使增加到660或990英尺。温度随着深度的增加也急剧增加，需要大容量的空气从而达到降温的目的。以至于这些水平的采区巷道也就要求增加。

图9.1 德国多水平、多工作面立井井筒式矿井

地下设备：

(1)箕斗提升主井；

(2)担负抽出式通风的并配有多层罐笼的副井；(3)第三水平井底车场;(4)带有圆柱形煤仓的暗井;(5)有矿车提升设备的暗井;(6)主要大巷;(7)主要大巷;(8)采区或盘区平巷;(9)掘进机；(10)采用刨煤机的长壁工作面采区;(11)采用采煤机的长壁工作面采区;(12)采用人工风镐的急倾斜煤层的长壁工作面采区；(13)采用刨煤机的急倾斜煤层的长壁工作面采区;(14)采空区;(15)风门;(16)胶带输送机作为主要运输设备;(17)主要矿车运输;(18)煤仓和箕斗装载峒室设备;(19)材料运输采用单轨运输;(20)材料运输采用矿车运输;(21)单轨矿车用于人员运输;(22)人车;(23)泵房及地表设备:(a)带有高架天轮的提升塔;(b)井筒;(c)井架;(d)主扇和扩散管;(e)有装载设备的洗选厂;(f)焦炭仓罐;(g)运送焦炭冶炼的运送机;(h)焦炭炉电池;(i)焦炭水车;(k)焦炭冷却塔;(l)瓦斯容器箱;(m)水处理装置;(n)矸石堆;(o)动力厂;(p)冷却塔;(q)水塔;(r)仓储区域;(s)锯木厂;(t)培训中心.

第五篇：大学课程英文翻译

BASIC 语言 BASIC Language

BASIC 语言及应用 BASIC Language & Application

C 语言 C Language

C++程序设计 C++ Program Designing

CAD 概论 Introduction to CAD

CAD/CAM CAD/CAM

CET-4 College English Test(Band 4)

CET-6 College English Test(Band 6)

C与UNIX环境 C Language & Unix Environment

C语言科学计算方法 Scientific Computation Method in C

C语言与生物医学信息处理 C Language & Biomedical Information Processing

dBASE Ⅲ 课程设计 Course Exercise in dBASE Ⅲ

Programming Languages

Internet与Intranet技术 Internet and Intranet Technology

PC机原理 Principle of PC

Unix编程环境 Unix Programming Environment

Unix操作系统分析 Analysis of Unix System

Windows系统 Windows Operation System

办公自动化 Office Automatization

办公自动化系统毕业设计 Office Automatization Thesis

办公自动化系统设计 Office Automatization Design

编译方法 Compilation Method

编译方法 Methods of Compiling

编译技术 Technique of Compiling

编译原理 Fundamentals of Compiling, Principles of Compiler

编译原理课程设计 Course Design of Compiling

操作系统 Disk Operating System(DOS)

操作系统课程设计 Course Design in Disk Operating System

操作系统与编译原理 Disk Operating System & Fundamentals of Compiling

操作系统原理 Fundamentals of Disk Operating System, Principles of

Operating System

常微分方程 Ordinary Differential Equations

程序设计 Program Designing

程序设计方法学 Methodology of Programming, Methods of Programming

程序设计及算法语言 Program Designing & Algorithmic Language

程序设计语言 Programming Language 抽象代数 Abstract Algebra

初等数学 Primary Mathematics

大型数据库原理与高级开发技术 Principles of Large-Scale Data-Bas e and Advanced

Development Technology

大学物理 College Physics

大学物理实验 Experiment of College Physics

大学英语 College English

大学语文 College Chinese

代数几何 Algebraic Geometry

代数几何Algebraic Geometry

代数曲面 Algebraic Surfaces

代数图论 Algebraic Graph Theory

代数拓扑 Algebraic Topology

代数学 Algebra

典型计算机分析 Classical Computer Analysis

多层网络方法 Multi-Layer Network Technology

多复变函数 Analytic Functions of Several Complex Variables

多媒体计算机技术 Multimedia Computer Technology

多媒体技术 Multimedia Technology

多项距阵 Multi-Nominal Matrix

多元统计分析 Multivariable Statistics

法理学 Nomology

法律基础 Fundamentals of Law

法学概论 An Introduction to Science of Law

法学基础 Fundamentals of Science of Law

泛函分析 Functional Analysis

泛函分析 Functional Analysis

复变函数 Complex Variables Functions

复变函数与积分变换 Functions of Complex Variables & Integral Transformation

概率论 Probability Theory

概率论与数理统计 Probability Theory & Mathematical Statistics

概率论与随机过程 Probability Theory & Stochastic Process

概率与统计 Probability & Statistics

高等代数 Advanced Algebra

高等数理方法 Advanced Mathematical Method

高等数学 Advanced Mathematics

高等数值分析 Advanced Numeric Analysis

高级程序设计语言的设计与实现 Advanced Programming Language's Design &

Implementation

高级管理信息系统 Advanced Management Information Systems

高级计算机体系结构 Advanced Computer Architecture

高级计算机网络 Advanced Computer Networks

高级计算机网络与集成技术 Advanced Computer Networks and Integration Technology

高级经济计量 Advanced Economic Metrology

高级软件工程 Advanced Software Engineering

高级数据库 Advanced Database

高级数理逻辑 Advanced Numerical Logic

汇编语言程序设计 Assembly Language Programming

汇编原理 Principles of Assembly

集合论与代数结构 Set Theory & Algebraical Structure

计算方法 Computational Method

计算方法 Computing Method

计算方法与算法语言 Computational Method & Algorithmic Language

计算机导论 Introduction to Computers

计算机导论与实践 Introduction to Computers & Practice

计算机仿真 Computer Simulation

计算机仿真 Computer Simulation

计算机分析 Computer Analysis

计算机辅助热力学 Computer Aided Thermodynamics

计算机辅助设计 CAD

计算机辅助设计与仿真 Computer Aided Design & Imitation

计算机辅助语言教学 Computer-Aided Language Teaching

计算机辅助制造 Computer-Aided Manufacturing

计算机概论 Introduction to Computers

计算机概论与上机操作 Introduction to Computers & Practise

计算机汇编语言 Computer Assembly Language

计算机绘图 Computer Graphics

计算机基础 Basis of Computer Engineering, Computer Basis

计算机技术研究新进展 Advances in Computer Technology

计算机接口技术 Computer Interface Technology

计算机接口与通讯 Computer Interface & Communication 计算机局域网 Regional Network of Computers

计算机科学研究新进展 Advances in Computer Science

计算机科学中的逻辑学 Logic in Computer Science

计算机控制 Computer Control, Computer Controlling

计算机控制技术 Computer Controlling Technology

计算机控制系统 Computer Control System

计算机逻辑设计 Computer Logic Designing

计算机模拟 Computer Imitation

计算机软件基础 Basis of Software of Computer

计算机设计自动化 Automation of Computer Design

计算机实践 Computer Practice

计算机实践基础 Basis of Computer Practice

计算机视觉 Computer Vision

计算机数据安全 Computer Data Security

计算机数据库 Computer Database

计算机算法基础 Basis of Computer Algorithm

计算机通讯网 Computer Communication Network

计算机图形显示 Computer Graphic Demonstration

计算机图形学 Computer Graphics

计算机外部设备 Computer Peripheral Equipment

计算机网络 Computer Networks

计算机网络实验 Computer Network Experiment

计算机网络新技术 Modern Computer Network Technologies

计算机维修技术 Computer Repair Technique

计算机文字处理 Computer Language Processing

计算机系统结构 Computer Architecture

计算机系统维修 Computer System Maintain

计算机信息保密与安全 Secrecy and Security of Computer Information

计算机应用技术 Computer Applications Technology

计算机语言处理 Computer Language Processing

计算机原理 Principle of Computer Engineering

计算机原理及应用 Principle & Applications of Computer

计算机原理与BASIC语言 Principle of Computer Engineering & BASIC Language

计算机原理与算法语言 Principles of Computer & Algorithm

计算机在分析化学的应用 Computer Application in Analytical Chemistry

计算机在化学中的应用 Application of Computer in Chemistry

计算机组成原理 Principles of Computer Composition

计算机组成原理课程设计 Principles of Computer Composition Course Design

计算力学 Computational Mechanics

计算力学基础 Basis of Computational Mechanics

计算流体 Fluid Computation

计算流体力学 Fluid Mechanics Computation

计算微电子学 Computational Microelectronics

计算物理基础 Basics of Computational Physics 计算物理谱方法 Spectral Method in Computational Physics

计算物理学 Computational Physics

交换代数 Commutative Algebra

L开头的课程

离散数学 Discrete Mathematics

理论物理 Theoretical Physics

逻辑程序设计与专家系统 Logic Programming and Expert Systems

逻辑设计 Logic Design

逻辑学 Logic Theory

马克思主义原理 Principles of Marxism

马列(社会学)原著选读 Selected Readings of Marx's & Lenin's Original Wor

马列哲学原著选读 Selected Readings of Marx's & Lenin's Original Wor

马列主义原理 Principles of Marxism & Leninism

毛泽东思想哲学研究 Research on Mao Zedong's Thinking Philosophy

美学概论 Introduction to Aesthetics

面向对象程序设计 Object-Oriented Programming

面向对象程序设计方法 Design Methods of Object Oriented Program

面向对象的程序设计 Object Oriented Programming

面向对象系统分析与设计 Object-Oriented System Analysis and Design

模糊数学 Fuzzy Mathematics

模糊信息处理技术 Fuzzy Information Processing Technology

模具计算机辅助设计 Computer Aided Design of Models

模拟电路 Analog Circuitry

模拟电子技术 Analog Electronics Technique

模拟电子技术基础 Basic Analog Electronics

模拟电子技术实验 Analog Electronics Technique Experiment

模拟电子线路 Analog Electrical Circuitry

模拟集成电路 Analog Integrated Circuitry

模拟集成电路及应用 Analog Integrated Circuit & Application

模式识别 Matrix Recognition

模式识别 Pattern Recognition

模型辨识 Model Distinguish

偏微分方程 Partial Differential Equation

偏微分方程近代方法 The Recent Methods of Partial Differential E quations

偏微分方程数值解 Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equation

普通物理 General Physics

普通物理实验 Lab of General Physics

软计算理论及应用 Theory and Application of Soft-Computing

软件测试技术 Software Testing Technology

软件工程 Software Engineering

软件工程基础 Foundation of Software Engineering

软件基础课程设计 Course Design of Software Technique

软件技术基础 Basis of Software Technique

软件开发工具与环境 Tools & Environment for Software Developing

软件质量与测试 Software Quality and Testing

实变函数 Functions of Real Variable

实变函数与泛函分析 Functions of Real Variable & Functional Analysis

实验分析 Experimental Analysis

输入输出设计原理 Principle of Input and Output Designing

数据仓库技术与联机分析处理 Data Warehouse and OLAP

数据处理分析与建模 Data Analysis and Constituting Model

数据结构 Data Structure

数据结构课程设计 Course Design of Data Structure

数据库dBASE Ⅲ d BASE III

数据库概论 Introduction to Database

数据库管理系统 Database Management System

数据库基础 Basis of Database

数据库技术 Technique of Database

数据库技术与应用 Technique & Application of Database

数据库课程设计 Course Design of Database

数据库设计与分析 Design & Analysis of Database

数据库系统原理 Principles of Database System

数据库应用 Application of Database

数据库应用基础 Basic of Database Application

数据库原理 Principles of Database

数据库原理及应用 Principle & Application of Database

数控机床 Digit Control Machine Tool

数控技术 Digit Control Technique

数理方程 Mathematical Equations, Mathematics and Physical Equation

数理方程积分变换 Integral Transmission of Mathematical Equation

数理方程与特殊函数 Equations of Mathmatical Physics & Special Functions

数理逻辑 Mathematical Logic

数理统计 Mathematical statistics, Numeral Statistic/Numerical Statistic

数理统计及应用 Mathematical statistics & Application

数量经济 Quantity Economics

数模与模数转换 A/D and D/A Conversion 数学物理方法 Method of Mathematical Physics

数值电路 Digital Circuit

数值电路计算方法 Computational Method of Digital Circuit

数值分析 Numerical Analysis

数值计算 Digital Computation

数字测量技术 Digital Measuring Technique

数字测量实验技术 Experimental Technique of Digital Measuring

数字测试实验技术 Experimental Technique of Digital Testing

数字电路 Digital Circuit

数字电路及微机原理 Digital Circuit & Computer Principles

数字电路与微机 Digital Circuit & Computer

数字电视 Digital Television

数字电子电路 Fundamental Digital Circuit

数字电子基础 Fundamental Digital Electionics

数字电子技术 Digital Electronic Technique

数字电子技术基础 Fundamental Digital Electronic Technique

数字电子技术设计与实验 Experiment & Design of Digital Electron Technique

数字电子线路 Digital Electrical Circuitry

数字电子与微机原理 Digital Electronics & Principle of Microcomputer

数字仿真 Digital Simulation

数字化测量技术 Digital Measuring Technique

数字技术 Digital Technique

数字控制及微机控制技术 Digital Control & Microcomputer Control Technique

数字逻辑 Digital Logic, Mathematical Logic

数字逻辑课程设计 Course Design of Digital Logic

数字图象处理 Digital Image Processing

数字系统逻辑设计 Logical Design of Digital System

数字系统设计 Design of Digital System

数字信号处理 Digital Signal Processing

数字语音处理 Digital Voice Processing

算法分析 Algorithm Analysis

算法分析与设计 Analysis and Design of Algorithms

算法设计与分析 Algorithmic Design & Analysis

算法语言 Algorithmic Language

算法语言与计算机操作 Algorithmic Language & Computers Practice

统计 Statistics

统计计算 Experiment of Applied Physics

统计检查与质量控制 Statistic Check and Quality Control

统计学 Statistics

统计学原理 Principle of Statistics

统计学原理与工业统计 Principle of Statistics & Industrial Statistics 统计学原理与外贸统计 Principle of Statistics & Business Statistics

统计原理 Statistics

网络集成与大型数据库 Computer Network Integrating Technology an d Large-scale

Database

网络理论与多媒体技术 Multi-media and Network Technology

网络算法与复杂性 Network Algorithms and Complexity

网络信息系统 Network Information System

网络原理 Principles of Network

微分方程 Differential Equation

微分方程数值解 Numerical Methods for Differential Equations

微分几何 Differential Geometry

微积分 Calculus

微型机及应用 Microcomputer & its Application

微型计算机 Microcomputer

微型计算机控制技术 Microcomputer Controling Technique

微型计算机控制技术课程设计 Course Exercise in Microcomputer Principles

微型计算机原理 Principle of Microcomputer

微型计算机原理及应用 Principle & Applications of Microcomputer

微型计算机原理课程设计 Course Exercise in Microcomputer Principles

信息系统设计 Information System Design

信息系统设计与分析 Analysis of Information System & Designing

信息系统与设计分析 Analysis of Information System & Designing

信息系统综合集成理论及方法 Theory and Methodology of Information n System