口语新闻教育资料

第一篇：口语新闻教育资料

场景一：

The reported rape of a six-year-old student at a well known school in Jakarta has received widespread media attention in Indonesia.The costly Jakarta International School, or JSI serves many children of diplomats and wealthy foreign families.Indonesian police have arrested several suspects in connection with the incident reported in early April.Similar reports of sexual abuse at the school have followed.Recently, another kindergarten student also said he was abused at the school.The education ministry ordered the school's kindergarten closed, the ministry said the kindergarten have been operating without permission.雅加达知名学校6岁学生被强奸的报道得到了印度媒体的广泛关注，这所昂贵的雅加达国际学校(JSI)招收了很多外交官和富有外国人的子女。印尼警方在逮捕了与4月初报道的这件案件有关的几名嫌犯，后来该学校又报道出类似的性虐案。最近，另一名幼儿园学生称在该学校被虐。教育部下令关闭该学校的幼儿园，教育部称这家幼儿园无证经营。

场景二：

开封县一名只有2岁半的小男孩，在幼儿园遭到老师的殴打和禁食，家长从监控视频中发现后，将视频拷走并投诉至县教育局。

9月20日，记者赶到开封县，从家长那里看到孩子被老师殴打的视频。记者调查发现，出事的幼儿园在当地是一家规模很大的幼儿园，在县城和不少乡镇都有分园，大部分是无证经营，其中出事的幼儿园无证经营已长达两年多。

目前该幼儿园已经关门，开封县教育局表示将展开检查，坚决取缔无证幼儿园。

孩子被打的视频被家长拷贝下来，在时长为3分多钟的视频中，出现了多个龙龙被老师虐待的场景。龙龙的妈妈说，这只是学校监控视频的一部分。

视频内容：

场景一：龙龙光着脚，手里举着鞋走到一名女老师身边，结果女老师一巴掌把龙龙手中的鞋打飞。

场景二：龙龙和几名小朋友坐在凳子上，一名女老师朝龙龙头上打了几下，龙龙双手抱着头嗷嗷大哭。

场景三：小朋友围在桌子旁边吃饭，其他小朋友每人面前都有一小碗饭，只有龙龙没有，其间一名女老师走进教室又出去，对龙龙的情况视而不见。

场景四：小朋友吃饭时，龙龙伸手去拿饭碗，旁边的女老师突然伸手把饭碗推开，龙龙再伸手去拿，老师又推开，连续多次。

„„„„

【走访】孩子被老师打得直哭

“开封县吉祥艺术幼儿园老师虐待儿童，老师不让孩子吃饭，让孩子光脚走路，孩子身上都是伤。”9月20日上午，开封县的苗先生向大河报反映，他一个朋友家的孩子在开封县人民路吉祥艺术幼儿园上学期间遭到老师虐待。

根据苗先生提供的电话，记者和孩子的家人取得了联系，见到了2岁半的孩子龙龙(化名)。

见到记者到来，龙龙显得有些紧张和害怕，一直趴在奶奶怀里不敢抬头，记者试图和他说话，但他都没有回应。龙龙的奶奶说，从幼儿园回来后，孩子的精神状态特别不稳定，有时候半天都不说一句话，晚上睡觉也常常发“癔症”，嘴里喊着“打、打”。

龙龙的妈妈给记者看了幼儿园的监控视频。在时长为3分多钟的视频中，出现了多个龙龙被老师虐待的场景。龙龙的妈妈说，视频中屡次虐待龙龙的女老师姓胡，是龙龙的班主任。

【探因】家长曾和老师吵过架

孩子的班主任为何会针对才2岁半的龙龙？龙龙的爷爷说，可能跟龙龙的妈妈曾经和胡老师吵架有关。

“出事的前几天，龙龙的妈妈晚上给龙龙洗澡的时候发现龙龙身上有青淤，第二天就去学校反映。”孩子的爷爷说，当时幼儿园的老师不承认龙龙身上的青淤是在幼儿园期间造成的，于是双方吵了几句。后来龙龙的奶奶又把龙龙送回幼儿园，为了让老师消气，奶奶还和老师说了许多好话。

9月9日那天，幼儿园的老师突然打电话说让家长把孩子领回家，龙龙的妈妈赶到幼儿园，幼儿园的一名副园长说“孩子不听话”，龙龙的妈妈要求查看监控视频，没想到在视频中看到孩子被老师打的一幕。

“不管什么原因，老师不能这样对待一个2岁半的孩子。”龙龙的爷爷说，事情发生后，孩子的妈妈立即通知了家人，家人赶到后，强烈要求把视频拷贝下来，但遭到拒绝。双方一直僵持到夜里11点多，直到派出所介入，幼儿园才同意家长把视频拷走。

教育部明确规定教师收礼的“六项禁令”

2014-07-16 来源:China daily

http:///dailyfocus/examInfo/20140716/88734.html

近日教育部出台《严禁教师违规收受学生及家长礼品礼金等行为的规定》，文件中明确了六条“红线”，包括严禁以任何方式索要或接受学生及家长赠送的礼品礼金，严禁参加由学生及家长安排的宴请、旅游，严禁向学生推销图书、报刊等。

According to a six-point regulation, other forms of gifts, such as securities and payment vouchers are also banned.Teachers are also prohibited from attending banquets arranged by students' families.Recreational activities such as travel or fitness clubs that are paid for by students are disallowed.根据六项规定，其他形式的礼物，比如证券或代金券也是禁止收受的。教师还被禁止参加由学生家长安排的宴会。此外还严禁教师参加学生支付费用的旅游或健身等娱乐休闲活动。

根据six-point regulation（六项规定），教师不得收受学生及家长赠送的monetary gifts（礼金）、payment vouchers（代金券）等礼物，严禁参加由学生及家长安排的宴请、旅游。

此外，严禁教师subscribing to newspapers on students' behalf（以学生的名义订阅报刊）或selling books, living goods or insurance to students（向学生推销书籍、生活用品或保险）。

违反这六项规定的教师将被点名批评，severe offenders（情节严重者）还将被stripped of their posts（免除职务），甚至passed to judicial organs（移交司法机关）。

2014-10-11

来源:China-daily

http:///dailyfocus/examInfo/20141011/91682.html 英语新闻：教育局再次出台对教师的“红线”规定

继教师节前为全体教师划出6条有关禁止索礼的“红线”后，教育部昨天又出台《关于建立健全高校师德建设长效机制的意见》(以下简称《意见》)，专门为高校教师的师德行为列出“红七条”，包括学术不端、影响教学的兼职、收礼、对学生实施性骚扰或与学生发生不正当关系等。

In a notice released on Thursday by the ministry, seven types of behaviors are forbidden.Among them are taking bribes, sexually harassing students and having improper relationships with students.教育部周四发布的意见明令禁止七种行为，包括受贿、对学生进行性骚扰、与学生发生不正当关系。

除了禁止受贿和与学生发生不正当关系，被列入“红七条”禁令的行为还包括committing academic cheating（学术造假）、misusing research funds or academic resources（滥用科研经费和学术资源）、having part-time jobs off campus that affect teaching duties on campus（影响正常教育教学工作的兼职行为）等。

违犯“红七条”的高校教师依据情节严重程度不同将面临警告、demerit on employment records（记过处分）、demotion（降职）、suspension（停职）、termination（开除）甚至being handed over to public security or judicial authorities（被移交公安或司法机关）的处罚。

第二篇：口语资料

第一单元

1.口译者和文学翻译有什么区别?它们的要求有什么不一样吗？如果想成为一个好的口译者和文学翻译家，最大的障碍是什么？

Interpreter translate a language into another language in the form of oral.Information receiver can hear the sound, sometimes it called as simultaneousinterpretation..Literary translator translate a language into another language in the form of written.Interpreters should be quite good at oral speaking, and literary translaters have a solid foundation of literature.the biggest obstacle is a solidfoundation of foreign language skills.2.有的人认为“我能说两种语言”等于“我是一个好的翻译家”，你同意这种观点吗？二者的关系是什么？

I do not agree with this view.because “speaking both languages not equal ”a good translator.Become a good translator requires the following conditions: First, a solid foundation of foreign language skills;second,skilled native language ability;third ,a solid foundation of literature;fourth,artistic creative thinking ability;five，correct translation attitude.3.博尔赫斯也曾写道：“也许„„译者的工作比作家的工作更精细更文明：译者显然出现在作家之后。翻译是文明的一个更高级的阶段。”请对这个观点进行评价并且列出翻译家和作家之间的相似和不同之处。

I agree with his view, because translation is a way to disseminate literature in other countries and realize the cultural exchange between nations.Similarity: they are both createthe cultural ideology and express the true feelings inside.difference: the writer create a work according first-hand information, and the work reflect the author's realideas and writing purpose.Translator should have a deep understanding of the original author's intention of writing when they translate works.4.从课文中，我们了解到“译者被称为剽窃者、文化的掠夺者、殖民主义的共谋者，卖国者，叛徒。”你同意这种观点吗？对于译者的工作还有其他的误解吗？它们是哪些？

No, I don’tagree with these views, but sometimes peoplelook at the translator just like that.Yes, some people hold that translator is expected to submit to his authors and always be faithful to them, never make mistakes.Also, translator is not considered an artist at all, neither a creator nor a performer, but a rather a craftsman.He is generally considereda poor and unimportant one.第二单元

1.现在，尤其是年轻人，喜欢学习和模仿名人，你能举出一些偶像的名字吗？你为什么喜欢他们？他们的行为是否会影响你？为什么有些人容易受名人的影响，你能给他们一些建议吗？

There are many singers and movie stars in society.For example, Jay Chou, Leehom Wang, Fan Bingbing.I like their songs, their movies, theircharming appearance and their personality and characteristics.Their behaviors does not affect me generally.Some people easily affected by the idols, because they are over-indulged in the imitation of stars, weak-minded.the fowlling tips for these people.the idol can guide our behavior.But we shouldhave our own mind and a certain ability of distinguishes.Know what to do and what not to do.2.从媒体上，我们能够了解到一些名人卷入了性或毒瘾的丑闻中。你觉得名人应该对他们的言行负责吗？他们是否应该对社会或自己负责任呢？

Celebrities should be responsible for their words and deeds.Celebrity is called a celebrity because they was knownfor most people.They are the example of the whole community.Itis very obvious that the public influenced by celebrities.If they often makebeneficial behavior to the society, the public will lead to the same behavior.If, they are involved in the scandals, it have a nagative impact on the whole society.They should be responsible for the society or themselves.They should stay away from scandals, the scandals not only reduce their public images, but also a nagative impact on the whole society.3.媒体与名人紧密相关，有时，他们暴露甚至制造某些丑闻。在暴露名人隐私时，媒体的角色是什么？媒体是否也应该对社会产生不好的影响负责？

When the media reported the scandals, it should hold for fair and impartial manner, seeking truth from facts.Do not infringe the privacy of celebrities.Do not play up scandals andslander celebrities.the media should treate a thingas objectively as possible.If the incident had a negative impact on society.In addition to celebrities themselves being responsible for it, the media also need to take part responsibility.Because sometimes the media exaggeratedthe events really are.4.一些名人为假冒伪劣产品做广告，许多人受他们的误导仅仅是因为他们相信这些名人。但是这些名人仍会辩解，检验他们代言的产品是否是伪劣产品不是他们的责任，应该由政府负责。依你的观点，谁应该承受这个则责任，名人还是政府，为什么？

I think the Government and celebrities should be responsible for it.The Government should enact legal measures to punish those who produce fake products.It also Set up a special organization to test the products.when celebritiesadvertise for the product ,they should know whether the product is counterfeit products.they have a detailed knowledge the function of products , so as not to mislead the public and occur the incident.第四单元

1.你曾经是否有类似的经历，即作者在第一段中描述的。你对它们的反应是什么？

I once had a similar experience.I do not know how to handle similar incidents.I will do nothing about these things.2.能量和熵的关系是什么？复杂性和能量之间的关系又是什么？

The more complex things are,the less order there will be and the more engry should be applied.The author concluds that entropy is the result of complexity in our life.Thus stress is the importance of patching small things up.第六单元

1.在这篇文章中，恩斯特.博伊艾讨论了许多关于美国高等教育的问题。在中国的高等教育中是否有同样的问题？我们怎样去解决它们？

I think higher education in China have the same problem as the United States.However, the article mentioned that the vast majority students are inadequately informed about the interdependent word in which they live.We should reform the system of higher education, making college students into a creative thinking person.and encouraging students to learn more about society and the world

2.恩斯特.博伊艾确信大学教育能在毕业生的智力开发及个人生活方面发挥作用。你同意吗？陈述你的观点。

I agree with his view.Intelligence, including memory, observation, imagination, thinking, judging, etc., therefore， University can train creative thinking and enhance the abilityofProblem solving University culture can influence personal qualities and Enhance the level of interpersonal

3.考试在教育中发挥了消极影响吗？

Yes!First ,the exam can tell you nothing about a person’s true ability and aptitude.Second,Test have negative influence onphysical and mental development of students, such as test anxiety.ThirdExaminations do not motivate a student to read widely, but to restrict his reading;they do not enable him to seek more and more knowledge, but induce cramming.4.你认为学生在大学教育中，应该学到什么？学生在大学教育中能学到什么？

In the higher education we should learn the following qualities, one, professional knowledge, second, the ability to communicate with others.Third, critical thinking..In university education, some people can learn all the qualities listed above, and some people learn nothing

5.你认为今天的传统教育面临着什么样的挑战？如果你是教育部门的主管，你能为当前的中国教育体制做什么呢？

The challenge of traditional education is thatChinese students are not correct motivation of learning.((this is caused by the idea).Moreover,China's education change human brain into a computerthis is caused by the system).In my opinion, higher education should offer outstanding and specialized talents for society, and act as the home of mankind’s spirit as well.So higher education should find some equilibrium pots among universities, government and society on the one hand, and on the other, set up equilibrium between economic interest and moral civilization.Only if higher education in China sets up the equilibrium and keeps it well, society would find the graduate students it needs and the graduate students could find their appropriate position in society, and real masters would arise in the future.第七单元

1.“漂亮是什么”这个问题长期以来都是一个哲学问题，不同的人有不同的回答。漂亮对希腊人来说是一个美德。对于你来说，漂亮是什么？从你能想到的各个角度来解释。

Beauty is a characteristic of a , , , , orthat provides aexperience of , , or.Beauty is studied as part of , , , and.An “ideal beauty” is an entity which is admired, or possesses features widely attributed to beauty in a particular culture, for perfection.2.女性漂亮是什么？男性漂亮是什么？它们之间有共同点吗？它们之间的不同点是什么？你认为一个性别的人比另一个性别的人更加注重漂亮吗？有谁对变得更加漂亮感到有压力吗？

Feminine beauty means ones outlook is very beautiful.Masculine beauty means ones outlook is

very handsome.their common point is they both means a peoples outlook is very good.Their difference point is feminine beauty is used to describe women, masculine beauty is used to describe men.NO.sorry ,I do not know.3.cocteau说“美丽的特权很多”。你是怎么理解的？你认为美丽的特权是什么？美丽会影响一个人的成功吗？用你自己的经验和在生活中看到的事例来解释。

I agree with cocreaus saying, Because in our society beauty can bring us many things.If you are beautiful, you may leave a good expression to other people ,you can also got a better job or so on.Beauty can affect ones success more or less, just as I say, if you are beautiful, you maybe can get a better job ,then you can be success quickly than other people who are not beautiful or even ugly.4.你怎么看待“beauty is in the eye of the beholder”。对内在漂亮来说，什么人格特质最重要？

5.人们是否花费太多时间和金钱在美丽上？你怎么看待整容的？你有过整容吗？如果是，你要改变什么？

Yes ,people always spend lots of time and money on beauty, expecially women.I think plastic surgery is not necessary.Everybodys appearance is nature formed, if you want to change another face ,you mean ,you are not satisfied with your gene ,even you are not satisfied with your parents!NO.6.你认为人们对美丽的知觉已经随着时间改变了吗？在将来还会变化吗？为什么？用例子来说明

YES，YES，in old time ,Chinese people thought womens 10 centimeter foot means beautiful, but now, most of us think this kind of foot are ugly.Now people think nature is beautiful, we should not limit our foot.7.你认为“变漂亮”对女人来说是最理想的特质吗？女人只关心他们的外表吗？

NO，I do not think “being beauty” is the most desirable quality ,it is a better desirable quality, not the best one.You known, being beauty can bring a lot of privilege ,but beautiful do not means you can get what ever you want.Women care about lots things ,beauty is only one of these things.8.“男才女貌”说明了怎样的社会歧视?

People especially men, are more care about the extent of beauty about women.But people care less about mens out looking.People often think a beautiful women means this women is also good in other perspective.They do not care about a womens inner beauty.Or in other words ,men always measure women with their first singt.

第三篇：口语考试资料

暴力视频游戏对青少年有害？

How much scientific evidence is there for and against the assertion（断言，声明）that exposure to video game violence can harm teens? Three researchers have developed a novel method to consider that question: they analyzed the research output of experts who filed a brief in a U.S.Supreme Court case involving violent video games and teens.Their conclusion? Experts who say violent video games are harmful to teens have published much more evidence supporting their claims than have experts on the other side of the debate.“We took what I think is a very objective approach: we looked at the individuals on both sides of the debate and determined if they actually have expertise in the subjects in which they call themselves experts,” said Brad Bushman, co-author of the study and professor of communication and psychology at Ohio State University.“The evidence suggests that those who argue violent video games are harmful have a lot more experience and stronger credentials（证明）than those who argue otherwise.”

Bushman conducted the study with Craig Anderson, professor of psychology at Iowa State University, and Deana Pollard Sacks, professor of law at Texas Southern University.Their research will be published in May in the Northwestern University Law Review Colloquy.Their study involved Schwarzenegger v.Entertainment Merchants Association, a case before the U.S.Supreme Court that will decide whether the state of California can ban the sale or rental of violent video games to children under 18.The court is expected to rule on the case this summer.In this case, groups supporting and opposing the law have filed what are called briefs of amicus curiae（法官的顾问）.These are briefs by people or groups who are not involved directly in the case, but want to offer the court their expert opinion on the issues involved.The researchers analyzed the credentials of the 115 people who signed the Gruel brief, who believe video violence is harmful, and the 82 signers of the Millett brief, who believe video violence is not harmful.(The briefs are named after the lead attorneys for each side.)

The data for the study came from the PsycINFO database, which provides more than 3 million references to the psychological literature from the 1800s to the present, including peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters or essays, and books.For each of the signers of the two briefs, the researchers calculated how many articles and books they published on issues relating to violence and aggression in general and on media violence specifically.The results showed that 60 percent of the Gruel brief signers(who believe video game violence is harmful)have published at least one scientific study on aggression or violence in general, compared to only 17 percent of the Millett brief signers.Moreover, when the researchers looked specifically at the subject of media violence, 37 percent of Gruel brief signers have published at least one study in that area, compared to just 13 percent of the Millett brief signers.In a further analysis, Bushman and Anderson examined where the signers of both briefs have published their research.The best academic journals have the highest standards and the most rigorous peer review, so only the best research should be published there, Bushman said.The researchers used a well-established formula, called the impact factor, to determine the top-tier journals, and then calculated how many signers had published in these journals.Results showed that signers of the Gruel brief had published over 48 times more studies in top-tier journals than did those who signed the Millett brief.“That's a staggering（蹒跚的，令人惊愕的）difference,” Bushman said.“It provides strong support for the argument that video game violence is indeed harmful.” Bushman said he and his colleagues did this study because they wanted to show that

there is a way for the Supreme Court to evaluate the contradictory（矛盾的，反对的）evidence it has been presented.“The justices were presented with two briefs, arguing opposite sides, and they may think the contradictory briefs simply cancel each other out,” Bushman said.“We just wanted to point out to the justices that not all briefs are the same.In this case, the credentials and experience of those who signed the Gruel brief far exceeds that of the ones who signed the Millett brief.”

Fight with pc games addiction(addiction [ə'dikʃən]n.上瘾，沉溺；癖嗜)

As depicted by the picture, we are informed that one student busies himself playing computer games excitedly, with several students surrounding him and yelling “go!go!go!go!” it’s obvious that all of them are addicted to computer games and which makes them extremely exhilarated.This day ,such scenario isn’t odd in schools.Lots of students are indulged in PC games, which has become a severe social problem.one shocking news is that in china 90 percent of pc game player are teenagers.Why this happens? We cannot help asking ourselves this question.As for those students , it’s their obligation to pay more attention to their studies instead ofbeing obsessed with pc games.However, they choose to take playing pc games as their major source of entertainment.By playing games, they feel relaxed and the high pressure caused by studies is reduced, and they enjoy this easy time.As a result, they cannot reject the temptation of pc games.but as we already know, computer games addiction has resulted in a series of problems.first,some students let their studies slide to play pc game,which will ruin their future.second, sitting in front of the computer the whole day will do harm to their physical health.Finally, some of the games are about violence and sex.Because the teenagers’ capacity of self control as well their sense of right and wrong is immature, some of them imitate bad and dangerous actions showed by pc games ,and even commit crimes.So it’s time for our government and society to solve the problem.To begin with, teenagers should be given proper guidance as to the relation of studies and entertainment.Parents and teachers should give them correct advice about how to arrange their schedule every day and make good use of time.Then, we should help the students to turn their attention to sth interesting and advantageous,such as doing physical exercises or reading.Furthermore, the burden of study should be reduced.Finally ,the market of pc games should be regulated strictly.in one word,the coordinated effort of the whole society will put an end to teenagers’ computer games addiction.I

一。大学生接触电脑游戏的慨况；

二。电脑游戏对大学生的利与弊；

三。我对这一问题的看法。

Computer and Online Games

Computer games have become very popular in recent years.Many college students are being attracted by computer games.Every day after school some college students will bury themselves in computer games at home or in net bars.They concentrate all their attention on computer games,with their hands busy operating.Computer games are a kind of wonderful entertainment.They bring great pleasure to college students,train them to respond quickly, and stimulate their imagination and interest in electronics and computer science.But just as a coin has twosides,computer games also have some disadvantages.School students spend too much time on computer games.which would do harm to their eyes and affect their school achievements.Also,playing computer games do not allow them to use their natural creativity.Some of them even commit crimes in order to get enough money for the games.Only if one has enough self-control can he benefit from computer games.In my opinion,computer games has its advantages and disadvantages to collge students,but if we can control our excessive lust to computer games and take advantage of it ,I’m sure we can gain a lot from computer games.如果考到转基因食物（genetically modified food），应该如何应对？

by 新东方口译口试组

由于世界人口越来越多rapid population growth，而耕地面积日益缩减arable land is diminishing 各国政府不得不通过科技手段来增加粮食的产量。Increase grain output by applying advanced technology.（注：饥荒 famine）转基因食品通过基因重组，re-engineering of the DNA of crops使得农作物具有抗害虫的能力more pest-resistant，从而增加亩产，因此被认为可以解决世界粮食危机 to cope with global food crisis，保证食品供应的安全。Ensure food security/safety.目前，许多人对转基因食品对其毒性问题、营养问题、对抗生素的抵抗作用以及环境威胁等问题都抱有质疑态度。People are skeptical about the GM food’s toxicity, nutritional value and resistance against antibiotics as a result of being excessively used

客观来讲Objectively speaking，每一件新生事物，都有它比经一个成长过程。我们应该用客观的批判的和包容的眼光去看待。One should be more tolerant to new things 目前转基因技术，尚处于研究的初级起步阶段 starting phase。许多人都坚持认为，这种技术培育出来的食物是“不自然的”unnatural。许多消费者对转基因食品的安全问题提出了质疑。最常见的就是，我国的转基因大豆有。消费者对其安全性十分担忧people are concerned about the grave threat of GM food such as soybean。从一次次过去的教训中，人们不难得出结论，人类行为应该对自然负责。Humankind should be more careful when dealing with nature.其实，有时候，确实不必如此 these concerns are legitimate but not necessary。

原因，没有十足的把握控制基因调整后的结果。The possible ill effects of GM food could spin out of control.如果我们的质量检测部门应该加强质量检测。Strengthen the oversight of GM food.确保消费者的身体健康，ensure health of people公众也应该有权知晓，他们在超市购买的食物是否是转基因的。The right to know whether the food they buy and consume is genetically modified or organic.

第四篇：口语_资料_礼仪

Simulate a dialogue at a banquet between Chinese host and your business partner from other countries with help of the following information.As regards the introduction of Chinese famous dishes / snacks / local flavor, the introduction of Hot Dry Noodle is just an example for you to follow.Use other favorite food than the one given in your dialogue.Please also include in your dialogue a speech of toast.Chopsticks are shaped pairs of equal length sticks used as the traditional eating utensils of various East Asian countries.Chopsticks originated in ancient China, and are now used in China, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam.Chopsticks are smoothed and frequently tapered, and are commonly made of bamboo, plastic, wood, or stainless steel.Chopsticks are held in the dominant hand, between the thumb and fingers, and used to pick up pieces of food.To use chopsticks, the lower chopstick is stationary, and rests at the base of the thumb, and between the ring finger and middle finger.The second chopstick is held like a pencil, using the tips of the thumb, index finger, and middle finger, and it is moved while eating, to pull food into the grasp of the chopsticks.Chopsticks, when not in use, are placed either to the right or below one's plate in a Chinese table setting.Chinese etiquette  When eating rice from a bowl, it is normal to hold the rice bowl up to one's mouth and use chopsticks to push or shovel the rice directly into the mouth. It is acceptable to transfer food to closely related people(e.g.grandparents, parents, spouse, children, or significant others)if they are having difficulty picking up the food.Also it is a sign of respect to pass food to the elderly first before the dinner starts.Often, family members will transfer a choice piece of food from a dish to a relative's bowl as a sign of caring.A variation of this is to transfer the food whilst using one's own bowl as a      

 





 support, underneath the food and chopsticks to keep food from falling or dripping, then transferring from there to a relative's bowl.It is poor etiquette to tap chopsticks on the edge of one's bowl;beggars make this sort of noise to attract attention.It is impolite to spear food with a chopstick.Anything too difficult to be handled with chopsticks is traditionally eaten with a spoon.It is considered poor etiquette to point rested chopsticks towards others seated at the table.Chopsticks should not be left vertically stuck into a bowl of rice because it resembles the ritual of incense-burning that symbolizes “feeding” the dead and death in general.Holding chopsticks incorrectly will reflect badly on a child's parents, who have the responsibility of teaching their children.Traditionally, everyone would use their own chopsticks to take food from the dishes to their own bowl, or to pass food from the dishes to the elders' or guests' bowls.Today, serving chopsticks(公筷, “community-use chopsticks”)are used.These are used to take food directly from serving dishes;they are returned to the dishes after one has served oneself.When seated for a meal, it is common custom to allow elders to take up their chopsticks before anyone else.Chopsticks should not be used upside-down;it is “acceptable” to use them 'backwards' to stir or transfer the dish to another plate(if the person does not intend to eat it).This method is used only if there are no serving chopsticks.One should not 'dig' or 'search' through one's food for something in particular.This is sometimes known as “digging one's grave” or “grave-digging” and is extremely poor form.Resting chopsticks at the top of the bowl means “I've finished”.Resting chopsticks on the side of one's bowl or on a chopstick stand signifies one is merely taking a break from eating.As in China, there is a specific seating order to every formal dinner, based on seniority and company hierarchy.The seat of honor, reserved for the guest with the highest status or a foreign guest of honor, is usually the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.Others with higher status then sit in close proximity to the seat of honor, while those with lower positions sit further away.The host takes the least prominent seat, generally the one nearest the kitchen entrance or service door.The most widespread use of disposable chopsticks is in Japan, where around a total of 24 billion pairs are used each year, which is equivalent to almost 200 pairs per person yearly.In China, an estimated 45 billion pairs of disposable chopsticks are produced yearly.This adds up to 1.66 million cubic meters of timber or 25 million fully grown trees every year.In April 2006, the People's Republic of China imposed a five percent tax on disposable chopsticks to reduce waste of natural resources by over-consumption.This measure had the most effect in Japan as many of its disposable chopsticks are imported from China, which account for over 90% of the Japanese market.American manufacturers have begun exporting American-made chopsticks to China, using sweet gum and poplar wood as these materials do not need to be artificially lightened with chemicals or bleach, and are appealing to Asian consumers.The USA also has an abundance of wood, reducing the number of trees that are cut down in Asia.+++++++++++++++++++++

All the world is divided into three parts-finger-feeders, chopstick feeders and fork feeders.WHy people fall into these categories, however, is a mystery.Fork-feeders are most numerous in Europe, North America and Latin America;chopstick-feeders in most of eastern Asia;and finger-feeders in much Africa, Middle East, Indonesia and India.This means that fork feeders are outnumbered two to one.Fork-users have historically been in the minority.People have eaten with their fingers for most of human existence.As little as three centuries ago, most Western Europeans still used their fingers.French historian Fernanad Braudel tells of a preacher in Germany who lived during the Middle Ages.The preacher thought the fork was evil and called it a “diabolical luxury”;God would not have given us fingers if he had wished us to use such an instrument.Fork user and chopstick won favor because they made it easier to handle hot food.Before these instrument, people usually ate hot food with a piece of flat bread.The exception was in China, where flat bread was probably not eaten.According to Dr.K.Chang of Harvard University, Chinese food was served in small portions which didn't require cutting with a knife or fork.These was, however, a need for food to be carried from bowl to mouth, and chopsticks came along to meet that need.The fork made its way to Western tables several hundred years later, but it wasn't immediately accepted.Forks were used for many years in Europe and Near East, but only as kitchen implements.Although the fork entered society on the tables o rich and well-born, many members of royalty, including Elizabeth I of England and Louis XIV of France, ate with their fingers.What is the best way of getting food into the mouth? How you are eating food and why? ++++++++++++++++++ The Western pattern diet, also called Western dietary pattern or the meat-sweet diet, is a dietary habit chosen by many people in some developed countries, and increasingly in developing countries.It is characterized by high intakes of red meat, sugary desserts, high-fat foods, and refined grains.It also typically contains high-fat dairy products, high-sugar drinks, and higher intakes of processed meat.++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ Customs and etiquette in Chinese dining

In most traditional Chinese dining, dishes are communal.Although both square and rectangular tables are used for small groups of people, round tables are preferred for large groups, particularly in restaurants, in order to permit easy sharing.Lazy Susans are a common feature.A basic place-setting consists of a small teacup;a large plate with a small, empty rice bowl;a set of chopsticks, usually on the right of the plate;and a spoon.Additions may include a chopstick holder;a large water or wine glass;and a smaller glass for baijiu.At homes and low-end restaurants, napkins may consist of tissues or rolls of toilet paper on the table or need to be provided by the diner.High-end restaurants often provide cloth napkins similar to western dining as part of the place-setting.In all settings, toothpicks may be provided at each setting or in a communal holder.Courses Wide variations exist throughout China, but the vast majority of full-course dinners are very similar in terms of timing and dishes.Snacks Snacks are the first items presented.Two or more small dishes are brought to the table, holding boiled unsalted peanuts, salted roasted peanuts, pickled vegetables, or similar dishes.These may be consumed while ordering or while waiting for other dishes to arrive.Beverages Tea is almost always provided, either in advance of the diners' being seated or immediately afterward.It can be consumed at leisure throughout the meal.(Water is sometimes served, but tea is the default beverage.)A verbal thank you(谢谢)may be offered to the server pouring the refill or, if in the middle of a conversation where it would be rude to interrupt the speaker, the table may be tapped twice with two bent fingers instead.Other drinks are not typically ordered in advance of the food and are usually served by the pitcher or large bottle, to be poured into the glasses on the table.Bottles of beer and baijiu will similarly be opened and left on the table among the diners, to be shared among their glasses.In many areas, it is common to offer alcoholic beverages only to the adult men among the diners, although women may request to be served as well.Main course This typically consists of many dishes, usually roughly one dish per person.White rice is provided in small bowls and food is often consumed over it, flavoring it with their sauces.The rice is consumed little by little along with the other dishes and not separately, unless the diner remains hungry after the last dish has been removed.A soup may also be served as one of the dishes.At small meals, especially at home, it may replace the diners' beverage entirely.Starch Near the end of the meal, a starch dish – noodles, Chinese dumplings, or baozi – is sometimes served.Dessert Sweet after-dinner desserts are not a part of traditional Chinese meals but are becoming more common, especially among younger diners and among the Shanghainese, who are well known in China for their sweet tooth.Digestive or palate-cleansing snacks such as red bean soup or small watermelon slices remain more common at formal Chinese dinners, though, and many restaurants do not even offer dessert.Manners and customs

Eating is a dominant aspect of Chinese culture and eating out is one of the most common ways to honor guests, socialize, and deepen friendships.Proper etiquette is very important to traditional Chinese people, who feel good manners invite luck and boorish conduct shame.Although many Maoist programs aimed to curtail traditional social practices, today table etiquette is again taken as an indication of educational status, so that(for example)a child misusing her chopsticks at a formal dinner might embarrass her family, who are responsible for teaching her.Inviting guests Although individual households may have their own house rules, the Chinese traditions used to welcome guests are the largely same throughout the country.[3][4] There are common rules for inviting guests over.When the guest of honor enters into the room, the hosts stand until the guest of honor is seated.The host then orders the dishes brought, and the guest should be silent.When the dishes arrive, the meal begins with a toast from the host, and the guests then make a toast in turn in the honor of the host.The guest of honor should be the first one to start the meal.The best food in a dish should be left for the guest of honor.Seating Seating arrangement is one of the most important parts of Chinese dining etiquette.The seat of honor is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.Those of higher position sit closer to this position and those of lower position sit further away.The seat to the guest of honor's left is slightly more prestigious than that to his right.During the Qing dynasty, the arrangements could be quite complex but were generally ordered(1)members of the imperial government,(2)members of the local government,(3)other local leaders(such as heads of trade associations), and(4)other commoners.Today, when a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat.Dining Drinking Water and other non-alcoholic beverages may be consumed at anytime.However, in formal settings, alcohol should be consumed during toasts.A modest toast may be followed by a single sip of wine or swallow of beer, but a baijiu toast is often ended with Ganbei!(干杯): an exhortation to drain the glass.Ideally, glasses are refilled immediately following a toast in preparation for the next.Toasting During the first toast of the night, particularly when addressed to everyone present, all stand.Women and children do not normally drink alcohol, even when the toast is being made with baijiu, but participate in the toast with whatever beverage they have.If the guests are few in number, or are seated at a small table, touching glasses is common.At a large table or when the toastees are too great in number or too far away, this is impossible and simply raising a glass is acceptable.A variant is to tap the bottom of the glass against the table, whereupon the toastee will do the same.This acts as a substitute for touching glasses.Toasts and counter-toasts continue to be made throughout the dinner.At large settings, it is customary for the guests of honor and host to visit each table(or be visited by each table)for a personal toast.If the guest of honor is not elderly or of considerably greater status, the other guests may sometimes collude to toast him individually in order to cause him to become drunk.Lazy Susan

A lazy Susan is a circular rotating tray placed at the center of a table and used to easily share a large number of dishes among the diners.A lazy Susan can be made from many materials, but most often are constructed of glass, wood, or plastic.It is typically for all the dishes for a course to be brought out together and placed around the lazy Susan.If the dishes come out one at a time or if there is some special delicacy, they are typically served to the guest of honor first and then rotated clockwise around the table.The host will often wait to serve himself last.Dishes should typically not be removed from the lazy Susan and placed on the table: at most, one should hold the dish aloft while serving and then return it to its place on the tray.One should try to avoid moving the lazy Susan even slightly when someone is in the act of transferring food from the dishes to their plate or bowl.Likewise, it is impolite to hoard or use up all of a dish until it has been offered to everyone and the other diners clearly do not care for it.For this reason, it is common to take a smaller amount from the dishes on the first round and to keep the other diners in mind when taking a larger second helping.Chopsticks Anybody who doesn't know how to use chopsticks is generally considered a “mongoloid,” and they are heavily frowned upon by society.It is akin to being a leper in Western culture.Personal Since chopsticks(and spoons)are used in place of forks and knives, Chinese cuisine tends to serve dishes in bite-size pieces or employ cooking techniques that render dishes such as fish or hong shao rou soft enough to be picked apart easily.Some common etiquette is:  Avoid holding the chopsticks in such a way as to point your index or(worse)middle finger at the other diners, as this is a sign of anger or censure(仙人指路) Chopsticks should always be the same length and held so that the ends are even, a practice popularly explained as due to the former use of uneven boards(三長兩短)in Chinese coffins  Similarly, do not leave chopsticks sticking upright out of dishes, owing to a Chinese practice of leaving such dishes for the dead. Do not chew on the ends of chopsticks, even if they are plastic. Chopsticks are not used to move bowls or plates. Do not bang your chopsticks as though you were playing a drum.It implies you are a beggar or a child. Treat chopsticks as extension of your fingers.It is impolite to use them to point at other people or to wave chopsticks around. Unless they are disposable, chopsticks will be washed and reused.Consequently, don't use them to pick at your teeth or for other unseemly endeavors. Avoid spearing food with the chopsticks. One should not 'dig' or 'search' through one's food for something in particular.This is sometimes known as “digging one's grave” or “grave-digging” and is extremely poor manners. When not in use, and if the restaurant provides them, place the front end of the chopsticks on the chopstick rests.These are usually small ceramic rests placed near your napkin on the right hand side of your bowl.Communal

Photo showing serving chopsticks(gongkuai)on the far right, personal chopsticks(putongkuai)in the middle, and a spoon.Serving chopsticks are usually more ornate than the personal ones.At most formal meals, there are likely pairs of communal serving chopsticks(公筷, gongkuai).These are sets of chopsticks specifically for shared dishes only.Often, these will be distinct from the putongkuai(regular chopsticks)in that they will be longer and more ornate.There will sometimes be one set of communal chopsticks per dish or one set per course.The ratio varies. If there are communal chopsticks available, do not use your personal ones in shared dishes.While that is a common practice in China, by having communal chopsticks at the table, your hosts are expecting you to use them.Using your personal chopsticks when there are communal chopsticks available is considered rude and unhygienic, as you are transferring your saliva with your chopsticks.If you accidentally start using the shared chopsticks as your own, as soon as you notice it, quickly apologize for it and ask if it would be possible to obtain another pair of shared chopsticks. If there are no communal chopsticks, some hosts prefer you to use the thick end of your chopsticks for the shared dishes.This again avoids transferring saliva into the common dishes. If in doubt about the communal chopsticks situation, watch what the others do, using small talk if necessary to stall for time. Once the tips of the chopsticks have touched food, do not leave them on the table.Since communal chopsticks may not have their own chopstick rests, you may need to rest it against the edge of the dish.As with personal chopsticks, though, do not place them upright in the food itself.Tea

 Hold the teapot lid in place when pouring the tea from ceramic or porcelain teapots.Unlike metal teapots, the lids are not attached on ceramic teapots, and they will fall out. One should not point the spout of the teapot directly at others: this has the same as using the finger to point at somebody, which is considered very impolite;sometimes, it also means that this person(the one being pointed at)is not welcome in the house.Obviously, at a circular table, the teapot mouth must point at someone, but it is not supposed to point directly to the person on the left or right of the teapot.Across a table does not count, so it is fine. When someone is using a teapot to pour tea for the others, he should hold the teapot with his right hand and press the teapot lid with another hand to show his honour and sedateness.This also prevents the teapot lid from falling into the cup or onto the table. If you are getting tea for yourself, make sure to ask others first, if they would like some more tea.Then serve yourself after you have served them. If you are not pouring your own tea, but at a restaurant where the service attentative, in the region of south China(especially Canton and Hong Kong)the one who gets the tea uses the knuckles of his first and middle fingers to tap the table two or three times to show his thankfulness.This looks similar to knocking on a door, but don't knock as heavily as if it were a door.It is a tap, not a knock;the motion resembles a knock. Using the tea to force the visitor out(Chinese: 端茶送客): there was a rule in Qing Dynasty’s officialdom as “the tea that given by the boss shouldn't be taken”.If the boss give tea to his subordinate by his own hands(normally that would given by a servant), that means he is impatient to the subordinate, and the subordinate should leave immediately.If the boss is visiting the subordinate by his house, the subordinate must not give the tea to the boss by his own hands, either, because that’s very impolite and means to force the visitor out. When the tea has run out, and requires more hot water, you may leave the lid ajar but still on the teapot—this is a signal for the attendant to refill the teapot.Do not entirely remove the lid and then place the lid of the teapot on the table directly.The lid touching the table is allowing good luck to escape, and also the table might be dirty.Do not leave a teapot with the lid ajar in the middle of the table.It should be towards the side of the table so that the attendant may refill it without reaching across patrons in an invasive/taking manner.Toothpick etiquette Unlike the many nations in the West, a hand must be placed over the mouth while using a toothpick in order to conceal the action.Not doing so is considered rude.Used toothpicks should be placed on a part of your bowl or plate that you do not intend to use again later.They should not be left on the tablecloth for the waitress to then have to pick, nor thrown on the floor.Throwing toothpicks on the floor is rude to the restaurant.Throwing toothpicks on the tablecloth is inconsiderate to the servers.Bill

In most restaurants in Chinese countries, there is no tip required unless it is explicitly posted.Usually, if there is a tip required, it will already be on your bill.In Chinese restaurants in the USA though, tips are usually expected.If you are not certain, ask the waitress or watch the other customers.Guests should not truly “split the bill” with the host.A guest who “split(s)the bill” is very ungracious and embarrassing to the host.If you do not accept the host paying for the bill, it is implying that the host cannot afford it or you do not accept the friendship or hospitality of the host.However, it is expected for the guest to offer to pay for the meal multiple times, but ultimately allow the host to pay.It is also unacceptable to not make any attempt to “fight for” the bill.Not fighting for the bill means you think that the host owes that meal to you somehow.Therefore, if you are the guest, always fight for the bill but never win it on the first meal in your host's hometown.After the first meal at your host's hometown, and sometime before you leave, it is customary to bring the host's family to a meal out to thank them for your stay if you did not bring initial small presents for them when you arrived.For that meal, you may pay, but you must request your host's attendance and cooperation with allowing you to cover that particular meal.If you and an acquaintance are on a business trip, it is acceptable to split the bill, but more common to rotate who pays for the meal, with meals of similar cost.Though it is a rotation, there is still the same mock-fight for the bill.The difference is that you may say, “Fine fine, since you are my elder, this is fine this time, but the next meal, I cover.” Or something to that effect and pay for the next meal.This rotation does not have to be a meal necessarily.For example, you may rotate a meal and a game of golf.The key to the rotation being viewed as acceptable or not, is the enjoyment both parties actually get from the activity, and the approximate cost.Golf would not be an acceptable rotation if the other person does not enjoy golf, is rather bad at it while you are excellent at it, etc.Hot dry noodles, also known as reganmian, is a traditional dish of Wuhan, the capital of the Hubei province in central China.“Reganmian” has a long history in Chinese food culture for 80 years.It is a typical breakfast food in Wuhan, and is often sold in street carts in residential areas.Breakfasts such as Reganmian are available from as early as 5am and are served until midnight(breakfast turns into snacks at night)in Wuhan.The noodle is inexpensive thus remaining as a popular breakfast choice in Wuhan.The recipe for hot dry noodles is different from cold noodles and noodles in soup.Firstly mix the cooked noodles with oil and dry them.When they are about to be eaten, scald the prepared noodles in boiled water, mix them with condiments, and the noodles will be ready to eat.The finished hot dry noodles are firm and chewy, golden and oily, savory and fresh.It is made of noodles called jianmian(碱面)with a mixture of sauces and dried vegetables.Many stalls that make reganmian will have their own variations in seasoning, creating signature tastes for individual stands or localities.Reganmian restaurants stand all over the city.Among them, Cai Lin Ji(蔡林记)is the most time-honored.Established in 1930, Cai Lin Ji survives much competition and wins the current reputation with its selected materials and refined processing techniques.It has over 20 chain stores in Wuhan.The typical bowl of reganmian will have soy sauce, sesame paste, pickled vegetables, chopped garlic chives and chili oil.Reganmian is a popular local breakfast sold in road-side stalls or from push-carts.Reganmian is popular for locals for every season of the year as breakfast, lunch, dinner or just a snack.Wuhan's reganmian, along with Shanxi's daoxiaomian(刀削面: knife-cut noodles), Liangguang's yifumian, Sichuan's dandanmian, and northern China's zhajiangmian, are collectively referred to as “China's five famous noodles.” In 2013, Wuhan Reganmian was rated No.1 in a contest for China's Top 10 famous noodles.

第五篇：新闻社会学资料（定稿）

（1）新闻学与社会学的区别：两者从本质上来说都是社会正常运转的两个方面。但是二者之间存在明显的区别。新闻学是来自社会的信息，社会学时社会属性的研究。从研究对象上来说，社会学是自我成长而非行业催生的学科，新闻学是在行业催生之下诞生的学科，社会学从一开始就具有学者性的研究性质。从功能来说新闻学主要是履行社会检测功能是今天的事实，社会学则有利于揭示社会问题，找出其解决的方法与渠道，促进社会的发展

（2）冲突论：社会冲突理论以科塞、达伦多夫为代表，重点研究社会冲突的起因、形式、制约因素及影响，是对结构功能主义理论的反思和对立物提出的。结构功能主义强调的是社会的稳定和整和，代表社会学的保守派，社会冲突论是强调社会冲突对于社会巩固和发展积极作用，代表社会学激进派。理论在20世纪60年代后期流行于美国和西欧国家，在西方社会学界引起巨大反响，渗透到社会学各分支学科的经验研究中去，在政治社会学、组织社会学、种族关系、社会分层、集体行为、婚姻家庭等领域出现了大量以冲突概念为框架的论著，在当代社会学发展中有重大的影响。符号互动论：符号互动论，一种主张从人们互动着的个体的日常自然环境去研究人类群体生活的和理论派别，又称象征相互作用论或符号互动主义。符号是指在一定程度上具有象征意义的事物。符号互动论认为事物对个体社会行为的影响，往往不在于事物本身所包含的世俗化的内容与功用，而是在于事物本身相对于个体的象征意义，而事物的象征意义源于个体与他人的互动（这种互动包括言语、文化、制度等等），在个体应付他所遇到的事物时，总是会通过自己的解释去运用和修改事物对他的意义。

（3）互动论：关注社会的微观方面，也就是社会互动和作为社会存在的个人，它研究人们在日常生活中是如何交往的，又是如何使这种交往产生实质性意义的。

（4）功能主义：功能主义是社会学理论的一个流派。英国社会学家赫伯特·斯宾塞可以说是社会学中功能主义的滥觞，借用当时盛行的生物学跟演化论观点，史宾塞的社会演化理论强调不同的社会组织满足不同的社会需求之现象正如不同的人体器官满足不同的生理机能一般。功能论指出，所有社会现象－－不管这现象看来是多么不道德、多荒谬、多邪恶、多不应该存在－－只要它确实存在，那么这种社会现象在社会中必然扮演着某种社会功能，比方说贿选、强奸、黑市交易等。而功能论的研究目标，就是寻找这些表象底层所代表的社会功能到底是什么，进而寻找完成相同社会功能更有效合理的替代方法。

（5）文化：文化是人类在特定的自然生态和社会环境下，进行社会生产，社会生活制造出来的，历史积淀的劳动和智慧的结晶。广义的文化包括民俗民风、丧葬婚嫁，经济贸易，典章制度以及房屋、食品，这些通过劳动所获取的精神和劳动的结晶。狭义的文化指的是文学艺术宗教这些与精神文明相连接的东西，是区别于物质文明的文化。

主流文化：是指在一个特定的文化体系中占主导地位或支配地位的文化子系统，主流文化的形式有两个基本路线：一是享有这种文化的人占社会的大多数，二是这种特定的文化子系统受到特定的权力机构的支持，使得其成为该社会成员不得不遵循的价值观和行为方式。反文化：反文化指的是与主流文化相反或者反对主流文化的文化子系统，反文化是那种否定背离主流文化的极端表现的亚文化，带有非政府，非权威，非道德而非理性倾向，对社会秩序具有一定的破坏作用，是社会应该加以制止的文化现象。

亚文化：指的是在一个特定的社会文化体系中居于从属，受支配还有非主导地位的文化子系统。亚文化是为社会上一部分成员所接受的，成为某一社会群体所特有的文化，亚文化的承担者是以氏族，阶级，职业，地域，性别，年龄等差异所形成的。

（6）大众文化两个流派：共同点：都赞成马克思主义，反对经济决定论追求社会正义，反对资本主义文化，反对资本主义霸权。相异：法：站在文化精英的立场，保守且不信任工人。伯：尊重个人自由，对大众文化的信心，相信大众的独立意识，批判矫正法兰克福学派。—伯明翰学派的文化研究：二战后在英国形成的一种知识学派，是在英国伯明翰学派的推动

下逐步成熟起来的对文化的跨学科研究，它的代表人物有雷蒙威廉斯、查理霍加特等。—法兰克福学派：在西方社会科学界，法兰克福学派被视为“新马克思主义”的典型，并以从理论上和方法论上反实证主义而著称。法兰克福学派的观点在历史哲学、社会理论和社会认识上都与现代社会学具有紧密关系，它的社会理论观点被看作是批判的社会学。作为一种社会理论观点的批判理论，本身就是“工业社会”理论的一种特殊形式，其中包含着一个现代人如何看待这个社会以及如何行动的具体纲领。作为一种意识形态的一般批判，批判理论涉及意识形态的起源、形成和社会功能等诸多知识社会学问题，它本身又是一种特殊类型的知识社会学体系，并对当代有影响的知识社会学家K.曼海姆的观点产生了影响。作为一种社会认识方法论，批判理论继承了德国人文科学的精神传统，它从创立之日起，就把批判的矛头指向社会学中占主导地位的实证主义方法论。结构功能主义从理论上的实证主义和政治上的自由主义立场出发把现代社会视为有机的整体。

（7）民族文化：民族文化指的是某一个民族在特定的自然生态和社会环境中经过长期的共同生产和生活所形成的通过语言和行为代代相传下去的劳动和智慧。

（8）文化功能特性：文化具有①历史功能②教育功能③娱乐功能文化的特性：①文化的传承性②文化的传播性③变异性④适应性⑤统合性

（9）民族志传播学的创始人（德尔·海默思）、特征、内容：

民族志传播学的特征：

1、传播实践而不是语言形式是其研究的中心；

2、在自然语境下的传播实践才是其分析的对象；

3、传播实践是具有一定模式的；

4、模式化了的传播实践是社区成员所依赖的共享资源的一部分

民族志传播学内容：

把在自然语境下的传播实践作为分析对象，侧重于在特定的语言社区中考察传播实践，揭示其中所隐含的模式。是从文化人类学及社会语言学中演化而来的传播学的一门新分支，德尔·海默思被誉为该学派的创始人，他的开创性研究奠定了民族志传播学的理论基础。以后，格里·菲利普森进一步发展了该理论，他所进行的研究把民族志传播学真正地导入到传播研究中来。

（10）参与观察法（马林洛夫斯基）：

（11）受众调查研究的渊源与方法

（12）定量研究：用于研究可以用数量来测量的变量。

（13）定性研究法：是根据社会现象或事物所具有的属性在运动中的矛盾变化，从事物的内在规定性来研究事物的一种方法或者角度。它以普遍承认的公理、一套演绎逻辑和大量的历史事实为分析基础，从事物的矛盾性出发，描述阐释所研究的事物。进行定性研究，要依据一定的理论与经验，直接抓住事物特征的主要方面，将同质性在数量上的差异暂时略去。

（14）描述性研究：社会学的一种研究类型，即描述一个事物是“什么样的”，是对具有普遍性、代表性的现象进行真实、客观、准确的总体性描述。在描述性研究中收集大量的资料来描述群体、社会活动和事件。以弄明白在何时何地对什么人发生了什么事情。

（15）解释性研究：解释一个事件为什么会这样，其探寻设计现象的起因，解释他们的复杂关系，揭示设计演变的规律可以解答为什么的问题，能说明社会现象发生的原因，预测事物发展的后果，探明社会现象之间的因果关系。

（16）自变量：称之为独立的变量，指的是可操纵处理，而且效果可以测量和比较的变量，这些变量在试验中可称为预测变量。

（17）因变量：称为非独立变量，指的是测量自变量结果效应的变量。

（18）抽样调查、范围、抽样方法：

适用范围：①对一些不必要或者不可能进行全面调查的社会经济现象最适合采用抽样

②在财力，人力，无力有限的情况下③运用抽样对全查进行验证④对某种总体的假设进行验证，判断这种假设的真伪，以决定行为取舍。

方法：投射法（是一种无结构的，非直接的寻问方式，可以鼓励被调查者将他们所关心的问题的潜在动机，信仰，情感，态度投射出来）

心情联想法：限制状态联想，印象联想，场所联想，间接联想，等同联想，相反联想，无意义联想，摹本联想，叙述联想。

文句完成法：给被调查者一些完整的句子，让他们完成。

(19)问卷设计程序、类型、结构；

①明确调查的目的，确定所要估计的目标量

②明确总体及抽样单元

③明确或者构建抽样框

④对主要目标的精度提出要求

⑤选择抽样方案的类型——多级抽样，分层抽样，等距抽样

⑥根据抽样的类型，对主要的目标量的精度要求及设置信度确定样本量，并给出总体目标量的估计和抽样。

(20)社会学三个理论，代表人物：即奥古斯特·孔德的实证主义社会学、马克斯·韦伯的理解社会学和马克思主义批判社会学。

孔德—迪尔凯姆的实证主义传统

（21）民族志：菲利普森发展了传播志研究，确立了民族志方法。民族志就是描述一种文化的工作，源于文化人类学中对异民族文化的考察时所创造的一种方法，目的是掌握当地人的观点，了解他对于生活的认识。

总体：调查研究对象的集合，又称母群体

抽样框：整体抽样单元的详细名单，可供抽样之用在抽样框上排列的名单就是抽样单元，从抽样框中抽样出来的就是样本。

精度：是用于衡量估计值精确可依赖的程度

准度：衡量总体特征与实际总体特征间的差异

置信度：以样本估计数推论总体大小时正确估计的概率有多少。