第一篇:机械工程英语课文翻译9-14
第九章 Lapping 研磨
Lapping is a finishing operation used on flat and cylindrical surfaces.The lap, shown in Fig.9.1a, is usually made of cast iron, copper, leather, or cloth.研磨是一种用于平面和圆柱面的精加工作业。研具,如图9.1a所示,通常用铸铁、铜、皮革或布制成。
The abrasive particles are embedded in the lap, or they may be carried through slurry.Depending on the hardness of the workpiece, lapping pressures range from 7kPa to 140kPa(1 to 20 psi).研磨微粒嵌入研具内,或者可以通过液体携带。根据工件硬度,研磨压力可在7kPa到140kPa(1到20psi)范围中取。
Lapping has two main functions.Firstly, it produces a superior surface finish with all machining marks being removed from the surface.Secondly, it is used as a method of obtaining very close fits between mating parts such as pistons and cylinders.研磨有两个主要作用。首先,它通过去除所有机加工痕迹能产生较好的表面光洁度。其次,它能用作获得像活塞与气缸之类配件间过盈配合的方法。
The lapped workpiece surface may look smooth but it is actually filled with microscopic peaks, valleys, scratches and pits.Few surfaces are perfectly flat.Lapping minimizes the surface irregularities, thereby increasing the available contact area.研磨后的工件表面可能看似平滑,其实布满着微观峰、谷、划痕和凹陷。几乎没有表面是完全平整的。研磨使表面不规则最小化,因而增加了有效接触面积。
The drawing in Fig.9.1a shows two surfaces.The upper one is how a surface might look before lapping and the lower one after lapping.Lapping removes the microscopic mountain tops and produces relatively flat plateaus.Entire microscopic mountain ranges may need to be ground down in order to increase the available contact area.图9.1a上显示了两个表面。上面是研磨前表面可能的外观模样而下面则是研磨后的模样。研磨去除了微观峰顶从而产生相对平坦的平台。整个微观山脉范围都需要磨去以增加有效接触面积。
Production lapping on flat or cylindrical pieces is done on machines such as those shown in Fig.9.1b and 9.1c.Lapping is also done on curved surfaces, such as spherical objects and lenses, using specially shaped laps.研磨平面或圆柱面工件的生产过程是在如图9.1b和9.1c那样的机器上完成的。研磨也可采用特殊成型研具在诸如球形物体和透镜之类的曲面上进行。Polishing
抛光
Polishing is a process that produces a smooth, lustrous surface finish.Two basic mechanisms are involved in the polishing process:(a)fine-scale abrasive removal, and(b)softening and smearing of surface layers by frictional heating during polishing.抛光是生成平滑、有光泽表面光洁度的工艺。抛光工艺涉及两种基本机理:(a)精细等级磨粒去除,和(b)在抛光中通过摩擦生热软化并抹光表面层。Electropolishing
Electropolishing is an electrochemical process similar to, but the reverse of, electroplating.The electropolishing process smoothes and streamlines the microscopic surface of a metal object.Mirror-like finishes can be obtained on metal surfaces by electropolishing.电解抛光
电解抛光是一种与电镀相似的电化学工艺,但过程与电镀正好相反。电解抛光工艺使金属物体的微观表面平滑和简单化。通过电解抛光能在金属表面得到镜面光洁度。
In electropolishing, the metal is removed ion by ion from the surface of the metal object being polished.Electrochemistry and the fundamental principles of electrolysis(Faraday’s Law)replace traditional mechanical finishing techniques.在电解抛光中,金属是逐个离子地从被抛光金属物体表面去除的。电化学和电解基本原理(Faraday定理)取代了传统的机械精加工技术。
In basic terms, the object to be electropolished is immersed in an electrolyte and subjected to a direct electrical current.The object is maintained anodic, with the cathodic connection being made to a nearby metal conductor.用基本术语说,要电解抛光的物体被浸没在电解液中并且通上直流电。该物体为阳极,阴极连接到附近的金属导体上。
Smoothness of the metal surface is one of the primary and most advantageous effects of electropolishing.During the process, a film of varying thickness covers the surface of the metal.This film is thickest over micro depressions and thinnest over micro projections.金属表面的平滑是电解抛光主要的和最有优势的效应之一。在此过程中,一变化着厚度的膜覆盖在金属表面上。该膜在微观凹陷处最厚而在微观凸出处最薄。
Electrical resistance is at a minimum wherever the film is thinnest, resulting in the greatest rate of metallic dissolution.Electropolishing selectively removes microscopic high points or “peaks” faster than the rate of attack on the corresponding micro-depressions or “valleys”.电阻在膜最薄处最小,导致最大金属分解率。电解抛光选择性地去除微观高点或“峰” 快于对相应微观凹陷处或“谷”的侵蚀速率。
Stock is removed as metallic salt.Metal removal under certain circumstances is controllable and can be held to 0.0001 to 0.0025 mm.原材料以金属盐的形式被去除。在特定环境下金属的去除是可控的并且保持在0.0001 到0.0025mm范围内。
Chemical Mechanical Polishing
Chemical mechanical polishing is becoming an increasingly important step in the fabrication of multi-level integrated circuits.Chemical mechanical polishing refers to polishing by abundant slurry that interacts both chemically and mechanically with the surface being polished.化学机械抛光
化学机械抛光正在多层集成电路制造领域成为日益重要的步骤。化学机械抛光是指大量抛光液与被抛光表面产生化学和机械作用的抛光。
During the chemical mechanical polishing process, a rotating wafer is pressed face down onto a rotating, resilient polishing pad while polishing slurry containing abrasive particles and chemical reagents flows in between the wafer and the pad.在化学机械抛光过程中,旋转晶片面向下压在旋转、有回弹力的抛光衬垫上,而同时含有研磨微粒和化学反应物的抛光液流过晶片与衬垫之间。
The combined action of polishing pad, abrasive particles and chemical reagents results in material removal and polishing of the wafer surface.Chemical mechanical polishing creates flat, damage-free on a variety of brittle materials and it is used extensively on silicon wafers in the manufacture of integrated circuits.抛光衬垫、研磨微粒和化学反应物的共同作用导致晶片表面的材料去除并抛光。化学机械抛光可使多种易碎材料平整且不受损害,因此在集成电路制造中被广泛地用在硅晶片上。
Chemical mechanical polishing is a complicated multiphase process.It mainly includes the following two dynamics.First, the active component in polishing slurry reacts with the atoms of the wafer, and the process is chemical reaction step with oxidation-reductive reaction.化学机械抛光是一种复杂的多相工艺。它主要包括下列两个动态过程:第一,抛光液中活性成分与晶片的原子发生反应,这是带有氧化-还原反应的化学反应步骤。
The second step is the process of desorption, that is to say, the resultants gradually separate from the wafer surface and new surface is exposed to polishing slurry.If chemical reactive rate is smaller, the total removal rate of the wafer is also small;furthermore, the surface degree of finish is not good.第二步是解吸附过程,即反应产物逐渐从晶片表面分离并将新表面暴露给抛光液。如果化学反应速率较小,晶片的总去除率也较小,而且表面光洁程度不够好。
On the contrary, even if chemical reaction is very rapid, but desorption is very slow, the total removal rate is not good.Because resultants connot separate from the wafer surface, the active component in the polishing slurry cannot expose and react with the atoms on the new surface, which holds up chemical reaction.与之相反,即使化学反应很快,但解吸附很慢,则总去除率也不够好。因为反应产物不能从晶片表面分离,抛光液中活性成分就不能暴露并与新表面上的原子起反应,这会抑制化学反应。
The balance and compositive effects of two steps decide the total removal rate and its surface degree of finish.这两个步骤的平衡与合成效应决定了总去除率和表面光洁程度。
第十章 Surface Engineering 表面处理
The processes of surface engineering, or surface treatments, tailor the surfaces of engineering materials to:(1)control friction and wear,(2)improve corrosion resistance,(3)change physical property, e.g., conductivity, resistivity, and reflection,(4)alter dimension,(5)vary appearance, e.g., color and roughness,(6)reduce cost.进行表面工程或表面处理的目的是:(1)控制摩擦和磨损,(2)改善抗腐蚀性,(3)改变物理性能,例如,传导率、电阻系数和反射率,(4)修改尺寸,(5)变更外观,例如颜色和粗糙程度,(6)降低成本。
Common surface treatments can be divided into two major categories: treatments that cover the surfaces and treatments that alter the surfaces.通常的表面处理可以分为两个主要类型:覆盖表面的处理和改变表面的处理。Covering the Surface覆盖表面
The treatments that cover the surfaces include organic coatings and inorganic coatings.覆盖表面的处理包括有机涂层和无机涂层。
The inorganic coatings perform electroplatings, conversion coatings, thermal sprayings, hot dippings, furnace fusings, or coat thin films, glass, ceramics on the surfaces of the materials.无机涂层有电镀、转化层、热喷涂、热浸渍、熔炉熔融、或在材料表面涂上薄膜、玻璃、陶瓷。
Electroplating is an electrochemical process by which metal is deposited on a substrate by passing a current through the bath.电镀是一种在电镀槽通上电流使金属沉淀在基体上的电化学过程。
Usually there is an anode(positively charged electrode), which is the source of the material to be deposited;the electrochemistry which is the medium through which metal ions are exchanged and transferred to the substrate to be coated;and a cathode(negatively charged electrode)which is the substrate to be coated.通常有一个阳极(正电极),是要沉淀材料的来源;电化学反应是使金属离子交换并迁移到要覆盖基体上的中间过程;以及一个阴极(负电极),即要覆盖的基体。
Plating is done in a plating bath which is usually a non-metallic tank(usually plastic).The tank is filled with electrolyte which has the metal, to be plated, in ionic form.电镀在通常为非金属容器(一般是塑料)的电镀槽中进行。该容器装满了含有离子态被镀金属的电解液。
The anode is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply.The anode is usually the metal to be plated(assuming that the metal will corrode in the electrolyte).For ease of operation, the metal is in the form of nuggets and placed in an inert metal basket made out non-corroding metal(such as titanium or stainless steel).阳极与电源正极相连。阳极通常为被镀金属(假定该金属能在电解液中腐蚀)。为了操作容易,该金属呈固体小块形式并置于由抗腐蚀金属(如钛或不锈钢)制成的惰性金属筐内。
The cathode is the workpiece, the substrate to be plated.This is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply.The power supply is well regulated to minimize ripples as well to deliver a steady predictable current, under varying loads such as those found in plating tanks.阴极是工件,即要镀的基体,连接到电源的负极。很好地调节电源使波动最小化并在载荷变化情况(如同电镀容器中看到的那样)下提供稳定的可预知电流。
As the current is applied, positive metal ions from the solution are attracted to the negatively charged cathode and deposit on the cathode.As a replenishment for these deposited ions, the metal from the anode is dissolved and goes into the solution and balances the ionic potential.一旦通上电流,来自溶液的正的金属离子被吸引到带负电的阴极并沉淀在其上。作为这些沉淀离子的补充,来自阳极的金属被溶解并进入溶液平衡离子势能。
Thermal spraying process.Thermal spraying metal coatings are depositions of metal which has been melted immediately prior to projection onto the substrate.The metals used and the application systems used vary but most applications result in thin coatings applied to surfaces requiring improvement to their corrosion or abrasion resistance properties.热喷涂工艺:热喷涂金属涂层是金属熔化后立即投射到基体上形成的金属沉积层。所用的金属和应用系统都可以变化,但大多数应用都是在要求改善抗腐蚀或耐磨性能的表面涂上薄层。
Thermal spray is a generic term for a broad class of related processes in which molten droplets of metals, ceramics, glasses, and/or polymers are sprayed onto a surface to produce a
coating, to form a free-standing near-net-shape, or to create an engineered material with unique properties.热喷涂是用于很大一类相关工艺的一个通用术语,喷涂到表面产生涂层的熔化小滴可以是金属、陶瓷、玻璃和/或聚合物,形成独立的近似纯形或产生具有独特性能的设计材料。
In principle, any material with a stable molten phase can be thermally sprayed, and a wide range of pure and composite materials are routinely sprayed for both research and industrial applications.Deposition rates are very high in comparison to alternative coating technologies.大体上,有稳定熔化状态的任何材料都可以热喷涂,范围宽阔的纯净和合成材料一般都能喷涂用于研究及工业目的。其沉积率与可供选择的涂层技术比较是很高的。
Deposit thickness of 0.1 to 1mm is common, and thickness greater than 1cm can be achieved with some materials.沉淀厚度普遍为0.1到1mm,对某些材料则沉淀厚度可以达到1cm以上。
The process for application of thermal spray metal is relatively simple and consists of the following stages.(1)Melting the metal at the gun.(2)Spraying the liquid metal onto the prepared substrate by means of compressed air.热喷涂金属的应用工艺相对简单并由下列阶段组成:(1)在喷枪内熔化金属。
(2)通过压缩空气将液态金属喷涂在准备好的基体上。(3)Molten particles are projected onto the cleaned substrate.There are two main types of wire application available today namely arc spray and gas spray.(3)熔化微粒投射在清洁过的基体上。
现在有两种主要的金属丝应用类型可选用,也就是电弧喷涂和气体喷涂。
ARC—A pair of wires are electrically energized so that an arc is struck across the tips when brought together through a pistol.Compressed air is blown across the arc to atomise and propel the autofed metal wire particles onto the prepared workpiece.电弧喷涂—当一对金属丝通过手持喷枪连到一起时,通上电横过其末端划燃电弧。压缩空气吹过电弧使其雾化并驱使自动送料金属丝微粒到准备好的工件上。
GAS—In combustion flame spraying the continuously moving wire is passed through a pistol, melted by a conical jet of burning gas.The molten wire tip enters the cone, atomises and is propelled onto the substrate.气体喷涂—连续移动的金属丝在燃烧火焰喷射中通过手持喷枪,并被燃烧气体的锥形喷嘴所熔化。熔化后的金属丝顶端进入锥体雾化并驱使其到基体上。
Thin-Film Coatings.Physical Vapor Deposition(PVD)and Chemical Vapor Deposition(CVD)are two most common types of thin-film coating methods.薄膜涂层:物理蒸发沉淀(PVD)和化学蒸发沉淀(CVD)是两种最常见薄膜涂层方法的类型。
PVD coatings involve atom-by-atom, molecule-by-molecule, or ion deposition of various materials on solid substrates in vacuum systems.物理蒸发沉淀涂层涉及到在真空装置内各种各样的材料原子紧靠原子、分子紧靠分子或离子沉淀于固态基体上。
Thermal evaporation uses the atomic cloud formed by the evaporation of the coating metal
in a vacuum environment to coat all the surfaces in the line of sight between the substrate and the target.It is often used in producing thin, 0.5μm, decorative shiny coatings on plastic parts.热蒸发利用涂层金属在真空环境中蒸发形成的微粒子雾将基体和靶材之间可见范围内所有表面覆盖。在塑料零件上生成较薄(0.5μm)的、装饰性的、有光泽的涂层时常常用到它。
The thin coating, however, is fragile and not good for wear applications.The thermal evaporation process can also coat a very thick, 1mm, layer of heat-resistant materials, such as MCrAIY—a metal, chromium, aluminum, and yttrium alloys, on jet engine parts.然而,这种薄涂层是易碎的并不适合用于磨损场合。热蒸发工艺也能在喷气发动机零件上覆盖很厚(1mm)的耐热材料涂层,例如MCrAIY—一种金属、铬、铝和钇合金。
Sputtering applies high-technology coatings such as ceramics, metal alloys, organic and inorganic compounds by connecting the workpiece and the substance to a high-voltage DC power supply in an argon vacuum system.反应溅射法通过在氩真空设备中连接工件和具有特定成分的材料到高压直流电来应用诸如陶瓷、金属合金、有机和无机化合物之类的高技术涂层。
The plasma is established between the substrate(workpiece)and the target(donor)and transposes the sputtered off target atoms to the surface of the substrate.等离子区形成于基体(工件)和靶材(原料物质)之间并将被溅射的靶材原子转移到基体的表面上。
When the substrate is non-conductive, e.g., polymer, a radio-frequency(RF)sputtering is used instead.Sputtering can produce thin, less than 3μm(120μin), hard thin-film coatings, e.g., titanium nitride(TIN)which is harder than the hardest metal.如果基体不导电,例如聚合物,则采用射频(RF)溅射代替。反应溅射法可以生成较薄(小于3μm(120μin))的、坚硬薄膜涂层,像比最硬金属还硬的氮化钛(TIN)。
Sputtering is now widely applied on cutting tools, forming tools, injection molding tools, and common tools such as punches and dies, to increase wear resistance and service life.现在反应溅射法已被广泛应用于切削刀具、成型工具、注射模具和诸如冲头和冲模之类的通用器具,以增强其耐磨性和使用寿命。
CVD is capable of producing thick, dense, ductile, and good adhesive coatings on metals and non-metals such as glass and plastic.Contrasting to the PVD coating in the “line of sight”, the CVD can coat all surfaces of the substrate.化学蒸发沉淀能在金属和像玻璃和塑料之类的非金属上生成较厚的、致密的、有延伸性的和带良好粘性的涂层。与物理蒸发沉淀在“可见范围”对比,化学蒸发沉淀能将基体的所有表面都覆盖。
Conventional CVD coating process requires a metal compound that will volatilize at a fairly low temperature and decompose to a metal when it contacts with the substrate at higher temperature.常规的化学蒸发沉淀涂层工艺需要一种容易在相当低温度下挥发并且在较高温度下与基体接触时能分解成纯金属的金属化合物。
The most well known example of CVD is the nickel carbonyl(NiCO4)coating as thick as 2.5mm(0.1in.)on glass windows and containers to make them explosion or shatter resistant.最为人熟知的化学蒸发沉淀例子是在玻璃窗和容器上镀厚为2.5mm(0.1in.)的羰基镍(NiCO4)涂层使它们能抵抗爆裂或破碎。
Diamond CVD coating process is introduced to increase the surface hardness of cutting
tools.However, the process is done at the temperatures higher than 700℃(1300℉)which will soften most tool steel.为增加切削刀具表面硬度引入了钻石化学蒸发沉淀涂层工艺。可是此工艺要在高于700℃(1300℉)的温度下才能实现,这温度会软化大多数工具钢。
Thus, the application of diamond CVD is limited to materials which will not soften at this temperature such as cemented carbides.因而钻石化学蒸发沉淀的应用受到材料限制,要求材料在此温度下不软化例如硬质合金。
Plasma-Assisted CVD coating process can be performed at lower temperature than diamond CVD coatings.This CVD process is used to apply diamond coatings or silicon carbide barrier coatings on plastic films and semiconductors, including the state of the art 0.25μm semiconductors.等离子体辅助化学蒸发沉淀涂层工艺可以在比钻石化学蒸发沉淀涂层低的温度下操作。这种化学蒸发沉淀用于在塑料膜和半导体(包括人工0.25μm半导体的情况)上覆盖钻石涂层或碳化硅隔离涂层。Altering the Surfaces改变表面
The treatments that alter the surfaces include hardening treatments, high-energy processes and special treatments.改变表面的处理包括淬火处理、高能加工和特殊处理。
High-energy processes are relatively new surface treatment methods.They can alter the properties of surfaces without changing the dimension of the surface.Common high-energy processes, including electron beam treatment, ion implantation, and laser beam treatment, are briefly discussed as follows:
高能加工是相对较新的表面处理方法。它们能在不改变表面尺寸的情况下改变表面性能。通用的高能加工包括电子束处理、离子注入和激光束处理简要讨论如下:
Electron beam treatment.Electron beam treatment alters the surface properties by rapid heating—using electron beam and rapid cooling—in the order of 106℃/see in a very shallow region, 100μm, near the surface.This technique can also be used in hardfacing to produce “surface alloys”.电子束处理:电子束处理在靠近表面很浅(100μm)的区域通过用电子束快速加热并以106℃/秒等级快速冷却来改变表面性能。这种技术也被用于表面硬化产生“表面合金”。
Ion implantation.Ion implantation uses electron beam or plasma to impinge gas atoms to ions with sufficient energy, and embed these ions into atomic lattice of the substrate, accelerated by magnetic coils in a vacuum chamber.The mismatch between ion implant and the surface of a metal creates atomic defects that harden the surface.离子注入:离子注入采用电子束或等离子体通过真空室内磁性线圈加速以足够的能量将气体原子撞击为离子,并把这些离子嵌入基体的原子点阵中。离子注入和金属表面之间的错配产生了硬化表面的原子瑕疵。
Laser beam treatment.Similar to electron beam treatment, laser beam treatment alters the surface properties by rapid heating and rapid cooling in a very shallow region near the surface.It can also be used in hardfacing to produce “surface alloys”.激光束处理:与电子束处理类似,激光束处理通过在靠近表面很浅的区域快速加热和快速冷却来改变表面性能。它也可以用于表面硬化产生“表面合金”。
The results of high-energy processes are not well known or very well controlled.But the
preliminary results look promising.Further development is needed in high-energy processes, especially in implant dosages and treatment methods.高能加工的结果不能充分地了解或很好地控制。但初步结果看来是有前途的。高能加工需要进一步的开发,特别是注入剂量和处理方法。
第十一章 Lathe 车床
The Lathe and Its Construction车床及其结构
A lathe is a machine tool used primarily for producing surfaces of revolution and flat edges.车床是主要用于生成旋转表面和平整边缘的机床。
Based on their purpose, construction, number of tools that can simultaneously be mounted, and degree of automation, lathes-or, more accurately, lathe-type machine tools can be classified as follows: 根据它们的使用目的、结构、能同时被安装刀具的数量和自动化的程度,车床—或更确切地说是车床类的机床,可以被分成以下几类:
(1)Engine lathes(2)Toolroom lathes(3)Turret lathes(4)Vertical turning and boring mills(5)Automatic lathes(6)Special-purpose lathes(1)普通车床(2)万能车床(3)转塔车床(4)立式车床(5)自动车床(6)特殊车床
In spite of that diversity of lathe-type machine tools, they all have common features with respect to construction and principle of operation.These features can best be illustrated by considering the commonly used representative type, the engine lathe.Following is a description of each of the main elements of an engine lathe, which is shown in Fig.11.1.虽然车床类的机床多种多样,但它们在结构和操作原理上具有共同特性。这些特性可以通过普通车床这一最常用的代表性类型来最好地说明。下面是关于图11.1所示普通车床的主要部分的描述。
Lathe bed.The lathe bed is the main frame, involving a horizontal beam on two vertical supports.It is usually made of grey or nodular cast iron to damp vibrations and is made by casting.车床床身:车床床身是包含了在两个垂直支柱上水平横梁的主骨架。为减振它一般由灰铸铁或球墨铸铁铸造而成。
It has guideways to allow the carriage to slide easily lengthwise.The height of the lathe bed should be appropriate to enable the technician to do his or her job easily and comfortably.它上面有能让大拖板轻易纵向滑动的导轨。车床床身的高度应适当以让技师容易而舒适地工作。
Headstock.The headstock is fixed at the left hand side of the lathe bed and includes the spindle whose axis is parallel to the guideways(the slide surface of the bed).The spindle is driven through the gearbox, which is housed within the headstock.主轴箱:主轴箱固定在车床床身的左侧,它包括轴线平行于导轨的主轴。主轴通过装在主轴箱内的齿轮箱驱动。
The function of the gearbox is to provide a number of different spindle speeds(usually 6 up to 18 speeds).Some modern lathes have headstocks with infinitely variable spindle speeds, which employ frictional ,electrical ,or hydraulic drives.齿轮箱的功能是给主轴提供若干不同的速度(通常是6到18速)。有些现代车床具有采用摩擦、电力或液压驱动的无级调速主轴箱。
The spindle is always hollow, i.e., it has a through hole extending lengthwise.Bar stocks can be fed through that hole if continuous production is adopted.主轴往往是中空的,即纵向有一通孔。如果采取连续生产,棒料能通过此孔进给。Also, that hole has a tapered surface to allow mounting a plain lathe center.The outer surface of the spindle is threaded to allow mounting of a chuck, a face plate, or the like.同时,此孔为锥形表面可以安装普通车床顶尖。主轴外表面是螺纹可以安装卡盘、花盘或类似的装置。
Tailstock.The tailstock assembly consists basically of three parts, its lower base, an intermediate part, and the quill.The lower base is a casting that can slide on the lathe bed along the guideways, and it has a clamping device to enable locking the entire tailstock at any desired location, depending upon the length of the workpiece.尾架:尾架总成基本包括三部分,底座、尾架体和套筒轴。底座是能在车床床身上沿导轨滑动的铸件,它有一定位装置能让整个尾架根据工件长度锁定在任何需要位置。The intermediate part is a casting that can be moved transversely to enable alignment of the axis of the tailstock with that of the headstock.The third part, the quill, is a hardened steel tube, which can be moved longitudinally in and out of the intermediate part as required.尾架体为一能横向运动的铸件,它可以调整尾架轴线与主轴箱轴线成一直线。第三部分,套筒轴是一淬硬钢管,它能根据需要在尾架体中纵向进出移动。
This is achieved through the use of a handwheel and a screw, around which a nut fixed to the quill is engaged.The hole in the open side of the quill is tapered to enable mounting of lathe centers or other tools like twist drills or boring bars.The quill can be locked at any point along its travel path by means of a clamping device.这通过使用手轮和螺杆来达到,与螺杆啮合的是一固接在套筒轴上的螺母。套筒轴开口端的孔是锥形的,能安装车床顶尖或诸如麻花钻和镗杆之类的工具。套筒轴通过定位装置能沿着它的移动路径被锁定在任何点。
The carriage.The main function of the carriage is mounting of the cutting tools and generating longitudinal and/or cross feeds.It is actually an H-shaped block that slides on the lathe
bed between the headstock and tailstock while being guided by the V-shaped guideways of the bed.大拖板:大拖板的主要功能是安装刀具和产生纵向和/或横向进给。它实际上是一由车床床身V形导轨引导的、能在车床床身主轴箱和尾架之间滑动的H形滑块。
The carriage can be moved either manually or mechanically by means of the apron and either the feed rod or the lead screw.大拖板能手动或者通过溜板箱和光杆(进给杆)或丝杆(引导螺杆)机动。
When cutting screw threads, power is provided to the gearbox of the apron by the lead screw.In all other turning operations, it is the feed rod that drives the carriage.The lead screw goes through a pair of half nuts, which are fixed to the rear of the apron.在切削螺旋时,动力通过丝杆提供给溜板箱上的齿轮箱。在其余车削作业中,都由光杆驱动大拖板。丝杆穿过一对固定在溜板箱后部的剖分螺母。
When actuating a certain lever, the half nuts are clamped together and engage with the rotating lead screw as a single nut, which is fed, together with the carriage, along the bed.When the lever is disengaged, the half nuts are released and the carriage stops.当开动特定操作杆时,剖分螺母夹在一起作为单个螺母与旋转的丝杆啮合,并带动拖板沿着床身提供进给。当操作杆脱离时,剖分螺母释放同时大拖板停止运动。
On the other hand, when the feed rod is used, it supplies power to the apron through a worm gear.The latter is keyed to the feed rod and travels with the apron along the feed rod, which has a keyway extending to cover its whole length.另一方面,当使用光杆时则通过蜗轮给溜板箱提供动力。蜗轮用键连接在光杆上,并与溜板箱一起沿光杆运动,光杆全长范围开有键槽。
A modern lathe usually has a quick-change gearbox located under the headstock and driven from the spindle through a train of gears.It is connected to both the feed rod and the lead screw and enables selecting a variety of feeds easily and rapidly by simply shifting the appropriate levers.现代车床一般在主轴箱下装备快速变换齿轮箱,通过一系列齿轮由主轴驱动。它与光杆和丝杆连接,能容易并快速地通过简单转换适当的操作杆选择各种进给。
The quick-change gearbox is employed in plain turning, facing and thread cutting operations.Since that gearbox is linked to the spindle, the distance that the apron(and the cuttingtool)travels for each revolution of the spindle can be controlled and is referred to as the feed.快速变换齿轮箱可用于普通车削、端面切削和螺旋切削作业中。由于这种齿轮箱与主轴相连,主轴每转一圈溜板箱(和切削刀具)运动的距离能被控制,这距离就可以被认为是进给。
Lathe Cutting Tools车床切削刀具
The shape and geometry of the lathe tools depend upon the purpose for which they are employed.车床刀具的形状和几何参数取决于它们的使用目的。
Turning tools can be classified into two main groups, namely, external cutting tools and internal cutting tools.Each of these two groups include the following types of tools: 车削刀具可以分为两个主要组别,即外部切削刀具和内部切削刀具。这两组中的每一组都包括以下类型刀具:
Turning tools.Turning tools can be either finishing or rough turning tools.Rough turning tools have small nose radii and are employed when deep cuts are made.车削刀具:车削刀具可以是精车刀具或粗车刀具。粗车刀具刀尖半径较小,用于深
切削。
On the other hand, finishing tools have larger nose radii and are used for obtaining the final required dimensions with good surface finish by making slight depths of cut.Rough turning tools can be right-hand or left-hand types, depending upon the direction of feed.They can have straight, bent, or offset shanks.而精车刀具刀尖半径较大,用于通过微量进刀深度来获得具有较好表面光洁度的最终所需尺寸。粗车刀具按其进给方向可以是右手型的或是左手型的。它们可以有直的、弯的或偏置的刀杆。
Facing tools.Facing tools are employed in facing operations for machining plane side or end surfaces.There are tools for machining left-hand-side surfaces and tools for right-hand-side surfaces.Those side surfaces are generated through the use of the cross feed, contrary to turning operations, where the usual longitudinal feed is used.端面刀具:端面刀具用在端面作业中加工平板侧面或端部表面,也有加工左右侧表面之分。与一般采用纵向进给的车削作业相反,那些侧表面通过采用横向进给产生。
Cutoff tools.Cutoff tools, which are sometimes called parting tools, serve to separate the workpiece into parts and/or machine external annular grooves.切断刀具:切断刀具,有时也称为分割刀具,用于将工件分割成若干部分和/或加工外部环形槽。
Thread-cutting tools.Thread-cutting tools have either triangular, square, or trapezoidal cutting edges, depending upon the cross section of the desired thread.Also, the plane angles of these tools must always be identical to those of the thread forms.螺纹切削刀具:螺纹切削刀具根据所需螺纹的横截面,有三角形的、矩形的或梯形的切削刃。同时,这些刀具的平面角必须始终与螺纹形状的平面角保持一致。
Thread-cutting tools have straight shanks for external thread cutting and are of the bent-shank type when cutting internal threads.车外螺纹的螺纹切削刀具为直刀杆,而车内螺纹的螺纹切削刀具则是弯刀杆。
Form tools.Form tools have edges especially manufactured to take a certain form, which is opposite to the desired shape of the machined workpiece.成形刀具:成形刀具有专门制成特定形状的刀刃,这种刀刃形状与被加工工件所需外形正好相反。
An HSS tool is usually made in the form of a single piece, contrary to cemented carbides or ceramic, which are made in the form of tips.The latter are brazed or mechanically fastened to steel shanks.
高速钢刀具通常以单件形式制造,而硬质合金或陶瓷刀具则以刀尖形式制造。后者用铜焊或机械方法固定于钢质刀杆上。
Fig.11.2 indicates an arrangement of this latter type, which includes the carbide tip, the chip breaker, the pad, the clamping screw(with a washer and a nut), and the shank.图11.2所示为机械式固定布置方式,它包括了硬质合金刀尖、断屑槽、衬垫、卡装螺杆(带有垫圈和螺母)及刀杆。
As the name suggests, the function of the chip breaker is to break long chips every now and then, thus preventing the formation of very long twisted ribbons that may cause problems during the machining operation.顾名思义,断屑槽的功能就是不时地折断长切屑,以防形成很长的可能会在机加工操作中引起问题的缠绕切屑条。
The carbide tips(or ceramic tips)can have different shapes, depending upon the machining operations for which they are to be employed.The tips can either be solid or with a central through hole, depending on whether brazing or mechanical clamping is employed for mounting the tip on the shank.硬质合金刀尖(或陶瓷刀尖)根据采用它们的机加工操作,可以有不同的形状。根据将刀尖装配在刀杆上是通过用铜焊还是机械卡装,刀尖可以是实心的或是带有中心通孔的。Lathe Operations车床操作
In the following section, we discuss the various machining operations that can be performed on a conventional engine lathe.在下面这节中,要讨论的是能在传统普通车床上进行的各种机加工作业。
It must be borne in mind, however, that modern computerized numerically controlled lathes have more capabilities and can do other operations, such as contouring, for example.Following are conventional lathe operations.然而,必须记住现代计算机数控车床具有更多的功能并且可以进行其它操作,例如仿型。下面是传统车床的操作。
Cylindrical turning.Cylindrical turning is the simplest and the most common of all lathe operations.A single full turn of the workpiece generates a circle whose center falls on the lathe axis;this motion is then reproduced numerous times as a result of the axial feed motion of the tool.圆柱面车削:圆柱面车削是所有车床操作中最简单也是最普通的。工件旋转一整圈产生一个圆心落在车床主轴上的圆;由于刀具的轴向进给运动这种动作重复许多次。
The resulting machining marks are, therefore, a helix having a very small pitch, which is equal to the feed.Consequently, the machined surface is always cylindrical.所以,由此产生的机加工痕迹是一条具有很小节距的螺旋线,该节距等于进给。因此机加工表面始终是圆柱形的。
The axial feed is provided by the carriage or the compound rest, either manually or automatically, whereas the depth of cut is controlled by the cross slide.轴向进给通过大拖板或复式刀架手动或自动提供,然而切削深度则由横向滑板控制。In roughing cuts, it is recommended that large depths of cuts(up to 0.25in.or 6mm, depending upon the workpiece material)and smaller feeds would be used.On the other hand, very fine feeds, smaller depths of cut(less than 0.05in, or 0.4mm), and high cutting speeds are preferred for finishing cuts.粗车中,推荐使用较大切削深度(根据工件材料可达0.25英寸或6毫米)和较小进给。另一方面,精车则最好采用很小的进给、较小的切削深度(小于0.05英寸或0.4毫米)和较高的切削速度。
Facing.The result of a facing operation is a flat surface that is either the whole end surface of the workpiece or an annular intermediate surface like a shoulder.During a facing operation, feed is provided by the cross slide, whereas the depth of cut is controlled by the carriage or compound rest.端面车削:端面车削操作的结果是将工件整个端部表面或者像轴肩之类的中间环形表面加工平整。在端面车削操作中,进给由横向滑板提供,而切削深度则通过大拖板或复式刀架控制。
Facing can be carried out either from the periphery inward or from the center of the workpiece outward.It is obvious that the machining marks in both cases take the form of a spiral.端面车削既可以从外表面向内切削也可以从工件中心往外切削。很明显在这两种情况下机加工痕迹都是螺线形式。
Usually, it is preferred to clamp the carriage during a facing operation, since the cutting force tends to push the tool(and, of course, the whole carriage)away from the workpiece.In most facing operations, the workpiece is held in a chuck or on a face plate.通常在端面车削作业时习惯于采用夹住大拖板,这是因为切削力倾向于将刀具(当然包括整个大拖板)推离工件。在大多数端面车削作业中,工件被支撑在卡盘或花盘上。
Groove cutting.In cut-off and groove-cutting operations, only cross feed of the tool is employed.The cut-off and grooving tools, which were previously discussed, are employed.开槽:在切断和开槽操作中,刀具只有横向进给。要采用前面已经讨论过的切断和开槽刀具。
Boring and internal turning.Boring and internal turning are performed on the internal surfaces by a boring bar or suitable internal cutting tools.If the initial workpiece is solid, a drilling operation must be performed first.The drilling tool is held in the tailstock, and the latter is then fed against the workpiece.镗孔和内部车削:镗孔和内部车削通过镗杆或合适的内部切削刀具在内表面进行。如果初始工件是实心的,则必须首先进行钻孔作业。钻孔刀具安装在尾架上,然后对着工件进给。
Taper turning.Taper turning is achieved by driving the tool in a direction that is not parallel to the lathe axis but inclined to it with an angle that is equal to the desired angle of the taper.Following are the different methods used in taper-turning practice:
锥面车削:锥面车削通过沿着与车床主轴不平行而倾斜成一个等于锥面所需角度的方向进刀来实现。下面是在实际锥面车削中采用的不同方法:
(1)Rotating the disc of the compound rest with an angle equal to half the apex angle of the cone.Feed is manually provided by cranking the handle of the compound rest.This method is recommended for taper turning of external and internal surfaces when the taper angle is relatively large.(1)将复式刀架盘旋转一个等于圆锥体顶角一半的角度。通过摇动复式刀架操纵柄手动提供进给。当锥角相对较大时切削外锥面和内锥面推荐使用这种方法。
(2)Employing special form tools for external, very short, conical surfaces.The width of the workpiece must be slightly smaller than that of the tool, and the workpiece is usually held in a chuck or clamped on a face plate.In this case, only the cross feed is used during the machining process and the carriage is clamped to the machine bed.(2)对很短的外锥面采用特殊的成型刀具。工件的宽度必须略小于刀具的宽度,并且工件通常由卡盘支撑或夹紧在花盘上。在这种情况下,机加工作业时只有横向进给而大拖板则夹紧在床身上。
(3)Offsetting the tailstock center.This method is employed for external taper turning of long workpieces that are required to have small taper angles(less than 8°).The workpiece is mounted between the two centers;then the tailstock center is shifted a distance S in the direction normal to the lathe axis.(3)偏移尾架顶尖。对需要较小锥角(小于8°)的较长工件外锥面车削采用这种方法。工件安装于两顶尖之间;然后将尾架顶尖朝垂直于车床主轴方向移动一距离S。
(4)Using the taper-turning attachment.This method is used for turning very long workpieces, when the length is larger than the whole stroke of the compound rest.The procedure followed in
such cases involves complete disengagement of the cross slide from the carriage, which is then guided by the taper-turning attachment.(4)采用锥面车削附加装置。这种方法用于车削很长的工件,其长度大于复式刀架的整个行程。在这种场合下要遵循的步骤是将横向滑板完全脱离大拖板,然后通过锥面车削附加装置进行引导。
During this process, the automatic axial feed can be used as usual.This method is recommended for very long workpieces with a small cone angle, i.e., 8°through 10°.在此作业中,能照常使用自动轴向进给。对具有较小锥角(即8°到10°)的很长工件推荐采用这种方法。
Thread cutting.When performing thread cutting, the axial feed must be kept at a constant rate, which is dependent upon the rotational speed(rpm)of the workpiece.The relationship between both is determined primarily by the desired pitch of the thread to be cut.螺纹切削:在螺纹切削作业时,轴向进给必须保持恒定速率,这取决于工件的转速(rpm)。两者之间的关系基本上由被切削螺纹所需的节距决定。
As previously mentioned, the axial feed is automatically generated when cutting a thread by means of the lead screw, which drives the carriage.When the lead screw rotates a single revolution, the carriage travels a distance equal to the pitch of the lead screw.如前所述,当依靠驱动大拖板的丝杆切削螺纹时轴向进给是自动产生的。丝杆旋转一圈,大拖板就行进等于丝杆节距的一段距离。
Consequently, if the rotational speed of the lead screw is equal to that of the spindle(i.e., that of the workpiece), the pitch of the resulting cut thread is exactly equal to that of the lead screw.因此如果丝杆的旋转速度等于心轴的转速(即工件的转速),生成切削螺纹的节距就正好等于丝杆的节距。
The pitch of the resulting thread being cut therefore always depends upon the ratio of the rotational speeds of the lead screw and the spindle: Pitch of the lead screw/ Desired pitch of workpiece=rpm of the workpiece/rpm of lead screw=spindle-to-carriage gearing ratio.所以被切削生成螺纹的节距总是取决于丝杆和心轴的转速比:丝杆的节距/工件所需节距=工件转速/丝杆转速=心轴到大拖板的传动比。
This equation is useful in determining the kinematic linkage between the lathe spindle and the lead screw and enables proper selection of the gear train between them.这公式在决定车床心轴和丝杆之间的运动学关系时很有用,并且提供了正确挑选它们之间轮系的方法。
In thread cutting operations, the workpiece can either be held in the chuck or mounted between the two lathe centers for relatively long workpieces.The form of the tool used must exactly coincide with the profile of the thread to be cut, i.e., triangular tools must be used for triangular threads, and so on.在螺纹切削作业中,工件既能支撑于卡盘中,对相对较长的工件也能安装在两个车床顶尖之间。使用的刀具外形必须正好与要切削螺纹的轮廓一致,即三角形刀具必须用于三角形螺纹等等。
Knurling.Knurling is mainly a forming operation in which no chips are produced.It involves pressing two hardened rolls with rough filelike surfaces against the rotating workpiece to cause plastic deformation of the workpiece metal.滚花:滚花主要是一种不产生切屑的成型操作。它使用两个带有粗锉式表面的淬火滚轮压在旋转的工件上使工件金属产生塑性变形。
Knurling is carried out to produce rough, cylindrical(or conical)surfaces, which are usually used as handles.Sometimes, surfaces are knurled just for the sake of decoration;there are different types of patterns of knurls from which to choose.滚花用于生成粗糙的圆柱(或圆锥)面,通常用来作手柄。有时表面滚花只为装饰之故;有不同的滚花图案类型可供选择。Cutting Speeds and Feed切削速度和进给
The cutting speed, which is usually given in surface feet per minute(SFM), is the number of feet traveled in the circumferential direction by a given point on the surface(being cut)of the workpiece in 1 minute.切削速度,通常用每分钟表面英尺给出,就是一分钟内工件(被切削)表面给定点在圆周方向上行进的英尺数。
The relationship between the surface speed and rpm can be given by the following equation:
SFM=πDN Where D=the diameter of the workpiece in feet N=the rpm 表面速度与转速之间的关系可以用下式给出:
SFM=πDN 式中
D=用英尺表示的工件直径 N=转速
The surface cutting speed is dependant primarily upon the material being machined as well as the material of the cutting tool and can be obtained from handbooks, information provided by cutting tool manufacturers, and the like.表面切削速度主要由被切削材料和切削刀具材料决定,可以从手册、切削刀具生产商提供的资料及类似的东西上查取。
Generally, the SFM is taken as 100 when machining cold-rolled or mild steel, as 50 when machining tougher metals, and as 200 when machining softer materials.For aluminum, the SFM is usually taken as 400 or above.There are also other variables that affect the optimal value of the surface cutting speed.一般而言,SFM当机加工冷轧或低碳钢时取100,机加工较坚韧的金属时取50,而机加工较软材料时取200。对铝而言,SFM通常可取400以上。也还存在其它一些变量影响表面切削速度的最佳值。
These include the tool geometry, the type of lubricant or coolant, the feed, and the depth of cut.As soon as the cutting speed is decided upon, the rotational speed(rpm)of the spindle can be obtained as follows:
N=SFM/(πD)
其中包括刀具形状、润滑剂或冷却液的类型、进给和切削深度。切削速度一旦确定,心轴转速(rpm)就能按下式得到:
N=SFM/(πD)
The selection of a suitable feed depends upon many factors, such as the required surface finish, the depth of cut, and the geometry of the tool used.Finer feeds produce better surface finish, whereas higher feeds reduce the machining time during which the tool is in direct contact with the workpiece.合适进给的选择取决于许多因素,例如所需表面光洁度、切削深度和所用刀具的几何形状。进给越小生成的光洁度越好,而在刀具与工件直接接触时进给越大则可以减少机加工时间。
Therefore, it is generally recommended to use high feeds for roughing operations and finer feeds for finishing operations.Again, recommended values for feeds, which can be taken as guidelines, are found in handbooks and in information booklets provided by cutting tool manufacturers.所以对粗车一般推荐使用较大进给,而精车则用较小进给。再者,作为指导方针的进给推荐值可以从手册和切削刀具生产商提供的资料小册子上找到。
第十二章 Drilling and Milling 钻削
Drilling and Drills钻削和钻头
Drilling involves producing through or blind holes in a workpiece by forcing a tool, which rotates around its axis, against the workpiece.钻削就是通过迫使绕自身轴线旋转的切削刀具进入工件而在其上生成通孔或盲孔。Consequently, the range of cutting from that axis of rotation is equal to the radius of the required hole.In practice, two symmetrical cutting edges that rotate about the same axis are employed.因此,从旋转轴线开始的切削范围等于所需孔的半径。实际上,使用的是两条围绕相同轴线旋转的对称切削刃。
Drilling operations can be carried out by using either hand drills or drilling machines.The latter differ in size and construction.Nevertheless, the tool always rotates around its axis while the workpiece is kept firmly fixed.This is contrary to drilling on a lathe.钻削作业既能采用手钻也能采用钻床来实现。钻床在尺寸和结构上虽有差别,然而始终都是切削刀具围绕自身轴线旋转、工件稳固定位的形式。这正好与在车床上钻孔相反。Cutting Tool for Drilling Operation
In drilling operations, a cylindrical rotary-end cutting tool, called a drill, is employed.The drill can have either one or more cutting edges and corresponding flutes, which can be straight or helical.用于钻削作业的切削刀具
在钻削作业中,要用到被称为钻头的圆柱形回转端切削刀具。钻头可以有一条或多条直的或是螺旋状的切削刃以及相应的出屑槽。
The function of the flutes is to provide outlet passages for the chips generated during the drilling operation and also to allow lubricants and coolants to reach the cutting edges and the surface being machined.Following is a survey of the commonly used drills.出屑槽的功能是给钻削作业中产生的切屑提供排出通道,并允许润滑剂和冷却液到达切削刃和正在被加工的表面。下面是常用钻头的概述。
Twist drill.The twist drill is the most common type of drill.It has two cutting edges and two helical flutes that continue over the length of the drill body, as shown in Fig.12.1.The drill also consists of a neck and a shank that can be either straight or tapered.麻花钻:麻花钻是最常用的钻头类型。它有两条切削刃和两条沿钻头体全长连续的螺旋状出屑槽,如图12.1所示。麻花钻还包括钻颈和钻柄,钻柄可以是直的也可以是锥形的。
In the latter case, the shank is fitted by the wedge action into the tapered socket of the spindle and has a tang, which goes into a slot in the spindle socket, thus acting as a solid means for transmitting rotation.锥形钻柄通过楔入动作安装在主轴的锥形轴孔中,钻柄上还有柄舌插入主轴轴孔中的插槽,从而作为传递转动的可靠方法。
On the other hand, straight-shank drills are held in a drill chuck that is, in turn, fitted into the spindle socket in the same way as tapered shank drills.另一方面,直柄钻头用钻头卡盘夹住,接下来钻头卡盘则象锥形钻柄钻头一样安装在主轴轴孔内。
As can be seen in Fig.12.1, the two cutting edges are referred to as the lips, and are connected together by a wedge, which is a chisel-like edge.The twist drill also has two margins, which enable proper guidance and locating of the drill while it is in operation.如图12.1所示,两条切削刃就是钻唇,通过凿子状边缘的楔形体连在一起。麻花钻还有两条导向边,用于作业中钻头的正确导向和定位。
The tool point angle(TPA)is formed by the two lips and is chosen based on the properties of the material to be cut.The usual TPA for commercial drills is 118°, which is appropriate for drilling low-carbon steels and cast irons.两条钻唇形成钻顶角,并根据被钻削材料的性能来选取其大小。商品化钻头的钻顶角一般为118°,这适用于钻削低碳钢和铸铁。
For harder and tougher metals, such as hardened steel, brass and bronze, larger TPAs(130°or 140°)give better performance.The helix angle of the flutes of the commonly used twist drills ranges between 24°and 30°.When drilling copper or soft plastics, higher values for the helix angle are recommended(between 35°and 45°).对于更硬更韧的金属,诸如淬火钢、黄铜和青铜,更大的钻顶角(130°或140°)才能有更好的效果。麻花钻常用的出屑槽螺旋角范围为24°到 30°。钻削紫铜或软塑料时,推荐采用更大的螺旋角(35°到45°)。
Twist drills are usually made of high-speed steel, although carbide-tipped drills are also available.The sizes of twist drills used in industrial practice range from 0.01 up to 3.25 in.(i.e., 0.25 up to 80 mm).虽然也有硬质合金刀尖的钻头,麻花钻一般用高速钢制成。工业实际中使用的麻花钻尺寸范围为0.01到3.25英寸(即0.25到80毫米)。
Core drills.A core drill consists of the chamfer, body, neck, and shank, as shown in Fig.12.2.This type of drill may have either three or four flutes and equal number of margins, which ensure superior guidance, thus resulting in high machining accuracy.空心钻:空心钻包括斜面、钻头体、钻颈和钻柄,如图12.2所示。这类钻头可以有三条或四条出屑槽及相同数量的保证良好导向的导向边,这样使得加工有高精度。
It can also be seen in Fig.12.2 that a core drill has flat end.The chamfer can have three or four cutting edges or lips, and the lip angle may vary between 90°and 120°.在图12.2中同样能看到,空心钻具有平坦的端部。斜面可以有三或四条切削刃或钻唇,并且钻唇角可以在90°到120°之间变化。
Core drills are employed for enlarging previously made holes and not for originating holes.This type of drill is characterized by greater productivity, high machining accuracy, and superior quality of the drilled surfaces.空心钻用于扩大已有的孔而不是打孔。这类钻头具有较大生产率、高加工精度和优良钻削表面质量的特性。
Gun drills.Gun drills are used for drilling deep holes.All gun drills are straight-fluted, and each has a single cutting edge.A hole in the body acts as a conduit to transmit coolant under considerable pressure to the tip of the drill.深孔钻:深孔钻用于钻深孔。所有深孔钻都是直出屑槽的,并且均为单切削刃。钻头体中有个孔作为导管在相当大的压力下将冷却液传送到钻头顶端。
There are two kinds of gun drills, namely, the center-cut gun drill used for drilling blind holes and the trepanning drill.The latter has a cylindrical groove at its center, thus generating a solid core, which guides the tool as it proceeds during the drilling operation.深孔钻有两种类型,即用于钻盲孔的中心切削深孔钻和套孔钻。后者在其中心有一圆柱形沟槽,这样能生成整体芯在钻孔作业过程中引导钻头。
Spade drills.Spade drills are used for drilling large holes of 3.5 in.(90mm)or more.Their design results in a marked saving in cost of the tool as well as a tangible reduction in its weight, which facilitates its handling.Moreover, this type of drill is easy to grind.扁平钻:扁平钻用于钻削3.5英寸(90毫米)或更大的大孔。其设计使得钻头成本明显节省、重量切实减轻,重量轻又使操作更方便。此外这种钻头容易磨利。Milling and Milling Cutter铣削和铣刀
Milling is a machining process that is carried out by means of a multiedge rotating tool known as a milling cutter.铣削是采用被称为铣刀的多刃旋转刀具完成的机加工作业。
In this process, metal removal is achieved through combining the rotary motion of the milling cutter and linear motions of the workpiece simultaneously.Milling operations are employed in producing flat, contoured and helical surfaces as well as for thread-and gear-cutting operation.在此工艺中,金属去除是通过铣刀的旋转运动和工件的直线运动的组合实现的。铣削作业既可用于生成平面、轮廓面和螺旋面,也可用于切削螺纹和齿轮。
Each of the cutting edges of a milling cutter acts as an individual single-point cutter when it engages with the workpiece metal.Therefore, each of those cutting edges has appropriate rake and relief angles.在铣刀切削工件金属时,铣刀的每条切削刃都象一单独的单刃刀具一样作用。所以每条切削刃都适当的前后角。
Since only a few of the cutting edges are engaged with the workpiece at a time, heavy cuts can be taken without adversely affecting the tool life.In fact, the permissible cutting speeds and feeds for milling are three to four times higher than those for turning or drilling.由于同一时间只有部分切削刃切削工件,因此可以在对刀具寿命没有不利影响的情况下承担重型切削。事实上,铣削允许的切削速度和进给比车削或钻削高三到四倍。
Moreover, the quality of the surfaces machined by milling is generally superior to the quality of surfaces machined by turning, shaping, or drilling.此外,由铣削加工的表面质量通常优于车削、刨削或钻削加工的表面质量。
A wide variety of milling cutters is available in industry.This, together with the fact that a milling machine is a very versatile machine tool, makes the milling machine the backbone of a machining workshop.工业上可采用的铣刀类型众多。连同铣床是极通用机床的事实,使得铣床成为机加工车间的支柱。
As far as the direction of cutter rotation and workpiece feed are concerned, milling is performed by either of the following two methods.至于涉及到铣刀转动的方向和工件的进给,铣削可以通过下列两种方法之一进行。
Up milling(conventional milling).In up milling the workpiece is fed against the direction of cutter rotation, as shown in Fig.12.3a.As we can see in that figure, the depth of cut(and consequently the load)gradually increases on the successively engaged cutting edges.逆铣(传统铣削):在逆铣中,工件逆着铣刀转动的方向进给,如图12.3a所示。就像在此图中能看到的那样,切削深度(及作为结果的载荷)随着切削刃持续进入切削而逐渐增加。
Therefore, the machining process involves no impact loading, thus ensuring smoother operation of the machine tool and longer tool life.The quality of the machined surface obtained by up milling is not very high.Nevertheless, up milling is commonly used in industry, especially for rough cuts.所以,这种工艺没有冲击载荷,从而保证了机床的较平稳运行和较长寿命。通过逆铣所得机加工表面质量不是很高。然而逆铣仍经常被用在工业上,尤其是粗切削时。
Down milling(climb milling).As can be seen in Fig.12.3b, in down milling the cutter rotation coincides with the direction of feed at the contact point between the tool and the workpiece.It can also be seen that the maximum depth of cut is achieved directly as the cutter engages with the workpiece.顺铣(同向铣削):如同在图12.3b中看到的那样,在顺铣时刀具与工件之间接触点上铣刀旋转与进给方向一致。还可以看到当刀具进入工件切削时直接达到最大切削深度。This results in a kind of impact, or sudden loading.Therefore, this method cannot be used unless the milling machine is equipped with a backlash eliminator on the feed screw.The advantages of this method include higher quality of the machined surface and easier clamping of workpieces, since the cutting forces act downward.这会导致一种冲击,或突然加载。因此,这种方法只有当铣床在进给螺栓上配备间隙消除器时才采用。这种方法的优点包括机加工表面质量较高和工件由于切削力向下作用而较容易夹紧。
Types of Milling Cutters
There is a wide variety of milling cutter shapes.Each of them is designed to perform effectively a specific milling operation.铣刀的类型
铣刀的形状类型很多。其中每种都是为有效进行特定的铣削作业而设计的。
Generally, a milling cutter can be described as a multiedge cutting tool having the shape of a solid of revolution, with the cutting teeth arranged either on the periphery or on an end face or on both.Following is a quick survey of the commonly used types of milling cutters.通常,铣刀可以被描述为具有旋转实体形状并将切削齿安装在周边或一到两个端面上的多刃切削刀具。下面是常用铣刀类型的快速综览。
Plain milling cutter.A plain milling cutter is a disk-shaped cutting tool that may have either straight or helical teeth, as shown in Fig.12.4a.This type is always mounted on horizontal
milling machines and is used for machining flat surfaces.平面铣刀:平面铣刀是一种盘状切削刀具,它可以具有直齿或螺旋齿,如图12.4a所示。这类铣刀总是安装在卧式铣床上,用于机加工平面。
Face milling cutter.A face milling cutter is also used for machining flat surfaces.It is bolted at the end of a short arbor, which is in turn mounted on a vertical milling machine.Fig.12.4b indicates a milling cutter of this type.端面铣刀:端面铣刀也可用于机加工平面。它用螺栓固定在短刀杆的端部,而短刀杆则依次安装于立式铣床上。图12.4b显示了这类铣刀。
Plain metal slitting saw cutter.Fig.12.4c indicates a plain metal slitting saw cutter.we can see that it actually involves a very thin plain milling cutter.平面金属开槽锯刃铣刀:图12.4c显示了一种平面金属开槽锯刃铣刀。可以看到它其实是一种很薄的平面铣刀。
Side milling cutter.A side milling cutter is used for cutting slots, grooves, and splines.As shown in Fig.12.4d, it is quite similar to the plain milling cutter, the difference being that this type has teeth on the sides.As is the case with the plain cutter, the cutting teeth can be straight or helical.侧铣刀:侧铣刀用于切削狭槽、凹槽和花键槽。正如图12.4d所示,它与平面铣刀十分相似,差别在于此类铣刀齿在侧面。象平面铣刀的情况一样,切削齿既可以是直的也可以是螺旋的。
Angle milling cutter.An angle milling cutter is employed in cutting dovetail grooves, ratchet wheels, and the like.Fig.12.4e indicates a milling cutter of this type.倾斜铣刀:倾斜铣刀用于切削燕尾槽、棘轮之类的。图12.4e显示了这类铣刀。
T-slot cutter.As shown in Fig.12.4f, a T-slot cutter involves a plain milling cutter with an integral shaft normal to it.As the name suggests, this type is used for milling T-slots.T型槽铣刀:如图12.4f所示,T型槽铣刀包括了一个平面铣刀和一根垂直于它的整体轴。正像其名字所表明的,这类铣刀用于铣削T型槽。
End mill cutter.End mill cutters find common applications in cutting slots, grooves, flutes, splines, pocketing work, and the like.Fig.12.4g indicates an end mill cutter.The latter is always mounted on a vertical milling machine and can have two or four flutes, which may be either straight or helical.端面铣刀:端面铣刀在切削狭槽、凹槽、长凹槽、花键槽、凹状工件之类时均能发现其普遍应用。图12.4g为端面铣刀。它总是安装在立式铣床上,并具有两到四条既可是直的也可是螺旋的长凹槽。
Form milling cutter.The teeth of a form milling cutter have a certain shape, which is identical to the section of the metal to be removed during the milling operation.Examples of this type include gear cutters, gear hobs, convex and concave cutters, and the like.From milling cutters are mounted on horizontal milling machines.成形铣刀:成形铣刀的齿具有特定的形状,这个形状与铣削时要切削的那部分金属的形状一致。这类铣刀的例子包括齿轮铣刀、齿轮滚刀、凸形和凹形铣刀等等。成形铣刀安装在卧式铣床上。
Materials of Milling Cutters
The commonly used milling cutters are made of high-speed steel, which is generally adequate for most jobs.铣刀的材料
普通使用的铣刀用高速钢制造,这对一般大多数工作已足够。
Milling cutters tipped with sintered carbides or cast nonferrous alloys as cutting teeth are usually employed for mass production, where heavier cuts and/or high cutting speeds are required.对大规模生产而言,因为其需要重型切削和/或高切削速度,铣刀顶端常装有烧结碳化物或有色金属碳合金作为切削齿。
第十三章 Jigs and Fixtures
Introduction
导言
It has already been stated that the workpiece must be located relative to the cutting tool, and be secured in that position.After the workpiece has been marked out, it is still necessary to position it with respect to the machine movements, and to clamp it in that position before machining is started.已经说明了工件必须相对于切削刀具定位并确保到位。工件划线后,仍有必要将其相对于切削运动定位,并在机加工开始前把它装夹到位。
When several identical workpieces are to be produced the need to mark out each part is eliminated by the use of jigs and fixtures, but if a casting or forging is involved, a trial workpiece is marked out, to ensure that the workpiece can be produced from it, and to ensure that ribs, cores, etc.have not become misplaced.当要加工若干同样的工件时,使用钻模和夹具可以不必在每个工件上划线;但对铸件或锻件而言,还需取一试验工件划线以保证照此加工不会将加强肋、型芯等放错位置。
Jigs and fixtures are alike in that they both incorporate devices to ensure that the workpiece is correctly located and clamped, but they differ in that jigs incorporate means of tool guiding during the actual cutting operation, and fixtures do not.钻模和夹具的相似点是它们都把保证工件正确定位和夹紧的装置相结合,它们的不同在于钻模在实际切削作业中还能与刀具导向方法相结合,而夹具则不能。
In practice, the only cutting tools that can be guided while actually cutting are drills, reamers, and similar cutters;and so jigs are associated with drilling operations, and fixtures with all other operations.Fixtures may incorporate means of setting the cutting tools relative to the location system.实际上,在真实切削中能被导向的切削刀具只有钻头、铰刀和类似的刀具;因此钻模用于钻削作业,而夹具用于其余作业。夹具可以与切削刀具相对定位系统装夹的方法结合在一起。
The advantages of jigs and fixtures can be summarised as follows:
1)Marking out and other measuring and setting out methods are eliminated;
2)Unskilled workers may proceed confidently and quickly in knowledge that the workpiece can be positioned correctly, and the tools guided or set;
钻模和夹具的优点可归纳如下:
1)可以省去划线和其它测量及放样程序;
2)在知道工件能正确定位、刀具能恰当导向或装夹的情况下,不熟练的工人也能自信而快速地操作;
3)the assembly of parts is facilitated, since all components will be identical within small limits, and “trying” and filing of work is eliminated;
4)The parts will be interchangeable, and if the product sold over a wide area, the problem of spare parts will be simplified.3)由于所有零件在较小极限范围内是相同的,可以省掉工件的‘试装’和锉削,所以零件装配很方便;
4)零件具有互换性,这样如果产品在较大范围内销售的话,备件问题将简单化。
Bolt holes often have 1.5mm or even 3.0mm clearance for the bolt, and the reader may doubt the necessity of making precision jigs for such work.It must be remembered that the jigs, once made, will be used on many components, and the extra cost of an accurately made jig is spread over a large output.螺栓孔常给螺栓留出1.5毫米或甚至3.0毫米的间隙,读者可能会怀疑为这样的工作制造精密钻模的必要性。但要记住,这种钻模一旦造好,可用于许多零部件,精确制造钻模的额外成本可分摊在大量产品上。
Furthermore, it is surprising how small errors accumulate in a mechanism during its assembly.When a clearance is specified, it is better to ensure its observance, rather than to allow careless marking out and machining to encroach upon it.
此外,这样做在装配机械装置时其累积误差之小也是令人惊讶的。在确定一个间隙时,最好能保证它的习惯要求,而不是随便划线和机加工使其超出正常的界限。
1)The location of workpiece.Fig.13.1 represents a body that is completely free in space.In this condition it has six degrees of freedom.Consider these freedoms with respect to the three mutually perpendicular axes XX, YY, and ZZ.1)工件的定位:图13.1表示一个在空间完全自由的物体,在这种情况下它具有六个自由度。相对于三根互相垂直的坐标轴XX、YY和ZZ来考虑这些自由度。
The body can move along any of these axes;it therefore has three freedoms of translation.It can also rotate about any of the three axes;it therefore has three freedoms of rotation.The total number of freedoms is six.When work is located, as many of these freedoms as possible must be eliminated, to ensure that the operation is performed with the required accuracy.此物体能沿三根坐标轴的任意一根移动;这样就具有三个平移自由度。它也能围绕三根坐标轴的任意一根回转;这样它又具有三个旋转自由度。总的自由度数目是六个。当工件被定位时,必须尽可能多地消除这些自由度,以保证作业按要求精度进行。
Accuracy is ensured by machining suitable location features as early as possible, and using them for all location, unless other considerations mean that other location features must be used.If it is necessary, the new location features must be machined as a result of location from the former location features.除非有必要采用另外定位要素的其它考虑,精度可通过尽可能早地加工合适的定位要素并采用它们进行所有定位来保证。如果必要的话,新的定位要素必须作为先前的定位要素的定位结果来加工。
2)The clamping of the workpiece.The clamping system must be such that the workpiece is held against the cutting forces, and the clamping forces must not be so great as to cause the workpiece to become distorted or damaged.2)工件的装夹:装夹系统必须使工件对着切削力夹持,而且装夹力又不能大得引起
工件变形或损坏。
The workpiece must be supported beneath the point of clamping, to ensure that the forces are taken by the main frame of the jig or fixture, and on to the machine table and bed.When jigs and fixtures are designed, the clamping system is designed to ensure that the correct clamping force is applied, and that the clamps can be operated quickly but with safety.工件必须在装夹点下被支撑,以保证这些力由钻模或夹具的主框架来承受并传递给机器台和床身。在设计钻模和夹具时,要同时设计装夹系统来保证提供恰当的装夹力,并使装夹操作快速而安全。
Definition of a Drill Jig钻模的定义
A drill jig is a device for ensuring that a hole to be drilled, tapped, or reamed in a workpiece will be machined in the proper place.钻模是一种确保在工件正确位置进行钻孔、攻丝或铰孔加工的装置。
Basically it consists of a clamping device to hold the part in position under hardened-steel bushings through which the drill passes during the drilling operation.The drill is guided by the bushings.它基本上由在淬硬钢衬套下将零件夹持到位的夹持装置组成,钻孔作业中钻头穿过这些衬套,通过它们来导向。
If the workpiece is of simple construction, the jig may be clamped on the workpiece.In most cases, however, the workpiece is held by the jig, and the jig is arranged so that the workpiece can be quickly inserted and as quickly removed after the machining operation is performed.如果工件结构比较简单,钻模可夹持在工件上。然而大多数情况下,工件由钻模来夹持,并且把钻模设计成能将工件迅速装入而在加工后同样能很快取出。
Jigs make it possible to drill, ream, and tap holes at much greater speeds and with greater accuracy than when the holes are produced by conventional hand methods.Another advantage is that skilled workers are not required when jigs are used.Responsibility for the accuracy of hole location is taken from the operator and given to the jig.相对于用常规的手工方法加工孔,钻模使得钻孔、铰孔和攻丝速度快很多而且精度更高成为可能。另一个优点是采用钻模时不需要熟练工人。保证孔定位精度的责任从操作者身上转移到了钻模上。
The term jig should be used only for devices employed while drilling, reaming, or tapping holes.It is not fastened to the machine on which it is used and may be moved around on the table of the drilling machine to bring each bushing directly under the drill.Jigs physically limit and control the path of the cutting tool.钻模这个术语只用在服务于钻孔、铰孔或攻丝的装置上。它不固定在使用它的钻床上,它能在钻床工作台上到处移动以使每个衬套都直接位于钻头下。钻模有形地限制和控制钻削刀具的路径。
If the operation includes machining operations like milling, planing, shaping, turning, etc., the term fixture should be used.A fixture holds the work during machining operations but does not contain special arrangements for guiding the cutting tool ,as drill jigs do.如果作业还包括其它象铣削、刨削、成型、车削等机加工,则应采用夹具这一术语。夹具在机加工作业时夹持工件,但它不象钻模那样包含引导切削刀具的特殊布置。Typical Jigs and Fixtures典型的钻模和夹具
Typical drill jig.Figure 13.2 illustrates a drilling jig for drilling four holes in the flange of a workpiece that has been completed except for the four holes.典型的钻模:图13.2所示为一个能在某工件的法兰上钻四个孔的钻模,该工件除了这四个孔外已全部完成。
The workpiece has an accurately machined bore, and is located from the bore and the end face, from a cylindrical post.There is no need to control the rotational position about the axis of the bore, because up to the time when the holes are drilled, it is symmetrical about that axis.此工件有一精确机加工的大孔,因此通过一圆柱体采用该孔和工件端面定位。由于直至钻这些小孔时,工件都对称于大孔轴线,所以没必要控制围绕大孔轴线回转的位置。
The four bushes used to control the drill are held in the drill plate, which, with the hand nut, is used to clamp the workpiece against the base of the fixture.四个控制钻头的衬套装在钻板里,连同手拧螺母一起用于靠着夹具基座夹持工件。
Typical milling fixture.Figure 13.3 illustrates a simple milling fixture for milling the slot in the otherwise completed workpiece shown.The workpiece is located from two of the four holes in its base, and from the underside of the base.典型的铣削夹具:图13.3所示为一用于在图示其它工序都完成的工件上铣槽的简单铣削夹具。此工件采用其基座上四孔中的两孔和基座的底面定位。
The workpiece is clamped in position, and cutter is located against the setting block, which provides setting or cutter position and depth of cut.工件被夹持到位,铣刀靠着提供安装或铣刀位置及切削深度的安装台定位。
The fixture must be positioned relative to the machine table, this is done by engaging the two tenons at the bottom of the fixture in the slot in the machine table.The fixture is secured to the machine table with T-bolts, also engaging in the slots in the table(Fig.13.3).夹具必须相对于铣床工作台定位,这可通过把夹具底部的两个凸榫插入工作台上的槽中来实现。夹具用T型螺栓固定于铣床工作台,同时与工作台上的槽接合(图13.3)。
Dimensioning 标注尺寸
The design of a machine includes many factors other than those of determining the loads and stresses and selecting the proper materials.机械设计除了计算载荷和应力、选择合适的材料外,还包括许多其它因素。
Before construction or manufacture can begin, it is necessary to have complete assembly and detail drawings to convey all necessary information to the shop men.The designer frequently is called upon to check the drawings before they are sent to the shop.Much experience and familiarity with manufacturing processes are needed before one can become conversant with all phases of production drawings.在建造或制造开始前,完成装配图和零件图以把必要信息传达给车间工人是必须的。在送往车间前设计者常常被召集来检查图纸。而在精通生产图纸的所有情况之前,需要有许多经验
并熟悉制造工艺。
Drawings should be carefully checked to see that the dimensioning is done in a manner that will be most convenient and understandable to the production departments.It is obvious that a drawing should be made in such a way that it has one and only one interpretation.图纸必须仔细检查其尺寸是否按生产部门最方便易懂的方式标注。很明显图纸应该只有唯一的解释。
In particular, shop personnel should not be required to make trigonometric or other involved calculations before the production machines can be set up.Dimensioning is an involved subject and long experience is required for its mastery.尤其是不能要求车间工人在生产机械安排前进行三角或其它复杂的计算。
尺寸标注是一项复杂的工作,要掌握它需要有丰富的经验。
Tolerances must be placed on the dimensions of a drawing to limit the permissible variations in size because it is impossible to manufacture a part exactly to a given dimension.由于要把零件加工到正好为给定尺寸是不可能的,因此图纸的尺寸必须加上公差以限制其可允许的变化。
Although small tolerances give higher quality work and a better operating mechanism, the cost of manufacture increases rapidly as the tolerances are reduced, as indicated by the typical curve of Fig14.1.It is therefore important that the tolerances be specified at the largest values that the operating or functional considerations permit.虽然较小公差能得到较高加工质量和较好操作机构,但随着公差的减小制造成本会迅速增加,如图14.1的典型曲线所示。因此公差被定为从操作或功能考虑允许的最大值是重要的。
Tolerances may be either unilateral or bilateral.In unilateral dimensioning, one tolerance is zero, and all the variations are given by the other tolerance.In bilateral dimensioning, a mean dimension is used which extends to the midpoint of the tolerance zone with equal plus and minus variations extending each way from this dimension.公差既可以是单向的也可以是双向的。单向标注有一公差为零,所有变化都由另一公差给定。而双向标注则采用一平均尺寸,它将公差带中点从该尺寸双向扩展为相等的正负变化范围。
The development of production processes for large-volume manufacture at low cost has been largely dependent upon interchangeability of component parts.Thus the designer must determine both the proper tolerances for the individual parts, and the correct amount of clearance or interference to permit assembly with the mating parts.大规模低成本制造生产工艺的发展很大程度取决于组成零件的互换性。因此设计者必须确定单个零件的合适公差以及配合零件装配允许的正确间隙或过盈量。
The manner of placing tolerances on drawings depends somewhat on the kind of product or type of manufacturing process.If the tolerance on a dimension is not specifically stated, the drawing should contain a blanket note which gives the value of the tolerance for such dimensions.在图纸上标注公差的方法相当程度上依赖于产品的性质或制造工艺的类型。如果尺寸公差没有特别注明,图纸应该包含一个给出这些尺寸公差值的普遍适用注释。
However, some companies do not use blanket notes on the supposition that if each dimension is considered individually, wider tolerances than those called for in the note could probably be specified.In any event it is very important that a drawing be free from ambiguities and be subject only to a single interpretation.然而有些公司不采用普遍适用注释,假定每个尺寸是单独被考虑的,可能会规定出比注释中
要求的更宽的公差。在任何情况下图纸不模棱两可并只服从于单一的解释是十分重要的。Dimension and Tolerance尺寸和公差
In dimensioning a drawing, the numbers placed in the dimension lines represent dimension that are only approximate and do not represent any degree of accuracy unless so stated by the designer.在图纸标注尺寸时,除非设计者有意标明,注在尺寸线上的数字代表的尺寸仅仅是近似的,并不代表任何精度等级。
To specify a degree of accuracy, it is necessary to add tolerance figures to the dimension.Tolerance is the amount of variation permitted in the part or the total variation allowed in a given dimension.为了详细标明精度等级,有必要在尺寸上增加公差数字。公差是零件允许的变动量或给定尺寸允许的总变动。
A shaft might have a nominal size of 2.5in.(63.5mm), but for practical reasons this figure could not be maintained in manufacturing without great cost.Hence, a certain tolerance would be added and, if a variation of±0.003in.(±0.08mm)could be permitted, the dimension would be stated 2.500±0.003(63.5±0.08mm).一根轴可能的名义尺寸为2.5in.(63.5mm),但由于实际原因不用大成本是不能在制造中保持这个数字的,因此要增加确定的公差。如果允许有±0.003in.(±0.08mm)的变化,则此尺寸可表达为2.500±0.003(63.5±0.08mm)。
Dimensions given close tolerances mean that the part must fit properly with some other part.Both must be given tolerances in keeping with the allowance desired, the manufacturing processes available, and the minimum cost of production and assembly that will maximize profit.具有紧密公差的尺寸表示该零件必须恰当地与某些其它零件配合。所采用的制造工艺和使利润最大化的最小生产及装配成本都要求给定公差以保持所需允差。
Generally speaking, the cost of a part goes up as the tolerance is decreased.If a part has several or more surfaces to be machined, the cost can be excessive when little deviation is allowed from the nominal size.一般而言,零件的成本随着公差的减小而上升。如果一个零件有若干或较多表面要机加工,且几乎不允许偏离名义尺寸,则成本会超过正常合理的界限。
Allowance, which is sometimes confused with tolerance, has an altogether different meaning.It is the minimum clearance space intended between mating parts and represents the condition of tightest permissible fit.允差,有时会跟公差混淆,但其具有完全不同的含义。它是配合零件之间最小的预期间隙空间,代表着允许的最紧配合条件。
If a shaft, size 1.498-0.003, is to fit a hole of size 1.500+0.003, the minimum size hole is 1.500 and the maximum size shaft is 1.498.Thus the allowance is 0.002 and the maximum clearance is 0.008 as based on the minimum shaft size and maximum hole dimension.如果一根尺寸为1.498-0.003的轴与尺寸为1.500+0.003的孔配合,孔的最小尺寸为1.500而轴的最大尺寸为1.498。这样允差就是0.002,而由最小轴尺寸和最大孔尺寸形成的最大间隙为0.008。
Tolerances may be either unilateral or bilateral.Unilateral tolerance means that any variation is made in only one direction from the nominal or basic dimension.Referring to the previous example, the hole is dimensioned 1.500+0.003, which represents a unilateral tolerance.公差可以是单向的也可以是双向的。单向公差意味着任何变动都是只从名义或基本
尺寸出发向一个方向变动的。引用前例,孔的尺寸标注为1.500+0.003,它表示了一个单向公差。
If the dimensions were given as 1.500±0.003, the tolerance would be bilateral;that is, it would vary both over and under the nominal dimension.The unilateral system permits changing the tolerance while still retaining the same allowance or type of fit.如果尺寸标为1.500±0.003,就是双向公差;即它可以在名义尺寸之上或之下变化。单向体系允许在依然保留相同允差或配合类型的情况下改变公差。
With the bilateral system, this is not possible without also changing the nominal size dimension of one or both of the two mating parts.In mass production, where mating parts must be interchangeable, unilateral tolerances are customary.To have an interference or force fit between mating parts, the tolerances must be such as to create a zero or negative allowance.而双向体系在不同时改变一个或两个配合零件名义尺寸的情况下,这是不可能做到的。大规模生产中配合零件必须能互换,单向公差是经常遇到的。为了使配合零件之间具有过盈或强制配合,公差必须产生零或负允差。
Tolerances, Limits and Fits公差、极限和配合
The drawing must be a true and complete statement of the designer’s requirements expressed in such a way that the part is convenient to manufacture.图纸必须按方便制造零件的方式将设计者的要求真实和完整地表达出来。
Every dimension necessary to define the product must be stated once only and not repeated in different views.Dimensions relating to one particular feature, such as the position and size of a hole, should, where possible, appear on the same view.对每一描述产品所需的尺寸都只须标注一次而不必在不同的视图中重复。有关同一特性的尺寸,诸如孔的位置和大小,如果可能应出现在同一视图上
There should be no more dimensions than are absolutely necessary, and no feature should be located by more than one dimension in any direction.除绝对需要的尺寸外,不应该有更多的尺寸;而在任意方向上,只能在一个尺寸上标注特性要求。
It may be necessary occasionally to give an auxiliary dimension for reference, possibly for inspection.When this is so, the dimension should be enclosed in a bracket and marked for reference.Such dimensions are not governed by general tolerances.偶尔也可能为了检查而必须给出供参考的辅助尺寸。在这种情况下,尺寸应该用括号括起来,以便参考。这样的尺寸不受通用公差控制。
Dimensions that affect the function of the part should always be specified and not left as the sum or difference of other dimensions.影响零件功能的尺寸总是应该标注的而不要留作其它尺寸的和或差。
If this is not done, the total permissible variation on that dimension will form the sum or difference of the other dimensions and their tolerances, and this will result in these tolerances having to be made unnecessarily tight.The overall dimension should always appear.如果不是这样,那尺寸允许的总的变化将形成其它尺寸及它们的公差的和或差,这会导致这些公差不得不定得过紧。总尺寸一般应该标注。
All dimensions must be governed by the general tolerance on the drawing unless otherwise stated.Usually, such a tolerance will be governed by the magnitude of the dimension.Specific tolerances must always be stated on dimensions affecting function or interchangeability.除非另行说明,所有尺寸都必须受图上的通用公差控制。一般这样的公差受到尺寸量值的控制。在影响功能或互换性的尺寸上必须标注专门的公差。
A system of tolerances is necessary to allow for the variations in accuracy that are bound to occur during manufacture, and still provide for interchangeability and correct function of the part.为了允许在制造过程中必然会发生的精度变化,并提供零件的互换性和正确功能,一个公差系统是必需的。
A tolerance is the difference in a dimension in order to allow for unavoidable imperfections in workmanship.The tolerance range will depend on the accuracy of the manufacturing organisation, the machining process and the magnitude of the dimension.公差是为了允许工艺上不可避免缺陷而存在的尺寸上的不同。公差范围取决于制造机构的精度、机加工过程和尺寸的量值。
The greater the tolerance range, the cheaper the manufacturing process.A bilateral tolerance is one where the tolerance range is disposed on both sides of the nominal dimension.A unilateral tolerance is one where the tolerance zone is on one side only of the nominal dimension, in which case the nominal dimension may form one of the limits.公差范围越大,则制造过程的成本就越低。双向公差是在公称尺寸两侧都有公差带的公差。单向公差是仅在公称尺寸一侧有公差带的公差,在这种情况下公称尺寸成了两个极限中的一个。
Limits are the extreme dimensions of the tolerance zone.For example, nominal dimension
30mm tolerance
limits
极限是公差带的极限尺寸。例如公称尺寸30毫米 公差
极限
Fits depend on the relationship between the tolerance zones of two mating parts, and may be broadly classified into a clearance fit with positive allowance, a transition fit where the allowance may be either positive or negative(clearance or interference), an interference fit where the allowance is always negative.配合取决于两配合零件公差带之间的关系,并且可以概括地分为具有正允差的间隙配合,允差可以是正或负的过渡配合和总是负允差的过盈配合。Type of Limits and Fits极限和配合的类型
The ISO System of Limits and Fits, widely used in a number of leading metric countries, is considerably more complex than the ANSI system.在一些最主要采用公制的国家中广泛使用的ISO的极限和配合系统,比ANSI的极限和配合系统要复杂得多。
In this system, each part has a basic size.Each limit of size of a part, high and low, is defined by its deviation from the basic size, the magnitude and sign being obtained by subtracting the basic size from the limit in question.The difference between the two limits of size of a part is called the tolerance, an absolute amount without sign.在这个系统中,每个零件都有基本尺寸。零件尺寸的每一极限,不管大小,都通过对基本尺寸的偏差来定义;其量值和符号由正被讨论的极限减去基本尺寸得到。零件尺寸的两个极限之差称为公差,这是一个没有符号的绝对量值。
There are three classes of fits: 1)clearance fits, 2)transition fits(the assembly may have either clearance or interference), and 3)interference fits.存在三种配合:1)间隙配合,2)过渡配合(装配后可以有间隙或过盈),和3)过盈配合。
Either a shaft-basis system or a hole-basis system may be used.For any given basic size, a range of tolerances and deviations may be specified with respect to the line of zero deviation,called the zero line.基轴制或基孔制均可采用。对任何给定的基本尺寸,公差范围和偏差可以相对于被称为零线的零偏差线来确定。
The tolerance is a function of the basic size and is designated by a number symbol, called the grade—thus the tolerance grade.公差是基本尺寸的函数 并通过一个被称为等级的数字符号标明—即公差等级。
The position of the tolerance with respect to the zero line also a function of the basic size—is indicated by a letter symbol(or two letters), a capital letter for holes and a lowercase letter for shafts.Thus the specification for a hole and shaft having a basic size of 45 mm might be 45H8/g7.公差相对于零线的位置同样为基本尺寸的函数通过一个或两个字母符号表达,大写字母表示孔而小写字母表示轴。这样基本尺寸为45毫米的一个孔和轴配合规格可能是45H8/g7。
Twenty standard grades of tolerances are provided, called IT01, IT0, IT1~18, providing numerical values for each nominal diameter, in arbitrary steps up to 500mm(for example 0~3, 3~6,6~10,......, 400~500 mm).ISO规定了二十种标准的公差等级,称之为IT01,IT0,IT1~18,给在直至500毫米强行分段(例如0~3,3~6,6~10,......, 400~500毫米)中的公称直径提供具体数值。
The value of the tolerance unit, i, for grades 5~16 isWhere i is in microns and D in millimeters.对5~16级而言,公差单位i的值可用下式计算这里i的单位是微米,而D的单位是毫米。
Standard shaft and hole deviations similarly are provided by sets of formulas, however, for practical application, both tolerances and deviations are provided in three sets of rather complex tables.标准的轴和孔偏差同样都由若干公式提供;然而对实际应用,公差和偏差都在三张相当复杂的表格中规定了。
Additional tables give the values for basic sizes above 500 mm and for “Commonly Used Shafts and Holes” in two categories—“General Purpose” and “Fine Mechanisms and Horology”.对基本尺寸大于500毫米和在“一般用途”和“精密机械和钟表”两个类别中的“常用的轴和孔”而言,由附加的表格给出数值
第二篇:英语课文翻译
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• 参考译文
第一单元
与自然力量抗争 课文A 就拿拿破仑和希特勒两人来说吧,他们所向披靡,便以为自己战
冰雪卫士
奈拉·B·史密斯
1812年,法国皇帝拿破仑·波拿巴率大军入侵俄罗斯。他准备好俄罗斯人民会为保卫祖国而奋勇抵抗。
他准备好在俄罗斯广袤的国土上要经过长途跋涉才能进军首都莫斯科。但他没有料到在莫斯科他会遭遇劲敌——俄罗斯阴冷凄苦的寒冬。
1941年,纳粹德国元首阿道夫·希特勒进攻当时被称作苏联的俄罗斯。希特勒的军事实力堪称无敌。
他的战争机器扫除了欧洲绝大部分地区的抵抗。希特勒希望速战速决,但是,就像在他之前的拿破仑一样,他得到的是痛苦的教训。仍是俄罗斯的冬天助了苏维埃士兵一臂之力。拿破仑发起的战役
1812年春,拿破仑在俄国边境屯兵60万。这些士兵受过良好训练,作战力强,装备精良。这支军队被称为大军。拿破仑对马到成功充满自信,预言要在5个星期内攻下俄国。
不久,拿破仓的大军渡过涅曼河进入俄国。拿破仑期盼着的速决速胜迟迟没有发生。令他吃惊的是,俄国人并不奋起抵抗。相反.他们一路东撒,沿途焚毁庄稼和民居。大军紧追不舍,但它的长驱直入很快由于粮草运输缓慢而停顿下来。
到了8月,法俄两军在斯摩棱斯克交战,这一战役中,双方各有上万人阵亡。可是俄国人仍能在自己的国土上继续后撤。拿破仑未能取得决定性的胜利。此刻他面临着一个重要抉择。是继续追击俄国军队,还足把军队驻扎在斯摩棱斯克,在那儿度过将到的冬天?
拿破仑孤注一掷,决定向远在448公里之外的莫斯科进发。1 812年9月7日,法俄两军在莫斯科以西112公里外的鲍罗季诺激战,夜幕降临时,3万名法国士兵以及4万4千名俄国士兵或伤或亡,倒在了战场上。
俄国军队再次撤往安全之处。拿破仑顺利进入莫斯科,然而,对该市的占领成为毫无意义的胜利。俄国人弃城而走。法国人进城不久,一场熊熊大火烧毁丁整个城市的三分之二。拿破仑向亚历山大一世提出停战,但沙皇深知他可以等待时机:“且让俄罗斯的严冬为我们战斗吧。”
拿破仑很快意识到,他无法在冬天向远在莫斯科的军队供应粮草、提供御寒衣物和宿营之地。1812年10月,他命令大军撤出莫斯科。
法军的撤离成为一场噩梦。俄国人出没于田野与森林,采用打了就跑的战术,向法国人发起攻击。刚出莫斯科城,气温就降到摄氏零下4度。11月3目降了初雪。困乏的马匹倒地而死。大炮陷入雪中。装备只得被用作燃料焚烧。士兵们染病冻死。法国士兵拖着脚步行进,一路上留下无数死尸。
正当俄罗斯军队集聚兵力之时,法国人却不得不逃离俄国,以避免注定的失败。在别列兹那河,俄国人焚烧了涨水的河道上的桥粱,差点将后撤的法军团于河边。侥幸的是,拿破仑居然突击造起两座桥。成千上万法国士兵得以逃脱,但却损失了5万人。渡过别列兹拿河,溃不成军的幸存者一瘸一拐地向维尔纽行进。
拿破仑发兵60万进入俄国,只有不到10万士兵返回。元气大伤的法国军队在欧洲继续西撤。不久,英国、奥地利、俄国以及普鲁士组成强大的联盟,攻击这些 1 • •
• •
散兵游勇。1814年3月,巴黎被攻占。拿破仑退位去过流放生活,他缔造的帝国随之灭亡。希特勒的入侵
到1941年初,纳粹德国元首阿道夫·希特勒已经控制了欧洲大部分地区。希特勒的德意志帝国的东部与苏联毗邻。1941年6月22曰,希特勒不宣而战,入侵苏联,发动了历史上规模最大的一场陆地战役。希特勒自信能速战速决,预计这一战役不会超过3个月。他计划采用征服了欧洲其余地区的闪电式战略。入侵汁划包含三大目标:向列宁格勒与莫斯科进攻,并横扫乌克兰。
苏联领导人约瑟夫·斯大林被打了个措手不及,他指示全国人民在德国入侵者到来之前实行“焦土”政策。农场和工厂被焚烧毁坏,或被弄得无法运转。在入侵的最初10个星期内,德国人一路东进。俄国人伤亡人数多达一百多万。
在北方,德国人包围了列宁格勒。尽管忍受着极大困苦,列宁格勒的人民绝不投降。列宁格勒保卫战一直持续到冬季,此时该市的处境变得危急。由于食品匮乏.人们死于饥饿与疾病。到了1941年和1942年之间的寒冬,几乎每天有4千人死于饥饿。列宁格勒之围造成近百万人死亡。
在俄国中部,希特勒的目标是占领莫斯科。由于德国人指望速战速决,他们没有准备过冬的补给。IO 月来临,大雨不停。“泥泞将军”拖延了德国人闪电式进攻的行动。
正当希特勒的军队逼近莫斯科时,寒冷的冬季早早地降临苏联,那是多年不遇的严寒。气温降到摄氏零下48度。大雪纷飞。对俄国的严寒冬季毫无思想准备的德国士兵身着单薄的夏装,一个个被冻伤。德国人的坦克掩埋往深深的雪堆中。俄罗斯的冬季阻止了德国人的攻势。
到1942夏天,希特勒又发起两场新的攻势。往南方,德国人占领了塞瓦斯托波尔。希特勒随后向东推进到斯大林格勒,那是沿伏尔加河绵延48公里的一座大工业城市。尽管艰苦卓绝,苏联抵抗者拒绝放弃斯大林格勒。
到1942夏天,希特勒又发起两场新的攻势。往南方,德国人占领了塞瓦斯托波尔。希特勒随后向东推进到斯大林格勒,那是沿伏尔加河绵延48公里的一座大工业城市。尽管艰苦卓绝,苏联抵抗者拒绝放弃斯大林格勒。
1942年11月,俄国人发起了一场反攻。德国军队在斯大林格勒城内外几乎没有挡风避寒的地方,食品和补给的匮乏更使其元气大伤。直到1943年1月德国人才放弃围城。进攻斯大林格勒的30万德国人只剩下9万忍饥挨饿的士兵。斯大林格勒一战的失利最终使希特勒时乖运蹇。部分地由于俄罗斯的冬季,德国人走向失败了。
在1943年与1944年期间,苏联军队将德军阵线往西逼退。在北方,1944年1月15日,红军发起突然袭击,解除了列宁格勒长达3年之久的围困。列宁格勒那些英勇无畏的幸存者看着入侵者在两个早期内全部撤离。到了1944年3月,乌克兰的农村又回到了苏维埃手中。1944年5月9日,塞瓦斯托波尔从德国人手中被解放出来。至此,俄国人向柏林进发。
就希特勒而言,对苏联的入侵成为一场军事灾难。对俄罗斯人民来说,这场入侵带来了无法形容的苦难。苏维埃在第一次世界大战中死亡的人数几乎达到2千3百万。
俄罗斯的冰雪卫士
任何军事行动都必须考虑到自然的因素。拿破仑和希特勒都低估了俄罗斯冬季的严酷。冰雪和极低的气温使两支侵略军付出惨重的代价。对俄罗斯人民而言,严冬是他们的冰雪卫上。• • • • • • • •
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第二单元
智能汽车 课文A
能看、能听,有知觉、具嗅觉、会说话的智能汽车?还能自动驾驶?这听起来或许像是在做梦,但计算机革命正致力于把这一切变为现实。
智能汽车
米基奥.卡库
即便是过去70年间基本上没有多少变化的汽车工业,也将感受到计算机革命的影响。
汽车工业是20世纪最赚钱,最有影响力的产业之一。目前世界上有5亿辆车,或者说每 lo人就有l辆车。汽车工业的销售额达一万亿美元左右,从而成为世界上最大的制造业。
汽车及其行驶的道路,将在主2l世纪发生重大变革。未来“智能汽车”的关键在于传感器。我们会见到能看、能听,有知觉,具嗅觉、会说话并能采取行动的车辆与道路,”正在设计未来智能汽车和智能道路的通用汽车公司ITS项目的技术主任比尔·斯普雷扎预言道。
美国每年有大约4万人死于交通事故。在汽车事故中死亡或严重受伤的人数太多,我们已经不屑在报纸上提及。这些死亡的人中至少有半数是酒后开车者造成的,另外许多死亡事故是驾驶员不小心所导致。智能汽车能消除绝大多数这类汽车事故。它能通过会感测空气中的酒精雾气的电子传感器捡测开车者是否喝醉酒,并拒绝启动引擎。这种车还能在遇窃后通报警方,告知车辆的确切地点。
能监控行车过程以及周围行车状况的智能汽车已经建造出来。藏在保险杠里的微型雷达能对周围的汽车作扫描。如果你发生重大行车失误(如变道时有车辆在你“盲点”内),计算卫星从高空经过时发出能被汽车卜计算机里的接收器辨认的无线电信号。汽车上的计算机就会根据信号传来所花的时间汁算出卫星有多远。由于光速为人熟知,接收卫星信号时的任何时间迟缓都能折算出距离的远近。
在日本,具有某种导航能力的汽车已有一百万辆之多。(有些导航装置通过将方向盘的转动与汽车在地图上的位置并置来测定汽车的方位。)
随着微芯片价格的大幅度下降,未来对全球卫星定位系统的应用几乎是无限的。“制造这一商品的工业定会飞速发展,”生产导航系统的麦哲伦航仪公司的兰迪·霍夫曼说。盲人可以在手杖里装配全球卫星定位系统传感器,飞机可以通过遥控着陆,徒步旅行者可以测定自己在林中的方位——其潜在的应用范围是无止境的。
全球卫星定位系统其实只是叫做“远程信息学”的这一更大行动的一部分,这一行动最终将把智能汽车送上智能高速公路。这种高速公路的样品已经在欧洲问世,加州也在进行试验,在高速公路上安装计算机芯片、传感器和无线电发射机,以便向汽车报告交通拥挤堵塞情况。
在圣迭戈以北10英里的15号州际公路一段8英里长的路面上,交通工程师正在安装一个由麻省理工学院设计的引进“自动司机”系统。这一计划要求计算机在公路上埋设的数千
个3英寸长的磁钉的协助下,在车辆极多的路段完全控制车辆的运行。车辆会编成10辆或12辆一组,车距仅6英尺,在计算机的控制下一齐行驶。
这种计算机化的公路的倡导者对其未来的应用充满希望。到2010年,远程信息• • • • •
• • •
• • •
• • 技术很可能应用于美国的一条主要公路。如果成功的话,到2020年,当微芯片的价格降到一片一美分以下时,远程信息技术就会应用在美国成千上万英里的公路上。这对环保也会很有利,能节省燃油,减轻交通阻塞,减少空气污染污染,还可用作公路扩建的替代办法。
第三单元
求职面试
课文A
自己经营公司的哈维麦凯经常对求职者进行面试。文中他告诉我们关于雇主看重 什幺样品质的秘密,并提出4点建议,帮助你显得比众人突出。
得到你想要的工作
哈维·B·迈克
我经营着一家有350名左右员工的制造公司,我本人常常要对求职者进行面试,决定是否聘用。我喜欢与可能成为营业员的人交谈,因为他们会是我们与顾客联系的纽带。
不久前一个新近毕业的大学生到我办公室谋求一份销售工作。我问他为这次面试做过哪些准备。他说他在什么地方看到过有关本公司的些情况。
他有没有给麦凯信封公司的人打过电话,好了解更多有关我们的情况?没打过。他有没有给我们的供应厂商打过电话?还有我们的客户?都没有。
他可曾在就读的大学里查问过有没有校友在本公司就职,以便向他们了解一些情况’他可曾请朋友向他提问,对他进行模拟面试?可曾去图书馆查找过有关本公司的剪报?
他事先有没有写封信来介绍自己,告诉我们自己为这次面试在做哪些准备,自己何以能胜任此项工作?面试之后他是否打算再写一封信,表明自己加盟本公司的诚意?这封信会不会在面试后的24小时之内送到我们手上,也许甚至是亲自送来?
他对上述每一个问题的回答全都一样:没有。这样我就只剩一个问题要问了:如果此人代表本公司去见可能成为我们客户的人,他准备工作会做得怎样?答案不言自明。在笔者看来,如欲被聘用,应注意四个要诀:
1.准备去赢。“一日不练,自己知道,”音乐家中自这样的说法。“两日不练,音乐评论家
知道。三日不练,观众知道。”
我们在观看世界级音乐家或顶尖运动员的表演时,看到的并不是使他们变成出类拔萃人物的长年苦练。世界上诸如迈克尔-乔丹这样的顶尖人物无疑具有非凡才能,但他们在蓝球场上也是第一个到,最后一个走。同样的苦练适用于人类的各项活动。若想被聘用,就要准 备去赢。
我大学毕业时,我极有可能终身从事同一个工作。当时情况也的确如此。但如今已不再
是一生被聘去做一个工作了。指导就业的专家认为.今天的大学毕业生在他们的生涯中可能
|会经历多达10次的职业变动。
听上去似乎压力不小。然而,如果你作了准备,压力就是别人的——那些没做准备的人。
你不可能得到你想要的每份工作。最好的售货员也不可能每次都成交。迈克尔乔丹投篮
命中率勉强过半。但认真准备一次面试的时间不会多于马马虎虎准各五次面试的时间,而你
成功的可能性要多得多。
2永不中断学习。最近我和一位90高龄的老者搭档打双人网球。我琢磨着那会是什么结局;可我的担心是多余的。我们6:l击败对手。是6:1啊!
j
我们交换场地打第三局时,他对我说“我打反手击球你不介意吧?我向来喜欢多练练自
己的弱点。”好一个永不中断学习的精彩实例。顺便说一下,我们6:l赢 4 •
• • • • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • • • 了第三局。
走出赛场,我那90高龄的搭档笑着说:“你也许想知道我在85岁以上年龄段的美国网球双打排名第一!”他想的不是年届90,想的甚至也不是85岁高龄。他想的是第一。
如果你努力克服自己的弱点,发挥自己的优势.你同样可以做得那么好。要有能力竞争 就得终生学习。
3.相信自己,那怕没人相信你。还记得那4分钟跑英里的往事吗?几百年来,运动员
们一直试图实现这一目标,最终认定人类的身体无法做到。我们的骨结构不适应,我们的肺活量跟不上。
可是,有个人证明那些专家错了。奇迹中的奇迹是,在罗杰·班尼斯特打破4分钟一
英里的纪录6个星期之后,约翰-兰迪又以几乎快出整整2秒的成绩打破了班尼斯特的纪录。
此后,有大约800多名运动员打破了4分钟一英里的记录。
几年前,我和女儿米米参加了纽约马拉松比赛。发令枪一响.23,000名运动员冲出起跑线——最后有21,244名运动员到达终点。第一名是一位以2小时l1分钟零1秒跑完全程的肯尼亚人。第21,244名运动员是一位越战老兵。他用了3天9小时37分钟跑完全程。没有双腿的他坚持跑完了26.2英里。我和女儿在比赛的最初几分钟内超过了他.当时顿觉勇气倍增,定要跑完全程。
别听旁人说你不能实现自己的目标。谁说你不比你的竞争对手更坚强、更努力、更能干?
要知道,所谓目标就是有最后限期的梦想:写成文字,可测量,可确认,可实现。
4.想方设法显得与众不同。在我看来,纽约大多数的出租车司机即使不算无礼透顶.至
少也是不友好的。车辆大都十分肮脏,几乎所有的车都触目地装有难以穿透的防弹隔离装置。
可近日我在拉瓜迪亚机场跳上了一辆出租车,你猜怎么样?车子竟然干干净净。放着优美的音乐,而且没有隔离装置。
“请到帕克街酒店,”我对司机说。他笑容满面地说:“你好,我叫沃利,”他说着递给我一份保证书。一份保证书!上面写着他将安全、札貌、准时地将我送到目的地。
车开后,他拿出几份报纸说:“请随意翻阅。”他还让我随意品尝后座篮子里的水果。接着他又拿出手机说:“您要是想打电话,每分钟1美元。”
我大吃一惊,脱口问道:“你这么做有多久了?”他回答说:“有三、四年了。”
“我知道不该问,”我说,“可是,你能多挣多少小费?”
“一年12.000到14,000美元左右,”他得意地回答说。
他不知道他成了我心目中的英雄。他就是一个生动的例证,说明你总是可以争取到成功的机会。
我的良师益友柯特·卡尔森是明尼苏达州的首富,拥有一家酒店和旅行社,营业收入约达90亿美元。一次我要去纽约赴会,柯特慷慨地请我乘坐他的私人飞机。碰巧那天明尼苏达州遭受多年不遇的暴风雪袭击。明尼阿波利斯·圣保罗国际机场几十年来第一次关闭。
• • •
虽然暴风雪仍在肆虐,机场还是特地为小型飞机清出了一条跑道。我们正在跑道上滑行准各起飞时,柯特转过头来兴奋地说:“看哪,哈维,雪地上没有痕迹啊!”
柯特·卡尔森,当时年届70,富甲一方,竟然还会因为自己是第一个而如此兴奋。
在我看来,这些正是关键之所在,准备去赢。永不中断学习。相信自己,哪怕没人相信你。想方设法显得与众不同。然后就出发,在雪地上留下你自己的足迹。
第三篇:英语课文翻译
Unit 5PA奉告学子:教育是关键
比尔·盖茨
每年都有数以百计的学生给我发电子邮件,要我就接受教育给他们提建议。他们想知道该学些什么,或者可不可以从大学辍学,因为我就没有读完大学。
也有不少家长给我写信,为子女寻求指导。他们问:“我们怎样才能把孩子引向成功之路?”
我的基本忠告很简单,而且是发自内心的:全力获得最佳教育,充分利用高中和大学,学会如何学习。不错,为创建微软,我未完成大学学业,不过辍学之前我已经在哈佛呆了三年,而且我真心希望有一天能重返校园。以前我也说过,谁也不应该辍学,除非他坚信自己正面临着一个一生仅有一次的机会,但就算在那个时候也还是应该深思熟虑。
Unit 6PA永不放弃
人们劝他引退,说他天分不够,但是花样滑冰选手保罗·怀利拒绝放弃。
1992年冬奥会闭幕后,保罗·怀利抵达华盛顿。走下飞机时,欢迎的人群开始鼓掌。他差点停下了脚步。谁在后面呀?他心里嘀咕。虽说有银牌在囊中,他怎么也不敢相信这掌声是献给他的。从那一刻起,保罗意识到自己的生活从此永远地改变了。
这位27岁的花样滑冰运动员在法国的阿尔贝维尔获得了银牌,从此走向全新的生活。1988年的卡尔加里冬奥会上,他表现平平,只得了第10名,可如今他再也不是在大型赛事中举止失措的无名小卒了;1991年的世界锦标赛上,保罗比赛完后,裁判建议他退出冰坛,“给年轻选手让位”,如今再也听不到这样的建议了。
Unit 7PA父亲的教诲
三位成功人士讲述父亲怎样塑造我们的人生。
瑞贝卡·洛伯:充满爱心
自小我就知道,父亲和母亲深深相爱。只要单独出门,他们总会吻别,我们兄妹几个觉得挺肉麻的,可结婚时,我却满心希望所找到的这个人,能像父亲爱母亲那样爱着我。在我家,爱无处不在,我成长的过程很有安全感,真是妙不可言。
我上大学时,母亲在与乳腺癌作斗争。父亲自己忧心忡忡,却是我们的精神支柱,对母亲而言尤其如此。做了乳房切除术之后,母亲决定不接受乳房再造术,以免再受手术之苦,母亲告诉我,在他们一起走过的日子里,父亲甚至不曾叫她改变发型。相反,他总是对她说,她是多么的美丽动人。正因为这样,与癌症作斗争,对她而言,倒也并不是多么可怕的事。她深知,不管发生什么事,父亲和他的爱总是会和她在一起。
注:瑞贝卡·洛伯曾当选全美“大学最佳球员”,曾是美国女子职业篮球协会的纽约自由女神队球员。
理查德·布兰森:鼓励
我和几个姐妹在英格兰的一个小村庄长大。父亲是个律师,为了生计而奔波,我却一直就认为他与众不同。他从不指责我们,只是表扬,把我们的长处发挥出来。他会说:“给花浇水,花就会茂盛;不浇水,花就会死。”
我还记得我小的时候,说了别人几句不好听的话,父亲便说,“说别人的坏话,反映的是你自身的品质。”他还解释说,看到旁人的长处,别人也会看我的长处。我在经营公司时,一直尽量遵循这个原则。父亲还一向通情达理。15岁那年,我办了一本杂志,花了大量的时间,校长让我自己作决定:要么继续学业,要么辍学去办杂志。
约翰·路易斯:希望
小时候,我住在阿拉巴马州的特洛伊,我经常抱怨每天要起很早去农场干活。一天,父亲把我拉到一边说:“孩子,我们这么做,也是为了日子好过呀。坚持一下,情况总会好起来的。”
父亲生性乐观,对未来满怀希望,这种态度对我有潜移默化的影响。他还教导我们说,我们不能只顾自己,还应该关心别人。
在我看来,父亲总是在奉献,在分享。我们自己条件也不宽裕,没有很多可供奉献或分享,但父亲坚信,一切都会好的,即使在极其艰难的条件下也会如此。当年阿拉巴马有许多事情令人可怕:种族隔离很厉害;我们用的喷泉式饮水器上面标着“黑人使用”字样;上街时我们只能走街道的一边。但他挺过了这一切,没有怨,没有怒,没有憎。
Unit 8PA你是最薄弱的环节,再见
还记得美好的往日时光吗?在那样的纯真年代,我们共享文档和可执行文件,根本没有半点顾虑。不错,每隔一个月左右你可能会碰到一个引导扇区病毒,不过这些很容易对付,就算杀毒软件没有把它查出来也不要紧。
那些长长的夏日,悠闲自得,可惜消逝得太快。宏病毒使IT管理者们迅速成长起来,他们意识到有的病毒能迅速扩散到整个机构。一家公司里的数百台计算机感染了通过电子邮件附件传播的病毒,也是十分平常的事。公司各部门中身体最好的当属IT员工,因为他们奔走于各台计算机之间,清理病毒。
防病毒得想个更好的办法才行。各家公司现在都意识到病毒并不是“现代神话”,而确实会严重影响到公司的运作。他们投资杀毒软件,安装在计算机、服务器以及电子邮件网关上,甚至还采取措施确保使用最新的检查程序,随时更新杀毒软件。
听起来好像各公司已经采取了充分的措施防范病毒。可事实真的如此吗?
第四篇:英语课文及翻译专题
英语课文及翻译
第一单元
第三段 成名者之所以成名,大多是因为发挥了自己在歌唱、舞蹈、绘画或写作等方面的特长,并能形成自己的风格。
为了能迅速走红,代理人会极力吹捧他们这种风格。他们青云直上的过程让人看不清楚。
他们究竟是怎么成功的,大多数人也都说不上来。
尽管如此,艺术家仍然不能闲下来。
若表演者、画家或作家感到无聊,他们的作品就难以继续保持以前的吸引力,也就难以保持公众的注意力。
公众的热情消磨以后,就会去追捧下一个走红的人。
有些艺术家为了不落伍,会对他们的写作、跳舞或唱歌的风格稍加变动,但这将冒极大的失宠的危险。
公众对于他们藉以成名的艺术风格以外的任何形式都将不屑一顾。
第九段
对那些孤注一掷的追名逐利之徒,我要说:祝你们好运。
但是,遗憾的是,你会发现这不是你想得到的。
狗自逐其尾所得到的只是一条尾巴而已。
获得成功的人常常发现成功对他来说弊大于利。
所以要为真实的你、为自己的所为感到高兴,而不是拼命去获得成功。
做那些你为之感到骄傲的事情。
可能在有生之年你默默无闻,但你可能创作了更好的艺术。
第二单元
第四段
事实上,当卓别林再也无法抵制有声电影,不得不为他的“流浪汉”寻找“合适的声音”时,他确实很头疼。
他尽可能地推迟那一天的到来:在 1936 的《摩登时代》里,他第一次在影片里发声唱歌。在片中,他扮演一名侍者,满口胡言乱语,听起来不像任何国家的语言。
后来他说,他想象中的“流浪汉”是一位受过大学教育,但已经没落的绅士。
但假如他在早期那些短小的喜剧电影中能操一口受教育人的口音,那么他是否会闻名世界就难说了,而英国人也肯定会觉得这很“古怪”。没有人知道卓别林这么干是不是有意的,但这促使他获得了巨大的成功。
第四单元
第四段 然而毋庸争辩,通信技术将是区分输赢的关键因素。
看一看俄罗斯的情况吧。
由于其坚实的数学和科学教育基础,它应该在信息时代有繁荣的发展。
问题是,它的国内电话系统是一堆生锈的20世纪30年代的老古董。
为了解决这一问题,俄罗斯已经开始铺设光纤电缆,并制定了投入400亿美元建设多项通信工程的战略计划。
但是由于其经济陷于低迷,几乎没有资金来着手解决最基本的问题。
第五段
与俄罗斯相比,在未来10年中,中国大陆计划对通信设备投入1,000亿美元。
从某种意义上说,中国的落后成了一种有利因素,因为这一发展正好发生在新技术比铜线电缆系统更便宜的时候。
到1995年底,中国除了拉萨以外的省会都将有数字转换器和高容量的光纤网,这意味着其主要城市正在具备必需的基础设施,成为信息高速公路的主要部分,使人们能够进入系统,获得最先进的服务。
第六单元
第三段
高尚的道德标准说起来容易,但实际上人们在这种情况下究竟会怎么做呢?
早些时候,一家英国汽车制造商被指控利用一笔基金行贿,并进行其他一些可疑运作,如给代理商和客户高额回扣、提供额外折扣、向一些在瑞士银行开的匿名账户汇款等。
这家汽车公司否认了这些指控,后来指控也被撤销了。
然而,当时英国汽车业里就有人准备私下里说:“瞧,我们这一行竞争激烈,每年我们汽车的海外销售额超过10亿英镑。
如果花几百万英镑能让一些客户高兴,谁会有损失呢?
我们不这样干,别人也会这样干的。
第八单元
第五段
身边总有人提醒我自己是奴隶的后代,但这并没有使我沮丧。
奴隶制是60年前的事了。
解放黑奴的这场手术很成功,病人的情况也不错,谢谢。
这场使我从黑奴变为美国公民的可怕战争喊道“各就位!”
内战后的那段时期说“预备!”我的上一代人则喊“跑!”
就像一场赛跑一样,我飞速起跑,决不可中途停步,伤心回望。
身为黑奴是我为文明生活所付出的代价,而作出这一选择的并不是我。
世界上再没有什么人有过比这更大的争取荣耀的机会了。
想想将要获得的新生活,而且我们不会有任何损失。不管我做什么,都可能得到双倍的嘉奖,或是双份的责难。想想这一点,知道这一点都令人激动不已。
占据国内舞台的中心可真刺激,而台下的观众则不知是喜是忧。
第十单元
第三段
《时代周刊》最近的封面故事列举了目前关于智能的一些看法,报道说:“新的人脑研究表明,衡量人的智能的真正尺度可能是情感,而不是智商。”
《时代周刊》称之为“情商”的情感智能的根本意义可从企业管理专家卡伦?波尔斯顿的话中窥见一斑:“顾客对企业说„我可不在乎是否你的每个员工都毕业于哈佛,我只愿意与能理解我、尊重我的企业打交道。‟”
第八段
综合考虑他人的看法。
大脑研究表明,人们对外界的看法受到遗传基因及个人经历的局限。
学会吸纳他人有用的观点是一种扩大自己见识的方式。
下次如果有人对某件事与你有不同的看法,比如对某个有争议的政治事件,停下来想想这其实是生活阅历使然,应把它看作一种感知能力的馈赠。
第五篇:英语课文翻译
Unit 1 Section A 我哥哥吉米出生时遇上难产,因为缺氧导致大脑受损。两年后,我出生了。从此以后,我的生活便围绕我哥哥转。伴随我成长的,是“到外面去玩,把你哥哥也带上。”不带上他,我是哪里也去不了的。因此,我怂恿邻居的孩子到我家来,尽情地玩孩子们玩的游戏。我母亲教吉米学习日常自理,比如刷牙或系皮带什么的。我父亲宅心仁厚,他的耐心和理解使一家人心贴着心。我则负责外面的事,找到那些欺负我哥哥的孩子们的父母,告他们的状,为我哥哥讨回公道。父亲和吉米形影不离。他们一道吃早饭,平时每天早上一道开车去海军航运中心,他们都在那里工作,吉米在那搬卸标有彩色代号的箱子。晚饭后,他们一道交谈,玩游戏,直到深夜。他们甚至用口哨吹相同的曲调。所以,父亲1991年因心脏病去世时,吉米几乎崩溃了,尽管他尽量不表现出来。他就是不能相信父亲去世这一事实。通常,他是一个令人愉快的人,现在却一言不发,无论说多少话都不能透过他木然的脸部表情了解他的心事。我雇了一个人和他住在一起,开车送他去上班。然而,不管我怎么努力地维持原状,吉米还是认为他熟悉的世界已经消失了。有一天,我问他:“你是不是想念爸爸?”他的嘴唇颤抖了几下,然后问我:“你怎么看,玛格丽特?他是我最好的朋友。”接着,我俩都流下了眼泪。六个月后,母亲因肺癌去世,剩下我一人来照顾吉米。吉米不能马上适应去上班时没有父亲陪着,因此搬来纽约和我一起住了一段时间。我走到哪里他就跟到哪里,他好像适应得很好。但吉米依然想住在我父母的房子里,继续干他原来的工作。我答应把他送回去。此事最后做成了。如今,他在那里生活了11年,在许多人的照料下,同时依靠自己生活得有声有色。他已成了邻里间不可或缺的人物。如果你有邮件要收,或有狗要遛,他就是你所要的人。当然,母亲的话没错:可以有一个家,既能容纳他的缺陷又能装下我的雄心。事实上,关照像吉米这样一个深爱又感激我的人,更加丰富了我的生活,其他任何东西都不能与之相比。这一点,在9·11灾难后几天更显真切。那天是吉米57岁生日。我在纽约自己的家里为他举办生日宴会,但是我们家的人都没能来参加,因为交通困难,而且灾难带来的恐惧使他们依然心有余悸。我邀请了我的好友,请他们来帮忙把宴会弄得热闹些,增加点欢快气氛,没去理会他们多数人在情感上都有些疲惫这一事实。于是我一反常态,没说“请不要带礼物”,而是向他们喊“请带礼物来”。我的朋友──吉米认识他们多年了──带来了中意的礼物:乡村音乐CD、一件长袖运动衫、一条有“吉米”字样的皮带、一顶编织的羊毛帽,还有一套牛仔服。那天晚上,我们先是送礼物,然后是切从他喜欢的面包店里买来的巧克力蛋糕,当然还唱了“生日歌”,否则宴会就不算完整了。吉米一次次地问:“该切蛋糕了吧?”等用完餐和送完礼物后,吉米再也控制不住了。他焦急地等着点上蜡烛,然后在我们“生日快乐”的歌声中,一口长气吹灭了蜡烛。户然而吉米对我们的努力还是感到不满足。他纵身跳到椅子上,直挺着身子,双手食指朝天,一边喊一边指挥我们唱歌:“再──来──次!”我们全力以赴地唱。待我们唱完时,他翘起两个拇指喊道:“好极了!”本来我们想让他知道,无论世上有多难的事情,总是有人来关心他。现在反倒是提醒了我们自己。对于吉米来说,我们唱歌时的爱心,是他心中额外的礼物,但是他原先更想看到的,是别人再次感到快乐。有如父亲的去世一夜之间改变了吉米的世界,9·11也改变了我们的生活;我们熟悉的世界不复存在了。但是,当我们为吉米唱歌,相互紧拥,祈祷全球和平时,我们也意识到,朋友、家人间永恒的爱和支持可以让我们克服生活中的任何困难。吉米以朴素的方式为我们协调了眼前的一切,他做到这一点并不令人吃惊。吉米的爱可以征服一切,这是任何东西都限制不了的。
Unit 4 sectionA
自由女神像
19世纪70年代中期,法国艺术家弗里德里克·奥古斯特·巴托尔迪正在设计一个大项目,名为“自由照耀世界”。这是一座庆祝美国独立和美法联盟的纪念碑。
与此同时,他爱上了一位他在加拿大认识的女子。他母亲不赞成自己的儿子和一个她没有见过的女子恋爱,然而巴托尔迪不为所动,和心中所爱于1876年结为伉俪。
同年,巴托尔迪组装完雕像的右臂和火炬,并将它们陈列在费城。
据说,他用了妻子的手臂为模本,但觉得她的脸太漂亮,不适合做雕像模本。
他需要这样一个女人:面容沧桑却不失坚定,庄重多于美丽。
他选择了自己的母亲。1886年,自由女神像在纽约湾北部落成。
雕像综合了他母亲的脸和他妻子的身材,不过巴托尔迪称之为“我的女儿,自由之神”。
芭比娃娃
在现今销售的各式各样的芭比娃娃之前,原本部门只有一种芭比娃娃。
实际上,她的名字叫芭芭拉。
芭芭拉·汉德勒是马特尔玩具公司的联合创始人艾略特和鲁思·汉德勒夫妇的女儿。
鲁思是在见到女儿玩纸娃娃之后才想到做芭比娃娃的。
芭比娃娃的三维模特是一个德国洋娃娃,一个哄成年人开心的礼物,被描绘成具有“风尘女子”的模样。
马特尔公司将这个娃娃做了一番改造,变成了体面而地道的美国版本,尽管胸围有些夸张。它以当时10多岁的少女芭芭拉的名字命名。
自从1959年面世,芭比娃娃就成了全球公认的“娃娃女王”。
马特尔公司说,一般的美国女孩拥有10个芭比娃娃,全球每秒钟就有两个芭比娃娃售出。
如今芭芭拉已有60多岁了,她拒绝接受采访,但据说她非常喜欢芭比娃娃。她可能是当今世上最著名的不为人知的人物了。1961年,芭比娃娃的男朋友面世,按芭芭拉的弟弟肯的名字命名。
真正的肯于1994年去世。他对令自己全家名扬天下的娃娃极为厌恶。
他在1993年说:“我可不想让我的孩子玩这洋娃娃。”
《美国哥特人》
1930年,格兰特·伍德因其画作《美国哥特人》一举成名。此画体现了美国农民庄严的自豪,常常被人复制。
画面展示了一位神色严肃的男子和一位女子站立在农舍之前。
伍德深受中世纪艺术家的影响,他的灵感来自于一所古老农舍的哥特式窗户,但最令世界注目的是画中人物的脸。
伍德喜欢画他熟悉的脸。为画神色严肃的农夫,他选择了他那表情木讷的牙医,至于站在他身边的农妇,他选择了自己的姐姐南。他把模特的脖子稍稍画长了一些,但无疑能看出谁是画像的原型。
南后来说道,《美国哥特人》带给她的名誉使她摆脱了一种非常乏味的生活。
野牛镍币今天,美国的硬币都用来纪念美国政府的杰出人物,其中大部分是著名的前总统。
但1913至1938年间发行的野牛镍币,却是为了纪念由美国拓居引起的两起相互关联的悲剧──野牛群的灭绝和美洲印第安人的毁灭。此前一直是白人被用作美国镍币上的模特,而著名的艺术家詹姆斯·厄尔·弗雷泽却反传统而行之,起用了三名真正的美洲印第安人作为自己创作的原型。由于大草原上不再有野牛漫步,弗雷泽为了镍币另一面上的野牛,只好到纽约中央公园的动物园里素描一只老野牛。两年后,即1915年,此牛以100美元的价格售出,然后被宰杀取肉、剥皮,牛角制成了墙上的装饰品。
山姆大叔
美国独立战争时期,14岁的山姆·威尔逊离家出走,加入父亲和哥哥们的行列,为美国殖民地独立于英国而战。
23岁时,他开始从事肉类加工业,并因为人诚实、工作勤奋而赢得声誉。
此后在1812年的战争中,威尔逊获得了一个职位,为美国军队检验肉食。他的合伙人和美国政府签订了一份合同,给军队提供肉食。送到军队的肉桶上面都印有EA-US标志,EA代表公司名,US代表原产国。
传说有一回,有个政府官员来参观加工厂,问及这些字母的含义,一个想象力丰富的雇员告诉他,“US”是“山姆大叔”威尔逊的缩写。很快,士兵们都说所有的军需品都来自“山姆大叔”。战后,政治漫画里开始出现一个名叫“山姆大叔”的人物。他的原型是一个早期漫画人物,名叫乔纳森大哥,此人在美国独立战争时期非常出名。
很快,山姆大叔就取代了乔纳森大哥,成了最受美国人欢迎的象征。
最令人难忘的山姆大叔的画像是由画家詹姆斯·蒙哥马利·弗拉格创作的,用在两次世界大战期间他画的很多著名的征兵招贴画上。山姆大叔的形象是:高个子,白头发,下巴上有一小撮白胡子,身着深蓝色外套,头戴一顶高帽,上有星星点缀。这模样其实就是弗拉格的自画像。Unit 2
运动医学专家经过多年的观察,发现耐力运动员,特别是女性,经常会缺铁。普渡大学研究人员进行的一项新的研究表明:即使是适度的锻炼,也可能会降低女性血液中的铁含量。“我们发现,那些通常不运动的女性一旦开始适度的锻炼,就会出现铁含量下降的迹象,”普渡大学罗斯安妮· M.莱尔副教授说。她对62 名妇女进行了研究,并将研究结果发表在《体育运动医学与科学》杂志上。这些妇女原先不怎么运动,后来开始了为期6个月、每周3次的锻炼。莱尔指出:“那些增食肉类食品或服用铁质补剂的女性能够恢复到健康状态。
但突然参加锻炼却仍沿用旧食谱的人则显示出铁含量降低。”缺铁在女性中是很常见的,每四个十几岁的少女中有一人缺铁,每五个18至45岁的女性中有一人缺铁。而在积极锻炼的妇女中这一比例更高,女耐力运动员中,缺铁者比例则高达80%。莱尔说,这意味着 “太多女性忽视了自己摄入的铁含量”。育龄女性危险最大,因为月经是铁流失的重要原因之一。此外,许多保健意识太强的女性也很危险,因为她们拒绝食用牛肉或羊肉,而这些肉中含有的铁最易被吸收。而且,由于女性常常为了控制体重而节食,从而未能摄取足够的含铁丰富的食物,结果可能导致缺铁。另一名专家指出,“普通女性每天摄入的铁只是应摄入量的三分之二。”他指出,“对于那些已经缺铁的女性,任何因锻炼而产生的更多铁质流失都足以导致体内缺铁状况的恶化。”运动可能通过多种机制导致铁流失。有些铁随汗液流失。另外,由于某些未知的原因,高强度的耐力运动有时会引起消化系统内出血。运动员从事跑步之类高强度剧烈运动,也可能会因为足部血管失血的现象而使铁质流失。缺铁分为三个阶段:第一也即最常见的阶段,是铁质储量不足。这一阶段一般没有症状。到了缺铁的第二阶段,就会出现疲倦和力不从心,此时体内已没有足够的铁来形成血蛋白分子,将氧输至运动肌肉。在第三即最后阶段,人常常感到虚弱、疲乏无力、喘不过气,运动成绩大打折扣。“人们认为,只要不到第三阶段就不会有什么问题。这种想法是不对的。”帮助设计普渡大学研究的约翰·L.比尔德说。“只有当你的铁储量为零时,你才会进入第三阶段。而你若坐等到这个时候,你的麻烦就大了。”然而,比尔德指出,大多数铁质储量低的人并未意识到自己缺铁,因为传统的检测血液中铁含量的方法──检验血液中输送氧气的血蛋白的含量──是不够的。其实,有必要检查血液中另一种混合成分的含量,它可以显示血液中的铁含量。他还指出,虽然积极锻炼的育龄妇女最有可能铁含量低,“但男性也并非不缺铁,尤其是在他们不吃肉类而又从事高强度的体力活动的情况下。”(估计有 15%的男性长跑运动员铁含量低。)比尔德和其他专家都说,对这些人而言,最好每年验一次血,以测定血液中的铁含量。如果铁含量低,就要去看医生,以确定是否该通过调整饮食或服用铁质补剂来校正不足。一般说来,解决问题的最好方法是在食谱中增加含铁丰富的食物,因为铁质补剂可能存在严重缺陷。“服用铁质补剂可能使人想呕吐,有时甚至还会引起中毒。最好的铁来源,以及唯一最易为身体所吸收的铁来源,是肉、鸡和鱼。其他较好的铁质来源包括枣、豆类和一些多叶绿色蔬菜。”“选择那些标有„加铁‟字样的面包和麦片,”运动营养专家南希·克拉克写道,“这些增加的铁质补充了谷物中自然含铁量的不足。将这些食物与含有大量维生素
C的食物一起食用──比如吃麦片时喝橘子汁,或在三明治内夹上番茄──可以促进铁质吸收。”克拉克还建议用铁锅烹食,因为烹调过程中食物能从铁锅中吸收铁质。她写道,“在铁锅内烹煮了
3个小时的番茄汁,其铁含量大大提高,增加到原来的30倍左右。”她说,铁含量可能低的人,吃饭时应避免喝咖啡或饮茶,因为这些饮料中所含的物质会妨碍身体对铁质的吸收。“运动女性应特别注意选择饮食。”普渡大学的莱尔总结说:“如果你在铁含量流失之前就注意到了警告信号,你就可以在它真正成为问题之前弥补铁质的不足。”
第六单元 人如其名
在她人生最初的24年里,人们一直叫她戴比──一个和她的漂亮容貌和优雅举止不相配的名字。“我的名字总是使我觉得自己应该是一个厨子,”她抱怨道“我真的不想要戴比这个名字。”
一天,在填写一份出版工作职位的申请表时,这位小姐一时冲动,用她的中名林恩替换了她的名字戴比。“这是我一生中干得最漂亮的一件事,”现在她对人这样说,“一旦我不再称自己为戴比,我就感到好多了„„ 而且其他人也开始更认真地对待我了。”顺利地通过那次工作面试两年后,这位昔日的女服务员现在成了一位成功的杂志编辑。朋友和同事们都叫她林恩。
当然,戴比(或林恩)的职业成就并不是改名带来的,但是这肯定给她带来了好处,虽说改名仅使她对自己的才能增加了一点点自信。社会科学家认为你叫什么名字会影响你的生活。从古至今,名字不仅被用来识别人,而且也被用来描述人。《圣经》上说:人如其名。此外,《韦伯斯特大词典》也对名字作了如下的定义:表达某种特点的一个或几个字,这种特点被认为反映了某人或某事的本质,或描述了某人某事,常表示嘉许或不赞成的意思。请好好注意这几个词:“嘉许或不赞成”。不管是好是坏,诸如友好或拘谨、相貌平平或漂亮妩媚等特征已经在你的名字中有所暗示,甚至他人在见到你本人之前就已经知道你的这些特征了。
名字是与特定形象相关联的,任何一个被称为“相貌平常的简”或“普普通通的乔”的人都能证明这一点。后面的那个名字特别使我烦恼,因为我也叫乔。有些人认为这个名字使我更适合于做一名棒球运动员而不是别的什么职业,比如说艺术评论家。然而,尽管有此局限,我确实曾一度设法成为了一名艺术评论家。即便如此,一家著名杂志一直拒绝把“乔”作为我的文章署名,而是用我名字的首字母 J.S.来代替。我怀疑,假如我的名字是比较文雅的阿瑟或艾德里安的话,我的名字早已完整地出现在杂志上了。
当然,有积极含义的名字对你是有好处的,甚至能促进你结交新朋友。最新调查表明:美国男士认为苏珊是最有吸引力的女性名字,而女士则认为理查德和戴维是最有吸引力的男性名字。我认识一位女士,她就拒绝了一次与一位叫哈里的男人见面,因为“这人的名字听上去没劲”。可就在几天后的一个晚间聚会上,她走到我身边,催我把她介绍给一位气度不凡的男人;他们俩人整个晚上都在互送秋波。“哦,”我说:“你指的是哈里呀。”她听了后感到很尴尬。
虽然我们中大多数人会认为自己没有这样的偏见,但在某种程度上,我们都多多少少对名字产生过成见。说实话,你碰到一个名叫奈杰尔的木匠会不会感到惊讶呢?或是一个叫伯莎的物理学家?抑或是一个叫梅尔的教皇?正如我的一位女性朋友在照看托儿所里四岁的儿童时所发现的那样,我们常常把由名字引起的固有想法加到他人身上。“在托儿所里,有一次我想让一个很活跃的名叫朱利安的小男孩静静地坐下来看书,而把一个喜欢沉思、名叫罗里的孩子推出去打球。因为他们的名字,我把他们的性格给搞混了!”
很明显,这样的偏见也会影响课堂成绩。在一项由圣迭戈州立大学的赫伯特·哈拉里及乔治亚州立大学的约翰·麦克戴维主持的研究中发现,教师总是给署名为埃尔默和休伯特的作文打较低的分数,但当把这两篇作文的署名改为迈克尔和戴维时,老师给的分数就要高些。但是教师的偏见不是造成课堂成绩差别的唯一原因。坦普尔大学的托马斯·V·布塞博士和路易莎·瑟拉里达里安发现:那些名叫琳达、黛安、芭芭拉、卡罗尔及辛迪之类的女孩们在评分较客观的智力测验和学业成绩测验中的表现比那些名字不太有吸引力的女孩要好。(一个与之相关的研究表明:女孩受同伴欢迎的程度也与她们的名字受欢迎的程度有关系,虽然对男孩来说这种关系不太明显。)
虽然你父母很可能想让你的名字伴随你一辈子,但记住,他们选这个名字的时候几乎还没有见到你呢。而且,他们在选名字时所看重的希望和梦想也许并不符合你的希望和梦想。如果你的名字看上去已不再适合你,不要苦恼;你不必一辈子用这个名字。影星们就经常改名,下点决心,你也可以这样做。
第七单元
减轻负担,拯救生命
如果你常常生气、身心疲乏,好像你生活中的压力正在快速地积聚,将要失去控制,那么你可能是在损害你的心脏了。假如你不想损害自己的心脏,你就需要努力学会在力所能及的范围内控制自己的生活──并且承认有许多东西你是无法控制的。
这是罗伯特·S.埃利奥特博士的观点。他是内布拉斯加大学的临床医学教授,新书《从压力到力量:怎样减轻你的负担,拯救你的生命》的作者。
埃利奥特说在这个世界上有一类他称之为“热核反应堆式的人”(即易怒的人)。对这些人来说,紧张会导致他们血压大幅度迅速上升。
埃利奥特说,研究人员已经发现,有压力的人除了其他症状外,胆固醇的含量也较高。“我们已经做了多年研究,证明过分忧虑或紧张所产生的化学物质的确会损伤心肌纤维。这种情况发生时往往很快,不到5分钟。它会造成许多短路,而且这种短路会引起严重的心律不齐。
心脏跳起来不像一个泵,而像一只装着蠕虫的袋子(杂乱而又绵软无力)。当这种情况发生时,我们就活不成了。”
现年64岁的埃利奥特,在44岁时曾有过一次心脏病发作,他把那次心脏病发作的部分原因归于压力。多年来,他一直是一个“热核反应堆式的人”。表面上,他显得沉着、冷静、泰然自若,但他内心深处的压力使他筋疲力尽。他现在身体状况很好。他说,压力破坏性程度的主要预测指标是FUD因素──FUD指的是恐惧、犹豫和怀疑──再加上可察觉到的缺乏控制力。
对许多人来说,压力的根源是愤怒,而对付愤怒的诀窍是找出怒从何来。埃利奥特问道:“这种愤怒是否来自这么一种感觉:希望一切事物都必须完美无缺?”
“这在职业女性中是很常见的原因。她们觉得要让人人感到她们无所不能,而且要把样样事情都做得完美无缺。她们认为,‘我应该这样,我必须这样,我不得不这样。’追求完美永无止境。完美主义者事必躬亲。他们生气是因为他们不得不把什么事情都扛在自己肩上,还为之发脾气。随后他们就感到内疚,接着他们就再把整个过程重复一遍。”
“还有的人生气是因为他们的生活没有方向。他们把交通阻塞看得和家庭纠纷一样重,” 他说:“如果你生气超过5分钟──如果你生闷气,没有安全的发泄渠道的话──你就必须弄清你为何生气。” “此时就会发生这种情况──人们由于心理压力在生理上变得越发激动,他们的身体就越可能因为某种心脏病而崩溃。”
让自己平静下来的做法就是承认你存在这种倾向。通过改变你的某些看法和消极思想,学会对事物不再抱有那么强烈的敌视态度。
埃利奥特建议人们控制自己的生活。“如果有什么能取代压力,那就是控制。
你所需要的不是FUD因素而是NICE因素──NICE是指新的、使人感兴趣的、有挑战性的历。” “你必须确定你能控制自己生活中的哪些部分,”他说:“停下你的脚步,对自己说,‘我要把指南针拿出来,弄明白自己需要什么。’”
他建议人们写下他们觉得自己生活中最重要的、最想做成的6件事。本·富兰克林在32岁时就是这样做的。“他写下了他想要做的事情,诸如要做一个更慈爱的父亲、更体贴的丈夫、经济上独立、思维上活跃,而且还要保持性情平和──这一点他也做得不好。”
埃利奥特说,你可以先列出12件事,然后压缩到6件,要确定轻重缓急。“别让自己去做不可能做到的事。要做那些会影响你的个性、控制能力和自我价值的事情。”
“把它们记在一张可以随身携带的卡片上,需要的时候看看。既然我们无法让一天有26个时,我们就得确定先做哪些事情。”
请记住:随着时间的推移,优先要做的事会有所改变。“孩子会长大,狗会死去,你所优先考虑做的事也会改变。”
根据埃利奥特的观点,控制压力的另一关键因素是“要承认你生活中还有一些棘手的、你几乎无法或完全无法控制的东西──比如经济以及政客们。”
你必须认识到,有时候像交通阻塞、最后期限及讨厌的老板这类事情,“你无法抗争,也无法逃避。你必须学会如何与之相容。”
第九单元
不要做生活的逃兵
“孩子,起来,做个有出息的人!”虽然母亲已经过世,但她的话依然清晰地在我脑海中回响,就如我在孩提时代听到的一样。
她心里也许是为我好,但那时依我看来,她那毫不温柔的为母之道就如同用竹条鞭笞一般严厉。“天哪!”我叫道:“我已经是个有出息的人了。我有权晚点起床了。”
“要是有什么我不能忍受的东西,那就是逃兵。”她的声音在我脑海中回响,让我无法拒绝,于是我从床上爬了起来。我的父亲在婚后5年就过世了。他死后,我母亲没有钱。她要抚养三个孩子,还有一身的债务。当时母亲刚上大学,却不得不辍学去找工作。几个月后,我们失去了房子,母亲一无所有,只有支离破碎的生活残局等着她去收拾。我那奄奄一息的精神失常的祖母不得不被送往疯人院,而我们也只能寄居于她弟弟艾伦的家中。最终,母亲找到了一份超市售货员的工作,每周工资10美元。
虽然母亲期望我能成为百万富翁,但她很清楚我的能力,在这一点上,她从不欺骗自己。因此,从我很小的时候起,她就鼓励我向文字工作的方向发展。
母亲的家庭与文字素有渊源。最显著的证据就是我母亲最年长的堂兄埃德温。他是《纽约时报》的执行编辑,因报道古巴导弹危机而声名大噪。她常用埃德温的例子来告诉我一个有雄心的人能走多远,即使他没什么天赋。“埃德温·詹姆士虽然打字速度比较快,但他并不比其他人聪明,你看,他现在多么功成名就,”我母亲总是一遍又一遍地说。
她早就认定我有文字天赋,从那时起,她就有了目标,她的整个生命便开始围绕着帮助我开发天赋而运转。虽然很穷,她还是为我们订了一套适合中高级水平读者阅读的读物。每个月都会有一本书邮寄过来,价值39美分。
然而,我感兴趣的却是报纸。我贪婪地汲取每一条消息:骇人听闻的罪行、可怕的事故、在遥远地区发生的战争对人们犯下的令人发指的罪行,以及不得不背井离乡的难民的消息。警察贪污以及凶手死于电椅的报道令我着迷。
1947年,我从约翰斯·霍普金斯大学毕业,向《巴尔的摩太阳报》应聘警事记者一职。他们为何选择了我是个谜。工资是一周30美元。我抱怨薪水太低,这对一个有学问的人来说是侮辱,但母亲却不认同。“如果你努力做好这份工作,”她说,“说不定能够做出些名堂来。” 不久,我被委派去采访非洲各国驻美大使馆的外交官。工作七年后,《太阳报》派我去白宫采访。对于一个记者来说,能够从椭圆型办公室发回报道已经是达到职业的顶峰了。当我把这个消息告诉母亲时,我期待着从她的脸上看到喜悦。但要是我能够考虑到她为我设定的不断向前迈进、向上攀升的人生路线,我就不该有这种期待了。“好,拉斯,” 她说:“要是你努力做好这份白宫的工作,你有可能会有所成就。”
母亲并没有对我取得的成就予以充分肯定。无论我做什么,我取得的成就在她看来都是微不足道的。这往往会让我心烦。她从不向我道贺,从不承认我做得很棒。即使在我成功的时候,她也是说一些否定的话。“即使你到达了巅峰,你还得留神。”她总是尖刻地指出,“成就越大,摔下来也越重。” 在我刚刚成为记者的几年中,舅舅埃德温的成就常常萦绕在我脑中,挥之不去。我常想,要是《纽约时报》雇用我,该是件多么令人兴奋的事情啊,那样我就可以向母亲一劳永逸地证明我的价值了。后来,连孩提时代也没想过的是,《纽约时报》竟然自己来敲门了。可惜的是,当我去《纽约时报》工作时埃德温舅舅已经离开了那里。最后,我终于被委任了一个记者能够梦想得到最具荣誉性的工作:《纽约时报》的一个固定专栏的评论员。这证明了我母亲在我小时候制定的、鼓励我从事笔墨生涯的计划是完全正确的。1979年,我达到了事业的顶峰,获得了一个重大奖项──普利策奖。不幸的是,在这前一年,我母亲的神志和健康状况都完全崩溃了,她住进了疗养院,从此与世隔绝。她从来不知道我的普利策奖。我大概可以猜到她会做出怎样的反应。“不错,孩子。看来,要是你努力工作,总有一天你会成为一个出色的人。”