外文翻译英文文献中英版ZigBee：无线技术_低功耗传感器网络 2

第一篇：外文翻译英文文献中英版ZigBee：无线技术_低功耗传感器网络 2

ZigBee：无线技术，低功耗传感器网络

加里莱格

美国东部时间2004年5月6日上午12:00

技师（工程师）们在发掘无线传感器的潜在应用方面从未感到任何困难。例如，在家庭安全系统方面，无线传感器相对于有线传感器更易安装。而在有线传感器的装置通常占无线传感器安装的费用80%的工业环境方面同样正确（适用）。而且相比于有线传感器的不切实际甚至是不肯能而言，无线传感器更具应用性。虽然，无线传感器需要消耗更多能量，也就是说所需电池的数量会随之增加或改变过于频繁。再加上对无线传感器由空气传送的数据可靠性的怀疑论，所以无线传感器看起来并不是那么吸引人。

一个低功率无线技术被称为ZigBee，它是无线传感器方程重写，但是。一个安全的网络技术，对最近通过的IEEE 802.15.4无线标准（图1）的顶部游戏机，ZigBee的承诺，把无线传感器的一切从工厂自动化系统到家庭安全系统，消费电子产品。与802.15.4的合作下，ZigBee提供具有电池寿命可比普通小型电池的长几年。ZigBee设备预计也便宜，有人估计销售价格最终不到3美元每节点。由于价格低，他们应该是一个自然适应于在光线如无线交换机，无线自动调温器，烟雾探测器和家用产品。

（图1）

虽然还没有正式的规范的ZigBee存在（由ZigBee联盟是一个贸易集团，批准应该在今年年底），但ZigBee的前景似乎一片光明。技术研究公司In-Stat/MDR在它所谓的“谨慎进取”的预测中预测，802.15.4节点和芯片销售将从今天基本上为零，增加到2010年的165万台。不是所有这些单位都将与ZigBee结合，但大多数可能会。世界研究公司预测的到2010年射频模块无线传感器出货量4.65亿美量，其中77％是ZigBee的相关。

从某种意义上说，ZigBee的光明前途在很大程度上是由于其较低的数据速率20 kbps到250 kbps的，用于取决于频段频率（图2），比标称1 Mbps的蓝牙和54的802.11g Mbps的WiFi功能，或文件和音频，蓝牙一样。对于发送传感器的读数，这是典型的数万字节数，高带宽是没有必要，ZigBee的低带宽有助于它实现其目标和鲁棒性的低功耗，低成本。

由于ZigBee应用的是低带宽要求，ZigBee节点大部分时间可以睡眠模式，从而节省电池电源，然后醒来，快速发送数据，回去睡眠模式。而且，由于ZigBee可以从睡眠模式过渡到15毫秒或更少主动模式下，即使是睡眠节点也可以达到适当的低延迟。有人扳动支持ZigBee的无线光开关，例如，将不会是一个唤醒延迟知道前灯亮起。与此相反，支持蓝牙唤醒延迟通常大约三秒钟。

一个ZigBee的功耗节省很大一部分来自802.15.4无线电技术，它本身是为低功耗设计的。802.15.4采用DSSS（直接序列扩频）技术，例如，因为（跳频扩频）另类医疗及社会科学院将在保持一样使用它的频率过大的权力同步。

ZigBee节点，使用802.15.4，是几个不同的沟通方式之一，然而，某些方面比别人拥有更多的使用权力。因此，ZigBee的用户不一定能够实现传感器网络上的任何方式选择和他们仍然期望多年的电池寿命是ZigBee的标志。事实上，一些技术专家打算用小型无线传感器创建大的网络，即使功率ZigBee的电池需求很大。

一个ZigBee网络节点可以消耗额外的功率，例如，如果它试图避免与其他节点的传输或与其他无线电源传输重叠的传输。那么在ZigBee 802.15.4无线电的使用实现CSMA / CA（载波侦听多址接入冲突避免）技术，与ZigBee节点使用CSMA / CA是基本上采取了听先于谈话的方式，看是否有无线电通信已经展开。但是，正如所指出的Venkat Bahl，传感器营销公司恩贝尔公司副总裁兼ZigBee联盟的副主席，这不是一个首选的方法。“有听意见的权力，”Bahl说，“我们不喜欢这样做。”

ZigBee和802.15.4通讯的另一个选择是指路明灯模式，通常睡觉模式醒来网络节点定期接收同步“灯塔”从网络的控制节点。但是，对于一个灯塔听废物力量，也因为时间的不确定性，特别是支配节点打开，以免错过早期一盏明灯。

争议中的通信

为了尽可能节省电力ZigBee采用一种简单交际策略,talk-when-ready发送数据时,数据准备派遣然后就等着自动确认。根据鲍勃Heile,两ZigBee联盟主席和电子802.15,talk-when-ready是“开门见山地”计划,但却是一种很电力有效率。“我们在广泛的分析,导致了最好的节能策略从各种环境安静喧闹的,”Heile说。“我们发现,手了,好,我们在发送才离开那包东西和承认它。如果你不想让他ack讯息,它只表示你惨败,所以重发给你。你有更好的电源管理，并确定它是否安静，然后再谈谈。”

幸运的是，这种当面策略导致RF干扰非常小。这主要是因为ZigBee节点具有非常低的占空比，只偶尔传输发送少量的数据。其他ZigBee节点，以及WiWave的，而ZigBee系统保持在至少数个月。

通过提供互操作性，但ZigBee的补充能力，专利产品不能。举例说，Ember的义巴尔，互操作性允许照明系统的ZigBee节点的工作，在一个空调系统的ZigBee网络，反之亦然。“飞利浦照明是真的对这个很兴奋，”义巴尔说，“因为原来从一到建筑物的自动化系统的基础设施骨干镇流器生产厂家他们。”

不用说，主要的半导体公司很多，尤其是那些在嵌入式系统公司中大都热切期待ZigBee的投入并且大规模进入市场。飞思卡尔半导体（直到最近，摩托罗拉半导体产品部称）已经提供ZigBee-ready技术来选择客户。其他半导体公司，包括AMI，爱特梅尔，微芯片，飞利浦，瑞萨，都是ZigBee联盟的成员。

ZigBee可能是缓慢渗透到无线传感器的工业市场，但是。据对世界市场研究公司，它会需要五至七年来说服客户在工业上的可靠性，耐用性，以及无线传感器系统的安全。并显著预测在整个世界中ZigBee将长期在工业制造上有增长，因此。到2010年，公司项目，射频模块，应用于工业监控和控制得将达到1.65亿台，同比增长190万元，在世界性预测中，在2004年。大约75％的将基于ZigBee和802.15.4。

最终，ZigBee的可进入各种广泛的应用。家用电器，它可以帮助监测和控制能源消耗。在汽车应用中，它可以提供轮胎压力监测和远程无钥匙进入系统。也可用于ZigBee的医疗设备中，甚至在计算机外围设备，如无线键盘或鼠标。

值得关注的是越来越多，虽然，ZigBee的可能变成一种适合所有的技术的尺寸，并不很适合任何应用程序。一些持怀疑态度，例如，企图使ZigBee无所不包的可能使ZigBee协议栈太大，ZigBee的双重目标是非常低功耗和非常低的成本。如果出现这种情况，那么ZigBee的低功耗，低数据速率利基窄，如果它是，将被证明是过于宽泛的。然后，也许我们会需要另一种无线标准，以配合我们已经有的蓬勃发展的人数。

加里莱格是一家位于波士顿的自由撰稿人。他拥有电子工程学士学位，曾任编辑，EDN杂志执行编辑

ZigBee: Wireless Technology for Low-Power Sensor Networks Gary Legg

5/6/2004 12:00 AM EDT

Technologists have never had trouble coming up with potential applications for wireless sensors.In a home security system, for example, wireless sensors would be much easier to install than sensors that need wiring.The same is true in industrial environments, where wiring typically accounts for 80% of the cost of sensor installations.And then there are applications for sensors where wiring isn't practical or even possible.The problem, though, is that most wireless sensors use too much power, which means that their batteries either have to be very large or get changed far too often.Add to that some skepticism about the reliability of sensor data that's sent through the air, and wireless sensors simply haven't looked very appealing.A low-power wireless technology called ZigBee is rewriting the wireless sensor equation, however.A secure network technology that rides on top of the recently ratified IEEE 802.15.4 radio standard(Figure 1), ZigBee promises to put wireless sensors in everything from factory automation systems to home security systems to consumer electronics.In conjunction with 802.15.4, ZigBee offers battery life of up to several years for common small batteries.ZigBee devices are also expected to be cheap, eventually selling for less than $3 per node by some estimates.With prices that low, they should be a natural fit even in household products like wireless light switches, wireless thermostats, and smoke detectors.Figure 1: ZigBee adds network, security, and application-services layers to the PHY and MAC layers of the IEEE 811.15.4 radio Although no formal specification for ZigBee yet exists(approval by the ZigBee Alliance, a trade group, should come late this year), the outlook for ZigBee appears bright.Technology research firm In-Stat/MDR, in what it calls a “cautious aggressive” forecast, predicts that sales of 802.15.4 nodes and chipsets will increase from essentially zero today to 165 million units by 2010.Not all of these units will be coupled with ZigBee, but most probably will be.Research firm ON World predicts shipments of 465 million wireless sensor RF modules by 2010, with 77% of them being ZigBee-related.In a sense, ZigBee's bright future is largely due to its low data rates—20 kbps to 250 kbps, depending on the frequency band used(Figure 2)—compared to a nominal 1 Mbps for Bluetooth and 54 Mbps for Wi-Fi's 802.11g technology.But ZigBee won't be sending email and large documents, as Wi-Fi does, or documents and audio, as Bluetooth does.For sending sensor readings, which are typically a few tens of bytes, high bandwidth isn't necessary, and ZigBee's low bandwidth helps it fulfill its goals of low power, low cost, and robustness.Figure 2: ZigBee's data rates range from 20 kbps to 250 kbps, depending on the frequency used Because of ZigBee applications' low bandwidth requirements, a ZigBee node can sleep most of the time, thus saving battery power, and then wake up, send data quickly, and go back to sleep.And, because ZigBee can transition from sleep mode to active mode in 15 msec or less, even a sleeping node can achieve suitably low latency.Someone flipping a ZigBee-enabled wireless light switch, for example, would not be aware of a wake-up delay before the light turns on.In contrast, wake-up delays for Bluetooth are typically around three seconds.A big part of ZigBee's power savings come from the radio technology of 802.15.4, which itself was designed for low power.802.15.4 uses DSSS(direct-sequence spread spectrum)technology, for example, because the alternative FHSS(frequency-hopping spread spectrum)would have used too much power just in keeping its frequency hops synchronized.ZigBee nodes, using 802.15.4, can communicate in any of several different ways, however, and some ways use more power than others.Consequently, ZigBee users can't necessarily implement a sensor network any way they choose and still expect the multiple-year battery life that is ZigBee's hallmark.In fact, some technologists who are planning very large networks of very small wireless sensors say that even ZigBee is too power hungry for their uses.A ZigBee network node can consume extra power, for example, if it tries to keep its transmissions from overlapping with other nodes' transmissions or with transmissions from other radio sources.The 802.15.4 radio used by ZigBee implements CSMA/CA(carrier sense multiple access collision avoidance)technology, and a ZigBee node that uses CSMA/CA is essentially taking a listen-before-talk approach to see if any radio traffic is already underway.But, as noted by Venkat Bahl, marketing vice president for sensor company Ember Corp.and vice chairman of the ZigBee Alliance, that's not a preferred approach.“Having to listen burns power,” says Bahl, “and we don't like to do that.” Another ZigBee and 802.15.4 communications option is the beacon mode, in which normally sleeping network slave nodes wake up periodically to receive a synchronizing “beacon” from the network's control node.But listening for a beacon wastes power, too, particularly because timing uncertainties force nodes to turn on early to avoid missing a beacon.In-Your-Face Communication To save as much power as possible, ZigBee employs a talk-when-ready communication strategy, simply sending data when it has data ready to send and then waiting for an automatic acknowledgement.According to Bob Heile, who is chairman of both the ZigBee Alliance and IEEE 802.15, talk-when-ready is an “in-your-face” scheme, but one that's very power efficient.“We did an extensive analysis that led to the best power-saving strategy in various kinds of environments from quiet to noisy,” Heile says.“We discovered that, hands down, we were better off just sending the packet and acknowledging it.If you don't get an ack, it just means you got clobbered, so send it again.You wind up having much better power management than if you listen and determine if it's quiet before you talk.”

Fortunately, this in-your-face strategy leads to very little RF interference.That's largely because ZigBee nodes have very low duty cycles, transmitting only occasionally and sending only small amounts of data.Other ZigBee nodes, as well as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth modules, can easily deal with such small, infrequent bursts.ZigBee's talk-when-ready scheme doesn't suit all purposes, however.For example, in a network of thousands of tiny sensors dropped into a war zone to monitor enemy troop movements, the power savings provided still might not be enough.With each network node sending data periodically—and with transmissions repeated numerous times through other nearby nodes of a mesh network configuration in order to reach a network controller—large numbers of packet collisions and retransmissions could waste power and significantly shorten sensor node battery life.If the sensor batteries are very small and power-limited, that's especially problematic.Although contention for airwave access isn't generally a problem for ZigBee, it can be.Sensor-network company Dust Networks, in fact, says contention issues are keeping the company from turning to ZigBee—for now, at least—even though Dust remains a member of the ZigBee Alliance.“Each ZigBee device needs to contend for airspace with its neighbors,” says Dust director of product management Robert Shear, “so there's inevitably some contention and some inefficiency.” To avoid ZigBee's access contention, Dust uses contention-free TDMA(time division multiple access)technology.ZigBee, through the 802.15.4 MAC layer, provides guaranteed time slots in a scheme that somewhat resembles TDMA, but only as part of an optional “superframe” that's more complex and less power-efficient than TDMA.ZigBee has still more power-saving tricks up its sleeve, however.For example, it reduces power consumption in ZigBee components by providing for power-saving reduced-function devices(RFDs)in addition to more capable full-function devices(FFDs).Each ZigBee network needs at least one FFD as a controller, but most network nodes can be RFDs(Figure 3).RFDs can talk only with FFDs, not to other RFDs, but they contain less circuitry than FFDs, and little or no power-consuming memory.Figure 3: ZigBee networks can contain as many as 65,536 nodes in a variety of configurations ZigBee conserves still more power by reducing the need for associated processing.Simple 8-bit processors like an 8051 can handle ZigBee chores easily, and ZigBee protocol stacks occupy very little memory.An FFD stack, for example, needs about 32 kbytes, and an RFD stack needs only about 4 kbytes.Those numbers compare with about 250 kbytes for the far more complex Bluetooth technology.From ZigBee's relatively simple implementations, cost savings naturally accrue.RFDs, of course, reduce ZigBee component costs by omitting memory and other circuitry, and simple 8-bit processors and small protocol stacks help keep system costs down.Often, an application's main processor can easily bear the small additional load of ZigBee processing, making a separate processor for ZigBee functions unnecessary.But the main strategy for keeping ZigBee prices low is to have big markets and high volumes.The ZigBee Alliance, by making ZigBee an open standard and by vigorously promoting interoperability among ZigBee devices, expects that ZigBee will be very big in applications such as home and building automation.The alliance is currently working on interoperability procedures for those particular applications, which it expects to complete later this year along with ZigBee Specification 1.0.One reason for optimism about ZigBee adoption for home automation and security is its ease of use.ZigBee networks are self-forming, making it easy even for consumers to set them up.“In the residential space, there's no configuration involved,” says the ZigBee Alliance's Heile.“You take something out of the box, put the batteries in, and maybe do something as simple as button-press security—bring two devices close together, push the buttons until the green lights come on, and you're done.” ZigBee networks can also self-form in commercial and industrial settings, but professional installers will have tools that provide additional control, particularly for security.ZigBee security is flexible, says Heile, to give both consumer and professional users what they need.“You don't have to have 128-bit public-key encryption for a smoke detector,” he says, “but if I'm in a high-rise office complex, that's exactly the level of security I'm going to have for my fluorescent light fixtures.If you're in a high-rise building on Fifth Avenue, you don't want someone going down the street and turning your lights off.” Proprietary Competition Competition for ZigBee comes almost entirely from proprietary technologies.Sensor company Dust, as noted, is sticking with its own technology, and Ember, although pushing strongly into the ZigBee arena, plans to keep offering its proprietary EmberNet as well.In addition, Zensys is providing its Z-Wave technology to customers.Sylvania, for example, is already using Z-Wave for lighting control, while ZigBee systems remain at least several months away.By offering interoperability, however, ZigBee adds capabilities that proprietary products can't.For example, says Ember's Bahl, interoperability allows the ZigBee nodes of a lighting system to work with the ZigBee network of an HVAC system, or vice versa.“Philips Lighting is really excited about this,” Bahl, says, “because it turns them from a ballast manufacturer into the infrastructure backbone of a building-automation system.” Needless to say, many of the major semiconductor companies, and especially those that are big in embedded systems, are eagerly anticipating ZigBee's entry into mass markets.Freescale Semiconductor(until recently known as Motorola's Semiconductor Products Sector)is already providing ZigBee-ready technology to select customers.Other semiconductor companies, including AMI, Atmel, Microchip, Philips, and Renesas, are members of the ZigBee Alliance.ZigBee will likely be slow to penetrate the industrial market for wireless sensors, however.According to market research firm ON World, it will take five to seven years to convince industrial customers of the reliability, robustness, and security of wireless-sensor systems.ON World does predict significant long-term growth of ZigBee in industry, though.By 2010, the company projects, RF modules used in industrial monitoring and control will reach 165 million units, up from 1.9 million in 2004.About 75% of those, ON World predicts, will be based on ZigBee and 802.15.4.Eventually, ZigBee could go into a wide variety of applications.In household appliances, it could help monitor and control energy consumption.In automotive applications, it could provide tire-pressure monitoring and remote keyless entry.ZigBee could also be used in medical devices or even in computer peripherals, such as wireless keyboards or mice.Concern is increasing, though, that ZigBee could turn into a one-size-fits-all technology that doesn't fit any application particularly well.Some skeptics, for example, worry that an attempt to make ZigBee all-encompassing could make the ZigBee protocol stack too large for ZigBee's twin goals of very low power consumption and very low cost.If that happens, then ZigBee's low-power, low-data-rate niche—narrow as it is—will have proven to be too broad.And then, perhaps, we'll need yet another wireless standard to go with the burgeoning number we already have.About the Author Gary Legg is a Boston-based freelance writer.He holds a BSEE degree and is a former editor and executive editor of EDN magazine.He can be reached at gary@garylegg.com.

第二篇：物联网简介及基于ZigBee的无线传感器网络

物联网简介及基于ZigBee的无线传感器网络

摘 要

物联网，是继计算机、互联网与移动通信网之后的又一次信息产业浪潮，是一个全新的技术领域，给IT和通信带来了广阔的新市场。积极发展物联网技术，尽快扩展其应用领域，尽快使其投入到生产、生活中去，将具有重要意义。

ZigBee无线通信技术是一种新兴的短距离无线通信技术，具有低功耗、低速率、低时延等特性，具有强大的组网能力与超大的网络容量，可以广泛应用在消费电子品、家居与楼宇自动化、工业控制、医疗设备等领域。由于其独有的特性，ZigBee无线技术也是无线传感器网络的首选技术，具有广阔的发展前景。ZigBee协议标准采用开放系统接口(051)分层结构，其中物理层和媒体接入层由IEEE802.15.4工作小组制定，而网络层，安全层和应用框架层由ZigBee联盟制定。

本文首先从概念、技术架构、关键技术和应用领域介绍了物联网的相关知识，然后着重介绍了基于ZigBee的无线传感器网络，其中包括无线传感网简介、ZigBee技术概述和基于ZigBee的无线组网技术。

关键词：物联网；ZigBee；无线传感器网络

物联网简介

物联网概念

“物联网概念”是在“互联网概念”的基础上，将其用户端延伸和扩展到任何物品与物品之间，进行信息交换和通信的一种网络概念。其定义是：通过射频识别（RFID）、红外感应器、全球定位系统、激光扫描器等信息传感设备，按约定的协议，把任何物品与互联网相连接，进行信息交换和通信，以实现智能化识别、定位、跟踪、监控和管理的一种网络概念。

最简洁明了的定义：物联网(Internet of Things)是一个基于互联网、传统电信网等信息承载体，让所有能够被独立寻址的普通物理对象实现互联互通的网络。它具有普通对象设备化、自治终端互联化和普适服务智能化3个重要特征。

技术架构

从技术架构上来看，物联网一般可分为三层：感知层、网络层和应用层。感知层是物联网的皮肤和五官-用于识别物体，采集信息。感知层包括二维码标签和识读器、RFID标签和读写器、摄像头、GPS、传感器、M2M终端、传感器网关等，主要功能是识别物体、采集信息，与人体结构中皮肤和五官的作用类似。感知层解决的是人类世界和物理世界的数据获取问题。它首先通过传感器、数码相机等设备，采集外部物理世界的数据，然后通过RFID、条码、工业现场总线、蓝牙、红外等短距离传输技术传递数据。感知层所需要的关键技术包括检测技术、短距离无线通信技术等。

网络层是物联网的神经中枢和大脑-用于传递信息和处理信息。网络层包括通信网与互联网的融合网络、网络管理中心、信息中心和智能处理中心等。网络层将感知层获取的信息进行传递和处理，类似于人体结构中的神经中枢和大脑。网络层解决的是传输和预处理感知层所获得数据的问题。这些数据可以通过移动通信网、互联网、企业内部网、各类专网、小型局域网等进行传输。特别是在三网融合后，有线电视网也能承担物联网网络层的功能，有利于物联网的加快推进。网络层所需要的关键技术包括长距离有线和无线通信技术、网络技术等。应用层是物联网的“社会分工”-结合行业需求，实现广泛智能化。应用层是物联网与行业专业技术的深度融合，结合行业需求实现行业智能化，这类似于人的社会分工。

应用层解决的是信息处理和人机交互的问题。网络层传输而来的数据在这一层进入各类信息系统进行处理，并通过各种设备与人进行交互。这一层也可按形态直观地划分为两个子层。一个是应用程序层，进行数据处理，它涵盖了国民经济和社会的每一领域，包括电力、医疗、银行、交通、环保、物流、工业、农业、城市管理、家居生活等，其功能可包括支付、监控、安保、定位、盘点、预测等，可用于政府、企业、社会组织、家庭、个人等。这正是物联网作为深度信息化的重要体现。另一个是终端设备层，提供人机接口。物联网虽然是“物物相连的网”，但最终是要以人为本的，还是需要人的操作与控制，不过这里的人机界面已远远超出现时人与计算机交互的概念，而是泛指与应用程序相连的各种设备与人的交互。图1为物联网网络构架。

图1 物联网网络构架

关键技术

一、感知层

    传感器技术：感知物资信息 RFID技术：智能识别

微机电系统（MEMS）：采集信息 GPS/GIS技术：全球定位/地理信息系统

二、网络层

   无线传感器网络（WSN）技术

Wi-Fi（Wireless Fidelity,无线保真技术）

通信网、互联网、3G网络、IPV6（让世界的第一粒都拥有一个IP地址）

 GPRS网络（基于GSM系统的无线分组交换技术，提供端到端的、广域的无线IP连接）



三、应用层

      企业资源计划（ERP：Enterprise Resource Planning）专家系统（Expert System)

云计算（Cloud Computing）系统集成（System Integrate）行业应用（Industry Application）资源打包（Resource Package）

广电网络、NGB（下一代广播电视网）

应用领域

1.城市市政管理应用 2.农业园林 3.医疗保健 4.智能楼宇 5.交通运输

图2为物联网网络架构及物联网应用领域。

图2 物联网网络架构及物联网应用领域

基于ZigBee的无线传感器网络

物联网组网采用分层的通信系统架构，包括感知延伸系统、传输系统、业务运营管理系统和各种应用，在不同的层次上支持不同的通信协议。

无线传传感器网络简介

电系统（MEMS)、片上系统（SOC）、无线通信和低功耗嵌入式技术的飞速发展,孕育出无线传感器网络(Wireless Sensor Networks, WSN)，并以其低功耗、低成本、分布式和自组织的特点带来了信息感知的一场变革。无线传感器网络就是由部署在监测区域内大量的廉价微型传感器节点组成，通过无线通信方式形成的一个多跳自组织网络。

无线传感器网络是大量的静止或移动的传感器以自组织和多跳的方式构成的无线网络，其目的是协作地感知、采集、处理和传输网络覆盖地理区域内感知对象的监测信息，并报告给用户。它的英文是Wireless Sensor Network, 简称WSN。大量的传感器节点将探测数据，通过汇聚节点经其它网络发送给了用户。在这个定义中，传感器网络实现了数据采集、处理和传输的三种功能，而这正对应着现代信息技术的三大基础技术，即传感器技术、计算机技术和通信技术。

无线传感器网络(wireless sensor networks，WSN)是当前在国际上备受关注的、涉及多学科高度交叉、知识高度集成的前沿热点研究领域。它综合了传感器、嵌入式计算、现代网络及无线通信和分布式信息处理等技术，能够通过各类集成化的微型传感器协同完成对各种环境或监测对象的信息的实时监测、感知和采集，这些信息通过无线方式被发送，并以自组多跳的网络方式传送到用户终端，从而实现物理世界、计算世界以及人类社会这三元世界的连通。

所谓无线传感器网络由大量部署在目标区域内的，具备感知、无线通信与计算能力的微小传感器节点所构成的分布式网络系统。传感器网络节点的组成和功能包括如下四个基本单元：传感单元(由传感器和模数转换功能模块组成)、处理单元(由嵌入式系统构成，包括CPU、存储器、嵌入式操作系统以及节点应用程序等组成)、通信单元(由无线通信模块组成)、以及供电单元(电池、太阳能或其他方式)。传感器网络可以根据当时的情况通过自组织方式构成动态的网络拓扑结构。传感器网络节点间一般采用多跳的无线通信方式进行通信。传感器网络可以在独立的环境下运行，也可以通过网关连接到互联网，使用户可以远程访问。

无线网络技术按照传输范围来划分，可以分为无线广域网（WWAN），无线城域网（WMAN），无线局域网（WLAN）和无线个人域网（WPAN）。其中的无线个人域网就是所谓的短距离无线网络，各种短距离无线传输技术层出不穷：蓝牙（Bluetooth）、ZigBee、Wi-Fi、无线USB，无载波通信技术（UWB）等, 其中蓝牙（Bluetooth）、UWB和ZigBee是最受产业界关注的三种标准。Bluetooth虽然成本低，成熟度高，具有多种规范，但是其传输距离有限，仅为10米，只能组成最多8个节点的星状网，电池也仅能维持数周。UWB虽然可以实现高达几百Mbps的传输速率，但是其覆盖距离仅为10米，这决定了它主要被用作消费产品中的视频和高速数据解决方案，目前UWB没有网状网络能力。Wi-Fi虽然传输速度可以达到11Mbps，传输距离达到100米，但是其价格相对教昂贵，且功耗大，组网能力差。ZigBee技术专注于低成本，低功耗和低速率的无线通信市场，因此非常适合应用于物联网无线传感器网络中来。

ZigBee技术概述

ZigBee技术是一种短距离、低复杂度、低功耗、低数据速率、低成本的双向无线通信技术或无线网络技术，是一组基于IEEE 802.15.4无线标准研制开发的有关组网、安全和应用软件方面的通信技术。ZigBee协议规范使用了IEEE 802.15.4定义的物理层(PHY)和媒体介质访问层(MAC)，并在此基础上定义了网络层(NWK)和应用层(APL)架构。

基于ZigBee技术的无线传感器网络应用在ZigBee联盟和IEEE 802.15.4组织的推动下，结合其他无线技术可以实现无所不在的网络。它不仅在工业、农业、军事、环境、医疗等传统领域具有极高的应用价值，而且在未来其应用更将扩展到涉及人类日常生活和社会生产活动的所有领域。IEEE 802.15.4标准 1.物理层(PHY)规范

物理层定义了物理无线信道和与 MAC 层之间的接口，提供物理层数据服务和物理层管理服务。物理层数据服务是从无线物理信道上收发数据，物理层管理服务维护一个由物理层相关数据组成的数据库。物理层功能相对简单，主要是在硬件驱动程序的基础上，实现数据传输和物理信道的管理。数据传输包括数据的发送和接收；管理服务包括信道能量监测(energy detect，ED)，链接质量指示(Link quality indication，LQI)和空闲信道评估(clear channel assessment,CCA)等。2.媒体介质访问层(MAC)规范

MAC 层提供两种服务：MAC层数据服务和 MAC 层管理服务。前者保证 MAC 协议数据单元在物理层数据服务中的正确收发，而后者从事 MAC层的管理活动，并维护一个信息数据库。

MAC 层的主要功能包括如下7个方面：

1.网络协调者产生并发送信标帧(beacon)；

2.设备与信标同步；

3.支持RAN 网络的关联(association)和取消关联(disassociation)操作 4.为设备的安全性提供支持；

5.信道接入方式采用免冲突载波检测多路访问(CSMA-CA)机制；

6.处理和维护保护时隙(GTS)机制；

7.在两个对等的 MAC 实体之间提供一个可靠的通信链路。ZigBee技术简介

ZigBee 协议标准采用分层结构，每一层为上层提供一系列特殊的服务：数据实体提供数据传输服务；管理实体则提供所有其他的服务。所有的服务实体都通过服务接人点 SAP 为上层提供接口，每个 SAP 都支持一定数量的服务原语来实现所需的功能。ZigBee 标准的分层架构是在OSI 七层模型的基础上根据市场和应用的实际需要定义的。其中 IEEE 802.15.4—2003 标准定义了底层协议：物理层(physical layer，PHY)和媒体访问控制层(medium access control sub—layer，MAC)。ZigBee 联盟在此基础上定义了网络层(network layer,NWK)，应用层(application layer，APL)架构。在应用层内提供了应用支持子层(application support sub—layer，APS)和 ZigBee 设备对象(ZigBee device object，ZDO)。应用框架中则加入了用户自定义的应用对象。ZigBee 协议的体系结构如图3所示。

图3 ZigBee 协议体系结构

ZigBee 的网络层采用基于 Ad Hoc 的路由协议，除了具有通用的网络层功能外，还应该与底层的 IEEE 802.15.4标准一样功耗小，同时要实现网络的自组织和自维护，以最大限度方便消费者使用，降低网络的维护成本。应用支持子层把不同的应用映射到 ZigBee网络上，主要包括安全属性设置、业务发现、设备发现和多个业务数据流的汇聚等功能。1.网络层(NWK)规范

网络层负责拓扑结构的建立和维护网络连接，主要功能包括设备连接和断开网络时所采用的机制，以及在帧信息传输过程中所采用的安全性机制。此外，还包括设备的路由发现和路由维护和转交。并且，网络层完成对一跳(one—hop)邻居设备的发现和相关结点信息的存储。一个ZigBee协调器创建一个新网络，为新加入的设备分配短地址等。并且，网络层还提供一些必要的函数，确保ZigBee的 MAC 层正常工作，并且为应用层提供合适的服务接口。2.应用层(APL)规范

在ZigBee协议中应用层是由应用支持子层、ZigBee 设备配置层和用户应用程序来组成的。应用层提供高级协议栈管理功能，用户应用程序由各制造商自己来规定，它使用应用层来管理协议栈。3.应用支持子层(APS)APS 子层通过 ZigBee 设备对象(ZD0)和制造商定义的应用对象所用到的一系列服务来为网络层和应用层提供接口。APS 子层所提供的服务由数据服务实体(APSDE)和管理服务实体(APSME)来实现。APSDE通过数据服务实体访问点(APSDE—SAP)来提供数据传输服务。APSME 通过管理服务实体访问点(APSME—SAP)来提供管理服务，它还负责对 APS 信息数据库(AIB)的维护工作。

基于ZigBee的无线组网技术

ZigBee网络体系

ZigBee网络中存在两种功能类型的设备，三种节点类型，三种拓扑结构及两种工作模式。

● 功能类型

ZigBee网络含全功能设备FFD（Full Function Device）和精简功能设备RFD（Reduced Function Device）两种功能类型的设备。全功能器件拥有完整的协议功能，在网络中可以作为协调器（Coordinator）、路由器（Router）和普通节点（Device）而存在。而精简功能器件旨在实现最简单的协议功能而设计，只能作为普通节点存在于网络中。全功能器件可以与精简功能器件或其他的全功能器件通信，而精简功能器件只能与全功能器件通信，精简功能器件之间不能直接通信。ZigBee网络要求至少有一个全功能设备作为网络协调器。

● 节点类型

ZigBee网络包含三种类型的节点，即协调器ZC（ZigBee Coordinator）、路由器ZR（ZigBee Router）和终端设备ZE（ZigBee EndDevice），其中协调器和路由器均为全功能设备（FFD），而终端设备选用精简功能设备（RFD）。

协调器：一个ZigBee网络PAN（Personal Area Network）有且仅有一个协调器，该设备负责启动网络，配置网络成员地址，维护网络，维护节点的绑定关系表等，需要最多的存储空间和计算能力。

路由器：主要实现扩展网络及路由消息的功能。扩展网络，即作为网络中的潜在父节点，允许更多的设备接入网络。路由节点只有在树状网络和网状网络中存在。

终端设备：不具备成为父节点或路由器的能力，一般作为网络的边缘设备，负责与实际的监控对象相连，这种设备只与自己的父节点主动通讯，具体的信息路由则全部交由其父节点及网络中具有路由功能的协调器和路由器完成。

● 拓扑结构

ZigBee网络支持星状网（Star Network），树状网（Cluster tree Network）和网状网（Mesh Network）三种网络拓扑结构如图2-1所示，依次是星状网络，树状网络和网状网络，在图4中的C表示PAN协调器，F表示全功能设备，R表示精简功能设备。

图4 星状网、树状网和网状网三种拓扑结构

星形网（Star）是由一个ZigBee协调器和一个或多个ZigBee终端节点组成的。ZigBee协调器必须是FFD，它位于网络的中心，负责发起建立和维护整个网络，其它的节点（终端节点）一般为RFD，也可以为FFD，它们分布在ZigBee协调器的覆盖范围内，直接与ZigBee协调器进行通信。星形网的控制和同步都比较简单，通常用于节点数量较少的场合。星型网络拓扑的最大优点是结构简单，无需其他路由信息，一切数据包均通过ZigBee协调器。其缺点是限制了无线网络的覆盖范围，很难实现高密度地扩展，最多支持两跳网络，适用于小型网络。目前为止，星形拓扑是最常见的网络配置结构，被大量应用在远程监测和控制终端设备的通信。

网络协调器要为网络选择一个唯一的标识符，所有该星型网络中的设备都是用这个标识符来规定自己的属主关系。不同星型网络之间的设备通过设置专门的网关完成相互通信。选择一个标识符后，网络协调器就允许其他设备加入自己的网络，并为这些设备转发数据分组。星型网络中的两个设备如果需要互相通信，都是先把各自的数据包发送给网络协调器，然后由网络协调器转发给对方。

树状网络（Cluster tree Network）由一个协调器和一个或多个星状结构连接而成，枝干末端的叶子节点一般为RFD，设备除了能与自己的父节点或子节点进行点对点直接通讯外，其他只能通过树状路由完成数据和控制信息的传输。ZigBee 协调器比网络中的其它路由器具有更强人的处理能力和存储空间。树状网络的一个显著优点就是它的网络覆盖范围较大，但随着覆盖范围的增加，信息的传输时延也会增大。

在建立树状网络时，ZigBee协调器建立网络后，先选择网络标识符，将自己的短地址设置为0，然后向它邻近的设备发送信标，接受其他设备的连接，形成树的第一级，此时ZigBee协调器与这些设备之间形成父子关系。与ZigBee协调器建立连接的设备都分配了一个16位的网络短地址。如果以终端设备的身份与网络连接，则ZigBee协调器分配一个唯一的16位网络地址；如果以路由器的身份与网络连接，则协调器会为它分配一个地址块（包含有若干16位短地址）。路由器根据它接收到的协调器信标的信息，配置并发送它自己的信标，允许其他的设备与自己建立连接，成为其子设备。由此可见，路由器转发消息时通过计算与目标设备的关系，从而决定向自己的父节点转发还是某个子节点转发。

网状网络（Mesh Network）一般是由若干个FFD连接在一起组成骨干网，它们之间是完全的对等通信，每个节点都可以与它的无线通信范围内的其它节点通信，即允许网络中所有具有路由功能的节点直接互连。但它们中也有一个会被推荐为ZigBee协调器。网状网络是树状网络基础上实现的，与树状网络不同的是，它是由路由器中的路由表配合来实现数据的网状路由的。Mesh网是一种高可靠性网络，具有“自恢复”能力，它可为传输的数据包提供多条路径，一旦一条路径出现故障，则存在另一条或多条路径可供选择，但正是由于两个节点之间存在多条路径，它也是一种“高冗余”的网络。该拓扑的优点是减少了消息延时、增强了可靠性，缺点是需要更多的存储空间开销。

● 工作模式

ZigBee网络的工作模式可以分为信标模式和非信标模式两种。信标模式可以实现网络中所有设备的同步工作和同步休眠，以达到最大限度地节省功耗，而非信标模式只允许ZE进行周期性休眠，ZC和所有ZR设备长期处于工作状态。

在信标模式下，ZC负责以一定的间隔时间（一般在15ms-4mins之间）向网络广播信标帧，两个信标帧发送间隔之间有16个相同的时槽，这些时槽分为网络休眠区和网络活动区两个部分，消息只能在网络活动区的各个时槽内发送。

非信标模式下，ZigBee标准采用父节点为ZE子节点缓存数据，ZE主动向其父节点提取数据的机制，实现ZE的周期性（周期可设置）休眠。网络中所有的父节点需要为自己的ZE子节点缓存数据帧，所有ZE子节点的大多数时间都处于休眠状态，周期性的醒来与父节点握手以确认自己仍处于网络中，并向父节点提取数据，其从休眠模式转入数据传输模式一般只需要15ms。

简单的概括为：两种设备，三种节点类型，三种拓扑结构及两种工作模式。1.全功能设备FFD，精简功能设备RFD 2.协调器，路由器，终端设备

3.星状网，树状网，网状网

4.信标模式 ,非信标模式(信标模式可以实现网络中所有设备的同步工作和同步休眠，以达到最大限度地节省功耗；而非信标模式只允许ZE进行周期性休眠，ZC和所有ZR设备长期处于工作状态)。

图5为基于ZigBee的无线传感器网络在物联网中的应用。

图5 基于ZigBee的无线传感器网络在物联网中的应用

第三篇：建筑项目招投标外文翻译外文文献英文文献

Building engineering bidding

Abstract: Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed.The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market.This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.bidding documents should be well formulated ,which is important to a successful bidding and direct influence the success or failure of the bidding work.Because the success or failure of the bidding for the survival and development of enterprise has a direct impact, so we have a high quality, improve the bid documents of the unit, prevent invalid and successful pass mark appear, become a research topic.key : bidding drawbacks of unfair competition countermeasures Bidding is a form of project transactions, project bidding process is to determine the successful bidder and the cost of the process and the price of the project, project bidding work of a very important link, do a good job bidding to determine the price, we can effectively control construction costs, and create a fair and equitable market environment, create orderly competition mechanism.Bidding in construction activities, construction enterprises in order to tender invincible works to be successful, And from the contracted projects profitable, it needs to integrate various subjective and objective conditions, the tender research strategy determine tender.Tender bidding strategy, including pricing strategies and skills.All of the strategies and skills from the numerous contractors bidding on the accumulated experience and objective

understanding of the law and of the actual situation understanding, but also with the contractor's decision-making ability and courage are closely related.Bidding documents is the general programme and play book of the bidding activity through the process of bidding.The bidding documents will specify that How to conduct each bidding work, how to dispatch bidding documents, the requirements for tenderer,how to rate and decide bidding and the procedures of bidding.Therefore, the personnel who is responsible for prepare bidding documents should first have a

general view of the bidding work, include all the requirements and arrangements into the bidding documents.If meet problems that have not been considered previously, then resolve them one by one during the preparation.The course of bidding documents preparation is also the course of making bidding scheme.In another respect, bidding documents is also the legal instruments.Besides relevant law and rules, the bidding documents are the common game rules that bidder,bidding agent and tenderer should subject to through the bidding.Bidding documents are the legal instruments that all the three bidding related parties should subject to, have legal force, therefore, the bidding documents-making personnel required to have the awareness and quality of legal in order to reflect the fair, just and legal requirement in the bidding documents.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role.But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve.This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed.The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market.This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role.But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve.This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.The practice of project bidding purpose is to market competition of openness, fairness and justice.However, due to the construction market development is not standard, management system and the experience of inadequate, architectural engineering bidding in concrete operation exist in ACTS of unfair competition, and some drawbacks.This obviously violate the bidding, the bidding process, and will lose its significance for other bidder fails to bid is unjust, disturbed the bidding(project contracting market economic order, for activities), this kind of behavior must be prohibited, only in this way can we make construction engineering competitive trading activity lawfully healthy.This subject will I learned and social practice, present situation and construction project bidding system is expounded, and the disadvantages of bidding for construction project with ACTS of unfair competition phenomenon and analysis of causes, and finally make corresponding preventive countermeasures.Construction cost management system, both theoretical discussion, but also need to practice innovation.Under the conditions of market economy, project cost management, competitive and orderly market for construction management services platform structures.In such a premise, the original scale and method of valuation is inappropriate, and this needs to be reformed and improved.The spirit of “the government's macro regulation and control, enterprise autonomy offer, the market will price” principle, to implement the implementation specification bill of quantity.Inventory Valuation bidding activities are based on market economy mechanism, based on legal, scientific, fair, open and reasonable way to determine the winning bidder of an economic activity.Bidding is bidding activities constitute two basic aspects.The bidding activity is merely that by bidding to choose the one with the work

Construction process capability, moderate cost, quality is excellent, short duration of construction enterprises, and this is the ultimate goal tender.I have participated in internships over the course of the project bidding, and completed over part of the calculation of quantities, combined with graduate experience in the design process, a brief analysis of the mode Quantities Call for Tender The meaning of risk and risk characteristics of the general construction, the lowest price sealed bidding construction method produces several risks and incentives，according to their characteristics discussed the feasibility of risk control and prevention.Comparison of engineering and engineering security risk management, insurance, similarities and differences between the two projects and benefits;construction project bidding and tendering process characteristics of human behavior is analyzed to reveal the bidder's risk appetite and behavioral characteristics with changes in the external environment change, when the default punishment is light, the bidder preference appetite for risk and default penalties, with the increase exceeds a certain value, the risk of bidders to show preference for behavior change to avoid the risk of penalties, the greater the bidder biased in favor of a more risk-averse behavior, the results of the control and prevention of risk behavior of bidders has an important and practical significance Construction Cost Management from the “quantity-one price” plan model to “price of separation volume” model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost.This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation.It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.With the construction of in-depth development of the market, the traditional fixed pricing model no longer suited to market-oriented economic development needs.In order to adapt to the current project bidding by the market needs of a project cost, we must work on the existing valuation methods and pricing model for reform, the implementation of projects bill pricing.Engineering is a list of pricing model and adapt to the market economy, allowing independent contractor pricing through market competition determine prices, with the international practice of pricing model.With the bill pricing model projects to promote, in accordance with international bidding practices is imperative.Therefore, “the lowest reasonable price of the successful bidder” My future is the most important evaluation methods.At this stage due to the implementation of projects bill pricing model and the problems mainly against China

at this stage “ in the minimum reasonable price of the principles of the successful bidder, most contractors have not yet set up their own enterprises of scale, companies unable to determine the reasonable Cost.This article is a scientific and fast set ”reasonable cost“ to study the key.First, from the project cost of the basic concept, of the engineering bill pricing model under the cost structure, to accurately predict costs of the project provided the basis, considering the average cost of the social cost to individual enterprises and the tender stage of the cost estimates.Followed through on fuzzy math and technology for smooth in-depth analysis, through ”close-degree,“ the concept of reasonable fuzzy math and exponential smoothing technologies, construction of the project cost vague prediction model, and in accordance with the relevant information and statistics Information and experience to establish a ”framework structure,“ the comparison works Construction Cost Management from the ”quantity-one price“ plan model to ”price of separation volume“ model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost.This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation.It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.A healthy bidding system should be in accordance with the ”open, fair and justice" and the principle of good faith, and establish a unified, open, competitive and orderly construction market.In view of the current problems existing in the bidding process, adopt regulations, and formulate and perfect the institution, strengthening process supervision measures, they can better regulate construction market order, prevent corruption from its source, purify construction market, promote the construction market order progressively toward standardization, institutionalized, and constantly improve the quality and level of the bidding work.建筑项目招投标

摘要:目前在工程建设项目行业中，以工程招投标为特征的建筑市场已经形成，施工企业为创造良好经济效益，必须严格控制成本，加强成本控制管理，才能提高市场适应能力和竞争力。本文从降低成本、增加收入两方面阐述对施工成本的有效控制。投标文件的编制是投标工作的一个重要环节，直接影响投标工作的成败，投标的成败对企业的生存和发展有着直接的影响，因此要编制出高质量的投标文件，提高单位的中标率，防止无效标及废标出现。关键词：

招投标

不正当竞争

防范对策

招标投标是一种工程交易形式，工程招投标的过程就是确定中标人和工程价格的过程，而工程价格的确定，是工程招投标工作中非常重要的一个环节，搞好招投标工程的价格确定工作，可以有效地控制工程造价，创造公平、公正的市场环境，营造有序竞争的机制。在建筑工程招标投标活动中，建筑施工企业要想在投标中立于不败之地，中标得到工程，然后又要从承包工程中赢利，就需要综合考虑各种主观条件与客观因素、研究投标策略，确定投标方法。

投标策略包括投标策略和作价技巧。所有的策略和技巧来自承包商的无数次投标的经验积累以及对客观规律的认识和对实际情况的了解，同时也与承包商的决策能力和魄力息息相关。

从招标进程上讲，招标文件是招标活动的总纲和剧本。每项招标工作如何开始，如何发出招标文件，对投标人有什么要求，如何评标，如何决标，招标程序是什么，都在招标文件中做出规定，所以编制招标文件的人员首先要对本次招标工作有一个全局性的认识，把本次招标的要求和安排反映到招标文件当中，在编制当中也会遇到事先没有想到的问题，那就在编制当中逐一解决，编制招标文件的过程也是制定招标方案的过程。

从另一个意义上来讲，招标文件也是法律文件，除了相关的法律法规外，在招标的全过程中招标人，投标人，招标代理机构共同遵循的游戏规则就是招标文件，这是参加招标工作三方人士必须遵循的法律文件，具有法律效力，所以编制招标文件的人员须有法律意识和素质，在招标文件中体现出公平、公正、合法的要求。

我国建筑工程招投标法实施以及工程施工监理制度的实践，对规范我国建筑市场、提高建筑工程施工质量，起到了积极的作用。但是在实施过程中存在不

少缺陷，需要完善、充实和提高。本工程招标文件根据《中华人民共和国招投标法》规定，对投标人，投标企业进行严格把关，对竞标者提出了专业性的要求，对工程的概况进行了说明。

目前在工程建设项目行业中，以工程招投标为特征的建筑市场已经形成，施工企业为创造良好经济效益，必须严格控制成本，加强成本控制管理，才能提高市场适应能力和竞争力。本文从降低成本、增加收入两方面阐述对施工成本的有效控制。

我国建筑工程招投标法实施以及工程施工监理制度的实践，对规范我国建筑市场、提高建筑工程施工质量，起到了积极的作用。但是在实施过程中存在不少缺陷，需要完善、充实和提高。本工程招标文件根据《中华人民共和国招投标法》规定，对投标人，投标企业进行严格把关，对竞标者提出了专业性的要求，对工程的概况进行了说明。

实行工程招投标的目的是为了市场竞争的公开、公平、公正。但是，由于建筑市场发育尚不规范，管理体制的束缚以及经验不足等原因，建筑工程招标投标在具体操作中还存在不正当竞争行为和一些弊端。这显然违背了招投标的目的，整个招标投标过程也就失去了意义，对其他未中标的投标人来讲也是不公正的，扰乱了招投标（工程承发包市场）经济活动秩序，对于这类行为必须予以禁止，只有这样，才能使建设工程竞争性交易活动依法健康运行。因此本课题将结合本人所学及社会实践，对目前的建设工程招投标制度及现状进行阐述，并针对建设工程招投标存在的弊端与不正当竞争行为现象及产生原因进行分析，最后做出相应的防范对策研究。

造价管理体系的建设，既包括理论上的探讨，又需要实践中的创新。市场经济条件下的工程造价管理，要为建筑市场有序竞争搭建管理服务平台。在这样一个大前提下，原有的定额和计价方法是不适应的，这就需要改革和完善。本着“政府宏观调控、企业自主报价、市场形成价格”的原则，来推行实施工程量清单计价规范。清单计价模式下招投标活动是建立在市场经济运行机制下，依据法律程序，以科学、公正、公开合理的方法确定中标人的一种经济活动。招投标是构成招标投标活动中两个最基本的环节。而招投标活动，无非是想通过招标，选择一家具有工

工程施工能力、造价适中、质量较优、工期较短的施工企业，这也是进行招标的最终目的。本人在实习过程中曾参与过多个项目的招投标工作，并完成过

部分工程量清单的计算，结合毕业设计过程中的体会，简要分析一下工程量清单计价模式下的招投标工作。

从风险的内涵和建设工程一般性风险特点出发，了建设工程最低价格密封招标法的几种风险及其产生的诱因，根据其特性探讨了风险控制与防范的可行性。比较了工程担保与工程保险这两种工程风险管理异同与优点；并对建设工程招投标过程中的投标人的行为特征进行了分析，揭示投标人的风险偏好行为特征随着外部环境的改变而变化，当违约惩罚较轻时，投标人偏向于追求风险，而随着违约惩罚标准加大超过某一值后，投标人表现出的风险行为改变为偏向于规避风险，惩罚标准越大投标人行为偏向于更加规避风险，这一结果对控制和防范投标人的行为风险具有重要的与现实意义。

工程造价管理由“量价合一”的计划模式向“量价分离”的市场模式转变，逐步建立市场形成价格为主的价格机制，把价格的决定权交给参与市场的各方，并最终通过市场来配置资源，从而真正实现通过市场机制决定工程造价。这对规范建筑市场的竞争行为和促进工程招标投标机制的创新发挥重要作用。可以说，实行工程量清单计价是我国工程造价管理制度的一大进步，也是在我国加入WTO后，与全球建筑业同行竞争的有力工具。

随着工程建筑市场的深入发展，传统的定额计价模式已不适应市场化经济发展的需要。为了适应目前工程招投标由市场形成工程造价的需要，必须对现行工程计价方法和计价模式进行改革，实行工程量清单计价。工程量清单计价模式是一种与市场经济相适应的、允许承包单位自主报价、通过市场竞争确定价格、与国际惯例接轨的计价模式。随着工程量清单计价模式的推广，按国际惯例招标投标势在必行。因此“最低合理价中标”是我国今后最主要的评标办法。现阶段因实施工程量清单计价模式而出现的问题主要有，针对我国现阶段《招标投标法》中规定的最低合理价中标的原则，多数承包商尚未建立自己的企业定额，无法确定企业的合理成本。本文就是以科学、快捷的确定“合理成本价”为研究的关键。首先从工程成本的基本概念入手，分析了工程量清单计价模式下的成本构成，为准确预测工程成本提供了基础，综合考虑了社会平均成本和企业个别成本来进行投标阶段的成本估算。其次通过对模糊数学和指数平滑技术的深入分析，通过“贴近度”的概念，合理的将模糊数学与指数平滑技术结合起来，构建了工程成本模糊预测技术的数学模型，并根据统计的有关参考资料和经验建立了“框架结构体系”的对比工程

一个健康的招投标制度应该是按照“公开、公正、公平”和诚实信用的原则，建立起统一、开放、竞争、有序的建筑市场。针对当前招投标过程中存在的问题，采取完善法规、明确职责、健全机构，强化过程监督等措施，才能更好地规范建筑市场秩序，从源头上遏止腐败，净化建筑市场，促进建筑市场秩序逐步走向规范化，法制化的轨道，不断提高工程招投标工作的质量和水平。

第四篇：交通运输 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 北京运输系统

附件1：外文资料翻译译文

北京运输系统

摘要：运输系统提供了与城市郊区显着不同的服务，这通常会导致有关用户选择交通方式的不同假设。本文所提到的仿真模型，提出了评估影响运输服务的政策。运输方式被认为是公共交通工具，包括轻型轨道交通（轻轨）和公共汽车，加上私人轿车。在三步旅行者行为仿真模型中，使用了广义运输成本的概念。它提出各类交通以及对居民的出行选择和郊区住宅社区形态量化的建议，并使用了源自于中国北京一个典型走廊的数据。

仿真结果表明：票价降低，增加公共交通的综合能力，以及对私家车的惩罚是很有必要的，以此来提高系统效率和郊区的吸引力，特别是对那些低收入的人；没有公路定价，将鼓励中等收入居民转向私人轿车，同时,高收入者可能因为道路拥挤离开郊区；然而公共交通的改善可以吸引更多短距离和中距离的旅客，但轿车用户对于旅行距离并不敏感。

关键词：广义成本，公共交通，拥挤定价，运输服务，北京

从上世纪90年代，中国大中城市已经历郊区化，而且这些城市的空间结构逐步形成，在很大程度上依赖于交通运输的进步。由于人口爆炸和改造中心城市，许多郊区城镇发展为住宅区，这些新发展城镇的大部分居民受雇于中心城市或附近的工业区。例如，80%多回龙关郊区社区的居民在北京或发达地区中心城市工作，几乎有一半的北京社区居民受雇于朝阳区中央商务区。这些领域在交通系统规划与提供经营效率方面对交通政策制定者和城市规划设计师提出了新的挑战。

在许多情况下，边沿城镇通过高速公路和城市轨道连接中心城市或工业园区。相比传统的城市，郊区展览更稳定的运输使用模式，更加依赖公共交通，私人汽车，较少使用机动模式（自行车，步行）。工作距离比任何单一因素对人们的交通方式的影响都大。这样的特点，可以深刻影响的人口郊区化，并限制一些人移民到郊区。

本文利用西北地区的北京作为一个测试案例，分析了运输服务的政策，主要是费用和服务质量，将影响整体运输系统与城市空间结构。本文的组织如下：第二节简要回顾最近一些有关运输方式选择的文献，并与海城市海城走廊案件，特别是中国的现状进行比较。第三部分讨论广义运输成本的概念，并建立了新的概念，包括利用广义成本和转移成本预算的障碍。第四节在公共运输和驾驶之间介绍旅客运输方式选择行为仿真模型，然后转向注意中国经验运输服务政策与海城市海城出行方式选择。在第五节中，特别提到的情况是，利用北京的轻轨和高速公路，西北地区迅速郊区化。在第六节中，得出主要研究结果和政策启示。

大量的研究机构在研究运输方式和个体出行方式的选择。一般来说，有三种常见的方法来确定这个问题。第一部分着重研究影响选择决策的每个模式的特点，所采用的实证研究状况用于改变结果，研究人与旅游目的等。例如，travel-to-work行为在阿克拉（加纳）主要由知觉服务品质、商业通勤车以及员工的个人情况决定，而不是通过访问，等待时间或车载。在英国，为了走亲访友而决定行程，经济因素在很大程度上解释模式的选择，使用私人交通工具时定性的理由往往是次要的（科恩、哈里斯，1998）。约翰松等使用瑞典上班者的图片案例表明了灵活性和舒适性这两个感觉影响个人的选择模式。根据在法兰克福，德国的实验领域研究和统计分析，认为有四类人。一类人很少重视金钱和时间因素，第二种人非常重视金钱但很不重视时间，第三种人都重视，第四种人很少重视金钱但很重视时间。林坦库等人选自来自1998年的数据，即荷兰国家旅游调查组确认空间配置，土地利用和交通基础设施，对长途旅行模式比如通勤，商务和休闲旅行具有重大影响。

广义运输成本的概念经常用于评估和解释的旅游行为。广义旅行成本包括旅行时间，超过时间，金钱成本，停车收费，和一些令人忽视的小费。然而，这一概念在不同的文献因为不同的研究目的是不同的。例如，广义骑自行车费用如下：旅行时间，物理需要，舒适，交通安全，自行车被盗的风险，停放自行车的费用以及维护费用，个人安全。货币化的广义概念通常是将旅行时间转换成货币费用，增加的费用，收取的费用，在这项研究中，模拟通勤出行行为，三个运输关于概念费用是相通的。第一个可以被定义为预算障碍，包括经营费用，养路费以及停车场收费。第二个是货币化的广义成本和时间成本，包括经营费用，以及停车费用。用户被假定为尽量减少个人的货币化成本，把自己的出行方有别于旅行时间和费用成本。广义货币化成本的公共交通是计算访问到火车站的时间，等候时间，这是计算的基础上的进展，等车时间，以及票价。货币化费用包括旅行时间，收费，汽车运行成本和在工作地方的停车场收费。第三个概念是确定模式转移成本即拥挤造成不适的成本。据推测，如果乘客在车辆已远远超过容量，新来的旅客会转移到其他负担得起的运输方式。

贯穿城市及乡村的公路通常是不仅仅可以通私人轿车，也可以通公共汽车。介于以前的经验，道路定价可以大大提高用户的剩余地区，公共交通的费用可以大大减少因长时间的旅行而造成的拥挤，特别是，如果用户很大程度上钟情于公共交通。方案2表明高收入的旅客不得不放弃定期迁移到郊区的计划，主要由于免费使用的情况下所造成的严重挤塞。另一组是深深影响了中等收入的旅客，她他们从公共运输方式换成了私家车驾驶。

公共汽车票价降低和公交线路的增加使得许多中等收入居民转移去坐公交车，同时小汽车用户转移到轻轨，特别是那些短距离旅行。此外，研究发现，一个综合改善公共交通服务和一些私人汽车惩罚措施的政策，有利于提高系统效率和郊区社区的吸引力。

这种综合系统包括轻轨、公共汽车票价的降低，服务质量的提高和公路通行费的征收。应该指出，轻轨已旨在增加公交扶手使公共交通更吸引用户，从而，减少道路拥挤。根据模拟结果，轻铁及巴士票价减少以及客容量的增加，使这一模式对于那些中低收入旅行者更有吸引力。最后的结果是，越来越多的人移民到郊区，不论是低收入到高收入阶层。当然，公共交通服务的改善需要政府补贴，这也是一个世界性的现象。每个模式的经济旅行距离几乎不受不同的运输服务的政策影响。公共汽车是用于短距离的旅行，而中、长距离者喜欢轻铁。反之，小汽车用户则是无所谓。结果表明，这些低收入公民因现有运输服务的政策限制迁移到郊区的经济房屋，包括相对高收费的公共交通和公路，以及有限的轻轨和公交线路。当然，所有运输模式对于在家工作的人在一定程度上都有影响。

城市交通在整个世界中都是是政府政策的一个主要领域。运输政策也会影响城市形态，尤其是郊区化。在北京，许多经济公寓是专为那些低收入居民建造准备的。在重大问题的决策之前有两个主要的问题。首先，从过去的经验，大量在郊区社区中的永久居民都是中等或更高收入的人。而且很多的业主仍然居住在城市中心，郊区房子只用来去度假。此外，居民不断投诉交通拥堵和相对高的收费公路，特别是在繁忙时间。本研究的模拟结果解释了这些现象并尝试给出了相应的政策含义。

附件2：外文原文

Transport system

Abstract Transport systems offer substantially different services in city-suburb areas;this usually leads to different assumptions about user behavior in transport mode choice.In this paper a simulation model is proposed to assess the effect of transport service policies on mode choice.The transport modes considered are public transport, including light rail transit(LRT)and bus, together with the private auto.In the three step traveler behaviour simulation model, the concept of generalised transport costs is used.Various transit incentives are proposed and their impacts on residents travel choice and suburban residential community form are quantified, using data on a typical city-suburb corridor in Beijing, China.The simulation results show that: the fare reduction and capacity increase of public transport integrated with private car disincentives is necessary to improve system efficiency and suburb community attractiveness, particularly for those low income people;without highway pricing, medium income residents will be encouraged to shift to private car while more high income persons might leave the suburb because of road congestion;public transport improvement can attract more short and medium distance travelers, but the car users are not sensitive to travel distance.Keywords: generalised cost, public transport, congestion pricing, transport service, Beijing From the middle of 1990s, metropolitans in China have been experiencing suburbanization, and the spatial structures of these cities are shaped, in large measure, by the advances of transportation.Many suburban towns were development only for residential areas because of the population explosion and renovation in central cities.Most of the residents in these new development towns are employed in the central city or near industrial parks.For example, more than 80% residents of Hui long guan suburban community in Beijing have jobs in central city or developed CBD areas.And almost half of the residents in Wangjing community are employed in CBD in Chaoyang District.These areas present new challenges for transport policy makers and urban planning designers to plan and operate efficient transportation systems.In many cases the edge towns are connected to the central city or industrial parks by high-speed highways and urban rails.Compared to traditional urban areas, the suburban towns exhibit more stable transport mode use, more reliance on public transport and private automobile, less use of non-motorized modes(bicycle, walking).Home to work distances have a stronger bearing on people’s transport mode to work than any single factor.Such characteristics can deeply influence the population suburbanization, and restrict some people from immigrating to the suburb.This paper analyses how the transport service policy, mainly fare and service quality, will impact the overall transport system performance and urban spatial structure, using the North-west area of Beijing as a test case.The paper is organized as follows.Section II briefly reviews some of the recent literatures on transport mode choice, and compares these studies with the city-suburban corrid or cases, especially the current conditions in China.Section III discusses the concept of generalised transport costs, and establishes the new concepts including budget barrier, monetized generalised cost and shift cost.Section IV presents the traveler behaviour simulation model of transport mode choice between public transport and driving.Attention is then turned to the Chinese experience of transport service policy and city-suburban travel mode choice in section V, with special reference to the case of North-west area which is a rapidly suburbanized region served by light rail and highway in Beijing.Major findings of the research and the policy implications are concluded and discussed in section Ⅵ.A substantial body of research exists on transport mode and individual travel mode choice.In general, there are three common approaches to identify this issue.The first part of researches focuses on determining the characteristics of each mode which influence the choice decision.The results change with the adopted empirical case condition, studied person and travel purpose, etc.For example, travel-to-work behavior in Accra(Ghana)is influenced mainly by perceived service quality of the commercial commuter vehicles as well as employees' personal circumstances rather than by access, waiting or in-vehicle times(Abane, 1993).For trips made to visit friends and relatives in Britain, the economic reasons largely explain mode choice, and qualitative reasons for using private transport are often secondary(Cohen and Harris, 1998).Vredin Johansson et el.used a sample of Swedish commuters to prove that both attitudes towards flexibility and comfort influencing the individual's choice of mode(Vredin Johansson, Heldt et al., 2006).Based on an experimental field study and statistical analysis conducted in Frankfurt Main, Germany, four classes of individuals were identifed.One class allocates a low importance to both monetary and time considerations, the second allocates high importance to money and low importance to time, the third allocates high importance to both, and the fourth allocates a low importance to money and a high importance to time(Davidov, Yang-Hansen etal., 2006).And Limtanakool etel.employed data from the 1998 Netherlands National Travel Survey to confirm the spatial configuration of land use and transport infrastructure has a significant impact on mode choice processes for medium and long distance trips for all purposes: commute, business, and leisure trips

Generalised transport costs is a concept frequently used forassessing and explaining travel behaviour.The generalised costs of travel include the travel time, excess time, money cost, parking charge, and the discomfort and lesser connivance.However, this concept is diverse in different literatures for varying research purposes.For example, the generalised costs of cycling are the following: travel time, physical needs, comfort, traffic safety, risk of bicycle theft, costs of parking bicycles and maintenance costs, personal security.And the concept of monetized generalised cost is usually calculated by converting travel time into monetary cost, and adding the cost of the fare charged In this study, for simulating the commuter’s travel behaviour, three transport costs related concepts are adopted in order.The first can be defined as budget barrier, including the fare or toll charged together with parking cost which all means cash payment in the trip.The second one is monetized generalized cost including fare, parking and time cost.Users are assumed to minimize individual monetized generalized trip cost and divide themselves among the travel modes that are differentiated in travel time and fare cost.The monetized generalized costs of public transport is computed as a function of the access time to the station, the waiting time which is calculated based on the line’s headway, in-vehicle travel time, and the fare.The monetized generalized cost of driving includes travel time, toll, car operation cost and parking charge in work place.The third concept is identified as mode shift cost which means discomfort cost caused by congestion.It is assumed that if the passengers in vehicle have far exceeded the capacity, the new coming passenger will shift to other affordable transport mode.The city-suburb highway is usually used not only by private auto, but the bus.Using the previous experience，road pricing can greatly increase users’ surplus in the area where the cost of public transport can be significantly reduced by decreasing congestion because of the long travel distances involved, Particularly, if a substantial portion of users are captive to public transport.The results of scenario 2 show that more high income travelers have to abandon the plan of migrating to suburb mainly owing to the serious congestion on the condition of free use.Another deeply influenced group is medium income travelers who shift from public transport modes to car driving.Bus fare reduction and bus lines increase make many medium income residents shift to bus transport, meanwhile the car users shift to light rail, particularly those who travel for short distances.Furthermore, the research finds that an integrated policy of improved public transport service and some private car disincentives is beneficial to improve system efficiency and suburb community attractiveness.The integration consists of light rail and bus fare reduction, service quality improvement and highway toll imposition.It should be pointed out that light rail has been designed to increase transit rider ship by making public transport more attractive to users and, thus, to reduce road congestion.According to the simulation result, the light rail and bus fare reduction and capacity increase makes this mode more attractive to those low and medium income travelers who are captive to bus mode before.The final outcome is that more people can migrant to the suburb, from low to high income classes.Of course, the public transport service improvement requires government subsidization, which is a worldwide phenomenon.The economic travel distance of each mode is almost not affected by different transport service policies.Bus is used more by short distance traveler, while the medium and long distance commuters prefer to light rail.On the contrary, car users are not sensitive to the travel distance, as shown in figure 3-4.The result indicates that those low income citizens are restricted from migrating to economic houses in suburb towns on account of existing transport service policies, including relatively high fare of public transport and highway, limited light rail capacity and bus lines.Of course, all transport modes have been affected to some degree by the numbers of persons working at home.Urban transportation is a major realm of government po1icy throughout the world.The transport policies also will affect the urban form deeply, especially during suburbanization.In Beijing, many economic apartments have been constructed in suburb for those low income citizens.There are two major problems before the policy makers.First, from the past experience, a large number of the permanent residents in the suburban communities are medium or even high income people.And many of the house owners still reside in central city and go to their suburban house only for holiday.In addition, the residents continually complain at the transport congestion and relative high toll of highway, particularly at peak time.The results of simulation in this study explain these phenomena and try to give some policy implications.

第五篇：市场营销_外文翻译_外文文献_英文文献_顾客满意策略与顾客满意

顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销

原文来源：《Marketing Customer Satisfaction》

自20世纪八十年代末以来,顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额,获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。

一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝

随着时代的变迁,社会物质财富的极大充裕,顾客中的主体———消费者的需求也先后跨越了物质缺乏的时代、追求数量的时代、追求品质的时代,到了20世纪八十年代末进入了情感消费时代。在我国,随着经济的高速发展,我们也已迅速跨越了物质缺乏时代、追求数量的时代乃至追求品质的时代,到今天也逐步迈进情感消费时代。在情感消费时代,各企业的同类产品早已达到同时、同质、同能、同价,消费者追求的已不再是质量、功能和价格,而是舒适、便利、安全、安心、速度、跃动、环保、清洁、愉快、有趣等,消费者日益关注的是产品能否为自己的生活带来活力、充实、舒适、美感和精神文化品位,以及超越消费者期望值的售前、售中、售后服务和咨询。也就是说,今天人们所追求的是具有“心的满足感和充实感”的商品,是高附加值的商品和服务,追求价值观和意识多元化、个性化和无形的满足感的时代已经来临。

与消费者价值追求变化相适应的企业间的竞争,也由产品竞争、价格竞争、技术竞争、广告竞争、品牌竞争发展到现今的形象竞争、信誉竞争、文化竞争和服务竞争,即顾客满意竞争。这种竞争是企业在广角度、宽领域的时空范围内展开的高层次、体现综合实力的竞争。它包括组织创新力、技术创新力、管理创新力、产业预见力、产品研发力、员工向心力、服务顾客力、顾客亲和力、同行认同力、社会贡献力、公关传播沟通力、企业文化推动力、环境适应力等等。这些综合形象力和如何合成综合持久的竞争力,这就是CS策略所要解决的问题。CS时代,企业不再以“自己为中心”,而是以“顾客为中心”；“顾客为尊”、“顾客满意”不再是流于形式的口号,而是以实实在在的行动为基础的企业经营的一门新哲学。企业不再以质量达标,自己满意为经营理念,而是以顾客满意,赢得顾客高忠诚度为经营理念。企业经营策略的焦点不再以争取或保持市场占有率为主,而是以争取顾客满意为经营理念。因此,营销策略的重心不再放在竞争对手身上而是放在顾客身上,放在顾客现实的、潜在的需求上。当企业提供的产品和服务达到了顾客事先的期望值,顾客就基本满意；如果远远超越顾客的期望值,且远远高于其他同行,顾客才真正满意；如果企业能不断地或长久地令顾客满意,顾客就会忠诚。忠诚的顾客不仅会经常性地重复购买,还会购买企业其它相关的产品或服务；忠诚的顾客不仅会积极向别人推荐他所买的产品,而且对企业竞争者的促销活动具有免疫能力一个不满意的顾客会将不满意告诉16-20个人,而每一个被告知者会再传播给12-15个人。这样,一个不满意者会影响到二、三百人。在互联网普及的今天,其影响则更大。据美国汽车业的调查,一个满意者会引发8笔潜在的生意,其中至少有一笔会成交。而另一项调查表明,企业每增加5%的忠诚顾客,利润就会增长25%-95%。一个企业的80%的利润来自20%的忠诚顾客；而获取一个新顾客的成本是维持一个老顾客成本的6倍。所以,美国著名学者唐·佩珀斯指出:决定一个企业成功与否的关键不是市场份额,而是在于顾客份额。

于是,企业纷纷通过广泛细致的市场调研、与消费者直接接触、顾客信息反馈等方式来了解顾客在各方面的现实需求和潜在需求。依靠对企业满意忠诚的销售、服务人员,定期、定量地对顾客满意度进行综合测定,以便准确地把握企业经营中与“顾客满意”目标的差距及其重点领域,从而进一步改善企业的经营活动。依靠高亲和力的企业文化、高效率的人文管理和全员共同努力,不断地向顾客提供高附加值的产品,高水准的亲情

般的服务,以赢得顾客不断变化和提升的满意度,赢得更多的顾客份额。如海尔始终把顾客需求放在第一位,站在顾客的角度考虑产品开发、设计,提供个性化、人性化实用产品,从拉幕式彩电到最新推出的“换台不晃眼彩电”,从小小神童洗衣机到手搓式洗衣机,从小王子冰箱到“智慧眼”变频空调,从17个小时制出“迈克冷柜”到售后一条龙星级服务,无一不是为满足顾客需求而提供的令其满意的超值产品和服务。又如微软的每一种产品都集中了世界上最优秀的开发人员,推出比顾客想要的还要好的产品,同时形成全球化销售的规模经济,把价格降到最低。而这正是微软20年来成功的秘决。

综上所述,情感消费时代,决定生产经营何种产品和提供什么样服务的权力已不再属于企业,而是属于消费者,衡量企业效率以及存在价值的决定权转移到了顾客手中,企业应尽量迎合顾客,超值满足顾客,以尽可能地从顾客那里获得“货币选票”。而CS策略正是获取这种选票的制胜法宝。

二、顾客满意营销策略的主要步骤

第一,在企业文化层面上确立以顾客为中心,顾客利益至上,以顾客满意为目标的经营理念。

CS理论中的顾客指的是内部员工和外部顾客(包括经销商、批发商、代理商、最终消费者和原材料供应商、合作者等),顾客满意包括员工和外部顾客的满意,顾客忠诚亦然。企业成功的机制在于顾客满意与忠诚,员工是顾客满意和忠诚的关键人员。员工对企业的满意度和忠诚度是顾客对企业产品和服务满意度和忠诚度的基础,顾客满意度和忠诚度是员工行为的必然结果。没有员工的满意与忠诚,就不可能创造出令顾客满意的产品和提供超值服务,顾客自然就不满意不忠诚,离企业而去。当员工满意与忠诚时就会在与顾客接触中以极大的热情投入自己的智力资本,创造性地为顾客服务,并能及时发现顾客需求动向,及时提升产品和服务的附加值,紧紧抓住顾客的心,令其满意。联邦快递发现,当内部员工满意率提高到85%时,他们的顾客满意率高达95%,且企业的利润也就十分乐观。在这里员工的态度决定着一切。

因此,企业必须将顾客满意的经营理念渗透于员工的头脑中,体现在管理中,对员工忠诚,以他们研发产品、制造产品、提供营销服务令顾客满意。如九头鸟”,员工得到的教育是一切以顾客为中心是企业经营的最高原则。顾客是恩人,是朋友,是老师,是顾客给了我们工作的机会,工作的价值,工作的乐趣和工作的意义。我们应该发自内心地真诚地感谢顾客,顾客的满意就是我们的工作目标,为顾客创造最有价值的产品和服务是我们的最高目标。在此原则指导下,宁愿让自己吃亏不能让顾客吃亏已成为“九头鸟”员工的行为准则。让顾客感到在“九头鸟”消费是一种享受,是一种物超所值的享受。顾客在付出成本后,对自己的消费有一个期望值,而消费者最后得到的消费在其心中也会有一个评价的标准来衡量,如果物超所值,他以后就会再来,如物有所值,他以后可能会再来；否则,消费者将不会再来。所以,“九头鸟”的目的就是为消费者提供物超所值的产品和服务。有如此经营理念及其指导下的令顾客满意营销,“九头鸟”红火于京城就不难理解了。

第二,让顾客参与产品设计与研发。

企业以顾客为中心,经过市场细分,广泛的调研了解目标公众的需求和价值,站在顾客的角度考虑产品开发、设计,提供个性化、人性化的高附加值的产品和服务,是正确的,但必须让用户一起参与产品设计。利用互联网和CAD技术与顾客建立有效的沟通和信息交流,及时掌握顾客的各种需求信息和顾客价值,鼓励各种信息来源渠道对顾客信息库进行及时的更新。经过分析、总结,了解顾客的本质需求,并使顾客本质需求信息成为企业各个部门的共享资源。以此设计产品,提供令顾客满意的服务。现在,许多公司采用一种名为:“产品配置器”的系统来帮助用户一起参与产品设计。即在计算机里存放了所

有产品模块的最新信息,并随时更换,营销人员在销售现场通过因特网,根据用户需要或与用户一起配置出其所需要的能满足其价值的产品。上海通用公司生产的汽车令经营商和用户非常满意,就是因为让用户一起参与了产品的设计。而海尔无论是为四川农民生产的能洗地瓜的洗衣机,为上海用户生产的“小王子冰箱”,还是换台不晃眼的彩电,海尔的“智慧眼”变频空调,星级一条龙售后服务等,都是依据用户的需要,吸收了顾客参与产品设计的建议,而设计开发的令顾客满意的富有人性化的超值商品和服务,自然就赢得了更多顾客的芳心。

第三,提供令顾客满意的全程服务和个性服务。

全程服务是针对顾客的购物与消费每一环节所进行的细致而又深入的服务,心的服务。全程服务就是消费者从产生消费欲望那一刻起到商品使用价值耗尽为止的整个过程,对消费者的细心呵护,使消费者与自己的品牌紧密相连,让消费者享受文化、享受服务、感受理念、感到受益,心甘情愿地消费你的产品或服务,令消费者在每一个层面都感到完全满意,并能赢得客户的忠诚。销售阶段———保证顾客得到必须及时优质的服务,售前咨询培训参与,传递知识信息,创造购物需求,令顾客理性选择,帮助顾客购买自己实用称心的商品；售中支持提供方便,最大限度地发挥商品功能,让顾客体味到温情和价值；售后增值反馈回访服务,使顾客感受到温馨和真情。如一老太太买的海尔空调,回家途中被黑心司机拉跑了,海尔得知后,立即免费给老太太送去一台海尔新空调,并决定以后送货到位。内蒙一用户因家中失火,将刚买的海尔冰箱烧坏,海尔接电后从计算机服务网络中查到该用户详细住址,派专人专车用4天时间赶到为其修好冰箱。这种超值服务必然赢得顾客超期望值的满意。

在如今情感消费时代,人们追求“心的满足感和充实感”的商品,是高附加值极富个性化价值的商品,追求价值观和意识多元化、个性化和无形的满足感。因此,企业不再将注意力投入于全体消费者的一般需求差异上,应针对追求各异的个性消费者,量体裁衣,设计并开发企业的产品及服务项目,以适应当今个性化和多样化的消费趋势。面对越来越复杂的消费倾向,企业要驾驭顾客需求,进行个性化营销,关键在于建立顾客资料库与顾客信息反馈系统,进行客户关系管理,不断收集了解消费者的要求和偏好的变化,以及对企业新的期望,以便更好地为顾客提供个性化服务。

第四,培育顾客忠诚。

在餐饮业,满意顾客中品牌转换者的比例竟高达60%到80%。这说明满意的顾客并不一定能成为忠诚顾客。而一个企业80%的利润来自20%的忠诚顾客,营销顾客集Aracature Corp.的总裁Larry Light在Advertising Age杂志上说,从忠诚顾客身上得到的收益是非忠诚顾客的9倍。沃尔玛之所以能够持续增长成为500强的老大,根本原因在于它吸引客户忠诚的经营能力。

顾客忠诚是来自顾客感受到的、通过双向沟通所传递的价值和相互关系,是通过企业不懈地提供超值产品或服务而取得的。要使顾客忠诚,企业最高管理层必须有长期不懈的决心和资金支持,对企业的忠诚顾客进行界定,了解顾客的需求是怎样形成的,他们离去的原因是什么,买了谁的产品,为什么?认识并创建顾客忠诚的激励因素。培育忠诚顾客的营销方法有两种:

一是要妥善解决顾客的抱怨。只要妥善地处理顾客报怨,82%的顾客会再度购买商品。妥善处理顾客报怨,要求企业确立一套良好的人性化的“报怨管理”制度。第一,树立“顾客的报怨,是给企业最好的礼物,对改善企业的经营管理有好处”的观念；第二,企业必须确立有效的报怨处理政策和制度,并训练员工,正确对待顾客报怨,站在顾客的角度处理顾客报怨的问题；第三,处理顾客的部门要轮换,以便各业务单位都能及时了解顾客的满意度,并获得处理顾客报怨的经验；第四,建立所有顾客报怨资料库,以便及时

处理并防止公关危机的发生。

二是建立忠诚顾客数据库。只有通过数据库进行跟踪调查分析,才能确切知道企业拥有的顾客份额会增加多少,达到某一份额需要多久。忠诚顾客数据库的核心是关联数据库,它由一系列记录营销项目不同侧面的子库组成。忠诚顾客数据库,可以为员工及时提供超值服务所需的资料；为收集所有与顾客有关的细节资料创造条件；强化同顾客的快捷联系；为开发新产品和提供新的服务创造条件；与顾客进行长期互动的双向沟通,以便为其提供潜在需求的、似曾想到又非想到的满足其期望价值的产品或服务。