第一篇：大学语法
Lecture three
Outline:
Topic one: function of determiners
Topic two: have a V and take a V:
Topic three: usage of ‘such’
Topic four: usage of ‘another’
Topic five: special usage of numbers
Topic one: function of determiners
Topic two: have a V and take a V:
Have a V:
When Joe got home, he had a lie down in his bed;and then he began to prepare his supper.Mary had a walk in the park yesterday evening.Yesterday afternoon, Chris took a walk round the small garden.Bill and Linda had an embrace at the airport.have a wash, have a lick, have a play, have a read, have a cuddle, have a chat, have a listen, have a feel, have a chew, have a suck, have a think, have a look for, have a cough, have a try, etc.Take a V:
Chris took a ride on the horse quickly.Yesterday afternoon, Chris took a walk round the small garden.Usually I took a nap before the afternoon’s classes began.Let me have a try!
*Let me take a try!
He took a look at her photo.*He took a listen to the radio.Take a nap.Have a nap.Topic three: usage of ‘such’
一、形容词的用法
1.such做形容词，是最常见、也是最简单的用法，起到一种强调作用。
She's got such talent.她很有天赋。
We're having such a wonderful time.我们过得很愉快。
I've had such a shock.我大吃一惊。
Why are you in such a hurry? 为什么你这么匆忙？
2.当句子末尾加上that引导从句，形成such...that结构时，表示因为前面提到的原因，引起了某种结果。
He speaks to me in such a way that I always feel he is insulting me.他总是用那种方式跟我说话，总是使得我觉得受到了侮辱。
The knot was fastened in such a way that it was impossible to undo.这个结打得很牢固，根本解不开。
It was such a boring speech(that)I fell asleep.这是个乏味的演说，使得我睡着了。
二、限定词的用法
所谓“限定词”，指的是对名词的涵义加以限制的词。又分为后对应限定和前对应限定两种。
1.前对应限定的such，指的是前面提到过的某一种类。
He noticed her necklace.Such jewels must have cost thousands, he thought.他注意到了她的项链。这一定值几千元，他想。
This isn't the only story of cruelty to children.Many such cases are reported every day.这并非虐待儿童的唯一事件。每天都有许多类似案例被报道。
2.后对应限定的such，指的是后面将要提到的某一种类。通常使用such...as的结构。Such a disaster as this had never happened to her before.以前她从未遇到过这样的灾难。
Such advice as he was given proved almost worthless.他得到的那些建议，被证明毫无价值。He's not such a fool as he looks.他并非看上去那样蠢。
三、代词的用法
1.Cricket was boring.Such was her opinion before meeting Ian.板球很乏味。遇到Ian之前，她一直这么认为。
She's a competent manager and has always been regarded as such by her colleagues.她是一个能干的经理。同事们一直这样看待她。
2.后指代的意思是，指代后面提到的某个人或某件事。这时通常采用such as to do sth或such that的结构。
Such is the influence of TV that it can make a person famous overnight.这就是电视的影响，它可以使人一夜成名。
The pain in her foot wasn't such as to stop her walking.她脚上的痛，还没有到妨碍走路的地步。
The damage was such that it would cost too much to repair.损害很严重，要用很多钱才能修好。
四、词组 such as 和 as such
1.such as可以连在一起，作为词组使用，意思是“比如、就像”，同like类似。
Wild flowers such as orchids and primroses are becoming rare.像兰花和樱草花那样的野花，越来越少见了。
Large and important projects such as this one often take years to develop.类似这一个的大型重要项目，需要好多年才能发展起来。
2.词组as such通常用在词尾，其实只是代词用法的一个引申，或者表示“像看上去那样”。If this is not genuine champagne, it should not be labelled as such.既然这不是真的香槟酒，就不应该这样标识。
The new job is not promotion as such but it has good prospects.新工作并非真的升职，不过前景不错。
五、莎士比亚著作中的such例句
Good night, good night!Parting is such sweet sorrow,Romeo and Juliet: II, ii
良宵，良宵！此时分别真是甜蜜又悲伤。
We are such stuff as dreams are made on, and our little life is rounded with a sleep.The Tempest: IV, iv
构成我们的料子也就是那梦幻的料子，我们短暂的一生，前后都环绕在酣睡之中。Alas, our frailty is the cause, not we: For such as we are made of, such we be.The Twelfth Night
唉，原因在于我们的弱点，而非我们：因为我们由什么材料制成，就会成为什么样子。I had rather be a dog, and bay the moon, than such a Roman.Julius Caesar: IV, iii
我宁愿做一只向月亮狂吠的狗，也不愿做这样一个罗马人。
Teach not thy lip such scorn, for it was made for kissing, lady, not for such contempt.KING RICHARD III: I, ii
何必如此出言讥讽，夫人，天生你可亲吻的香唇，不是给你做侮蔑之用的。
We were, fair queen, two lads that thought there was no more behind.But such a day to-morrow as to-day.And to be boy eternal.The Winter's Tale: I, ii
我们那时是两个不知道有将来的孩子，以为明天就跟今天一样，永远是个孩子。
Topic four: usage of ‘another’
Topic five: special usage of numbers
1)I will come back in two twos.2)Ten to one they’ve fulfilled their production plan ahead of time.3)The weather changes seventy-two times a day here.4)He is running like sixty.5)She always talks nineteen to the dozen at the meeting.6)He is secretary and manager in one.7)It’s the three handkerchief.8)The naughty boy told the three little words to the girl.1)There is a regular shindy in the house, and everything is at sixes and sevens.2)John must have had one over the eight.3)His son is known to be no better than himself in inclination.In the old phrase it is six of one and half a dozen of the other.4)The representatives present at the meeting began to leave the auditorium by ones and twos/ in ones and twos/ by twos and threes/ in twos and threes.1.Nearby the department store stand a hundred and one buildings.2.I have a hundred things to do.3.He made a thousand and one excuses.4.At night time, when I go to bed, a million stars shine overhead.But when I wake up in the day, there’s just one sun to light my play.1.One tree does not make a forest;one flower does not make a spring.2.Two of a trade never agrees.3.Two heads are better than one.4.Two’s company, three’s none.5.A fence is fixed(or supported)by three stakes;a capable man is aided by three mates.6.Four eyes see more than two.7.He that will thrive must rise at five.8.Six feet of earth make all men equal.9.Nature draws more than ten oxen.10.Like the eight immortals crossing the sea, each one showing his or her special feats.11.A stitch in time saves nine.
第二篇：大学俄语语法
大学俄语语法详解
大学俄语语法主要是考察形动词，次要考察副动词。形动词形动词：通过行为来说明人或事物的特征。
形动词(причастие)是动词的一种形式。顾名思义，形动词既有形动词的特征又有动词的特征。它通过行为来说明人或事物的特征。形动词的形容词特征：形动词和形容词一样，有性，数，格的变化，在句中说明名词，并同它在性，数，格保持一致。形动词在句中通常用作定语，回答的问题какой的问题
стоящий стутент 站立着的大学生
учащаяся в институте сестра 在学院学习的姐姐 моющее средство 洗涤用品
подойти к спящему сыну走进睡觉的儿子身边 друдья живущие в Пекине住在北京的朋友
形动词的动词特征：形动词和动词一样，表示事物的行为，状态，有时和体等意义并具有与原动词相同的支配能力。ученики，уважающие учителей尊重老师的学生们 дети，играющие вмяч 玩球的孩子们
形动词的分类：俄语中形动词按动词意义分为两大类——主动形动词（действительное причастие）
和被动形动词（страдательное
причастие）。主动形动词和被动形动词又各分为现在时和过去时两种。主动形动词（действительное причастие）
1.构成 1）现在时主动形动词由未完成体动词（несов）现在时复数第三人称形式，去掉词尾-ут（ют）/ат（ят），加上后缀-ущ及词尾ий（ющий）1
大学俄语语法详解
第一变位法动词或-ащий（ящий）第二变位法动词构成。знать ——знают—— знающий писать ——пишут—— пишущий танцевать ——танцуют—— танцущий лежать ——лежат—— лежащий говорить ——говорят ——говорящий
2）过去时主动形动词由未完成体（несов）或完成体（сов）动词过去时形式构成，过去时阳性以-л结尾时，去掉-л加后缀-вший，以其他辅音结尾的直接加后缀-ший，如 читать ——читал—— чиавший сделать—— сделал ——сделавший расти ——рос—— росший лечь ——лѐг—— лѐгший нести—— нес ——нѐсший увечь—— увлѐк—— увлѐкший умереть—— умер—— умерший
带-ся动词构成形动词时，在词尾-ий后加-ся，词尾发生变化时，-ся永远不变化。如：
Учитья-учатся-учащийся-учащаяся-учащееся-уччащиеся учавшийся
находиться-находился-находившийся находившаяся-находившиеся
大学俄语语法详解
вести与идти及派生动词的过去时主动形动词为： вести——ведший
идти——шедший
привести——приведший
пройти——прошедший 2.意义和用法
主动形动词主要用于书面语中，它通过正在进行（现在时主动形动词）或已经进行过（过去时主动形动词）的行为来说明事物的特征。主动形动词表示的行为是由被说明事物本身发出的，其意义相当于“做„„的”，如：
1）мы вошли в зал и увидели танцующие
пары。2）Яоказал товарищу позвонившему мне，что вечером буту дома。
形动词在句中可以单独使用，也可以带有补语或状语。形动词带有说明语时，和说明语一起组成型动词短语（причастый оборот）。形动词短语可以位于说明语之前，也可位于其后。位于被说明语之后时，要用逗号隔开。如：
3）Работающие в Шанхае друдья часто пишут мне。4）На дворе шумят дети，играющие в мяч。3.形动词短语与限定从属句互换
主动形动词短语在意义上有时相当于带(第一格)的限定从属句，因此一般可以用“который（第一格）+现在时或过去时的动词谓语”的结构替换。替换时需要将形动词改成与其时，体相同的动词变位形式，并在前面加上与被说明名次在性，数上一致的который的第一格形式，如： Все знают артистку，поющую певшую в этой опере。
大学俄语语法详解
Все знают артистку，которая поѐт пела в этой опере。
把连接的限定从属句转换成形动词短语时，需要去掉который（如主句中有指示词也应去掉），将从属句中的谓语动词改成与其时，体相同的形动词，并使形动词在性，数，格上和被说明的名次一致，如： Анна Петровна поучила письмо от студентов，который уважают еѐ。Анна Петровна поучила письмо от студентов，уважающих еѐ。要注意的是：由于形动词没有将来时形式，因此带有将来时动词的限定从属句就不能用形动词来替换。例如：
Я хорошо знаком со специалистом которыйзавтра будет читать нам лекцию
这样的句子不能使用形动词。被动形动词（страдательное причастие）
由及物动词构成，它通过某一事物（所承受的行为来说明事物的特征，意思是“被„„的”，被说明事物是行为的直接客体。如： изучаемый язык
所学的语言 купленный костюм
买来的衣服 被动形动词有长尾和短尾两种形式。1.长尾被动形动词有现在时和过去时之分。构成
现在时长尾被动形动词由未完成体及物动词现在时复数第一人称加形容词词尾-ый（–ая-ое-ые）构成，重音位置大多同不定式。如： читать-читаем-читаемый любить –любим-люимый
大学俄语语法详解
видеть –видим-идимый провдить-проводим-поводимй
организовать –организуем-организуемый（组织的）
以авать 结尾的动词构成现在时被动形动词时，由动词不定式去掉-ть后加后缀-ем和词尾-ый（-ая-ое-ые），如： Давать-даваемый Узнать-узнаваемый
有些及物动词没有现在时被动形动词形式，如： пишать-литьмыть –петь-брать-шить-ждать
2．过去时被动形动词由完成体及物动词（сов）不定式词干加后缀-нный-енный-ѐнный –тый构成。
1）以-ать-ять-еть结尾的动词，去掉-ть后加后缀-нный，以-ать-ять结尾的动词，构成被动形动词时，其重音向前移一个音节。прочитать-прочитанный напишать – напишанный
2）以-ить，-ти 结尾的动词，去掉-ить-ти加后缀词尾-енный，-ѐнный，如：
получить-полученный принести-принесѐнный выполнить-выполненный выучить-выученный
动词构成第一人称单数形式时，发生语音交替构成被动形动词时仍保留。
大学俄语语法详解
купить –куплю-купленный опустить-опущу-опущенный встретить-встречу-встреченный поставить-поставлю-поставленный пройти –пройду-пройденный найти-найту-найденный
某些动词（主要是单音节动词和以-нять-нуть-крыть结尾的动词）在构成过去时被动形动词时，去掉-ть 后加-тый。其重音与该动词过去时阳性单数重音相同。如：
открыть-открытый забыть-забытый начать-начатый взять-взятый одеть-одетый сшить –сшитый 2.用法
长尾被动形动词在句中主要用作定语，其性，数，格，应与被说明的名词一致。
长尾被动形动词可以单独使用，也可以带有补语或状语。长尾被动形动词不带补语或状语时，一般位于被说明的名词之前。被动形动词带有说明语时，与说明语一起组成形动词短语。形动词短语可位于被说明的名词之前或之后，位于被说明的名词之前时，不用逗号；位于被说明的名6
大学俄语语法详解
词之后时，要用逗号与句中其他成分隔开。被动形动词的行为主体用第五格表示，如：
（1）Ей понравился роман “Открытая книга”。
(2)Газеты，издаваемые в Москве，можно купить во всех городах России。
(3)На окне стоит ваза，сделанная этим заводом из стекла。3.被动形动词短语有时可用带который的限定从属句互换
被动形动词短语，在意义上有时相当于不带前置词第四格的带который的限定从属句，用限定从属句替换被动形动词短语时，被动形动词短语主体由第五格变为第一格，充当从属句中的主语。如果原句中没有表示主体的第五格补语，从属句应根据意义上加上主语或用不定人称句，如：（1）Повторяйте пройденные уроки。
Повторяйте уроки，которые вы прошли。
（2）Веикая Китйская стена，построенная нашим народом，известна всему миру。
Веикая Китйская стена，которую построил наш народ，известна всему миру。
（3）В нашей виблиотеке много газет и журналов，получаемых из разоых стран。
В нашей виблиотеке много газет и журналов，которые мы получаем（или： получают）из разоых стран。
由个别不及物动词构成的被动形动词，在转换为限定从属句时，который7
大学俄语语法详解 的格要根据动词的要求来确定，如：
（1）Наш цех，руководимый опытным инженером，перевыполнил план
（2）Наш цех，который руководит опытный инженер，перевыполнил план
反之，由不带前置词的第四格который连接的限定从属句，改换成型动词短语时，应去掉который，将从属句中的谓语动词换成被动形动词（其时，体应与谓语动词相同，性，数，格要和被说明的名词一致），从属句中的主语则应该成第五格补语，如：
（1）Вопрос，который мы обсуждаем на сегодяшнем собраии，очень важен
Вопрос，обсуждаемый нами на сегодяшнем собраии，очень важен（2）Исправьте ошибки，которые вы сделали в работе
Исправьте ошибки，сделанные вами в работе
副动词（деепричастие）是动词的一种不变化形式，它兼有动词和副词的双重特征。副动词通过本身所表示的行为或状态来说明动词谓语，在句中常做状语，如：
1）Читая статью，он подчѐркивает
интересные места。2）Волнуясь，он
отвечал наэкзамене
хуже，чем мог。1.副动词构成
副动词有体的区别，分未完成体副动词和完成体副动词两种。（быть的副动词为 будучи。特殊）
大学俄语语法详解
未完成体副动词构成（несов）
（1）由未完成体动词（несов）现在时复数第三人称去掉人称词尾，加上后缀-а（-я）构成，后缀-а 加在-ж-ч-ш-щ之后，而后缀-я加在其他辅音和元音之后，如：
лежать –лежат-лѐжа читать –читают-читая учиться –учатся-учась говорить-говорят-говоря спешить –спешат-спеша танцевать-танцуют-танцуя искать –ищут-ища сидеть-сидят-сидя
（2）以-авать结尾的未完成体动词（несов），去掉不定式中的-ть，加后缀-я构成副动词。
Вставать-вставая давать-давая
（3）带-ся动词构成副动词时，-ся改为 –сь。
Волноваться-волнуясь заниматься-занимаясь
（4）有些未完成体（несов）不构成副动词，如： пить шить петь ждать есть писать мочь等。
（5）未完成体副动词的重音大致有两种情况：变位时重音移动的动词，9
大学俄语语法详解
构成副动词时，其重音大多加在后缀上；变位时重音不移动的动词，其副动词重音大多与现在时复数第三人称形式相同。3.完成体副动词构成
1）完成体（сов）过去时阳性为-л结尾的，去掉-л后加后-в（-вши）构成。后缀-в和вши通用，但现在俄语中常-в。
如：просмотреть-просмотрел-просмотрев Написать-написал-написав кончить-кончил-кончив
2）如果动词过去时阳性以其它辅音结尾，直接加后缀-ши，但这些副动词比较少用。如：
помочъ-помог-помогши принести –принѐс-принѐсши лечь-лѐг-лѐгши
3）带-ся的完成体（-сов）构成副动词时，只用-вши或-ши，-ся改为-сь。
Встретиться-встретившись увлечься-увлѐкшись
4）有些动词有两种副动词形式，如: услышать –услыша-услышав увидеть –увидя-увидев принести-принеся-принѐсши привести-привеся-приведши прийти-придя-пришедши
大学俄语语法详解
достигнуть-достигнув-достигши
5)完成体副动词的重音大致有三种情况。如：以-а-я结尾的副动词同复数第三人称形式；以-в-вши-ши结尾的同不定式或过去时；必须用后缀-я构成的副动词，重音在-я，如： прочесть-прочтут-прочтя найти –найдут-найдя принести-принѐс-принѐсши 3.副动词的意义和用法
1）副动词和副动词短语在句中经常表示主要行为发生的时间，回答的问题。此外，还可以表示行为进行的方式，原因，目的和条件等状语意义，回答等问题，例如：
（1）Тануяона，двигалась очень легко。
（2）Вставая рано，она всегда успевала приготовить завтрак。（3）Вера рассказывает，улыбаясь。
（4）Много занимаясь，ты будешь говорить по-русски лучше。（5）Недавно вернувшись в институт，я опять начал скучать по родителям。
2)副动词本身没有独立的时间意义。未完成体副动词主要表示和句中谓语动词的行为同时发生（不论发生在现在，过去或将来）的动作，而未完成体副动词主要表示在句中谓语动词的行为致歉发生或完成的动作。例如：
（1）Сидя на берегу，мы вспоминаем детские годы。
大学俄语语法详解
Сидя на берегу，мы вспоминали детские годы。Сидя на берегу，мы будем вспоминать детские годы。（2）Вернувшись домой，Зоя готовит ужин。
Вернувшись домой，Зоя готовила ужин。Вернувшись домой，Зоя будет готовить ужин。
3）副动词和做谓语用的动词所表示的行为必须是同一主体发出的，例如： Девушки гуряют в саду，и весео рзговаривают по-русски。Девушки гуряют в саду，весео рзговаривая по-русски。
（注意）带有-нужно，-нельзя等谓语副词的无人称句中也可用副动词。如：Нужно учиться，не боясь тудностей。
Нельзя идти，не выполнив работы。
4）副动词在句中可以单独使用，也可以带有状语或补语，组成副动词短语деепричастй оборот。副动词和副动词短语可以位于句首，句中或句末，它们一般都要用逗号与句中其它成分分开，如：（1）Гуряя по парку，друдья о чѐм-то спорили。（2）Таня вышла из комнаты，не простившись。（3）Алѐша，лѐжа на кровати，о чѐм-то думает。主语+谓语
主动形动词 谓语+主语
被动形动词
副动词
表示主要动作之后的次要动作
第三篇：2018年大学英语四级语法精要
大学英语四级语法精要
Ⅰ动词(时态,语态,用法,省略,一致性等)1.时态
1)现在完成进行时态(have/has been +-ing 分词构成): 动作或状态从过去某时开始,继续到现在,可能继续下去,也可能刚刚结束.I’ve been writing letters for an hour.I’ve been sitting in the garden.2)过去完成进行时(由had been + ing分词构成): 过去某个时刻以前一直在进行的动作
I’d been working for some time when he called.We had been waiting for her for two hours by the time she came.3)将来完成进行时: 将来某个时刻以前一直在进行的动作.By next summer, he will have been working here for twenty years.In another month’s time she’ll have been studying here for three years.4)将来完成时(由shall/will have + 过去分词构成): 将来某时会业已发生的事.I shall have finished this one before lunch.They’ll have hit the year’s target by the end of October.2.语态
1)可以有两种被动结构的类型,例如: He was said to be jealous of her success.It was said that he was jealous of her success.能同时适用于上述两个句型的主动词通常都是表示“估计”,“相信”等意义的动
词,常
见的有assume,believe,expect,fear,feel,know,presume,report,say,suppose,understand等.It is supposed that the ship has been sunk.The ship is supposed to have been sunk.担当be supposed to 与不定式的一般形式搭配时往往表示不同的意义.例如: Why are you driving so fast in this area? You are supposed to know the speed to know the speed limit.(你应该晓得速度限制)
2)双宾语及宾补结构的被动语态
a)双宾语结构的被动语态: 双宾语结构变为被动语态时,可以把主动结构中的一个宾语变为主语,另一个宾语仍然保留在谓语后面,但多数是把间接宾语变为主语.He was asked a number of questions at the press conference.Two days were allowed them for making the necessary preparations.b)宾补结构的被动语态:
She was called Big Sister by everybody.Then he was made a squad leader.He was considered quite qualified for the job.The room was always kept clean and tidy.3.短语动词 1)Vi + adv The plane took off two hours late.2)Vi + prep They looked round the Cathedral.3)Vi + prep(有被动语态)She’s looking after her sister’s children.The children were always well looked after.4)Vi + adv + prep I began to look forward to their visits.5)Vt + O + adv Some women choose to stay at home and bring up their children.The children were brought up by their mother.They took him on.6)Vt + adv + O(无被动语态)I am trying to give up smoking.7)Vt + O + prep We talked Donald into agreement.4.省略
1)在以as, than, when, if, unless等引导的从句中的省略: 在有些状语从句中,如果谓语包含有动词be,主语又和主句的主语一致a),或者主语是it b),就常常可以把从句中的主语和谓语的一部分(特别是动词be)省略掉.a)Look out for cars when crossing the street.When taken according to the directions, the drug has no side effects.While there he joined in voluntary labour on a project.Although not yet six months old, she was able to walk without support.If not well managed, irrigation can be harmful.Though reduced in numbers, they gained in fighting capacity.This viewpoint, however understandable, is wrong.Enemies, once discovered, were tightly encircled and completely wiped out.She hurriedly left the room as though/if angry.She worked extremely hard though still rather poor in health.Fill in the application as instructed.Whenever known, such facts should be reported.The documents will be returned as soon as signed.He said that no acrobat could ever perform those daring feats unless trained very young.Once having made a promise, you should keep it.b)If necessary I’ll have the letter duplicated.Fill in the blanks with articles where(ver)necessary.If possible, I should like to have two copies of it.As scheduled, they met on January 20 at the Chinese Embassy.2）在以than a)或 as b)引起的从句中,常会有一些成分省略.a)He told me not to use more material than(it is)necessary.We should think more of the collective than of ourselves.b)They worked with as much enthusiasm as young people(did).He is now a vice-manager, but still often works in the kitchen as before.Their training is free, as is all education.We will, as always, stand on your side.3）错误的省略
His life is as fully committed to books as anyone I know.While standing there in her nightgown, two bullets struck the wall beside her.5.一致
1)如果主语是单数,尽管后面跟有with, together with, as well as, as much as, no less than, more than等引导的短语,谓语动词仍旧用单数形式.Terry, along with her friend, goes skating every Saturday.An expert, together with some assistants, was sent to help in this work.The captain, as well as the coaches, was disappointed in the team.2)代词作主语时的一致
a)each, either, neither和由some, any, no, every构成的复合代词,都作单数看待.Each of us has something to say.Is everybody ready? Somebody is using the phone.Neither of us has gone through regular training.Has either of them told you? b)some, few, both, many 等作复数
c)some 可后接复数,也可接单数,表示某一.none作复数看待时较多,但也有时作单数看待,主要看说话人脑中联系想到的是复数还是单数概念, 但none 在代表不可数的东西时总是看作单数: None of the books are easy enough for us None of us seem to have thought of it.None(= not a single one)of us has got a camera.None(= nobody)has felt it more keenly than she did.None of this worries me.all 和most 可后接复数,也可接不可数名词(all of the„, most of the „), 动词用单数.3)由and 或 both„ and 连接名词词组时, 后用复数;由not only„but(also), either„or, neither„nor或 or 连接的并列主语, 谓语通常和最邻近的主语一致.Not only the switches but also the old writing has been changed.My sister or my brother is likely to be at home.Either you or Mr Yang is to do the work.Neither my wife nor I myself am able to persuade my daughter to change her mind.如果一个句子是由there 或here引导, 而主语又不止一个, 谓语通常也和最邻近的那个主语一致.There was carved in the board a dragon and a phoenix.Here is a pen, a few envelopes and some paper for you.4)people, police, cattle, poultry(家禽), militia(民兵)等通常都用作复数.Cattle are grazing on the pasture.The police are looking for him.有些集体名词有时作单数看待, 有时作复数看待, 主要根据意思来决定.His family isn’t very large.His family are all music lovers.The committee meets twice a month.The committee are divided in opinion.The audience was enormous.The audience were greatly moved at the words.有些名词单复数同形, 可根据意思决定谓语动词的数: This new series is beginning next month.These new series are beginning next month.This species is now extinct.These species are now extinct.5)表示时间, 重量, 长度, 价值等的名词, 尽管仍是复数形式, 如果作整体看待, 动词也可用单数形式(当然用复数动词也是可以的): Three weeks was allowed for making the necessary preparations.One hundred li was covered in a single night.6)其他问题
a)书名, 国家名用单数: Tales from Shakespeare is a book by Charles Lamb.b)学科名, 如mathematics, economics用单数.c)many a 或more than one 所修饰的词作主语时, 谓语动词多用单数形式: Many a person has had that kind of experience.More than one person has involved in the case.a number of 后接复数, the number of后接单数: A number of books have been published on the subject.The number of books published on the subject is simply amazing.d)one of those 后用单数.在“one of + 复数名词 +关系分句”结构中，关系分句中谓语动词的单复数形式在一般情况下有两形式，一是根据先行词采用复数形式：
Joan is one of those people who go out of their way to be helpful.当one 之前友the only 等限定词和修饰语时，关系分句谓语动词根据one 而定，即采用单数形式：
He is the only one of those boys who is willing to take on another assignment.Ⅱ 非谓语动词
1.不定式
1)形式 主动形式 被动形式
to do to be done to have done to have been done to be doing
一般式 完成式 进行式
完成进行式 to have been doing
a)完成式: 不定式的一般形式所表示的动作, 通常与主要谓语表示的动作(状态)同时(或几乎同时)发生, 或是在它之后发生.假如不定式所表示的动作, 在谓语所表示的动作(状态)之前发生, 就要用不定式的完成式.I am glad to have seen your mother(= I am glad I have seen your mother).(比较: I am glad to see you.)He is said to have written a new book about workers.He pretended not to have seen me.b)进行式: 如果主要谓语表示的动作(状态)发生时, 不定式表示的动作正在进行, 这时要用不定式的进行式.You are not supposed to be working.You haven’t quite recovered yet.We didn’t expect you to be waiting for us here.He pretended to be listening attentively.c)完成进行式: 在谓语所表示的时间之前一直进行的动作, 就要用不定式的完成进行式.The struggle was known to have been going for twenty years.We are happy to have been working with you.d)被动式: 当不定式的逻辑上的主语是不定式所表示的动作的承受者时, 不定式一般要用被动形式.It is an honour for me to be asked to speak here.She hated to be flattered.He wanted the letter to be typed at once.This is bound to be found out.There are a lot of things to be done.She was too young to be assigned such work.2)功用: 不定式可以作主语(a), 宾语(b), 表语(c), 定语(d)或是状语(e).a.To scold her would not be just.b.We are planning to build a reservoir here.c.One of our main tasks now is to mechanize agriculture.d.Do you have anything to declare? e.We have come to learn from you.3)不带to 的不定式:
a)在“动词+ 宾语+不定式”结构中, 如果动词是表示感觉意义的see, hear, watch, smell, feel, notice等, 或是表示“致使”意义的 have, make, let等, 其后的不定式结构不带to.John made her tell him everything.这类结构转换为被动语态时, 后面的不带to 的不定式一般还原为带to 的不定式.She was made to tell him everything.b)在 had better, had best, would rather, would sooner, would just as soon, might(just)as well, cannot but 等搭配之后, 动词不定式也不带to.I’d rather not have eggs and bacon for breakfast.They cannot but accept his term.c)在make do, make believe, let drop, let fall, let fly, let slip, let drive, let go of, let there be, hear say, hear tell, leave go of等固定搭配中, 用不带to的动词不定式.John let fly a torrent of abuse at me.I’ve heard tell of him.d)在动词help(或help +宾语)之后可用不带to的不定式, 也可用带to的不定式.Can I help(to)lift this heavy box?
e)在介词except, but 之后, 如果其前有动词do的某种形式, 不定式一般不带to, 反之带to.There is nothing to do except wait till it stops raining.Smith will do anything but work on a farm.There’s no choice but to wait till it stops raining.f)连词 rather than, sooner than 置于句首时, 其后的不定式不带to.Rather than push the book back as he wanted to do, he forced himself to pick it up.出现在句中其他位置时, 其后的不定式有时带to, 有时不带to.He decided to write rather than telephone.The manager believes it is important to invest in new machinery rather than to increase wages.g)用作补语的动词不定式, 如果主语是由“all + 关系分句”，“thing +关系分句”，“what分句”或“thing +不定式结构”等构成，并带有do的某种形式，这时，作为主语补语的不定式可以省to，也可以不省.What he will do is(to)spoil the whole thing.All you do now is complete the form The only thing I can do now is go on by myself.The thing to do now is clear up this mess.The least I can do is drive everybody else closer to the issue.4)不定式的其他用法
a)too„to 结构通常表示否定意义: She was too young to understand all that.enough„to结构则表示肯定意义: She was not old enough to understand all that.not too, but too, all too, only too等和不定式连用时,不定式一般不表示否定意义: He’s only too pleased to help her.so„as(to)这种结构也可用不定式作状语: Be so kind as to drop in some time when you are free.b)如果要说明不定是表示的动作是谁做的, 可以在不定式前加一个for引起的短语: It is not hard for one to do a bit of good.It is a great honour for us to be present at this rally.在以某些形容词(如 kind, good, nice, wise, unwise, clever, silly, wrong, right, foolish, stupid, careless, considerate, rude, naughty, impolite等)作表语时, 不定式前可加一个of引起的短语, 来说明不定式指的是谁的情况: It’s kind of you to think so much of us.(It is)Awfully good of you to come and meet us.It’s very nice of you to be so considerate.It’s unwise of them to turn down the proposal.2.V+ing形式(现在分词及动名词)1)形式
a)完成式: 如果要表示动名词代表的动作在谓语所表示的动作之前发生, 通常用动名词的完成形式.He didn’t mention having met me.I regret not having taken her advice.在某些动词后(或成语中), 常用(或可以用)动名词的一般形式, 尽管动作是在谓语所表示的动作之前发生的.Excuse me for coming late.I don’t remember ever seeing him anywhere.现在分词的完成式主要用在状语中, 表示这动作在谓语所表示的动作之前发生.Having been there many times, he offered to be our guide.Having found the cause, they were able to propose a remedy.另外, 独立结构也可用现在分词的完成形式.The guests having left, they resumed their discussion.The children, having eating their fill, were allowed to leave the table.b)被动式: 当一个动名词逻辑上的主语所表示的是这动作的对象时, 动名词一般要用被动形式.His being neglected by the host added to his uneasiness.He couldn’t bear being made fun of like that.但要注意, 在want, need, deserve, require 等动词后, 尽管表示的是被动的意思, 却用动名词的主动形式.My pen needs filling.The point deserves mentioning.This problem requires studying with great care.在worth这个形容词后情形也是这样.Her method is worth trying.现在分词的被动式可以用来作定语, 宾语补足语, 状语及用于独立结构中.This is one of the experiments being carried on in our laboratory.You’ll find the topic being discussed everywhere.Being asked to give a performance, she couldn’t very well refuse.These are sold at reduced prices, the defects always being pointed out to the customers.c)完成被动式: 如果表示的动作在谓语表示的动作之前发生, 有时需要用动名词的完成被动式.I don’t remember having ever been given a chance to try this method.但在多数情况下都避免使用这一形式, 而用一般被动形式代替, 以免句子显得累赘.现在分词的完成被动式一般用来作状语或用于独立结构中.Having been given such a good chance, how could she let it slip away? The decision having been made, the next problem was how to make a good plan.All the compositions having been written and collected, the teacher sent the students home.2)句法功用
a)作主语: Walking is good exercise.It’s nice talking to you.There is no denying the fact that the new method has greatly raised labour productivity.b)作宾语: Your shoes need polishing.You mustn’t delay sending the tractors over.He avoided giving us a definite answer.c)作介词宾语: 动名词作介词宾语用的时候最多.它常可以用在某些成语后面, 常见的有: insist on, persist in, think of, dream of, object to, suspect„of, accuse„of, charge„with, hear of, approve of, prevent„from, keep„from, stop„from, refrain from, be engaged in, look forward to, opposed to, depend on, thank…for, feel like, excuse…for, aim at, devote…to, set about, spend…in, get(be)used to, be fond of, be capable of, be afraid of, be tired of, be sick of, succeed in, be interested in, feel(be)ashamed of, be proud of, be keen on, be responsible for.d)作表语: The real problem is getting to know the needs of the people.动名词和不定式都可以作主语或表语.一般说来, 在表示抽象的一般的行为时多用动名词;在表示具体某词动作, 特别是将来的动作时, 多用不定式.e)作宾语补足语: 分词可以在see, hear, notice, watch, feel, find, keep, get, have等动词后作宾语补足语.The words immediately set us all laughing.Once we caught him dozing off in class.His remark left me wondering what he was driving at.在see, hear, feel, watch, notice等动词后, 及可用现在分词, 也可用不定式构成宾语补足语.用现在分词时, 表示动作正在发生, 用不定式时表示动作发生了.Do you hear someone knocking at the door? Yes, I did.I heard him knock three times.f)作状语: 现在分词作状语时, 通常都表示主语正在进行的另一动作, 来对谓语表示的主要动作加以修饰或作为陪衬.I ran out of the house shouting.I got home, feeling very tired.Driving to Chicago that night, I was struck by a sudden thought.现在分词短语有时可以用作状语表示原因, 相当于一个表示原因的状语从句.Not knowing her address, we couldn’t get in touch with her.Seeing nobody at home, she decided to leave them a note.Having already seen the film twice, she didn’t want to go to the cinema.现在分词短语有时可用作时间状语, 相当于when引起的从句: Seeing those pictures, he couldn’t help thinking of those memorable days they spent together.如果两个动作是完全同时发生的, 多用when 或while加分词这种结构.Be careful when crossing the street.When leaving the airport, they waved again and again to us.She got to know them while attending a conference in Beijing.3)前面带有代词或名词的动名词结构: 一个动名词前面可以加一个物主代词(或名词的所有格结构), 来表示这个动名词逻辑上的主语.Their coming to help was a great encouragement to us.Our sole worry is your relying too much on yourself.Do you mind my reading your paper? They insisted on my staying there for supper.如果不是在句子开头, 这个结构常常可以用名词的普通格(或人称代词宾格), 这比用所有格更自然一些.I don’t mind him going.She hates people losing their temper.4)只能用动名词作宾语的动词: suggest, finish, avoid, stop, can’t help, mind, admit, enjoy, leave off, require, postpone, put off, delay, practise, fancy, excuse, pardon, advise, consider, deny, endure, escape, miss
5)既可用动名词, 也可用不定式作宾语的动词: love, like, hate, dislike, begin, start, continue, intend, attempt, can’t bear, propose, want, need, remember, forget, regret, neglect, try, deserve, can’t afford等.有时两种结构之间意义差别不大, 有时却有不同的意思.在remember, regret, want, try等词后差别是比较明显的.I remember seeing her once somewhere.I must remember to take my notebooks with me.I regret not having accepted your advice.I regret to say I haven’t given you enough help.She doesn’t want(need)to come.The house wants(needs)cleaning.We must try to get everything done in time.Let’s try doing the work some other way.6)悬垂修饰: 分词作状语时, 表示的必须是主语的一个动作或状态.Walking through the park, we saw a lot of flowers.(walking是we的动作, 正确)Walking through the park, the flowers looked very beautiful.(错误)Standing on the tower, we could see the whole city.(正确)Standing on the tower, the whole village could be seen.(错误)3.分词
1)意义: 过去分词通常来自及物动词, 带有被动意义和完成意义;而现在分词有的来自及物动词, 有的来自不及物动词, 通常带有主动意义和未完成意义.frozen food
a freezing wind a boring journey a losing battle a bored traveller a lost cause
a conquered army a conquering army a finished article the spoken word a closed shop a recorded talk
来自不及物动词的过去分词很少能单独用作前置修饰语, 能作这样用的仅限于下面几个词, 仅表示完成意义, 不表示被动意义.the risen sun, fallen leaves, faded/withered flowers, returned students，the last finishing touch a speaking bird the closing hour a recording machine retired workers, departed friends, escaped prisoners, the vanished jewels, newly-arrived visitors 用作后置修饰语的过去分词一般都带有修饰语或其他成分, 在意义上相当于关系分句.Most of the people invited to the reception were old friends.2)句法作用
a)作定语: distinguished guest 贵宾, unknown heroes 无名英雄, armed forces武装部队, canned food罐头食品, boiled water开水, steamed bread馒头, stricken area灾区
分词还可构成合成词作定语: simply-furnished room陈设简单的房间, clear-cut answer明确的答复, highly-developed industry高度发展的工业, heartfelt thanks衷心的感谢, hand-made goods手工制品, man-made satellite人造卫星
b)作补足语: 可以带过去分词作宾语补足语的动词有: see, hear, feel, find, think等表示感觉和心理状态的动词.I saw the students assembled in the hall.We found her greatly changed.make, get, have, keep等表示”致使”意义的动词: I have my hair cut every ten days.She got her bad tooth pulled out.Please keep us informed of the latest developments.like, want, wish, order等表示希望, 要求, 命令等意义的动词: I don’t want any of you(to be)involved in the scandal.He won’t like such questions(to be)discussed at the meeting.c)过去分词短语常用作状语, 修饰谓语, 很多都说明动作发生的背景或情况.Guided by these principles, they went on with the work, Delighted with her work, they made her the general manager.过去分词短语也可作状语表示原因, 相当于一个表示原因的状语从句.Influenced by his example, they performed countless good deeds.有时也可说明动作发生的时间, 相当于一个表示时间的状语从句.This method, tried in areas near Shanghai, resulted in a marked rise in total production.间或也可表示一个假设的情况, 相当于一个条件从句.Given closer analysis, we can see this is totally wrong.偶尔也可用来代替一个“让步”状语从句.Picked 20 years a year, it grows tired only after 40 or 50 years.d)独立结构: 在用分词短语作状语时, 它逻辑上的主语一般必须与句子的主语一.致.但有时它也可以有自己独立的逻辑上的主语, 这种结构称为独立结构, 一般表示一种伴随的动作或情况.He rushed into the room, his face covered with sweat.有时可以表示时间: Late that autumn, his work finished, he prepared to return to his institute.表示原因: Her eyes dimmed with tears, she did not see him enter.条件: All things considered, her paper is of greater value than yours.Ⅲ 虚拟语气
1.that从居中:
1)wish, would rather(sooner), had better: I wish I were as strong as you.I wish I had paid more attention to our pronunciation.I wish I remembered the address.I would rather they came tomorrow(you had gone there too).I had rather(that)you told him than I did.2)suggest, order, demand, propose, command, request, desire, insist 等动词后的宾语从句: The commander ordered that all civilians(should)be evacuated.He asked that he be given an opportunity to try.She urged that he write and accept the post.3)it is desired, it is suggested, it is requested, it was ordered, it was proposed, it is necessary, it is important, it has been decided 等结构后的主语从句中.It was arranged that they leave the following week It will be better that we meet some other time.4)suggestion, motion, proposal, order, recommendations, plan, idea等后面的表语从句和同位语从句: His sole requirement is(was)that thy system be adjusted.2.在某些句型中
1)it is time that It is time that we went(或should go)to bed.It is high time we(should)put an end to this controversy.2)as if(though)引起的从句: They talked(are talking)as if they had been friends for years.It seems as if it was(were)spring today.He acts(acted)as if(though)he were(was)an expert.3)以lest, for fear that 和 in case 引起的从句(这时谓语多用 should +动词原形): He took his raincoat with him lest it should rain.He put his coat over the child for fear that(或lest)he should catch cold.I’ll keep a seat for you in case you should need it.4)以whatever, whoever, no matter what这类代词或词组引起的从句(这时, 谓语多用may加动词原形构成): Whatever defects he may have, he is an honest man.Come what may, we will go ahead.干下去.I accept that he is old and frail;be that as it may, he’s still a good politician.我承认他年老体衰, 然而尽管如此, 它仍是优秀的政治家.3.条件句
1)虚拟条件句主要有下面两类:
a)表示现在及将来情况(表示纯然假设或实现的可能性不大的情况): 谓语主要形式如下(be多用were这个形式): 从句 主句 过去式 would + 动词原形
不管发生什么情况, 我们都要If I were you, I wouldn’t lose heart.How nice it would be if you could stay a bit longer.b)表示过去情况的虚拟条件句(与事实完全相反的假设情况), 谓语主要形式如下:
从句 主句 had + 过去分词 would have + 过去分词
She would have come if we had invited her.If I hadn’t taken your advice, I would have made a bad mistake, You wouldn’t have caught cold if you had put on more clothes.2)有时候, 条件从句表示的动作和主句表示的动作, 发生的时间是不一致的(如一个是过去发生的, 一个是现在发生的).这时, 动词的形式要根据表示的时间来调整.这种句子可以称为错综时间条件句.If he had received six more votes, he would be our chairman now.If we hadn’t got everything ready by now, we should be having a terrible time tomorrow.3)有时假设的情况并不以条件从句表示, 而是通过一个介词短语来表示.Without music, the world would be a dull place.We could have done better under more favorable conditions.That would have been considered miraculous in the past.But for the storm, we should have arrived earlier.4)如果条件句从句中包含有 were, had, should 或could, 有时可把if省略掉, 并把were, had, should或could放在主语前面.Had we made adequate preparation, we might have succeeded.Should there be a flood, what should we do? Were it not for their assistance, we would be in serious difficulty.Ⅳ 介词
1.合成介词和复杂介词
1)合成介词: inside, into, onto, out of, outside, throughout, upon within, without
2)复杂介词: according to, along with, apart from, as for, as to, because of, by means of, in front of, in spite of, instead of, in accordance with, on account of, on behalf of, owing to, due to, together with, up to, with regard to, prior to等
2.介词在句末:
This is what he is interested in.Does everyone has a seat to sit on?
3.名词加介词(n + prep)1)某些名词之后要求用某些介词: solution to, faith in, glance at, need for 2)某些名词之前要求用某些介词: on one’s guard, at one’s request, in all probability, to my delight
4.动词加介词
1)Vi + prep: prevail on, appeal to, fall into, apply for, touch upon 2)Vt + O + prep: lay emphasis on, take advantage of等 3)Vi + adv + prep:
I don’t wish to break in on your thoughts.The family came up against fresh problems.You’re not telling me the whole story.You’re holding out on me.She got off with him soon after she began to work at the institution.4)Vt + O + adv +prep:
You shouldn’t take your resentment out on me.We shouldn’t put the shortage down to bad planning.5.形容词加介词
about---anxious, careful, careless, certain, considerate, enthusiastic, guilty, happy, mad, particular, sad, sure, timid, unhappy, etc at---awkward, bad, clever, disappointed, disgusted, good, marvellous, quick, skilful, skilled, useless, weak, etc for---convenient, eligible, grateful, homesick, hungry, necessary, noted, perfect, responsible, etc from---evident, exempt, inseparable, safe, tired, etc in---deficient, expert, liberal, quick, rich, successful, weak, etc of---apprehensive, characteristic, critical, destructive, envious, hard, inconsiderate, impatient, dependent, jealous, positive, scared, sensible, short, sick, suspicious, typical, worthy, etc on---dependent, keen, intent, etc to---acceptable, accessible, agreeable, alive, attentive, blind, comparable, courteous, deaf, destructive, essential, favourable, hostile, indifferent, married, obedient, parallel, preferable, related, responsible, sensitive, suitable, unjust, etc with---awkward, bored, careful, disappointed, generous, identical, ill, impatient, popular, sick, wrong, etc Ⅴ 连词 1.并列连词
1)表示意义的引申: and, both„and, not only„but(also), as well as, and „as well, neither„nor 2)表示选择: or, either„or 3)表示转折: but, while, whereas, yet, however/nevertheless(也可认为是副词)4)表示因果: for, so, therefore, hence 2.从属连词
1)表示时间: when, while, as, after, before, since, until(till), as soon as, once 2)表示原因: because, as, since, now that, seeing that 3)表示条件: if, unless, in case, provided(that), suppose, as long as, on condition(that)，4)表示其他关系:(al)though, than, as/so„as, lest, in order that, so„that
Ⅵ 定语从句
1.限制和非限制性定语从句: 限制性定语从句是名词词组不可缺少的一个组成部分, 去掉了会造成病句或意义不明确;非限制性定语从句属于补充说明性质, 去掉了不会影响主要意义, 通常用逗号与它的先行词分开.The boys who wanted to play football were disappointed when it rained.The boys, who wanted to play football, were disappointed when it rained.如果定语从句的先行词是专有名词, 或是带有形容词性物主代词(my, his, etc)或形容词性指示代词(this, that, etc)作限定词, 其后的定语从句通常都是非限制性的: Mary Smith, who is in the corner, wants to meet you.Her mother, who had long suffered form arthritis, died last night.All these books, which have been donated by visiting professors, are to be used by the postgraduates.在非限制性定语从句中只能用who/whom指人, 用which指物,通常不用that替代.My father, who had been on a visit to America, returned yesterday.All the books, which had pictures in them, were sent to the little girl.2.定语从句的引导词
1)that, who, whom: 非限制性定语从句, 如果修饰人, 一般用who, 有时用that(作主语时用who较多).如果关系代词在从句中作宾语, 就应当用宾格 whom 或that, 但在大多数情况下都可以省略掉, 在口语中可用who代替whom.Here is the man(whom)you’ve been looking for.He is a man(that)you can safely depend on.The people(who/that)you were talking to were Swedes.There are some people here who I want you to meet.但在介词后只能用whom: This is the man to whom I referred.但在口语中一般都把介词放到句子后面去, 这时可用that, 但省略时更多一些.Have you met the person about whom he was speaking? Have you met the person(that)he was speaking about
The girl to whom I spoke is my cousin.The girl(who/that)I spoke to is my cousin.2)限制性定语从句如果修饰“物”, 用关系代词that的时候较多, 也有时用which..当这个代词在从句中是用作宾语时, 在绝大多数情况下都是省略的, 特别是口语中(尤其是当被修饰的词是all, everything等词时): Have you everything you need?(Is there)anything I can do for you? All you have to do is to press the button.在介词后只能用which, 在口语中一般都把介词放到从句后部去, 这时可以用that, 但省略的时候更多一些: The tool with which he is working is called a wrench.The tool(that)he is working with is called a wrench.This is the question about which we’ve had so much discussion.This is the question(that)we’ve had so much discussion about.定语从句一般是修饰名词或代词的, 但间或也可以修饰整个句子a), 或是句子的一部分 b), 引导词用which: a)They have invited me to visit their country, which is very kind of them.The activity was postponed, which was exactly what we wanted
b)When deeply absorbed in work, which he often was, he would forget all about eating and sleeping.She was very patient towards the children, which her husband seldom was.3)whose: 在表示“．．．的”这个概念时, 可用所有格 whose;whose 用于指物, 有时可与of which交替使用, 通常的词序是 名词词组 + of which:
Is there anyone in your class whose family is in the northeast? We had a meeting whose purpose was completely unclear.(…the purpose of which was…)He’s written a book the name of which I’ve completely forgotten.(…whose name I’ve…)
of which前的名词词组也可以由some, any, none, all, both, several, enough, many, most, few以及基数词担任;这些词也能用在 of whom之前.The buses, most of which were already full, were surrounded by an angry crowd.It’s a family of eight children, all of whom are studying music.4)关系副词 when, where, why: 它们的含义相当于 at which, in which, for which, 因此它们之间有交替使用的可能.The day when he was born…
The office where he works…
有时可用that替代关系副词, 在口语中that 可省略.Every time(that)the telephone rings, he gets nervous.at which he works… which he works at…
on which he was born…
which he was born on… This was the first time I had serious trouble with my boss.Do you know anywhere(that)I can get a drink? This is the place(where)we met yesterday.That is the reason(why)he did it.在the way 后也可用that 替代in which, 在口语中that也可省略.This is the way(that/in which)he did it.That’s the way I look at it.3.如果定语从句中谓语为 there is, 作主语的关系代词也常可省掉: I must make full use of the time there is left to me and do as much as I can for the people.This is the fastest train(that)there is to Nanjing.4.定语从句的简化: 定语从句与不定式结构,-ing分词结构,-ed分词结构以及无动词分句等有着转换关系.He was the only one to realize the danger(= who realized the danger).The woman driving the car(= who was driving the car)indicated that she was going to turn left.The man injured by the bullet(= who was injured by the bullet)was taken to hospital.All the women present(= who were present)looked up in alarm.Ⅶ 倒装
1.全部倒装和部分倒装: 如果谓语在主语前面, 就是倒装语序.倒装语序又分为全部倒装和部分倒装.在全部倒装的句子中, 整个谓语都放在主语的前面:
Here are some registered letters for you.In came a man with a white beard.在部分倒装的句子中只是谓语中的一部分(如助动词, 情态动词, 或系动词be等)放在主语前面, 其余部分仍在主语后面: Under no circumstances must a soldier leave his post.I couldn’t answer the question.Nor could anyone else in our class.Only in this way is it possible to accomplish the above-mentioned glorious task.2.以neither, nor, so等开始的句子: 由so引起的表示前面所说情况也适用于另一人(或东西)的句子(肯定句), 由neither, nor引起的表示前面所说情况也适用于另一人(或东西)的句子(否定句), 助动词或be置于主语前.“We must start for the work-site now”.“ So must we.” I am quite willing to help and so are the others.He didn’t drop any hint.Nor(Neither)did his secretary.“I won’t do such a thing.” “Nor(Neither)will I.”
如果一个句子只是重复前面一句话的意思, 尽管是用so开头, 语序也不要颠倒.“It was cold yesterday.” “So it was.” “Tomorrow will be Monday.” “So it will.”
3.当句首状语为 never, little, not only, not until, hardly, scarcely等否定词或有否定意义的词语时, 一般引起部分倒装.No longer are they staying with us.No sooner had he arrived there than he fell ill.Under no circumstances could I agree to such a principle.4.表示位置或方向的副词提前, 谓语动词为 go, come等表示位置转移的动作动词而主语又较长时, 通常用全部倒装: There was a sudden gust of wind and away went his hat.The door burst open and I rushed the crowd.There comes the bus!Now comes your turn.如果主语是代词, 仍用正常语序: There comes your turn.有here引起, 谓语为be的句子, 也要倒装: Here is China’s largest tropical forest.Here are some picture-books.如果主语是代词, 仍用正常语序: Here we are.This is the new railway station.“Give me some paper.” “Here you are.”
5.表语和系动词提前:
a)介词短语: On the other side was northern Xinjiang.Near the southern end of the village was a large pear orchard.b)形容词: Very important in the farmer’s life is the radio weather report.Worst of all were the humiliations he suffered.c)副词: Below is a restaurant.Southwest of the reservoir were 2,000 acres of sandy wasteland.d)分词: Housed in the Cultural Palace are a library, an auditorium and recreation rooms.Hidden underground is a wealth of gold, silver, copper, lead and zink.6)句首状语若由 only + 副词，only + 介词词组, only + 状语
Lying on the floor was a boy aged about 17.Standing beside the table was an interpreter.从句构成, 引起局部倒装:
Only yesterday did he find out that his watch was missing.Only through sheer luck did he manage to get some tickets.Only because there were some cancelled bookings did he get some tickets in the end.有not only开头的句子或分句, 往往引起局部倒装: Not only did he complain about the food, he also refused to pay for it.Not only did the garage overcharge me, but they hadn’t done a very good repair job either.Ⅷ 比较级和最高级
1.无比较级和最高级的形容词及副词: complete, perfect, utter, etc
2.比较从句
1)as…as, almost/just/nearly as…as, not so/as …as: We’ll give you as much help as we can.I haven’t made as much progress as I should.We’ve produced twice as much cotton this year as we did ten years ago.My command of English is not half so(as)good as yours.2)than, so much/a lot more than, no more… than, not more…than, less than more„than, less„than可表示“与其说„不如说„”: He is more good than bad.He was less hurt than frightened.The present crisis in capitalist countries is much more a political than an economic crisis.“no + 形容词或副词比较级 + than”所表示的可以是该形容词或副词的相反的含义: no rich than = as poor as no bigger than = as small as no later than = as early as John is no better than Tom.I have taken no more than six courses this semester.3)the more„ the more(越是„就越„)Actually, the busier he is, the happier he feels.The more they talked, the more encouraged they felt.4)more of a, as much of a, less of a, etc: 当as much of a„as, more/less of a „than等结构与单数可数名词搭配时, 名词只能置于比较结构中间.He is more of a sportsman than his brother.Ⅸ 名词性从句: 名词性从句包括主语从句, 宾语从句, 表语从句, 同位语从句.1.主语从句有三类: a)由what等代词引导的主语从句: what表示“„所„的(东西)”, 在结构上等于一个名词加一个定语从句;whatever表示“所„的一切”;whoever表示“一切„的人”.What you need is more practice What is hard is to do good all one’s life and never do anything bad.Whatever was said here must be kept secret.Whatever I have is at your service.Whoever comes will be welcome.Whoever fails to see this will make a big blunder.b)由连词that引起的主语从句: 这类主语从句在大多数情况下都放到句子后部去, 而用代词it做形式上的主语: That we need more equipment is quite obvious.It is impossible that I may not able to come.It doesn’t seem likely that she will be here.在口语中连词that有时可以省略掉: It’s good you’re so considerate.It’s a pity you missed such a fine talk.c)由连接代词或连接副词(或whether)引起的主语从句: 这类主语从句, 也可以放到句子后部去, 前面用it做形式上的主语.When we shall have our sports meet is still a question.It is still a question when we shall have our sports meet.Whether he will join us won’t make too much difference.It won’t make too much difference whether he will join us.2宾语从句: 和主语从句及表语从句一样, 宾语从句也有以上三类.a)连接代词或副词引导的从句只是在某些动词后能用作宾语.Tell me what you want.I just can’t imagine how he could have done such a thing.Have you decided whom you are to nominate as your candidate.能跟这类宾语从句的常见动词有: see, say, tell, ask, answer, know, decide, find out, imagine, suggest, doubt, wonder, show, discover, discuss, understand, inform, advise等.这种动词后也常用whether或if引导的从与作宾语:
这种从句有时前面可以有另一个宾语: Has she informed you when they are to hold the meeting? I don’t know whether these figure are accurate.I’m wondering if the letter is overweight.Please advise me which book I should read first.有时这种从句也可用作及词的宾语: Whether that is a good solution depends on how you look at it.He was not conscious of what an important discovery he had made.I was curious as to what he would say next.b)用that引导的从句作宾语的情形最为普遍, 在很多动词如boast, say, think, insist, wish, hope, suppose, see, believe, agree, acknowledge, admit, deny, expect, explain, confess, order, command, suspect, dream, suggest, propose, know, mean, notice, prefer, request, require, report, urge, 以及doubt的否定和疑问式后面都可以用它.Ⅹ 情态动词:
1.may/might表示允许和可能:
a)允许: 询问或说明一件事可不可以做.May I trouble you with a question? You may take this seat if you like.He asked if he might glance through my album.You might as well speak your mind.(比may„显得婉转一些)
b)可能: 表示一件事或许发生(或是某种情况可能会存在).You may walk ten miles without seeing a house.She was afraid they might not like the idea.A bad thing might be turned to good account.c)might 表示请求: Might I ask for a photograph of your baby?(比May I „更客气一些)
2.can’t, couldn’t表示否定的推测: She can’t be serious.A more suitable book can’t be found.(It is not possible to find a more suitable book.)He couldn’t(can’t)be over fifty.3.should, ought to: 表示应该做的事, ought to比should口气稍重一些.You should(ought to)do as he says.You shouldn’t(oughtn’t to)talk like that.但这两者间也有一些差别, 在表示责任, 义务等该做的事情时, 常用ought to, 在表示某件事宜于做时, 多用should, 在下面的句子中这两
第四篇：语法
初、高中英语知识的有效衔接
河北盐山中学
田宝葵
高中是初高中阶段承前启后的一年，初高中英语的有效衔接关系到学生整个高中阶段英语学习成绩的好坏和教师教学任务是否能够顺利完成。然而许多高一新生由于不适应高中英语教学，经过一段时间的学习，英语学习成绩愈来愈差，以至于失去学习信心，造成学习上的困难，而英语教师由于对学生初中英语学习的知识点和起始能力了解不足，缺乏足够的调研分析，结果学生英语学习越来越困难，兴趣也越来越低落。究其原因，一是：学生存在知识和能力的缺陷，以至于初高中的英语知识衔接上产生了一定的困难；二是：有些学生没搞清楚初高中英语不同阶段的学习特点及其知识差异，缺少高中阶段有效的英语学习策略。为帮助学生搞好初高中英语知识的有效衔接，使学生能对英语产生持久浓厚的兴趣，使老师的衔接教学更有针对性，我们进行了研究。
一、辨析初高中英语词汇的异同，形成有效的单词记忆策略。
1.激发兴趣，提高对词汇教学的认识。在长期的初中英语词汇教学中，“教师领读，学生跟读”已成模式。在这种模式中，口拼与书写脱离，单词与上下文脱离，重语言的语法解释，轻单词本身的记忆。许多学生常常死记硬背，不注意将词汇的音、形、义有机地联系起来记忆，因而往往记了忘，忘了记，记了又忘，收效甚微，磨灭了学生学英语的兴趣。所以，高中教师应采用灵活多样的词汇教学方法开展教学。同时，对学生阐明初高中词汇存在的差异，进行词汇学习重要性的教育，使他们做好充分的心理准备。新课程标准中对情感态度也作出明确的描述，引导学生将兴趣转化为稳定的学习动机，以使他们树立较强的自信心，形成克服困难的意志，努力让尽可能多的学生参与到词汇教学中来，引导学生逐步由“要我学”到“我要学”。2． 改善单一的词汇教学方法
第一，词汇的意义由语境决定，极少孤立存在。一个词通常会有几种意义，若要学习它，切忌把所有的词汇意义死记硬背，必须要在不同的语境中理解以后，其学习和记忆的效果才更好。
第二，帮助学生在语境中运用词汇。新课程倡导学生用语言做事的能力，要培养这种能力，教师就要创设有意义的教学情景，让学生置身于真正的交际情景中体会词汇的意义、搭配和用法。教师应打破“教师领读，学生跟读”的词汇教学模式，彻底改变词汇教学与语境相脱节的局面。
第三，根据发音记忆词形，根据语境学习词义，根据构词法巧记词性词义，运用中理解巩固短语及单词的用法。强调高中英语词汇与初中词汇相比，具有的两个典型的特征。一是高中词汇的一词多义，如单词run在初中英语中学生只知道跑得意思，而在高中英语中它常用的意思就有跑、管理，经营，褪色，融化等意思。二是利用构词法来拓宽词汇，辨析词性，如单词devote在初中它的意思是献身，而在高中的devotion就可以由名词后缀tion 判断出它的词性为名词，词义是名词献身。并要有效利用字典，对单词进行音、形、义相结合的有效词汇记忆。
第四，强化语音教学，为词汇教学打好基础。词汇教学一般采取由音到形再到义的顺序，语音是学生接触一个词的最初印象，如果读不出音就不易记住形，无音无形就谈不上什么义。学好语音不但有利于正确地以声音形式表达思想，而且对词汇学习和记忆大有帮助。因此，要牢记一个单词首先应把音念准。重视语境教学，帮助学生在语境中理解和运用词汇。
二、区别初高中听力、阅读、写作的异同，培养学生应用能力的提高
第一，初中和高中英语完形填空的区别在初中英语中,鉴于学生的词汇量不大、知识面较窄和逻辑推理能力不够健全等因素,选作完形填空的文章往往都是一些故事性的短文或是学生非常熟悉的话题，且对学生的文章的整体理解、上下文的段落衔接、情节分析及推理判断能力的考查虽然有所体现,但要求不算太高。学生进入高中以后,除了在单词掌握的数量上要有明显的提升外,还要有语言交际、文化背景和社会风俗习惯等知识的拓展与积累。高中英语完形填空题更突出考查语篇的完整性,强调段与段、句与句之间的逻辑性。高中英语完形填空的文章偏重于理性的分析和情感的交融,出现的科普、文化及议论性的文章偏多,往往还夹叙夹议,在议论中升华。这就要求学生既要有较好的运用词汇、语法和理解语篇的能力,还要擅于让自己进入文章的角色,感悟人物的内心世界,领会人物的心理活动,把握文章。
第二.初中英语阅读教学重视对学生基础语言知识和基本语言技能的培养，重视对阅读内容的理解，关注学生获取有效信息的能力；而高中英语阅读教学除了以上要求，更强调对学生进行阅读方法的指导和阅读技能的训练，更关注他们处理阅读材料不同信息的过程和整合相关信息的能力，同时着力培养学生情感与态度等，从而逐步提高学生对英语语言的理解力和掌控力。因此要使高中英语阅读教学顺畅衔接，教师就很有必要了解初高中英语阅读课的特点及教学要求，有效地利用教材提供的各种语言材料和各项活动任务，重视学生的词汇积累、培养学生的阅读习惯、强化阅读技能，从而提高学生的整体英语水平，让学生“掌握方法、养成习惯、形成能力”，顺利实现初高中的衔接。也为学生将来进一步学好英语奠定坚实的基础。
第三.初高中写作要求特点及训练的差异及应对的策略，初中英语作文重在简单的情景运用或喜好评论，且因为分值和乡村中学英语基础薄弱，大多数学生忽视英语写作。高中英语重在实际应用和观点评论，且因为分值和以后学习生活中的实际应用，应重点诱发学生英语写作能力的提高。对比初高中英语写作要求的差异，并鉴于中考作文中出现的一些问题，高中英语写作应强化书写的规范性和整洁度，狠抓学生的书写规范，主要包括书写字迹的工整，标点符号的正确使用，大小写，写完后要检查的习惯等。强化句子的训练，句子是构建短文重要的单位，因此高中教师必须在高一阶段进行连词成句的强化训练，为短文写作打下良好的基础。教师可以利用每单元中的重点句型结构，充分利用新教的单词或词组让学生做连词成句练习，并要求学生注意时态、语态、名词单复数、冠词等。强化阅读和背诵，教师从高一开始就要有意识地将课文原文或是经过改写后的文章让学生读背，重视经典句子的收集和模仿并以默写的形式予以巩固，这样既帮助学生打下扎实的语言基础，同时也为学生积累了写作的素材。
三、、分析初高中语法学习框架，降低高中语法的难度
初中生和高一学生对复杂句的概念很模糊，而这就给学生从句的学习带来了很大的困难。定语从句是高一上学期的重点语法项目，也是整个高中语法的难点，且影响以后名词性从句的学习。虽然学生在初三学过定语从句，但却是一知半解，不少学生无法判断先行词、关系代词、关系副词。为了让学生学习定语从句不至于那么困难，教师应做好大量的衔接工作。教师可先从学生熟悉的简单句入手，每天2-3个句子让学生划分句子成分，判断基本句型。在学生分清句子成分，牢固掌握了简单句的五种基本句型后慢慢渗透并列句和主从复合句的概念，从而过渡到定语从句的学习。也可结合初中英语中定语从句的讲解，先重点引出which, that和who, whom的定语从句用法，再引出高中语法中where, when , why和whose等从句的用法，学生既易于理解，也降低了高中语法的难度。这对于普通中学的学生来讲是必不可少的，所谓“磨刀不误砍柴工”就是这个道理。
总之，只要教师能正确引导，帮助学生调整好心态，逐步掌握高中英语的特点，形成适合自己的学习策略和学习方法，就一定能顺利地做好初高中的衔接，出色地完成高中英语学习。
第五篇：语法
一提到语法，许多英语学习者都会紧皱眉头，深深地叹气，同时也会马上联想到高中厚厚的语法书，还有一堆做不完搞不明白的语法题，那么对于雅思写作，语法的重要性在哪里呢？其实如果对雅思作文有所了解的同学会发现，雅思对语法的要求和高中语法完全不一样，其主要讲求实用性以及基本的语法要点，不会从细节上考察语法。本文中，朗将对雅思写作中的常见的语法错误进行分析，帮助考生们在今后的写作中避免这些错误。
一、名词的单复数
在雅思写作中，考生常常分不清可数名词和不可数名词，从而导致一系列的语法错误： The number of fruit in summer is larger than in winter.“fruit”是一个不可数名词，往往考生们受母语的影响，误认为其为可数名词。与汉语不同，英语中名词要区分可数与不可数。
笼统地讲，物质名词，如：water（水）, iron（铁）, wood（木头）等和抽象名词，如：democracy（民主）, freedom（自由）, happiness（幸福）等为不可数。以下名词为不可数名词：
news（消息）information（信息）furniture（家具）equipment（设备）advice（劝告）weather（天气）work（工作）clothing（衣服）baggage（行李）
work作“工作”解释时为不可数名词，“找工作”不能说to find a work, 应为to find a job;work作“著作”、“作品”解时是可数名词，如：Deng Xiaopin's works（邓小平著作）/a work about Deng Xiaopin（一件关于邓小平的作品）；作“工厂”解释时，单复数同形：a steel works（一个钢铁厂）/two chemical works（两家化工厂）以下名词单复数同形：
means（手段）headquarters（司令部）works（工厂）species（物种）aircraft（飞机）Chinese（中国人）sheep（羊）fish（鱼）
中国的计量单位：li（里）, yuan（元）, mu（亩）等 实例：Every means has been tried out, but without satisfactory results.（每个方法都试过了，但结果不令人满意。）
形式上是复数的学科名称，如physics, statistics, dynamics作单数看待；时间、距离、钞票、重量等复数，可以看作一个整体作单数处理，如：Two days is not enough for me to finish the task.（要我完成此项任务两天是不够的。）
二、主谓一致
主谓一致也是雅思考生经常犯的语法错误之一，在许多同学的作文中，主谓一致的错误比比皆是，大量的主谓一致错误一定会导致比较低的语法分数，所以想要取得高分的同学一定不能忽略这个问题。
主谓一致指“人称”和“数”方面的一致关系，如：He is going abroad.They are playing football.可分为：语法一致，内容一致，就近一致。
语法一致原则：即主语为单数，谓语用单数，主语为复数，谓语也用复数。以下为注意事项： 1.单数主语即使后面带有with, along with, together with, like（像），but（除了），except, besides, as well as, no less than, rather than（而不是），including, in addition to引导的短语，谓语动词仍用单数。
如：Air as well as water is matter.空气和水都是物质。
No one except two servants was late for the dinner.除了两个仆人外，没有一个人迟来用餐。
2.用and连接的并列主语，如果主语是同一个人、同一事、同一概念，谓语动词用单数，否则用复数。如：
The poet and writer has come.那位诗人兼作家来了。（一个人）
A hammer and a saw are useful tools.锤子和锯都是有用的工具。（两件物品）3.用and连接的成对名词习惯上被看成是一个整体，如：bread and butter（黄油抹面包），knife and fork（刀叉）等作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
4.不定式（短语），动名词（短语），或从句作主语时，谓语动词用单数。如： Serving the people is my great happiness.为人民服务是我最大的幸福。
When we’ll go out for an outing has been decided.我们什么时候出去郊游已决定了。
5.当连接的并列主语被each, every或no修饰时，谓语动词用单数。Every boy and every girl likes to go swimming.每个男孩和每个女孩都喜欢去游泳。No teacher and no student was absent from the meeting.没有老师也没有学生开会缺席。
Each man and(each)woman is asked to help.每个男人和每个女人都被请去帮忙。each of + 复数代词，谓语动词用单数。复数代词+each, 谓语动词用单数，如： Each of us has something to say.我们每个人都有话要说。
6.若主语中有more than one或many a/an, 尽管从意义上看是复数，但它的谓语动词仍用单数。但more+复数名词+than one做主语时，谓语动词仍用复数，如： Many a boy likes playing basketball.许多男生都喜欢打篮球。More than one student was late.不只一个学生迟到了。
More persons than one come to help us.不止一个人来帮助我们。
7.none做主语时，谓语动词可用单数，也可用复数；但在代表不可数的东西时总是看作单数，因而谓语动词要用单数。如： None of us are(is)perfect.人无完人。None of this worries me.这事一点不使我着急。
8.名词如：trousers, scissors, clothes, goods, glasses等作主语时，谓语动词必须用复数，如：
His clothes are good.但这些名词前若出现a pair of , 谓语一般用单数，如： A pair of glasses is on the desk.桌上有一副眼镜。
9.形复意单名词如：news;以ics结尾的学科名称如：physics, mathematics, economics;国名如：the United States;报纸名如：the New Times;书名如：Arabian Night <天方夜谈>；以及The United Nations<联合国>等作主语时，谓语动词用单数。10.“a+名词+and a half”, “one and a half+名词”，“the number of+名词”等作主语时，谓语动词要用单数，如：
Only one and a half apples is left on the table.注意：one or two+复数名词作主语，谓语动词用复数形式，如： One or two places have been visited.参观了一两个地点。内容一致原则： 1.主语中有all, half, most, the rest等，以及“分数或百分数+名词”做主语时，谓语动词单复数取决于连用的名词，如：
The rest of the bikes are on sale today.剩下的自行车今天出售。
60% of the apple was eaten by little boy.这个苹果的60%都被这个小男孩吃了。Most of the apples were rotten.大部分的苹果都是烂的。
Most of the apple was eaten by a rat.这个苹果的大部分被老鼠吃了。
2.不定数量的词组，如：part of, a lot of, lots of, one of, a number of, plenty of等作主语时，谓语动词的单复数取决于量词后面名词的数，如： A part of the textbooks have arrived.一小部分教科书已运到。
A part of the apple has been eaten up by the pig.这个苹果的一部分被猪吃光了。3.加减乘除用单数，如：
Fifteen minus five is ten.15减去5等于10。
4.表示时间，金钱，距离，度量等的名词做主语时，尽管是复数形式，它们做为一个单一的概念时，其谓语动词用单数，如：
Ten miles is a good distance.十英里是一个相当的距离。
5.(1)通常作复数的集体名词：包括police, people, cattle等，这些集体名词通常用作复数，如：
The British police have only very limited powers.(2)通常作不可数名词的集体名词：包括equipment, furniture, clothing, luggage等。(3)可作单数也可作复数的集体名词：包括audience, committee, government, family, enemy, group, party, team, public等，如：
The committee has/have decided to dismiss him.委员会决定解雇他。6.“the+形容词/过去分词形式”表示一类人或事物，作主语时，谓语动词用复数，如： The injured were saved after the fire.就近原则：
1.由here, there, where等引导的倒装句中（有时主语不止一个时），谓语动词与靠近它的主语在数上一致，如：
Here comes the bus.公共汽车来了。Here is a pen and some pieces of paper for you.给你一支钢笔和几张纸。Where is your wife and children to stay while you are away? 你不在这儿的时候，你爱人和孩子呆在哪儿呢？
2.用连词or, either....or, neither….nor, not only….but also等连接的并列主语，谓语动词与靠近它的主语在数上一致，如：
Neither the students nor the teacher knows anything about it.学生和老师都不知道这事。
He or you have taken my pen.他或你拿了我的钢笔。
注意：one of+复数名词+who/that/which引导的定语从句中，定语从句的动词为复数，如：
Mary is one of those people who keep pets.玛丽是饲养宠物者之一。
The only one of+复数名词+who/that/which引导的定语从句中，定语从句的动词应为单数。
Mary is the only one of those people who keeps pets.玛丽是唯一一个饲养宠物的人。
三、时态
时态是雅思作文中至关重要的一部分，如果时态出现错误会导致整篇文章的错误。主要需要掌握的时态为一般现在时，过去时和将来时，掌握好这三种时态对于雅思写作来说已经足够。提醒考生注意，Task One的第一段肯定是一般现在时态，中间段落的时态要由图表中的时间来决定，但是基本上不会出现进行时态，而对于流程图，只能使用一般现在时态。Task Two基本上以一般现在时态为主，根据所写内容决定是否应该使用其他时态。一般现在时态主要就是注意主谓一致的问题，一般过去时态需要特别注意动词过去式的拼写，特别是不规则动词过去式的变化，而将来时态需要注意的是在小作文中只能使用will+do的形式而不能使用be going to。
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