第一篇：中国特色社会主义法治体系白皮书中英文对照版本
The Socialist System of Laws with Chinese Characteristics Information Office of the State Council The People's Republic of China October 2011, Beijing Contents Foreword
I.Establishment of the Socialist System of Laws with Chinese Characteristics II.Composition of the Socialist System of Laws with Chinese Characteristics III.Features of the Socialist System of Laws with Chinese Characteristics IV.Improvement of the Socialist System of Laws with Chinese Characteristics Concluding Remarks Foreword
Governing the country by law and building a socialist country under the rule of law is a fundamental principle for the Communist Party of China(CPC)to lead the people and effectively govern the country.We need to bring into being a socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics so as to ensure there are laws to abide by for the carrying on of state affairs and social life;this is a precondition and foundation for us to implement the fundamental principle of the rule of law in all respects, and an institutional guarantee for China's development and progress.依法治国，建设社会主义法治国家，是中国共产党领导人民治理国家的基本方略。形成中国特色社会主义法律体系，保证国家和社会生活各方面有法可依，是全面落实依法治国基本方略的前提和基础，是中国发展进步的制度保障。
In 1949 the People's Republic of China was founded, marking the great transition from the centuries-old dictatorial system of feudalism to the system of people's democracy, putting an end to the period of semi-colonialism and semi-feudalism in China, and enabling the people to become masters of the country, society and their own life.For over 62 years, particularly since the policy of reform and opening up was adopted in 1978, the CPC has led the Chinese people in making the Constitution and laws.With concerted and unremitting efforts, by the end of 2010 we had put in place a socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics, which is based on the conditions and reality of China, meets the needs of reform, opening up and the socialist modernization drive, and reflects the will of the CPC and the Chinese people.This legal system, headed by the Constitution, with laws related to the Constitution, civil and commercial laws and several other branches as the mainstay, and consisting of laws, administrative regulations, local regulations and other tiers of legal provisions, ensures that there are laws to abide by in economic, political, cultural and social development, as well as in ecological civilization building.1949年，中华人民共和国成立，实现了中国从几千年封建专制制度向人民民主制度的伟大跨越，彻底结束了旧中国半殖民地半封建社会的历史，人民成为国家、社会和自己命运的主人。60多年来特别是改革开放30多年来，中国共产党领导中国人民制定宪法和法律，经过各方面坚持不懈的共同努力，到2010年底，一个立足中国国情和实际、适应改革开放和社会主义现代化建设需要、集中体现中国共产党和中国人民意志，以宪法为统帅，以宪法相关法、民法商法等多个法律部门的法律为主干，由法律、行政法规、地方性法规等多个层次法律规范构成的中国特色社会主义法律体系已经形成，国家经济建设、政治建设、文化建设、社会建设以及生态文明建设的各个方面实现有法可依。
The socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics is a legal foundation for socialism with Chinese characteristics to retain its nature, a legal reflection of the innovative practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and a legal guarantee for the prosperity of socialism with Chinese characteristics.Its establishment is an important milestone in China's development of socialist democracy and the legal system, and showcases the great achievements of reform, opening up and the socialist modernization drive.It is of great realistic and far-reaching historic significance.中国特色社会主义法律体系，是中国特色社会主义永葆本色的法制根基，是中国特色社会主义创新实践的法制体现，是中国特色社会主义兴旺发达的法制保障。它的形成，是中国社会主义民主法制建设的一个重要里程碑，体现了改革开放和社会主义现代化建设的伟大成果，具有重大的现实意义和深远的历史意义。
I.Establishment of the Socialist System of Laws with Chinese Characteristics
一、中国特色社会主义 法律体系的形成
The socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics was formed gradually under the leadership of the CPC in the course of adapting itself to the cause of building socialism with Chinese characteristics.中国特色社会主义法律体系是在中国共产党领导下，适应中国特色社会主义建设事业的历史进程而逐步形成的。
When the People's Republic of China was founded, it was confronted with the difficult tasks of organizing and consolidating the new political power, restoring and developing the national economy, and realizing and guaranteeing the people's right to be masters of the country.To meet the needs of construction of the political power, from 1949 to 1954, before the convening of the First National People's Congress(NPC), China promulgated and implemented the Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, which acted as a temporary constitution, and enacted the Organic Law of the Central People's Government, Trade Union Law, Marriage Law, Land Reform Law, Interim Regulations on the Organization of the People's Courts, Interim Regulations on the Organization of the Supreme People's Procuratorate, Regulations on Punishment of Counter-revolutionaries, Interim Regulations on Punishment for Impairment of the State Currency, Regulations on Punishment for Embezzlement, Electoral Law of the National People's Congress and Local People's Congresses, and laws and regulations on the organization of local people's governments and local judicial organs, on regional ethnic autonomy, on the management of public and private enterprises, and on labor protection.With these laws and regulations, New China embarked on its course of development of democracy and the legal system.建国初期，中华人民共和国面临着组建和巩固新生政权、恢复和发展国民经济、实现和保障人民当家作主的艰巨任务。根据政权建设的需要，从1949年到1954年第一届全国人民代表大会召开前，中国颁布实施了具有临时宪法性质的《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》，制定了中央人民政府组织法、工会法、婚姻法、土地改革法、人民法院暂行组织条例、最高人民检察署暂行组织条例、惩治反革命条例、妨害国家货币治罪暂行条例、惩治贪污条例、全国人民代表大会和地方各级人民代表大会选举法以及有关地方各级人民政府和司法机关的组织、民族区域自治和公私企业管理、劳动保护等一系列法律、法令，开启了新中国民主法制建设的历史进程。
In 1954 the First Session of the First NPC was held.The session adopted the first Constitution of New China, which established the principles for people's democracy and socialism, established the people's congress system as a fundamental political system, and provided for the basic rights and obligations of Chinese citizens.The session also adopted organic laws of the NPC, the State Council, local people's congresses and local people's committees, people's courts, and people's procuratorates, thus establishing the basic principles for state affairs.In 1956 the Eighth National Congress of the CPC proposed that “the state must make a complete legal system gradually and systematically according to its needs.” Before the “cultural revolution” broke out in 1966, China's legislature had enacted over 130 laws and decrees.The building of democracy and the legal system in this period provided valuable experiences for building a socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics.During the “cultural revolution,” China suffered grave setbacks in its work to improve democracy and the legal system, and its legislation almost came to a standstill.1954年，第一届全国人民代表大会第一次会议召开，通过了新中国第一部宪法，确立了人民民主和社会主义原则，确立了人民代表大会的根本政治制度，规定了公民的基本权利和义务，同时制定了全国人民代表大会组织法、国务院组织法、地方各级人民代表大会和地方各级人民委员会组织法、人民法院组织法、人民检察院组织法，确立了国家生活的基本原则。1956年，中国共产党第八次全国代表大会提出，“国家必须根据需要，逐步地系统地制定完备的法律”。此后至1966年“文化大革命”前，中国立法机关共制定法律、法令130多部。这个时期的民主法制建设，为建设中国特色社会主义法律体系提供了宝贵经验。“文化大革命”期间，中国的民主法制建设遭到严重破坏，立法工作几乎陷于停顿。
In 1978 the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC summarized the experience and lessons since the founding of New China, made a historic decision to shift the focus of the work of the Party and the state to economic development and to adopt the policy of reform and opening up, and stated, “To ensure people's democracy, we must strengthen our socialist legal system, which will enable democracy to be institutionalized and codified, and ensure that such system and laws are stable, continuous and authoritative.All this will ensure that there are laws to go by, that they are observed and strictly enforced, and that violators are brought to book.” This session ushered in a new chapter in China's history of reform and opening up, and the building of the socialist democracy and legal system.Legislation in this period focused on restoring and re-establishing state order, and carrying out and advancing reform and opening up.In 1979 the Second Session of the Fifth NPC passed a resolution concerning the amendment to several provisions of the Constitution, which provided that local people's congresses at and above the county level established standing committees, and deputies to the people's congresses of counties were to be elected directly by their constituencies.The meeting also enacted the Electoral Law of the National People's Congress and Local People's Congresses, Organic Law of the Local People's Congresses and Local People's Governments, Organic Law of the People's Courts, Organic Law of the People's Procuratorates, Criminal Law, Criminal Procedure Law, and Law on Chinese-Foreign Equity Joint Ventures, marking the beginning of large-scale legislation work in the new period.1978年，中国共产党十一届三中全会深刻总结建国以来正反两方面的经验教训，作出了把党和国家工作重点转移到经济建设上来、实行改革开放的历史性决策，并提出“为了保障人民民主，必须加强社会主义法制，使民主制度化、法律化，使这种制度和法律具有稳定性、连续性和极大的权威，做到有法可依、有法必依、执法必严、违法必究”。这次会议开启了中国改革开放和社会主义民主法制建设的历史新时期。这个时期立法工作的重点是，恢复和重建国家秩序，实行和推进改革开放。1979年，第五届全国人民代表大会第二次会议通过了修改宪法若干规定的决议，规定县和县以上的地方各级人民代表大会设立常务委员会，将县级人民代表大会代表改为由选民直接选举等，同时制定了全国人民代表大会和地方各级人民代表大会选举法、地方各级人民代表大会和地方各级人民政府组织法、人民法院组织法、人民检察院组织法、刑法、刑事诉讼法、中外合资经营企业法等7部法律，拉开了新时期中国大规模立法工作的序幕。
In 1982, to adapt to the great changes in the economic, political, cultural and social life of China, the Fifth Session of the Fifth NPC adopted the present Constitution, establishing the fundamental system of the country and fundamental principles for state affairs, and setting basic tasks for the country, providing basic guarantees for reform and opening up, and the socialist modernization drive in the new period and symbolizing that China's efforts to improve democracy and the legal system had entered a new era.As reform and opening up deepened, and profound changes took place in China's economy and society, China made amendments to the Constitution in 1988, 1993, 1999 and 2004, respectively.These amendments affirmed the important status of the non-public sector of the economy, and wrote into the Constitution that the state “practices a socialist market economy,” “exercises the rule of law, building a socialist country governed according to law,” and “respects and protects human rights,” that “citizens' lawful private property is inviolable,” and that “the system of multi-party cooperation and political consultation led by the Communist Party of China will exist and develop in China for a long time to come.” These amendments contributed to China's economic, political, cultural and social development and progress.During this period, to meet the needs for centering on economic development and promoting reform and opening up, the legislature enacted the General Principles of the Civil Law, Law on Industrial Enterprises Owned by the Whole People, Law on Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Joint Ventures, Law on Foreign-funded Enterprises, Patent Law, Trademark Law, Copyright Law, Economic Contract Law, Law on Enterprise Bankruptcy, and some other laws.To carry out the policy of “one country, two systems,” the legislature enacted the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and the Basic Law of the Macao Special Administrative Region.To strengthen ethnic unity, develop socialist democracy and safeguard citizens' legitimate rights and interests, the legislature enacted the Law on Regional Ethnic Autonomy, Organic Law of the Villagers' Committees, Criminal Procedure Law, Civil Procedure Law, Administrative Procedure Law, and some other laws.To protect and improve the living and ecological environment, the legislature enacted the Environmental Protection Law, Law on the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution, Law on the Prevention and Control of Atmospheric Pollution, and some other laws.To promote education and culture, the legislature enacted the Compulsory Education Law, Law on the Protection of Cultural Relics, and some other laws.These great achievements in legislation laid an important foundation for the establishment of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics.1982年，适应国家经济、政治、文化、社会生活等各方面发生的巨大变化，第五届全国人民代表大会第五次会议通过了现行宪法，确立了国家的根本制度、根本任务和国家生活的基本原则，为新时期改革开放和社会主义现代化建设提供了根本保障，标志着中国民主法制建设进入新的历史阶段。随着改革开放的深入推进和经济社会的深刻变化，中国先后于1988年、1993年、1999年和2004年对宪法的部分内容进行修改，确认了非公有制经济在国家经济中的重要地位，将国家“实行社会主义市场经济”、“实行依法治国，建设社会主义法治国家”、“尊重和保障人权”、“公民的合法的私有财产不受侵犯”以及“中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度将长期存在和发展”等内容写入宪法，推动了中国经济、政治、文化和社会等各方面的发展和进步。这个时期，适应以经济建设为中心、推进改革开放的需要，制定了民法通则、全民所有制工业企业法、中外合作经营企业法、外资企业法、专利法、商标法、著作权法、经济合同法、企业破产法等法律；贯彻落实“一国两制”方针，制定了香港特别行政区基本法、澳门特别行政区基本法；加强民族团结，发展社会主义民主，维护公民合法权益，制定了民族区域自治法、村民委员会组织法、刑事诉讼法、民事诉讼法、行政诉讼法等法律；保护和改善生活环境与生态环境，制定了环境保护法、水污染防治法、大气污染防治法等法律；促进教育和文化事业发展，制定了义务教育法、文物保护法等法律。这个时期立法工作取得的突出成就，为中国特色社会主义法律体系的形成奠定了重要基础。
In 1992 the 14th National Congress of the CPC made an important strategic decision to establish a socialist market economy.It expressly stated that the establishment and improvement of this socialist market economy must be regulated and guaranteed by a complete legal regime.To meet the requirements for establishing a socialist market economy, the Chinese legislature accelerated the pace of enacting economic laws;to regulate market players, maintain market order, strengthen macro-control and promote opening to the outside world, the legislature enacted the Company Law, Partnership Enterprise Law, Law on Commercial Banks, Law on Township Enterprises, Anti-Unfair Competition Law, Law on the Protection of Consumers' Rights and Interests, Product Quality Law, Auction Law, Guaranty Law, Maritime Code, Insurance Law, Negotiable Instruments Law, Law on Urban Real Estate Administration, Advertising Law, Law on Certified Public Accountants, Arbitration Law, Audit Law, Budget Law, Law on the People's Bank of China, Foreign Trade Law, Labor Law, and some other laws.To improve criminal laws, the legislature revised the Criminal Law, making it unified and complete, and revised the Criminal Procedure Law, improving criminal procedure.To regulate and supervise the use of power, the legislature enacted the Law on Administrative Penalty, Law on State Compensation, Judges Law, Public Procurators Law, Law on Lawyers, and some other laws.To strengthen the protection of the environment and resources, the legislature enacted the Law on the Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution by Solid Waste, and some other laws while revising the Mineral Resources Law and some other laws.1992年，中国共产党第十四次全国代表大会作出了建立社会主义市场经济体制的重大战略决策，明确提出社会主义市场经济体制的建立和完善必须有完备的法制来规范和保障。中国立法机关按照建立社会主义市场经济体制的要求，加快经济立法，在规范市场主体、维护市场秩序、加强宏观调控、促进对外开放等方面，制定了公司法、合伙企业法、商业银行法、乡镇企业法、反不正当竞争法、消费者权益保护法、产品质量法、拍卖法、担保法、海商法、保险法、票据法、城市房地产管理法、广告法、注册会计师法、仲裁法、审计法、预算法、中国人民银行法、对外贸易法、劳动法等法律。为完善刑事法律，修订刑法，形成了一部统一的、比较完备的刑法；修改刑事诉讼法，完善了刑事诉讼程序；为规范和监督权力的行使，制定了行政处罚法、国家赔偿法、法官法、检察官法、律师法等法律；为进一步加强对环境和资源的保护，制定了固体废物污染环境防治法等法律，修改了矿产资源法等法律。
In 1997 as the socialist market economy was gradually put in place, the level of opening up was constantly enhanced, the efforts to improve democracy and the legal system were advanced, and all undertakings were developing, to advance the cause of building socialism with Chinese characteristics in all aspects in the 21st century, the CPC, at its 15th National Congress, set the first ten-year target for the national economic and social development for the new century, established a basic strategy of “governing the country according to law and building a socialist country ruled by law” and set the goal of completing the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics by the year 2010.To achieve this goal, to guarantee and promote the socialist market economy, and to meet the requirements of joining the World Trade Organization(WTO), the Chinese legislature kept on making new economic laws.It enacted the Securities Law, Contract Law, Law on Bid Invitation and Bidding, Trust Law, Law on Individual Proprietorship Enterprises, Law on the Contracting of Rural Land, Government Procurement Law, and some other laws, while revising the Foreign Trade Law, Law on Chinese-Foreign Equity Joint Ventures, Law on Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Joint Ventures, Law on Foreign-funded Enterprises, Patent Law, Trademark Law, Copyright Law, and some other laws.To regulate legislative activities and improve the legislation system, the NPC enacted the Law on Legislation, systematizing and codifying the principles, mechanism, extent of power and procedure of legislation, and the systems of legal interpretation, application of law, and registration and other systems.To develop socialist democracy, foster socialist culture, protect the ecological environment, and develop social undertakings, the legislature enacted the Administrative Reconsideration Law, Higher Education Law, Law on Prevention and Control of Occupational Diseases, and some other laws;revised the Trade Union Law, Law on the Protection of Cultural Relics, Marine Environmental Protection Law, Pharmaceuticals Administration Law, and some other laws.And to ensure that the laws are effectively carried out, the NPC Standing Committee made legal interpretations of articles in the Criminal Law, Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and some other laws.These efforts enabled a socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics to take shape.1997年，随着社会主义市场经济体制的逐步建立、对外开放水平的不断提高、民主法制建设的深入推进和各项事业的全面发展，为把中国特色社会主义事业全面推向21世纪，中国共产党第十五次全国代表大会提出了21世纪第一个十年国民经济和社会发展的远景目标，确立了“依法治国，建设社会主义法治国家”的基本方略，明确提出到2010年形成中国特色社会主义法律体系。按照这一目标要求，为保障和促进社会主义市场经济的发展，适应加入世界贸易组织的需要，中国继续抓紧开展经济领域立法，制定了证券法、合同法、招标投标法、信托法、个人独资企业法、农村土地承包法、政府采购法等法律，修改了对外贸易法、中外合资经营企业法、中外合作经营企业法、外资企业法、专利法、商标法、著作权法等法律；为规范国家立法活动，健全立法制度，制定了立法法，把实践证明行之有效的立法原则、立法体制、立法权限、立法程序以及法律解释、法律适用和备案等制度系统化、法律化；为发展社会主义民主、繁荣社会主义文化、保护生态环境、发展社会事业，制定了行政复议法、高等教育法、职业病防治法等法律，修改了工会法、文物保护法、海洋环境保护法、药品管理法等法律；为保证法律有效实施，全国人大常委会还对刑法、香港特别行政区基本法等法律的有关规定作出法律解释。经过这个阶段的努力，中国特色社会主义法律体系初步形成。
Entering the new century, the CPC set the goal of building a moderately prosperous society of a higher level in all aspects for the benefit of over one billion people by 2020 at its 16th and 17th national congresses.To meet this goal, and to improve socialist democracy and the socialist legal system, fully carry out the basic strategy of governing the country by law, better safeguard the people's rights and interests, social fairness and justice, and promote social harmony, the Chinese legislature strengthened legislation work and constantly improved the quality of legislation.To safeguard China's sovereignty and territorial integrity, and promote the peaceful reunification of the country, the legislature enacted the Anti-Secession Law.To develop socialist democracy, it enacted the Law on the Supervision of Standing Committees of People's Congresses at All Levels, Administrative Licensing Law, Administrative Coercion Law, and some other laws.To protect the lawful rights and interests of the citizens, legal persons and other organizations, and guarantee and promote the healthy development of the socialist market economy, the legislature enacted the Property Law, Tort Law, Law on Enterprise Bankruptcy, Anti-monopoly Law, Law on Anti-money Laundering, Enterprise Income Tax Law, Law on Vehicle and Vessel Taxation, Law on the State-owned Assets of Enterprises, Banking Supervision Law, and some other laws.To improve the social security system, and ensure and improve the people's livelihood, the legislature enacted the Social Insurance Law, Labor Contract Law, Employment Promotion Law, People's Mediation Law, Law on Labor Dispute Mediation and Arbitration, Food Safety Law, and some other laws.To conserve resources, protect the environment and build a resource-conserving and environmentally-friendly society, the legislature enacted the Law on Renewable Energy, Circular Economy Promotion Law, Law on Environmental Impact Assessment, and some other laws.In addition, the Chinese legislature also promulgated and revised a group of laws to strengthen social management and safeguard social order.进入新世纪，根据中国共产党第十六次、第十七次全国代表大会确定的在本世纪头二十年全面建设惠及十几亿人口的更高水平的小康社会这一目标，为了使社会主义民主更加完善，社会主义法制更加完备，依法治国基本方略得到全面落实，更好保障人民权益和社会公平正义，促进社会和谐，中国立法机关进一步加强立法工作，不断提高立法质量。为维护国家主权和领土完整，促进国家和平统一，制定了反分裂国家法；为发展社会主义民主政治，制定了各级人民代表大会常务委员会监督法、行政许可法、行政强制法等法律；为保护公民、法人和其他组织的合法权益，保障和促进社会主义市场经济的健康发展，制定了物权法、侵权责任法、企业破产法、反垄断法、反洗钱法、企业所得税法、车船税法、企业国有资产法、银行业监督管理法等法律；为完善社会保障制度，保障和改善民生，制定了社会保险法、劳动合同法、就业促进法、人民调解法、劳动争议调解仲裁法、食品安全法等法律；为节约资源，保护环境，建设资源节约型、环境友好型社会，制定了可再生能源法、循环经济促进法、环境影响评价法等法律。此外，还制定和修改了一批加强社会管理、维护社会秩序等方面的法律。
As the NPC and its Standing Committee enact laws, the State Council and local people's congresses and their standing committees, based on their scope of legislative power as prescribed in the Constitution and related laws, have adopted many administrative regulations and local regulations, which play an important role in improving China's socialist democracy and legal system, and promoting the establishment of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics.与全国人大及其常委会制定各项法律相适应，根据宪法和法律规定的立法权限，国务院、地方人大及其常委会还制定了大量行政法规和地方性法规，为促进中国社会主义民主法制建设，推动中国特色社会主义法律体系形成，发挥了重要作用。
To ensure a unified legal system and make it more scientific and consistent, legislative bodies at different levels sorted out laws and regulations on several occasions.From 2009, the NPC Standing Committee, the State Council, and local people's congresses and their standing committees started to sort out laws and regulations in an all-round way.The NPC Standing Committee annulled eight laws and decisions about legal issues, and revised 59 laws.The State Council annulled seven administrative regulations and revised 107 administrative regulations.Local people's congresses and their standing committees annulled 455 local regulations, and revised 1,417 local regulations.Such work has helped to solve the problem of incompatibility among laws and regulations.为了维护国家法制统一，促进法律体系科学和谐统一，中国各级立法机关先后多次开展法律法规清理工作。2009年以来，全国人大常委会、国务院、地方人大及其常委会集中开展了对法律法规的全面清理工作。全国人大常委会废止了8部法律和有关法律问题的决定，对59部法律作出修改；国务院废止了7部行政法规，对107部行政法规作出修改；地方人大及其常委会共废止地方性法规455部，修改地方性法规1417部，基本解决了法律法规中存在的明显不适应、不一致、不协调等问题。
Since New China was founded, and particularly since the policy of reform and opening up was introduced in 1978, China has made remarkable achievements in its legislation work.By the end of August 2011, the Chinese legislature had enacted 240 effective laws including the current Constitution, 706 administrative regulations, and over 8,600 local regulations.As a result, all legal branches have been set up, covering all aspects of social relations;basic and major laws of each branch have been made;related administrative regulations and local regulations are fairly complete;and the whole legal system is scientific and consistent.A socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics has been solidly put into place.新中国成立以来特别是改革开放30多年来，中国的立法工作取得了举世瞩目的成就。截至2011年8月底，中国已制定现行宪法和有效法律共240部、行政法规706部、地方性法规8600多部，涵盖社会关系各个方面的法律部门已经齐全，各个法律部门中基本的、主要的法律已经制定，相应的行政法规和地方性法规比较完备，法律体系内部总体做到科学和谐统一，中国特色社会主义法律体系已经形成。
II.Composition of the Socialist System of Laws with Chinese Characteristics
二、中国特色社会主义 法律体系的构成
The socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics is an organic integration of the related laws of the Constitution, civil and commercial laws, administrative laws, economic laws, social laws, criminal laws, litigation and non-litigation procedural laws, and other legal branches, with the Constitution in the supreme place, the laws as the main body, and administrative and local regulations as the major components.中国特色社会主义法律体系，是以宪法为统帅，以法律为主干，以行政法规、地方性法规为重要组成部分，由宪法相关法、民法商法、行政法、经济法、社会法、刑法、诉讼与非诉讼程序法等多个法律部门组成的有机统一整体。
1.Tiers of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics(一)中国特色社会主义法律体系的层次
The Constitution is the paramount law of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics.As China's fundamental law, the Constitution assumes the commanding position in the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics and is the fundamental guarantee of lasting stability and security, unity of ethnic groups, economic development and social progress.In China, people of all ethnic groups, all state organs, the armed forces, all political parties and public organizations, and all enterprises and institutions in the country must take the Constitution as the basic standard of conduct, and they have the duty to uphold the dignity of the Constitution and ensure its implementation.宪法是中国特色社会主义法律体系的统帅。宪法是国家的根本法，在中国特色社会主义法律体系中居于统帅地位，是国家长治久安、民族团结、经济发展、社会进步的根本保障。在中国，各族人民、一切国家机关和武装力量、各政党和各社会团体、各企业事业组织，都必须以宪法为根本的活动准则，并负有维护宪法尊严、保证宪法实施的职责。China's present Constitution is one with Chinese characteristics and geared to the needs of socialist modernization, and is the general charter for governance of the country and good order of the nation.It was passed by the NPC in 1982 after nationwide discussion.Later, in accordance with the national economic and social development, the NPC passed four Amendments to the Constitution.China's Constitution defines the basic system and basic tasks of the state, affirms the leadership of the CPC, establishes the guiding role of Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory and the important thought of the Three Represents, determines the state system as a people's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants, and takes the system of people's congresses as the form of administration.It rules that all state power belongs to the people and that the citizens enjoy extensive rights and freedom in accordance with the law, establishes the system of multi-party cooperation and political consultation led by the CPC, the system of regional ethnic autonomy and the system of primary-level self-governance, and specifies the basic economic system in which public ownership is dominant and diverse forms of ownership develop side by side and the distribution system in which distribution according to work is dominant and diverse modes of distribution coexist.While maintaining its stability, China's Constitution is constantly improving and advancing with the times, along with the reform and opening up and the progress of the cause of socialist modernization.Promptly written into the Constitution are important experience, principles and systems that have been proven mature by practice, which fully reflects the outstanding achievements of China's reform and opening up, the great achievements of the cause of socialist construction with Chinese characteristics and the self-improvement and constant development of the socialist system, providing a fundamental guarantee for the progress of the reform and opening up, and socialist modernization.中国现行宪法是一部具有中国特色、符合社会主义现代化建设需要的宪法，是治国安邦的总章程。它是经过全民讨论，于1982年由全国人民代表大会通过的。根据国家经济社会的发展，全国人民代表大会先后通过了4个宪法修正案，对宪法的部分内容作了修改。中国宪法确立了国家的根本制度和根本任务，确立了中国共产党的领导地位，确立了马克思列宁主义、毛泽东思想、邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想的指导地位，确立了工人阶级领导的、以工农联盟为基础的人民民主专政的国体，确立了人民代表大会制度的政体，规定国家的一切权力属于人民、公民依法享有广泛的权利和自由，确立了中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度、民族区域自治制度以及基层群众自治制度，确立了公有制为主体、多种所有制经济共同发展的基本经济制度和按劳分配为主体、多种分配方式并存的分配制度。The Constitution has supreme legal authority in the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics.All laws, administrative and local regulations must be made in accordance with the Constitution and follow its basic principles, and must not contravene the Constitution.中国宪法在中国特色社会主义法律体系中具有最高的法律效力，一切法律、行政法规、地方性法规的制定都必须以宪法为依据，遵循宪法的基本原则，不得与宪法相抵触。
The laws are the main body of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics.The Constitution stipulates that the NPC and its Standing Committee exercise the legislative power of the state.The laws formulated by the NPC and its Standing Committee are the main body of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics, and deal with matters of fundamental and overall importance to national development and those which affect the country's stability and long-term development.The laws are the basis of the nation's legal system, and must not be contravened by administrative or local regulations.法律是中国特色社会主义法律体系的主干。中国宪法规定，全国人大及其常委会行使国家立法权。全国人大及其常委会制定的法律，是中国特色社会主义法律体系的主干，解决的是国家发展中带有根本性、全局性、稳定性和长期性的问题，是国家法制的基础，行政法规和地方性法规不得与法律相抵触。
The Law on Legislation ensures exclusive legislative power to the NPC and its Standing Committee.The NPC enacts and amends basic laws governing criminal offences, civil affairs, state organs and other matters;the Standing Committee of the NPC enacts and amends laws other than the ones to be enacted by the NPC.When the NPC is not in session, it may supplement and amend laws enacted by the NPC, but must not contradict the basic principles of such laws.The Law on Legislation also stipulates that the following must be governed by law: affairs concerning state sovereignty;formation, organization, and functions and powers of state organs;the system of regional ethnic autonomy;the system of special administrative regions;the system of primary-level self-governance;criminal offences and their punishment;mandatory measures and penalties involving deprivation of citizens' political rights or restriction of the freedom of the person;requisition of non-state-owned property;basic civil system;basic economic system;basic systems of fiscal administration, taxation, customs, finance and foreign trade;systems of litigation and arbitration;and other affairs.立法法规定了全国人大及其常委会的专属立法权。全国人民代表大会制定和修改刑事、民事、国家机构的和其他的基本法律；全国人民代表大会常务委员会制定和修改除应当由全国人民代表大会制定的法律以外的其他法律，在全国人民代表大会闭会期间，可以对全国人民代表大会制定的法律进行部分补充和修改，但不得同该法律的基本原则相抵触。立法法还规定，对国家主权的事项，国家机构的产生、组织和职权，民族区域自治制度、特别行政区制度、基层群众自治制度，犯罪和刑罚，对公民政治权利的剥夺、限制人身自由的强制措施和处罚，对非国有财产的征收，民事基本制度，基本经济制度以及财政、税收、海关、金融和外贸的基本制度，诉讼和仲裁制度等事项，只能制定法律。
The laws enacted by the NPC and its Standing Committee establish the important and basic legal systems in the nation's economic, political, cultural, social and ecological civilization construction, are the main body of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics and provide an important basis for the formulation of administrative and local regulations.全国人大及其常委会制定的法律，确立了国家经济建设、政治建设、文化建设、社会建设以及生态文明建设各个方面重要的基本的法律制度，构成了中国特色社会主义法律体系的主干，也为行政法规、地方性法规的制定提供了重要依据。
Administrative regulations are an important component of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics.The State Council formulates administrative regulations in accordance with the Constitution and laws, which is an important form of the State Council's implementation of its responsibility endowed by the Constitution and laws.The administrative regulations may regulate matters concerning the implementation of the provisions of the laws and performance of the administrative functions and powers of the State Council.For matters that shall be governed by laws to be formulated by the NPC and its Standing Committee, the State Council may enact administrative regulations first in its place with authorization from the NPC and its Standing Committee.The administrative regulations occupy an important position in the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics by detailing the related systems stipulated by laws, elaborating and supplementing the laws.行政法规是中国特色社会主义法律体系的重要组成部分。国务院根据宪法和法律，制定行政法规。这是国务院履行宪法和法律赋予的职责的重要形式。行政法规可以就执行法律的规定和履行国务院行政管理职权的事项作出规定，同时对应当由全国人大及其常委会制定法律的事项，国务院可以根据全国人大及其常委会的授权决定先制定行政法规。行政法规在中国特色社会主义法律体系中具有重要地位，是将法律规定的相关制度具体化，是对法律的细化和补充。
The State Council, in accordance with the actual needs of socioeconomic development and administrative work, has enacteda large number of administrative regulations which cover all areas of administration, concerning the nation's economic, political, cultural and social matters.They play an important role in the implementation of the Constitution and laws, the guaranteeing of the reform and opening up and socialist modernization, the promotion of comprehensive, balanced and sustainable economic and social development and the advancement of administration in accordance with law of the people's governments at all levels.国务院适应经济社会发展和行政管理的实际需要，按照法定权限和法定程序制定了大量行政法规，包括行政管理的各个领域，涉及国家经济、政治、文化、社会事务等各个方面，对于实施宪法和法律，保障改革开放和社会主义现代化建设，促进经济社会全面协调可持续发展，推进各级人民政府依法行政，发挥了重要作用。
Local regulations are another important component of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics.The people's congresses and their standing committees of the provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the central government, and the larger cities may, in accordance with the Constitution and laws, formulate local regulations, which is an important channel and form of the people's participation in the administration of state affairs and promotion of local economic and social development by law.The people's congresses and their standing committees of the provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government may, in the light of the specific local conditions and actual needs, formulate local regulations, provided that they do not contradict the Constitution, the laws and the administrative regulations.The people's congresses and their standing committees of the larger cities may, in the light of the specific local conditions and actual needs, formulate local regulations, provided that they do not contradict the Constitution, laws, administrative regulations and local regulations of their respective provinces or autonomous regions.Moreover, they shall submit such regulations to the standing committees of the people's congresses of the provinces or autonomous regions for approval before implementation.The people's congresses of the ethnic autonomous areas have the power to formulate autonomous regulations and separate regulations on the basis of the political, economic and cultural characteristics of the local ethnic group(s).Where certain provisions of the laws and administrative regulations are concerned, adaptation may be made in autonomous regulations and separate regulations, but such adaptation may not contradict the basic principles of the laws and administrative regulations.However, no adaptation may be made to the provisions of the Constitution and the Law on Regional Ethnic Autonomy, or the provisions in other laws and administrative regulations that are specially formulated to govern the ethnic autonomous areas.The autonomous regulations and separate regulations of the autonomous regions shall be submitted to the Standing Committee of the NPC for approval before they go into effect.The autonomous regulations and separate regulations of the autonomous prefectures or counties shall be submitted to the standing committees of the people's congresses of the relevant provinces, autonomous regions or municipalities directly under the central government for approval before they go into effect.The people's congresses and their standing committees of the provinces and cities where special economic zones are located may, upon authorization by the NPC and its Standing Committee and in the light of specific local conditions and actual needs, formulate regulations in accordance with provisions of the Constitution and basic principles of the laws and administrative regulations, and enforce them within the limits of the special economic zones.Local regulations may be formulated to govern matters requiring the formulation of rules to implement the provisions of laws and administrative regulations, and matters pertaining to local affairs.Except for matters governed by laws exclusively formulated by the NPC and its Standing Committee, local regulations can also be made on other matters which are not yet covered by existing laws and administrative regulations.The local regulations also occupy an important position in the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics.They elaborate and supplement the laws and administrative regulations, extend and improve national legislation and accumulate useful experience for national legislation.地方性法规是中国特色社会主义法律体系的又一重要组成部分。根据宪法和法律，省、自治区、直辖市和较大的市的人大及其常委会可以制定地方性法规。这是人民依法参与国家事务管理、促进地方经济社会发展的重要途径和形式。省、自治区、直辖市的人大及其常委会根据本行政区域的具体情况和实际需要，在不同宪法、法律、行政法规相抵触的前提下，可以制定地方性法规。较大的市的人大及其常委会根据本市的具体情况和实际需要，在不同宪法、法律、行政法规和本省、自治区的地方性法规相抵触的前提下，可以制定地方性法规，报省、自治区的人大常委会批准后施行。民族自治地方的人民代表大会有权依照当地民族的政治、经济和文化特点，制定自治条例和单行条例；自治条例和单行条例可以对法律和行政法规的规定作出变通规定，但不得违背法律和行政法规的基本原则，不得对宪法和民族区域自治法的规定以及其他法律、行政法规专门就民族自治地方所作的规定作出变通规定；自治区的自治条例和单行条例报全国人大常委会批准后生效，自治州、自治县的自治条例和单行条例报省、自治区、直辖市的人大常委会批准后生效。经济特区所在地的省、市的人大及其常委会根据全国人大及其常委会的授权决定，可以根据经济特区的具体情况和实际需要，遵循宪法的规定以及法律、行政法规的基本原则，制定法规，在经济特区范围内实施。地方性法规可以就执行法律、行政法规的规定和属于地方性事务的事项作出规定，同时除只能由全国人大及其常委会制定法律的事项外，对其他事项国家尚未制定法律或者行政法规的，可以先制定地方性法规。地方性法规在中国特色社会主义法律体系中同样具有重要地位，是对法律、行政法规的细化和补充，是国家立法的延伸和完善，为国家立法积累了有益经验。
Local people's congresses and their standing committees, which actively exercise local legislative functions and powers, have enacted a large number of local regulations in the light of the actual conditions of local economic and social development, playing an important role in guaranteeing the effective implementation of the Constitution, laws and administrative regulations within their respective administrative regions, and promoting the reform and opening up and socialist modernization drive.地方人大及其常委会积极行使地方立法职权，从地方经济社会发展实际出发，制定了大量地方性法规，对保证宪法、法律和行政法规在本行政区域内的有效实施，促进改革开放和社会主义现代化建设，发挥了重要作用。
2.Branches of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics(二)中国特色社会主义法律体系的部门
Laws related to the Constitution.The laws related to the Constitution are the collection of legal norms supporting the Constitution and directly guaranteeing its enforcement and the operation of state power.They regulate the political relationships of the state and mainly consist of laws in relation to the establishment, organization, functions, powers and basic working principles of state organs;laws on the system of regional ethnic autonomy, the system of special administrative regions and the primary-level self-governance;laws in relation to maintaining state sovereignty, territorial integrity, national security and national symbols;and laws in relation to guaranteeing the basic political rights of citizens.By the end of August 2011 China had enacted 38 laws related to the Constitution, as well as a number of administrative and local regulations.宪法相关法。宪法相关法是与宪法相配套、直接保障宪法实施和国家政权运作等方面的法律规范，调整国家政治关系，主要包括国家机构的产生、组织、职权和基本工作原则方面的法律，民族区域自治制度、特别行政区制度、基层群众自治制度方面的法律，维护国家主权、领土完整、国家安全、国家标志象征方面的法律，保障公民基本政治权利方面的法律。截至2011年8月底，中国已制定宪法相关法方面的法律38部和一批行政法规、地方性法规。
China has formulated electoral laws related to the NPC and local people's congresses at all levels, organic laws of local people's congresses and people's governments at all levels, and developed mechanisms for the election of deputies of the people's congresses and the leadership of state organs, providing an institutional guarantee for the people's exercise of state power and a legal basis for the formation of state organs.It has enacted organic laws of the NPC, the State Council, the People's Courts and the People's Procuratorates, and established systems concerning the organization, function and power and limits of related state organs.To implement the “one country, two systems” policy and realize national reunification, it has promulgated the basic laws of the Hong Kong and Macao special administrative regions and established the system of special administrative region which has ensured the long-term prosperity and stability of Hong Kong and Macao.It has formulated organic laws governing urban residents' committees and villagers' committees for the establishment of urban and rural primary-level self-governance.In this way, citizens directly exercise the rights of democratic election, decision, administration and supervision by law, and implement democratic self-government of public and welfare affairs at the grassroots level, which have become the most direct and extensive democratic practices in the country.China has promulgated the Law on the Procedure for the Conclusion of Treaties, Law on Territorial Waters and the Contiguous Zones, Law on Exclusive Economic Zones and the Continental Shelf, Anti-Secession Law, Law on the National Flag, Law on the National Emblem, and other laws, and established a legal system which maintains state sovereignty and territorial integrity while safeguarding the fundamental interests of the country.It has enacted the Law on Assemblies, Processions and Demonstrations, Law on State Compensation, and other laws, as well as administrative regulations concerning ethnic group, religion, petition, and publication and registration of mass organizations, which guarantee the basic political rights of the citizens.中国制定了全国人民代表大会和地方各级人民代表大会选举法、地方各级人民代表大会和地方各级人民政府组织法等法律，建立了人民代表大会代表和国家机构领导人员选举制度，为保证人民当家作主提供了制度保障，为国家机构的产生提供了合法基础；制定了全国人民代表大会组织法、国务院组织法、人民法院组织法、人民检察院组织法等法律，建立了有关国家机构的组织、职权和权限等方面的制度；为贯彻落实“一国两制”方针，实现国家统一，制定了香港特别行政区基本法、澳门特别行政区基本法，建立了特别行政区制度，保持了香港、澳门的长期繁荣和稳定；制定了居民委员会组织法和村民委员会组织法，建立了城乡基层群众自治制度。公民依法直接行使民主选举、民主决策、民主管理和民主监督的权利，对基层组织的公共事务和公益事业实行民主自治，这成为中国最直接、最广泛的民主实践。制定了缔结条约程序法、领海及毗连区法、专属经济区和大陆架法、反分裂国家法和国旗法、国徽法等法律，建立了维护国家主权和领土完整的法律制度，捍卫了国家的根本利益；制定了集会游行示威法、国家赔偿法等法律以及民族、宗教、信访、出版、社团登记方面的行政法规，保障了公民基本政治权利。
China fully protects its citizens' right to vote and stand for election.Elections follow the principles of universal suffrage and equality, and are carried out in the forms of direct, indirect and competitive elections.The Constitution stipulates that all citizens of the People's Republic of China who have reached the age of 18, except persons who have been deprived of their political rights in accordance with the law, shall have the right to vote and stand for election, regardless of ethnic status, race, sex, occupation, family background, religious belief, education, property status or length of residence.To guarantee its citizens' right to vote and stand for election, China is constantly modifying and improving the electoral system in accordance with the country's actual conditions, and has gradually realized the election of deputies to the people's congresses consonant with the proportion of the populations in urban and rural areas, and ensured that an appropriate number of representatives can appear at the NPC from all regions, ethnic groups and walks of life, realizing complete equality of the voting right of urban and rural residents.中国充分保障公民的选举权和被选举权。选举实行普遍、平等、直接选举和间接选举相结合以及差额选举的原则。中国宪法规定，年满18周岁的公民，不分民族、种族、性别、职业、家庭出身、宗教信仰、教育程度、财产状况、居住期限，除依法被剥夺政治权利的人外，都有选举权和被选举权。为保障公民的选举权和被选举权，根据国情和实际，中国不断修改完善选举制度，逐步实现了城乡按相同人口比例选举人大代表，并保证各地区、各民族、各方面都有适当数量的代表，实现了城乡居民选举权的完全平等。
China has enacted the Law on Regional Ethnic Autonomy, which ensures the implementation of the system of regional ethnic autonomy, fully respects and guarantees the right of ethnic minorities to administer their own affairs, and protects the legitimate rights and interests of the ethnic minorities by law.According to the Constitution and laws, China has currently 155 ethnic autonomous areas, i.e.five autonomous regions, 30 autonomous prefectures and 120 autonomous counties(banners).In addition, there are over 1,100 villages where ethnic minorities live in concentrated communities.According to the Constitution and the Law on Regional Ethnic Autonomy, ethnic autonomous areas have extensive autonomous power.First, they have the exclusive right to govern the local affairs of their ethnic groups and other affairs within their respective administrative regions.The chairman or vice-chairmen of the standing committee of the people's congress of an ethnic autonomous area must be a member of the ethnic group exercising regional autonomy in the area, and the head of an autonomous region, autonomous prefecture or autonomous county must be a citizen of the ethnic group exercising regional autonomy in the area concerned.Secondly, the people's congresses of ethnic autonomous areas have the power to enact regulations on the exercise of autonomy and separate regulations in the light of the political, economic and cultural characteristics of the ethnic group or groups in the areas concerned, and by law may also make adaptations to the provisions of laws and administrative regulations in the light of the characteristics of the ethnic group(s)in the areas concerned.By the end of August 2011, the ethnic autonomous areas had enacted more than 780 regulations on the exercise of autonomy, as well as separate regulations, which are currently in force.Thirdly, ethnic autonomous areas use and develop their own spoken and written languages.Fifty-three of the 55 minority groups have their own languages, and there are altogether 72 languages;29 minority groups have their own scripts.The system of regional ethnic autonomy established by the Constitution and the Law on Regional Ethnic Autonomy is consistent with the common interests and development needs of all China's ethnic groups.It guarantees the minority groups' self-government of their own affairs by law, their democratic participation in the administration of state and social affairs, and their equal entitlement to economic, political, social and cultural rights, and maintains relations of equality, solidarity, mutual assistance and harmony among ethnic groups.中国制定了民族区域自治法，实行民族区域自治制度，充分尊重和保障各少数民族管理本民族内部事务的权利，依法保障各少数民族的合法权益。目前，依据宪法和法律，中国共建立了155个民族自治地方，包括5个自治区、30个自治州、120个自治县(旗)。此外，还建立了1100多个民族乡。根据宪法和民族区域自治法的规定，民族自治地方拥有广泛的自治权。一是自主管理本民族、本地区的内部事务。民族自治地方的人民代表大会常务委员会中，都有实行区域自治的民族的公民担任主任或者副主任；自治区主席、自治州州长、自治县县长全部由实行区域自治的民族的公民担任。二是民族自治地方的人民代表大会有权依照当地民族的政治、经济和文化的特点，制定自治条例和单行条例，并可以依照当地民族的特点，依法对法律和行政法规的规定作出变通规定。截至2011年8月底，民族自治地方共制定现行有效的自治条例和单行条例780多部。三是使用和发展本民族语言文字。中国55个少数民族中，53个民族有自己的语言，共使用72种语言；29个少数民族有本民族的文字。中国宪法和民族区域自治法确立的民族区域自治制度，符合中国各民族人民的共同利益和发展要求，保障各少数民族依法自主管理本民族事务，民主参与国家和社会事务管理，平等享有经济、政治、社会和文化权利，维护了平等、团结、互助、和谐的民族关系。China respects and upholds human rights.The Constitution has comprehensive stipulations on the fundamental rights and freedoms of the citizens.The state has promulgated a series of laws and regulations and has developed a comparatively complete legal system to protect human rights, and ensures the citizens' right to subsistence and development, personal rights and property rights, freedom of religious belief, of speech, of the press, of the assembly, of association, of procession and of demonstration, the right to social security and education, as well as other economic, political, social and cultural rights.The Constitution stipulates that citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy the freedom of religious belief.No state organ, public organization or individual may compel citizens to believe in, or not to believe in, any religion;nor may they discriminate against citizens who believe in, or do not believe in, any religion.The State Council has also promulgated the Regulations on Religious Affairs.Currently China has a total of more than 100 million believers in various religions, and the state fully protects its citizens' freedom of religious belief.The Constitution also provides that citizens who have suffered losses as a result of infringement of their civic rights by any state organ or functionary have the right to compensation in accordance with the provisions of the law.The state has enacted the Law on State Compensation and established the system of state compensation to effectively guarantee the right to state compensation of all citizens, legal persons and other organizations in accordance with the law.中国尊重和保障人权。中国宪法全面规定了公民的基本权利和自由，制定了一系列保障人权的法律法规，建立了较为完备的保障人权的法律制度，依法保障公民的生存权和发展权，公民的人身权、财产权和宗教信仰自由、言论出版自由、集会结社自由、游行示威自由以及社会保障权、受教育权等经济、政治、社会、文化权利得到切实维护。中国宪法规定，公民有信仰宗教的自由，任何国家机关、社会团体和个人不得强制公民信仰宗教或者不信仰宗教，不得歧视信仰宗教的公民和不信仰宗教的公民。国务院还颁布了宗教事务条例。目前，中国共有各种宗教信徒一亿多人，公民的宗教信仰自由得到充分保障。中国宪法还规定，由于国家机关和国家工作人员侵犯公民权利而受到损失的人，有依照法律规定取得赔偿的权利。中国制定了国家赔偿法，建立国家赔偿制度，有效保障公民、法人和其他组织依法取得国家赔偿的权利。
Civil and commercial laws.Civil laws adjust property and personal relationships between civil subjects with equal status, that is, between citizens, between legal persons and between citizens and legal persons, and follow the principles of equal status between civil subjects, autonomy of will, fairness, honesty and credibility, and other basic principles.Commercial laws adjust commercial relationships between business subjects, and follow the basic principles of Civil Law and the principles of the freedom of commercial transaction, compensation of equal value and convenience and safety, among other principles.By the end of August 2011 China had promulgated 33 civil and commercial laws, as well as a large number of administrative and local regulations concerning commercial activities.民法商法。民法是调整平等主体的公民之间、法人之间、公民和法人之间的财产关系和人身关系的法律规范，遵循民事主体地位平等、意思自治、公平、诚实信用等基本原则。商法调整商事主体之间的商事关系，遵循民法的基本原则，同时秉承保障商事交易自由、等价有偿、便捷安全等原则。截至2011年8月底，中国已制定民法商法方面的法律33部和一大批规范商事活动的行政法规、地方性法规。
The state enacted the General Principles of the Civil Law, which establishes the basic principles that shall be followed in civil and commercial activities, and defines the target of regulation and basic principles of civil laws, as well as the systems concerning civil subjects, civil activities, civil rights and civil liability.With the development of the market economy, China gradually formulated the Contract Law, Property Law, Law on the Contracting of Rural Land and other laws, and established and improved the system of creditors' rights and the system of property rights including the proprietary rights, usufructuary rights and collateral rights;enacted the Tort Law and improved the tort responsibility system;promulgated the Marriage Law, Adoption Law, Succession Law and other laws and established and improved the marriage and family system;formulated the Law of the Application of Law in Foreign-related Civil Relations and improved the legal system of civil relations with foreigners;made the Company Law, Partnership Enterprise Law, Law on Individual Proprietorship Enterprises, Law on Commercial Banks, Law on Securities Investment Fund, Law on Specialized Farmers' Cooperatives, and other laws, and established and improved the system of business subjects.It also promulgated Securities Law, Maritime Code, Negotiable Instruments Law, Insurance Law and other laws, and established and improved the system of commercial activities.The systems of maritime trade, negotiable instruments, insurance, securities and other market economic activities gradually took form and quickly developed.中国制定了民法通则，对民事商事活动应当遵循的基本规则作出规定，明确了民法的调整对象、基本原则以及民事主体、民事行为、民事权利和民事责任制度。随着市场经济的发展，中国陆续制定了合同法、物权法、农村土地承包法等法律，建立健全了债权制度和包括所有权、用益物权、担保物权的物权制度；制定了侵权责任法，完善了侵权责任制度；制定了婚姻法、收养法、继承法等法律，建立和完善了婚姻家庭制度；制定了涉外民事关系法律适用法，健全了涉外民事关系法律适用制度；制定了公司法、合伙企业法、个人独资企业法、商业银行法、证券投资基金法、农民专业合作社法等法律，建立健全了商事主体制度；制定了证券法、海商法、票据法、保险法等法律，建立健全了商事行为制度，中国的海上贸易、票据、保险、证券等市场经济活动制度逐步建立并迅速发展。
China attaches great importance to the protection of intellectual property rights, and has promulgated a large number of laws and regulations, including the Patent Law, Trademark Law, Copyright Law, Regulations on the Protection of Computer Software, Regulations on the Protection of Integrated Circuit Layout Design, Regulations on the Collective Administration of Copyright, Regulations on the Protection of the Right to Network Dissemination of Information, Regulations on the Protection of New Varieties of Plants, Regulations on the Customs Protection of Intellectual Property Rights, Regulations on the Administration of Special Signs, Regulations on the Protection of Olympic Symbols, and other laws and regulations, centered on the protection of intellectual property rights.The promulgation of the Trademark Law in 1982 marked the beginning of China's systematic development of a modern legal system covering intellectual property rights.To further enhance the protection of intellectual property rights in China and meet the requirements for joining the WTO, China has been constantly improving the legal system of intellectual property rights, and has made a number of amendments to the Patent Law, Trademark Law, Copyright Law and other laws to highlight legal protection of the promotion of scientific and technological advancement and innovation from the perspectives of the principles of legislation, the contents of rights, the standard of protection and the means of legal remedy, among others.By the end of 2010, the state had approved over 3,890,000 patents of various types, and effectively registered over 4,600,000 trademarks, including 670,000 trademarks from 177 countries and regions.According to incomplete statistics, during the period 2001-2010 copyright administration organs at various levels confiscated 707 million pirated copies, delivered 93,000 administrative penalties and transferred 2,500 cases to judicial organs.中国高度重视保护知识产权，颁布实施了专利法、商标法、著作权法和计算机软件保护条例、集成电路布图设计保护条例、著作权集体管理条例、信息网络传播权保护条例、植物新品种保护条例、知识产权海关保护条例、特殊标志管理条例、奥林匹克标志保护条例等以保护知识产权为主要内容的一大批法律法规。1982年制定的商标法是中国开始系统建立现代知识产权法律制度的重要标志，为进一步提高中国的知识产权保护水平，并适应加入世界贸易组织的需要，中国不断健全知识产权法律制度，先后多次对专利法、商标法、著作权法等法律法规进行修改，在立法原则、权利内容、保护标准、法律救济手段等方面，更加突出对促进科技进步与创新的法律保护。截至2010年底，中国累计授予各类专利389万多件；有效注册商标达460万多件，其中来自177个国家和地区的注册商标有67万多件。据不完全统计，2001年至2010年，各级版权行政管理部门共收缴侵权盗版复制品7.07亿件，行政处罚案件93000多起，移送司法机关的案件2500多件。
To promote the reform and opening up, and expand international economic cooperation and technical exchanges, China enacted Law on Chinese-Foreign Equity Joint Ventures, Law on Foreign-funded Enterprises and Law on Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Joint Ventures, with provisions on the investment conditions, procedures, operation, supervision, administration, and the protection of legitimate rights and interests of foreign investors in China.The state has established the principle that foreign investors should respect China's sovereignty when investing in China and other principles, including the protection of investors' legitimate rights and interests, equality and mutual benefit, extending of preferential policies and conforming to international prevailing norms, creating a favorable environment for foreign investors in China.To better implement the principles of equality and mutual benefit and conforming to international prevailing norms, China has made several amendments to the above three laws, and fully guarantees the legitimate rights and interests of foreign investors in their investment and commercial activities in China.By the end of 2010 China had approved the establishment of 710,747 foreign-funded enterprises with an actual investment of US$1.107858 trillion, which fully demonstrates the constant improvement of China's legal system regarding the protection of foreign investors.为推进改革开放，扩大国际经济合作和技术交流，中国制定了中外合资经营企业法、外资企业法、中外合作经营企业法，对外国投资者在中国的投资条件、程序、经营、监督、管理和合法权益的保障等作出规定，确定了外国投资者在中国投资应当尊重中国国家主权的原则，以及中国保护投资者合法权益、平等互利、给予优惠、遵循国际通行规则等原则，为外国投资者在中国进行投资创造了良好的环境。为更好地体现平等互利和遵循国际通行规则，中国多次对这三部法律进行修改完善，充分保障了外国投资者在中国投资、开展经贸活动的合法权益。截至2010年底，中国共批准设立外商投资企业710747家，实际使用外资金额11078.58亿美元，充分表明中国保护外国投资者的法律制度日益完善。
Administrative laws.Administrative laws are the collection of legal norms on the granting, execution and supervision of administrative power.They regulate the relationships between administrative authorities and subjects of administration because of administrative activities, follow the principles of statutory remit, statutory procedure, fairness and openness, and effective supervision, and guarantee the discharge of the functions and powers of administrative organs, as well as the rights of citizens, legal persons and other organizations.By the end of August 2011 China had enacted 79 administrative laws and a large number of administrative and local regulations regulating administrative power.行政法。行政法是关于行政权的授予、行政权的行使以及对行政权的监督的法律规范，调整的是行政机关与行政管理相对人之间因行政管理活动发生的关系，遵循职权法定、程序法定、公正公开、有效监督等原则，既保障行政机关依法行使职权，又注重保障公民、法人和其他组织的权利。截至2011年8月底，中国已制定行政法方面的法律79部和一大批规范行政权力的行政法规、地方性法规。
China attaches great importance to the regulation of the administrative organs' execution of their power, strengthens the supervision of the execution of administrative power in accordance with the law, and ensures the correct execution of administrative power by administrative organs.China has formulated the Law on Administrative Penalties, established the basic principles of penalty by law, fairness and openness, corresponding penalty for offence and combination of penalty and education, standardized the enactment rights of administrative penalties, developed fairly complete procedures of the decision and execution of administrative penalties, and established the hearing system of administrative penalties, by which an administrative organ, before making a decision on administrative penalty that may have a significance influence on the production and life of the party concerned, shall notify the party the right to request a hearing.The state has promulgated the Administrative Reconsideration Law, established the self-correction mechanism within administrative organs, and provided remedies to citizens, legal persons and other organizations for the protection of their legitimate rights and interests.Under this law, about 80,000 cases of administrative dispute are handled each year.The state has enacted the Administrative Licensing Law, which regulates the institution, executive organs and procedures of administrative licensing, standardizes the system of administrative licensing, and, in order to reduce the number of administrative licensing, defines the matters involved in the application for administrative licensing.It also stipulates that administrative licensing will not be used for matters in which citizens, legal persons and other organizations can make decisions themselves, matters which can be effectively regulated by the competitive mechanism of the market, matters which the organizations of trades or intermediary bodies can manage through self-discipline, and matters which administrative departments can solve by other administrative means such as subsequent supervision.In order to thoroughly implement the Administrative Licensing Law, the 11th meeting of the Standing Committee of the 10th NPC passed nine amendments, removing 11 types of administrative licensing.The State Council canceled 1,749 matters of administrative licensing at the central level, changed the administrative method for 121 matters and transferred 46 matters to lower administrative levels.The state has promulgated the Administrative Coercion Law, which clearly defines the principles of the institution and execution of administrative enforcement, standardizes the types, statutory limits, executive bodies and procedures of administrative enforcement, providing a legal basis for the guarantee and supervision of the administrative organs' performance of administrative functions and powers in accordance with the law, and the protection of the legitimate rights and interests of citizens, legal persons and other organizations.中国十分重视对行政机关行使权力的规范，依法加强对行政权力行使的监督，确保行政机关依法正确行使权力。中国制定了行政处罚法，确立了处罚法定、公正公开、过罚相当、处罚与教育相结合等基本原则，规范了行政处罚的设定权，规定了较为完备的行政处罚决定和执行程序，建立了行政处罚听证制度，行政机关在作出对当事人的生产生活可能产生重大影响的行政处罚决定前，赋予当事人要求听证的权利。制定了行政复议法，规定了行政机关内部自我纠正错误的机制，为公民、法人和其他组织合法权益提供救济。依据这部法律，平均每年通过行政复议处理行政争议8万多件。制定了行政许可法，规定了行政许可的设定、实施机关和实施程序，规范了行政许可制度，并为减少行政许可，明确了可以设定行政许可的事项，同时规定，在公民、法人或者其他组织能够自主决定、市场竞争机制能够有效调节、行业组织和中介机构能够自律管理、行政机关采用事后监督等其他行政管理方式能够解决的情形下，不设行政许可。为了贯彻落实行政许可法，十届全国人大常委会第十一次会议一次通过9个法律修正案，取消11项行政许可；国务院先后撤销了中央一级的许可事项1749项、改变管理方式121项、下放管理层级46项。制定了行政强制法，明确了设定和实施行政强制的原则，规范了行政强制的种类、设定权限、实施主体和实施程序，为保证和监督行政机关依法行政，保护公民、法人和其他组织的合法权益，提供了法律依据。
China attaches great importance to the protection of the ecological environment for mankind's survival and sustainable development.The state has promulgated the Environmental Protection Law, which lays down the basic principle of coordinated development of economic construction, social development and environmental protection, and dictates that governments at all levels, all organizations and individuals have the right and duty to protect the environment.To prevent negative impact on the environment in the course of project construction, the state has enacted the Law on Environmental Impact Assessment.The state has enacted laws for specific targets in environmental protection, such as those on prevention and control of water pollution, marine environment, atmospheric pollution, environmental noise pollution, environmental pollution by solid waste, radioactive pollution, and other laws.The State Council has formulated the Regulations on the Administration of Environmental Protection of Project Construction, Regulations on the Safe Management of Hazardous Chemicals, Regulations on the Collection and Use of Pollutant Discharge Fees, Measures on the Administration of Permits for Operations Involving Hazardous Waste, and other administrative regulations.The local people's congresses, in the light of the specific local conditions in their respective areas, have drawn up a large number of local regulations on environmental protection.China has established a system of national environmental protection standards, and had implemented over 1,300 national environmental protection standards by the end of 2010.China is also constantly strengthening the administrative enforcement of environmental protection laws.Over the past five years the state has investigated over 80,000 cases of violation of environmental protection laws, and has closed down 7,293 offending operations in accordance with the law.中国重视保护人类赖以生存和持续发展的生态环境，制定了环境保护法，确立了经济建设、社会发展与环境保护协调发展的基本方针，规定了各级政府、一切单位和个人保护环境的权利和义务。为预防建设项目对环境产生不利影响，制定了环境影响评价法。针对特定环境保护对象，制定了水污染防治、海洋环境保护、大气污染防治、环境噪声污染防治、固体废物污染环境防治、放射性污染防治等法律。国务院制定了建设项目环境保护管理条例、危险化学品安全管理条例、排污费征收使用管理条例、危险废物经营许可证管理办法等行政法规。地方人大结合本地区的具体情况，制定了一大批环境保护方面的地方性法规。中国已经建立了国家环境保护标准体系，截至2010年底，共颁布1300余项国家环境保护标准。中国还不断加强环境领域行政执法，近5年来，共依法查处环境违法企业8万多家(次)，取缔关闭违法排污企业7293家。
China has also enacted the Education Law, Compulsory Education Law, Higher Education Law, Vocational Education Law, Teachers Law, Regulations on the Administration of Kindergartens, Regulations on the Qualifications of Teachers, and Regulations on Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools to establish and improve its national education system.It has enacted the Drug Administration Law, Law on Maternal and Infant Health Care, Blood Donation Law, Law on the Prevention and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Law on Physical Culture and Sport, Frontier Health and Quarantine Law, Food Safety Law, Regulations on the Supervision and Administration of Medical Devices, Regulations on Traditional Chinese Medicine and Anti-Doping Regulations to establish and improve the medical health system to ensure the people's health and safety.It has enacted the Law on Residents' Identity Cards, Law on the Control of Frontier Exit and Entry of Citizens, Law on the Control of Guns, Fire Prevention Law, Law on the Control of Narcotics, Law on Public Security Penalties, Emergency Response Law, Regulations on Detention Centers, Regulations on Safety Management of Large-Scale Mass Activities, and Regulations on the Safety Administration of Fireworks and Firecrackers to establish and improve systems aimed at maintaining social order and stability, promoting social harmony and ensuring public security.China has enacted the Civil Servants Law, People's Police Law, Law on Diplomatic Personnel, and Punishment Ordinance for Civil Servants Working in Administrative Organs to set up and improve the system of public service.China has enacted the National Defense Mobilization Law, Law on the Protection of Military Installations, Civil Air Defense Law, Military Service Law, Law on National Defense Education, Regulations on the Recruitment of Soldiers, and Militia Work Regulations to establish and improve the system of national defense and armed forces building.It has formulated the Law on Science and Technology Progress, Law on Popularization of Science and Technology, Law on the Protection of Cultural Relics, Law on the Intangible Cultural Heritage, Regulations on the Protection of Fossils, Regulations on the Protection of the Great Wall, and Regulations on the Administration of Films to establish and improve the system to promote scientific and technological progress, and protect and nourish culture.中国还制定了教育法、义务教育法、高等教育法、职业教育法、教师法和幼儿园管理条例、教师资格条例、中外合作办学条例等法律法规，建立健全了国民教育制度；制定了药品管理法、母婴保健法、献血法、传染病防治法、体育法、国境卫生检疫法、食品安全法和医疗器械监督管理条例、中医药条例、反兴奋剂条例等法律法规，建立健全了保障公民身体健康、生命安全的医药卫生制度；制定了居民身份证法、公民出境入境管理法、枪支管理法、消防法、禁毒法、治安管理处罚法、突发事件应对法和看守所条例、大型群众性活动安全管理条例、烟花爆竹安全管理条例等法律法规，建立健全了维护社会秩序和稳定、促进社会和谐、保障公共安全的制度；制定了公务员法、人民警察法、驻外外交人员法和行政机关公务员处分条例等法律法规，建立健全了国家公务员制度；制定了国防动员法、军事设施保护法、人民防空法、兵役法、国防教育法和征兵工作条例、民兵工作条例等法律法规，建立健全了国防和军队建设制度；制定了科学技术进步法、科学技术普及法、文物保护法、非物质文化遗产法和古生物化石保护条例、长城保护条例、电影管理条例等法律法规，建立健全了促进科技进步、保护和繁荣文化的制度。
Economic laws.Economic laws are a collection of laws and regulations which adjust social and economic relations arising from the state's intervening in, managing and regulating economic activities for the society's overall interests.They provide legal devices and an institutional framework for the state to conduct appropriate intervention in, and macro control of the market economy, thereby preventing malpractices resulting from spontaneous and blind operation of the market economy.By the end of August 2011 China had formulated 60 economic laws and a large number of related administrative and local regulations.经济法。经济法是调整国家从社会整体利益出发，对经济活动实行干预、管理或者调控所产生的社会经济关系的法律规范。经济法为国家对市场经济进行适度干预和宏观调控提供法律手段和制度框架，防止市场经济的自发性和盲目性所导致的弊端。截至2011年8月底，中国已制定经济法方面的法律60部和一大批相关行政法规、地方性法规。
China has enacted the Budget Law, Price Law, and Law on the People's Bank of China to exercise macro-control and management over economic activities.It has formulated the Law on Corporate Income Tax, Individual Income Tax Law, Law on Vehicle and Vessel Taxation, Law on the Administration of Tax Collection, Provisional Regulations on Value-Added Tax, Provisional Regulations on Business Tax, and Provisional Regulations on City Maintenance and Construction Tax to improve the taxation system.It has enacted the Law on Regulation and Supervision of the Banking Industry, and Law on Anti-Money Laundering to supervise and regulate the banking industry to ensure its safe operation.It has enacted the Agriculture Law, Seed Law, and Law on Agricultural Product Quality and Safety to guarantee agricultural development and food safety of the country.It has formulated the Railway Law, Highway Law, Civil Aviation Law, and Electric Power Law to supervise and administer key industries and promote their development.It has formulated the Land Administration Law, Forest Law, Water Law, and Mineral Resources Law to regulate the rational exploitation and utilization of important natural resources.It has enacted the Energy Conservation Law, Renewable Energy Law, Circular Economy Promotion Law, and Law on the Promotion of Clean Production to promote the effective utilization of energy and development of renewable energy.中国制定了预算法、价格法、中国人民银行法等法律，对经济活动实施宏观调控和管理；制定了企业所得税法、个人所得税法、车船税法、税收征收管理法等法律，以及增值税暂行条例、营业税暂行条例、城市维护建设税暂行条例等行政法规，不断健全税收制度；制定了银行业监督管理法、反洗钱法等法律，对金融行业的安全运行实施监督管理；制定了农业法、种子法、农产品质量安全法等法律，保障农业发展和国家粮食安全；制定了铁路法、公路法、民用航空法、电力法等法律，对重要行业实施监督管理和产业促进；制定了土地管理法、森林法、水法、矿产资源法等法律，规范重要自然资源的合理开发和利用；制定了节约能源法、可再生能源法、循环经济促进法、清洁生产促进法等法律，促进能源的有效利用和可再生能源开发。
China stresses the use of laws to safeguard fair and orderly competition among market players.The Anti-Unfair Competition Law is an important law formulated by China during its transition from the planned economy to the market economy.By drawing lessons from other countries, it makes provisions to forbid counterfeiting, commercial bribery, false publicity, infringement on trade secrets, unfair lottery-attached sales and vilifying competitors to safeguard the rights and interests of commercial operators and enable them to compete fairly and justly.The Price Law stipulates that the state institutes and gradually improves a mechanism under which prices are formed mainly by the market under the state's macro-economic control.The prices of most commodities and services shall be regulated by the market while the prices of a very small number of commodities and services shall be guided or fixed by the government.The Anti-Monopoly Law has prohibitive provisions on monopolistic agreements, abuse of dominant market positions, and concentration of business operators that eliminates or restricts competition.China has carried out reforms to its fiscal, taxation, banking, foreign exchange and investment systems, establishing a macro-management system suited to the market economy.Remarkable achievements have been made in the deregulation of markets within the Chinese economy.中国重视通过法律保障市场主体之间的公平、有序竞争。反不正当竞争法是中国由计划经济向市场经济转轨时期制定的一部重要法律，借鉴国际经验，规定禁止仿冒、商业贿赂、虚假宣传、侵犯商业秘密、不正当有奖销售、诋毁竞争对手等不正当竞争行为，维护经营者公平竞争的权益。价格法规定国家实行并逐步完善宏观调控下主要由市场形成价格的机制，大多数商品和服务实行市场调节价，极少数商品和服务实行政府指导价或者政府定价。反垄断法对垄断协议、滥用市场支配地位、排除、限制竞争的经营者集中等垄断行为作了禁止性规定。中国依法对财税、金融、外汇、投资等体制进行改革，建立了与市场经济相适应的宏观管理体系。中国经济的市场化进程取得了举世瞩目的成就。
China actively discharges its obligations within the framework of the WTO, constantly improves its legal system regarding foreign trade, and has established a foreign trade system suited to the socialist market economy.It has clearly defined the rights and obligations of those engaged in foreign trade, and has improved the system of managing import and export of goods, technologies and the international service trade.It has established a foreign trade survey and promotion system with Chinese characteristics.In the light of WTO rules, China has improved its trade remedy system, customs supervision, and import and export commodity inspection and quarantine system, and established a unified and transparent foreign trade system.China's foreign trade has been expanding rapidly, and the ratio of its total export-import volume to the international trade volumes keeps rising.In 2010 the ratio of China's exports in the world's total was 10.4 percent.中国积极履行在世界贸易组织框架内承担的义务，不断完善对外贸易法律制度，确立了社会主义市场经济条件下的对外贸易体制，规范了对外贸易经营者的权利和义务，健全了货物进出口、技术进出口和国际服务贸易管理制度，建立了具有中国特色的对外贸易调查制度和对外贸易促进体制，并根据世界贸易组织规则完善了贸易救济制度以及海关监管和进出口商品检验检疫制度，确立了统一、透明的对外贸易制度。中国对外贸易快速增长，进出口总额在世界贸易中的地位不断提升。2010年中国出口占世界出口的比重达10.4%。
Social laws.China's social laws are the collection of laws and regulations with respect to the adjustment of labor relations, social security, social welfare and protection of the rights and interests of special groups.It follows the principle of justice, harmony and appropriate state intervention.By performing their duties, the state and society provide necessary protection for the rights and interests of laborers, the unemployed, the incapacitated for work, as well as other special groups in need of help so as to safeguard social equity and promote social harmony.By the end of August 2011, China had enacted 18 laws in this particular field and a large number of administrative and local regulations to regulate labor relations and social security.社会法。社会法是调整劳动关系、社会保障、社会福利和特殊群体权益保障等方面的法律规范，遵循公平和谐和国家适度干预原则，通过国家和社会积极履行责任，对劳动者、失业者、丧失劳动能力的人以及其他需要扶助的特殊人群的权益提供必要的保障，维护社会公平，促进社会和谐。截至2011年8月底，中国已制定社会法方面的法律18件和一大批规范劳动关系和社会保障的行政法规、地方性法规。
China's Labor Law deals with labor relations and other relationships closely related to them, such as labor protection, labor safety and hygiene, occupational training, labor disputes and labor supervision, thus establishing China's basic labor system.China has enacted the Law on Mine Safety, Law on Prevention and Control of Occupational Diseases, and Production Safety Law and some other laws, making provisions for safe production and prevention of occupational diseases, and strengthening the protection of the rights and interests of laborers.It has enacted the Labor Contract Law, Employment Promotion Law, and Law on Labor Dispute Mediation and Arbitration, thus establishing and improving the system, which is suited to the socialist market economy, of labor contract, employment promotion and labor dispute settlement.It has enacted the Red Cross Society Law, Law on Donation for Public Welfare Undertakings and Regulations on Foundation Administration, thereby establishing and improving the system that promotes the development and administration of public welfare undertakings.It has formulated the Trade Union Law and revised it twice, defining the status of trade unions in the country's political, economic and social life, clarifying the rights and obligations of trade unions, and playing an active role in safeguarding laborers' legitimate rights and interests in accordance with the law.中国制定了劳动法，将劳动关系以及与劳动关系密切联系的劳动保护、劳动安全卫生、职业培训以及劳动争议、劳动监察等关系纳入调整范围，确立了中国的基本劳动制度；制定了矿山安全法、职业病防治法、安全生产法等法律，对安全生产、职业病预防等事项作了规定，加强了对劳动者权益的保护；制定了劳动合同法、就业促进法和劳动争议调解仲裁法，建立健全了适应社会主义市场经济的劳动合同、促进就业和解决劳动争议的制度；制定了红十字会法、公益事业捐赠法和基金会管理条例等法律法规，建立健全了促进社会公益事业发展和管理的制度；制定了工会法，并先后两次进行修订，确定了工会在国家政治、经济和社会生活中的地位，明确了工会的权利和义务，对工会依法维护劳动者的合法权益发挥了积极作用。
China attaches importance to the building of its social security system.It has enacted the Social Insurance Law, established a social insurance system which covers both rural and urban residents, basic endowment insurance, basic health insurance, work-related injury insurance, unemployment insurance and maternity insurance, guaranteeing that all citizens can get necessary material aid and living allowances when they get old, sick, injured or unemployed, or give birth.It stipulates that the basic endowment funds should be managed at the national level, and other social insurance funds managed at the provincial level.It has set up a system for the inter-regional transfer of laborers' social security.The State Council has enacted the Regulations on Unemployment Insurance, Regulations on Work-related Injury Insurance, Provisional Regulations on Collection and Payment of Social Insurance Premiums, and Regulations on the Work Regarding the Rural Five Guarantees.It has decided to establish a new rural endowment insurance and new rural cooperative health care system.They all play an important role in promoting the building of a social security system.The gradual establishment of the social security system provides legal guarantee for the Chinese government to accelerate the building of the social security network in accordance with the law, safeguard social equality and build a harmonious society.At present, the coverage of China's social security is expanding from state-owned enterprises to various social and economic organizations, from workers and staff members of organizations to self-employed people and other residents, and from the urban areas to the rural areas.By the end of 2010 the endowment insurance system of urban workers covered 257 million people, an increase of 1.7 times compared with 2002, and the new rural endowment insurance system covered 103 million people.The basic health insurance for rural and urban residents covered 1.26 billion people, 13 times the number in 2002.Work-related injury insurance covered 161 million people.The coverage of unemployment insurance and maternity insurance is also expanding rapidly.The State Council has also formulated the Measures for Assisting Vagrants and Beggars with No Means of Support in Cities, Regulations on Legal Aid, Regulations on Natural Disaster Relief, and Regulations on Minimum Subsistence Allowance for Urban Residents, and has decided to set up a minimum subsistence allowance program for rural residents, thus basically establishing a social relief system covering both urban and rural areas.By the end of 2010 some 77 million residents with financial difficulties in China received minimum subsistence allowance.The level of China's social security is constantly improving, and people are sharing the fruits of development.中国重视社会保障制度建设，制定了社会保险法，确立了覆盖城乡全体居民的社会保险体系，建立了基本养老保险、基本医疗保险、工伤保险、失业保险和生育保险五项保险制度，保障公民在年老、患病、工伤、失业、生育等情况下，能够获得必要的物质帮助和生活保障；明确基本养老保险基金逐步实行全国统筹，其他社会保险基金逐步实行省级统筹；规定了劳动者在不同统筹地区就业社会保险关系转移接续制度。国务院还制定了失业保险条例、工伤保险条例和社会保险费征缴暂行条例、农村五保供养工作条例等行政法规，并决定建立新型农村养老保险和新型农村合作医疗制度，对推动社会保障制度建设，发挥了重要作用。社会保障制度的逐步确立，为中国政府依法加快社会保障体系建设，维护社会公平，构建和谐社会，提供了法制保障。目前，中国的社会保障覆盖面越来越大，逐步从国有企业扩大到各类社会经济组织，从单位职工扩大到灵活就业人员和居民，从城镇扩大到农村。截至2010年底，城镇职工养老保险制度覆盖2.57亿人，比2002年增加了约1.7倍；新型农村养老保险制度覆盖了1.03亿人；城乡基本医疗保险覆盖12.6亿人，是2002年的13倍；工伤保险参保1.61亿人；失业保险、生育保险覆盖面也迅速扩大。国务院还制定了城市生活无着的流浪乞讨人员救助管理办法、法律援助条例、自然灾害救助条例、城市居民最低生活保障条例等行政法规，并决定建立农村最低生活保障制度，中国覆盖城乡的社会救助体系已基本建立。截至2010年底，中国共有7700万困难群众享受最低生活保障待遇。中国社会保障的水平不断提高，人民群众切实共享发展成果。China pays great attention to the protection of the rights and interests of special groups.It has enacted the Law on the Protection of Disabled Persons, Law on the Protection of Minors, Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women, Law on the Protection of the Rights and Interests of the Elderly, and Law on the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency.It has developed a comparatively complete legal system to protect the rights and interests of special groups, which plays an important role in protecting the legitimate rights and interests of special groups, and in safeguarding social equity and justice.中国重视保障特殊群体的权益，制定了残疾人保障法、未成年人保护法、妇女权益保障法、老年人权益保障法、预防未成年人犯罪法等法律，在保护特殊群体权益方面形成了较为完备的法律制度，对于保护特殊群体合法权益，维护社会公平正义，发挥了重要作用。
Criminal Law.This is the law that defines crimes and penalties.It aims to punish crime and protect the people, maintain social order and public security, and safeguard national security through regulating the state's power of punishment.By the end of August 2011 China had enacted the Criminal Law and eight amendments to it, as well as decisions on punishing fraudulent purchase of foreign exchange, evading foreign exchange control, and illegal trade in foreign exchange, plus nine legal interpretations on the Criminal Law.刑法。刑法是规定犯罪与刑罚的法律规范。它通过规范国家的刑罚权，惩罚犯罪，保护人民，维护社会秩序和公共安全，保障国家安全。截至2011年8月底，中国已制定一部统一的刑法、8个刑法修正案以及关于惩治骗购外汇、逃汇和非法买卖外汇犯罪的决定，并通过了9个有关刑法规定的法律解释。
The Criminal Law defines clearly these basic principles: punishment of crimes is defined by law, everyone is equal before the law, and punishment should match the severity of the crime.It expressly stipulates that any act deemed by explicit stipulations of the law as a crime is to be convicted and given punishment by law, and that any act that is not deemed a crime by the explicit stipulations of the law is not to be convicted or given punishment.The law shall be equally applied to anyone who commits a crime.No one shall have the privilege of transcending the law.The degree of punishment shall be commensurate with the crime committed and the criminal responsibility to be borne by the offender.The Criminal Law of China defines various types of crime and types of punishment, including public surveillance, criminal detention, fixed-term imprisonment, life imprisonment and the death penalty.It also includes three accessory penalties-fine, deprivation of political rights and confiscation of property.In addition, it states the concrete application of punishments.It identifies ten criminal acts and corresponding criminal liability, namely the crimes of endangering national security, endangering public security, undermining the order of the socialist market economy, infringing upon the rights of the person and the democratic rights of citizens, encroaching on property, disrupting the order of social administration, endangering the interests of national defense, embezzlement and bribery, dereliction of duty, and servicemen's transgression of duties.中国刑法确立了罪刑法定、法律面前人人平等、罪刑相适应等基本原则。中国刑法明确规定：法律明文规定为犯罪行为的，依照法律定罪处刑；法律没有明文规定为犯罪行为的，不得定罪处刑；对任何人犯罪，在适用法律上一律平等。不允许任何人有超越法律的特权；刑罚的轻重，应当与犯罪分子所犯罪行和承担的刑事责任相适应。中国刑法规定了犯罪的概念；规定了刑罚的种类，包括管制、拘役、有期徒刑、无期徒刑、死刑五种主刑以及罚金、剥夺政治权利、没收财产三种附加刑，并对刑罚的具体运用作出了规定；规定了危害国家安全罪，危害公共安全罪，破坏社会主义市场经济秩序罪，侵犯公民人身权利、民主权利罪，侵犯财产罪，妨害社会管理秩序罪，危害国防利益罪，贪污贿赂罪，渎职罪，军人违反职责罪等十类犯罪行为及其刑事责任。
In the light of the actual situation brought about by economic and social development, China promptly revises and interprets its Criminal Law in an effort to improve the criminal legal system.Amendment VIII to the Criminal Law, passed in February 2011, made major revisions of the previous Criminal Law.It eliminates capital punishment for 13 non-violent economic-related offences, thus reducing the number of crimes subject to the death penalty by 19.1 percent;it improves legal provisions that give more lenient punishment and non-custodial penalties to minors and elderly people who have reached the age of 75;it stipulates that refusing to pay wages, seriously infringing upon the legal rights and interests of laborers, and drunk driving are criminal offences;it gives harsher punishment for criminal offences in violation of citizens' personal freedom, life and health.All this has improved China's criminal justice system, strengthened the protection of human rights, reflecting the development of China's social civilization and progress in the spheres of democracy and rule of law.中国根据经济社会发展变化的实际，适时对刑法进行修改和解释，不断完善刑事法律制度。2011年2月通过的刑法修正案(八)对刑法作了比较重大的修改，取消了13个经济性非暴力犯罪的死刑，占中国刑法死刑罪名的19.1%；完善了对未成年人和年满75周岁的老年人从宽处理以及非监禁刑执行方式的法律规定；把不支付劳动报酬严重侵犯劳动者合法权益的行为、醉酒驾驶机动车等危险驾驶行为，规定为犯罪；加大了对一些侵犯公民人身自由、生命健康等犯罪行为的惩处力度，进一步完善了中国刑事法律制度，加强了对人权的保护，体现了中国社会文明的发展和国家民主法治的进步。
Litigation and Non-litigation Procedure Laws.These are laws giving standard solutions to various litigation and non-litigation activities arising from social disputes.The litigation system aims to regulate the state's judicial activities in settling social disputes, and the non-litigation system aims to regulate arbitration agencies and people's mediation organizations in settling social disputes.By the end of August 2011 China had enacted ten laws in the fields of litigation and non-litigation procedure.诉讼与非诉讼程序法。诉讼与非诉讼程序法是规范解决社会纠纷的诉讼活动与非诉讼活动的法律规范。诉讼法律制度是规范国家司法活动解决社会纠纷的法律规范，非诉讼程序法律制度是规范仲裁机构或者人民调解组织解决社会纠纷的法律规范。截至2011年8月底，中国已制定了诉讼与非诉讼程序法方面的法律10部。
China's Criminal Procedure Law stipulates the basic system and principles of criminal procedures.For instance, the law applies equally to all citizens;the people's courts and people's procuratorates exercise judicial authority and procuratorial powers independently;the people's courts, people's procuratorates and public security organs divide their responsibilities, coordinate their efforts and check each other;ensure that criminal suspects and defendants obtain defense;and no one shall be convicted without a court decision.It also specifies the procedures such as jurisdiction, withdrawal, defense, evidence, enforcement measures, investigation, prosecution, trial and execution, which effectively guarantee the correct application of the Criminal Law, protect the personal, property, democratic and other rights of citizens so as to ensure the smooth progress of the cause of socialism.中国制定了刑事诉讼法，规定一切公民在适用法律上一律平等，人民法院、人民检察院分别独立行使审判权、检察权，人民法院、人民检察院、公安机关分工负责、互相配合、互相制约，保证犯罪嫌疑人、被告人获得辩护，未经人民法院依法判决，对任何人不得确定有罪等刑事诉讼的基本原则和制度，并规定了管辖、回避、辩护、证据、强制措施、侦查、起诉、审判、执行等制度和程序，有效保证了刑法的正确实施，保护了公民的人身权利、财产权利、民主权利和其他权利，保障了社会主义建设事业的顺利进行。
China's Civil Procedure Law stipulates the following basic principles and system: the parties to civil litigation shall have equal litigation rights;mediation shall be conducted for the parties on a voluntary and lawful basis;the court shall follow the system of public trial and the court of second instance being that of last instance.It makes clear the litigation rights and obligations of the parties concerned, the use of evidence, the civil trial procedures such as ordinary procedure of first instance, procedure of second instance, summary procedure, special procedure, procedure for trial supervision, and procedure of execution and enforcement execution measures.中国制定了民事诉讼法，确立当事人有平等的诉讼权利、根据自愿和合法的原则进行调解、公开审判、两审终审等民事诉讼的基本原则和制度，明确了诉讼当事人的诉讼权利和诉讼义务，规范了证据制度，规定了第一审普通程序、第二审程序、简易程序、特别程序、审判监督程序等民事审判程序，还对执行程序、强制执行措施作了明确规定。
China's Administrative Procedure Law defines the legal remedy system in administrative lawsuits.It explicitly stipulates that a citizen, a legal person or other organization has the right to initiate an administrative lawsuit at a people's court in accordance with this law if they believe their lawful rights and interests are infringed upon by an administrative organ or staff working in it, and the people's court exercises judicial power independently with respect to administrative cases to protect the legal rights and interests of the citizens.Since the promulgation and implementation of the Administrative Procedure Law, the people's courts have accepted over 100,000 cases annually on average, protecting the lawful rights and interests of the citizens and making the administrative organs exercise their administrative powers according to law.中国制定了行政诉讼法，确立了“民告官”的法律救济制度。行政诉讼法明确规定，公民、法人和其他组织认为自己的合法权益被行政机关及其工作人员侵犯，有权依法向人民法院提起行政诉讼，人民法院依法对行政案件独立行使审判权，保障公民的合法权益。行政诉讼法颁布实施以来，平均每年受理行政案件10万余件，保障了公民的合法权益，促进了行政机关依法行使行政职权。
China's Arbitration Law has provisions for the establishment of domestic arbitration and foreign-related arbitration agencies, stipulates that an arbitration commission shall be independent of any administrative organ, which guarantees its independence.It also specifies that arbitration should be conducted upon a voluntary and independent basis, and that a system of a single and final award shall be practiced for arbitration.It also contains details about arbitration procedures.Since the promulgation of this law over 500,000 cases of economic disputes have been handled, involving a total sum of 700 billion yuan.It has played an important role in settling civil and economic disputes fairly, promptly and effectively, protecting the lawful rights and interests of the parties concerned, maintaining social and economic stability and promoting social harmony.中国制定了仲裁法，规范了国内仲裁与涉外仲裁机构的设立，明确规定仲裁委员会独立于行政机关，从机构设置上保证了仲裁委员会的独立性，明确将自愿、仲裁独立、一裁终局等原则作为仲裁的基本原则，系统规定了仲裁程序。仲裁法颁布实施以来，共仲裁各类经济纠纷50多万件，案件标的额达到人民币7000多亿元，对于公正、及时、有效地解决民事经济纠纷，保护当事人的合法权益，维护社会经济秩序稳定与促进社会和谐，发挥了积极作用。
People's mediation is a Chinese way of resolving contradictions and settling disputes without resorting to legal proceedings.The Constitution and Civil Procedure Law specify the nature and fundamental principles of people's mediation, and the State Council has promulgated the Organic Regulations on the People's Mediation Commissions.In 2009 people's mediation organizations mediated over 7.67 million civil disputes, with a success rate of over 96 percent.In order to further promote people's mediation work and improve the system, China has formulated the People's Mediation Law, making the good experience and practices accumulated in this field into law.At present, there are more than 820,000 people's mediation organizations in China, and 4.67 million people's mediators, forming a mediation network covering both rural and urban areas.They are playing an important role in preventing and reducing civil disputes, resolving social conflicts, and maintaining social harmony and stability.人民调解是一项具有中国特色的化解矛盾、消除纷争的非诉讼纠纷解决方式。中国宪法、民事诉讼法对人民调解的性质和基本原则作了规定，国务院颁布了人民调解委员会组织条例，人民调解工作不断发展。2009年，人民调解组织调解民间纠纷767万多件，调解成功率在96%以上。为进一步推动人民调解工作，完善人民调解制度，中国制定了人民调解法，将人民调解工作长期积累的好经验、好做法制定为法律。目前，中国共有人民调解组织82万多个，人民调解员467万多人，形成了覆盖广大城乡的人民调解工作网络，为预防和减少民间纠纷、化解社会矛盾、维护社会和谐稳定发挥了重要作用。
In addition, China has formulated the Extradition Law, Special Maritime Procedure Law, Law on Labor Dispute Mediation and Arbitration, and Law on the Mediation and Arbitration of Rural Land Contracting Disputes, thereby establishing and improving the system of litigation and non-litigation procedure laws.此外，中国还制定了引渡法、海事诉讼特别程序法、劳动争议调解仲裁法、农村土地承包经营纠纷调解仲裁法等法律，建立健全了诉讼与非诉讼程序法律制度。
The above-mentioned laws and regulations made by legislative bodies cover all aspects of society, bring all the work of the state and all aspects of social life under the rule of law, laying a solid foundation for the rule of law and construction of a socialist country under the rule of law.Law has become an important means for Chinese citizens, legal persons and other organizations to resolve disputes and conflicts.It also provides an important basis for the people's courts at all levels to safeguard the lawful rights and interests of citizens, legal persons and other organizations.上述法律部门确立的各项法律制度，涵盖了社会关系的各个方面，把国家各项工作、社会各个方面纳入了法治化轨道，为依法治国、建设社会主义法治国家提供了坚实的基础。法律已经成为中国公民、法人和其他组织解决各种矛盾和纠纷的重要手段，也为中国各级人民法院维护公民、法人和其他组织的合法权益提供了重要依据。
III.Features of the Socialist System of Laws with Chinese Characteristics
三、中国特色社会主义法律体系的特征
The differences between countries in their historical and cultural traditions, actual situations and paths of development, their social, political and economic systems determine that their systems of laws have different features.The socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics is the concentrated reflection of the institutionalization and codification of China's practice in its economic and social development since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, and especially in the past 30-odd years since the adoption of the reform and opening up policy.As an important component of the socialist system with Chinese characteristics, it has distinct features.各国的历史文化传统、具体国情和发展道路不同，社会制度、政治制度和经济制度不同，决定了各国的法律体系必然具有不同特征。中国特色社会主义法律体系，是新中国成立以来特别是改革开放30多年来经济社会发展实践经验制度化、法律化的集中体现，是中国特色社会主义制度的重要组成部分，具有十分鲜明的特征。
1.The socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics embodies the essential requirements of socialism with Chinese characteristics(一)中国特色社会主义法律体系体现了中国特色社会主义的本质要求
The nature of a country's legal system depends on the nature of its social system established in law.China is a socialist country under the people's democratic dictatorship, led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants.In the primary stage of socialism, China practices a basic economic system with public ownership as the mainstay and the joint development of diverse forms of ownership, which determines that China's legal institutions are bound to be socialist ones and that China's legal system is bound to be a socialist one with Chinese characteristics.All legal norms covered in and all legal institutions established by the socialist legal system contribute to consolidating and developing socialism, reflect the people's common aspirations, safeguard their fundamental interests and make sure that the people are the masters of their own country.China proceeds from the essential requirement of socialism with Chinese characteristics and the will and long-term interests of the people in making its laws and determining the relevant provisions.The aim and outcome of all the work of the state are to realize, safeguard and expand the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the people.一个国家法律体系的本质，由这个国家的法律确立的社会制度的本质所决定。中国是工人阶级领导的、以工农联盟为基础的人民民主专政的社会主义国家。在社会主义初级阶段，中国实行公有制为主体、多种所有制经济共同发展的基本经济制度，这就决定了中国的法律制度必然是社会主义的法律制度，所构建的法律体系必然是中国特色社会主义性质的法律体系。中国特色社会主义法律体系所包括的全部法律规范、所确立的各项法律制度，有利于巩固和发展社会主义制度，充分体现了人民的共同意志，维护了人民的根本利益，保障了人民当家作主。中国制定哪些法律，具体法律制度的内容如何规定，都坚持从中国特色社会主义的本质要求出发，从人民群众的根本意志和长远利益出发，将实现好、维护好、发展好最广大人民的根本利益作为根本出发点和落脚点。
2.Socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics meets the demand of the reform, opening up and socialist modernization of the current times(二)中国特色社会主义法律体系体现了改革开放和社会主义现代化建设的时代要求
The most salient characteristic of this new period in China is reform and opening up.The socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics comes into existence and develops along with reform and opening up, and they complement each other.The establishment of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics is the inherent requirement for the progress of reform, opening up and socialist modernization.It is carried out on the basis of in-depth analysis of those practices.At the same time, the establishment of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics provides a favorable legal environment for reform, opening up and socialist modernization, and serves as a good regulator, guide, guarantee and impetus for the latter.Meanwhile, by appropriately handling the relationship between the stability of law and the mobility of reform, the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics reflects the successful practice of reform, opening up and modernization, and leaves enough space for their future development.中国新时期最鲜明的特点是改革开放。中国特色社会主义法律体系与改革开放相伴而生、相伴而行、相互促进。一方面，形成中国特色社会主义法律体系，是改革开放和现代化建设顺利进行的内在要求，是在深入总结改革开放和现代化建设丰富实践经验基础上进行的。另一方面，中国特色社会主义法律体系的形成，为改革开放和社会主义现代化建设提供了良好的法制环境，发挥了积极的规范、引导、保障和促进作用。同时，中国特色社会主义法律体系妥善处理了法律稳定性和改革变动性的关系，既反映和肯定了改革开放和现代化建设的成功做法，又为改革开放和现代化建设进一步发展预留了空间。
3.The socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics reflects the requirements of an inherently unified and structurally multilevel legal system(三)中国特色社会主义法律体系体现了结构内在统一而又多层次的国情要求
The constitution of a country's legal system is determined by its legal traditions, political and legislative systems, and other factors.China is a united multi-ethnic country as well as a state with a unified governmental system.Due to historical reasons, economic and social development is unbalanced among different regions.To accommodate the requirements of this national condition, the Constitution and laws define the unified and multilevel structure of China's legislative system with Chinese characteristics, which further determines the inherently unified and structurally multilevel feature of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics.It reflects the inner logic of the legal system itself, and conforms to China's national conditions and practices.Therefore, the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics is headed by the Constitution, composed of multilevel legal norms, including laws, administrative and local regulations.The legal norms are laid down by various legislative bodies according to their respective legislative competence prescribed by the Constitution and laws.They have different legal effect, but together constitute the scientific, harmonious and unified whole of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics as its organic parts.一个国家的法律体系如何构成，一般取决于这个国家的法律传统、政治制度和立法体制等因素。中国是统一的多民族的单一制国家，由于历史的原因，各地经济社会发展很不平衡。与这一基本国情相适应，中国宪法和法律确立了具有中国特色的统一而又多层次的立法体制，这就决定了中国特色社会主义法律体系内在统一而又多层次的结构特征，这既反映了法律体系自身的内在逻辑，也符合中国国情和实际。与其相适应，中国特色社会主义法律体系以宪法为统帅，由法律、行政法规、地方性法规等多个层次的法律规范构成。这些法律规范由不同立法主体按照宪法和法律规定的立法权限制定，具有不同法律效力，都是中国特色社会主义法律体系的有机组成部分，共同构成一个科学和谐的统一整体。
4.The socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics meets the cultural demand of carrying forward the fine traditions of Chinese legal culture and drawing on the achievements of human legal civilizations(四)中国特色社会主义法律体系体现了继承中国法制文化优秀传统和借鉴人类法制文明成果的文化要求
All countries base and develop their legal systems on their historical and cultural traditions, and actual social conditions, and their legal systems' communication and exchange with and learning from each other as economic globalization deepens.The constitution of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics is always based on China's national conditions, combining the inheritance of historical traditions, the introduction of the fruits of other civilizations with system innovations.It attaches great importance to the inheritance of fine traditional legal culture, carries out system innovations according to the requirements of reform, opening up and socialist modernization, thus realizing the integration of traditional culture and modern civilization;at the same time, it studies and draws on the good legislative experience of other countries and learns from their legislative achievements, but never slavishly imitates their models, which makes the current legal system conform to China's national conditions and practices as well as the trend of contemporary world legal civilization.China's legal system, featuring both inclusiveness and openness, has fully demonstrated its unique cultural characteristics.各国的法律制度基于本国历史文化传统和社会现实情况不断发展，也随着经济全球化趋势的增强而相互沟通、交流、借鉴。中国特色社会主义法律体系的形成，始终立足于中国国情，坚持将传承历史传统、借鉴人类文明成果和进行制度创新有机结合起来。一方面，注重继承中国传统法制文化优秀成分，适应改革开放和社会主义现代化建设需要进行制度创新，实现了传统文化与现代文明的融合；另一方面，注意研究借鉴国外立法有益经验，吸收国外法制文明先进成果，但又不简单照搬照抄，使法律制度既符合中国国情和实际，又顺应当代世界法制文明时代潮流。这个法律体系具有很强的包容性和开放性，充分体现了它的独特文化特征。
5.The socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics reflects the development demand of being dynamic and open, and of advancing with the times(五)中国特色社会主义法律体系体现了动态、开放、与时俱进的发展要求 A country's legal system is normally the reflection of its conditions at a specific historical stage.With the country's economic and social development, its legal system needs to be enriched and improved, and innovations introduced.Currently China is in the primary stage of socialism, and will remain so for a long time to come.The country is still in the stage of structural reforms and social transformation, and its socialist system calls for constant self-improvement and development, which determines that the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics is bound to have the features of both stability and mobility, both periodical variations and continuity, and both actuality and foresightedness.China's legal system is dynamic, open, developing, not static, closed or fixed;it will constantly improve with China's economic and social development and the practice of building a socialist country under the rule of law.一个国家的法律体系通常是对这个国家一定历史发展阶段现状的反映。随着经济社会的发展，法律体系需要不断丰富、完善、创新。中国处于并将长期处于社会主义初级阶段，整个国家还处于体制改革和社会转型时期，社会主义制度还需要不断自我完善和发展，这就决定了中国特色社会主义法律体系必然具有稳定性与变动性、阶段性与连续性、现实性与前瞻性相统一的特点，决定了中国特色社会主义法律体系必然是动态的、开放的、发展的，而不是静止的、封闭的、固定的，必将伴随中国经济社会发展和法治国家建设的实践而不断发展完善。
In the course of formulation of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics, China's legislative bodies have integrated the leadership of the CPC, the people's status as masters of their country and the rule of law, actively exercised their legislative power, and carried out legislative work in a planned, focused and step-by-step manner, with attention always fixed on the priorities of the country.We have thereby accumulated some precious experience and successfully blazed a new path of legislation with Chinese characteristics.构建中国特色社会主义法律体系过程中，中国立法机关坚持中国共产党的领导、人民当家作主、依法治国有机统一，始终围绕国家的工作重心，积极行使立法职权，有计划、有重点、有步骤地开展立法工作，积累了一些宝贵经验，成功走出了一条具有中国特色的立法路子。
Persisting in promoting legislation in a planned and phase-by-phase manner with clear objectives.In the practice of building socialism with Chinese characteristics under the leadership of the CPC over the past 30-odd years since the adoption of the reform and opening up policies, China's legislative bodies have, on the basis of their central tasks at different stages, proceeded from reality, focused on key issues, carried out careful organization work, established priorities, and formulated scientific, rational and practical five-year legislation plans and annual legislation work plans.They have enacted laws and regulations urgently needed for economic and social development, promoted legislation actively and steadily, and gradually formulated methods of building a socialist legal system in a planned, focused and phase-by-phase manner with clear objectives.We should pool legislative resources, focus on key legislation work and promptly meet the requirements of the fast-developing reform and opening up, thereby providing an effective path for building a socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics.坚持有目标、按计划、分阶段积极推进。改革开放30多年来，在中国共产党领导中国人民建设中国特色社会主义事业进程中，中国立法机关根据各阶段中心工作，立足现实、突出重点、精心组织，区别轻重缓急，制定科学合理、切实可行的五年立法规划和年度立法工作计划，抓紧制定经济社会发展急需的法律法规，积极稳妥地推进立法工作，逐渐形成了有目标、按计划、有重点、分阶段推进法律体系建设的方法，集中立法资源，突出立法重点，及时满足了改革开放快速推进的需要，为形成中国特色社会主义法律体系提供了有效路径。
Persisting in promoting the side-by-side advancement of legislation at various levels.China is a united multi-ethnic country as well as a state with a unified government system, and economic and social development is unbalanced among different regions.In accordance with the national conditions, it is stipulated in the Constitution that under the guidance of the principle of giving full scope to the initiative and enthusiasm of the local authorities under the unified leadership of the central authorities, on the condition of maintenance of a unified legal system, the NPC and its Standing Committee exercise the legislative power of the state, the State Council formulates administrative regulations in accordance with the Constitution and the law, the people's congresses of provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the central government, comparatively larger cities and their standing committees may adopt local regulations, the people's congresses of ethnic autonomous areas have the power to enact regulations on the exercise of autonomy and other separate regulations, and the people's congresses or their standing committees of the provinces and cities where special economic zones are located may, upon authorization by the NPC, formulate regulations and enforce them within the limits of the special economic zones.A legislation work pattern of side-by-side advancement of legislation at various levels has gradually taken shape, which greatly accelerates the building of our legal system and at the same time takes into consideration the actual needs of economic and social development in various regions.This is a practical working model for the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics.坚持多层次立法齐头并进。适应中国的基本国情，根据宪法确定的在中央统一领导下充分发挥地方积极性、主动性的原则，在维护国家法制统一前提下，全国人大及其常委会行使国家立法权，国务院根据宪法和法律制定行政法规，省、自治区、直辖市以及较大的市的人大及其常委会制定地方性法规，民族自治地方制定自治条例和单行条例，经济特区所在地的省、市的人大及其常委会根据全国人大的授权决定制定在经济特区范围内实施的法规，逐渐形成了多层次立法共同推进的立法工作格局，既大大加快了法律体系建设的步伐，又充分照顾到了各地经济社会发展的实际需要，为形成中国特色社会主义法律体系提供了可行的工作模式。
Persisting in the combination of various legislative forms.The building of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics is a scientific and systematic project.Since the reform and opening up started, in accordance with the demands of economic and social development, China's legislative bodies have lost no time in enacting laws and regulations urgently needed for the development of all social undertakings, attached importance to their amendment or abolition, and explained and checked them in a timely manner.They have adopted various legislative forms, such as formulation, amendment, abolition and interpretation, and promoted legislation in an all-round way.In this way, we have improved the quality of legislation and guaranteed the scientific nature and harmony of the legal system while laying a solid foundation for the effective implementation of legal norms.坚持综合运用多种立法形式。构建中国特色社会主义法律体系，是一项科学的系统工程。改革开放以来，中国立法机关根据经济社会发展需要，抓紧制定各方面迫切需要的法律规范，同时注重对法律规范的修改和废止，及时对法律规范进行解释和清理，综合运用制定、修改、废止、解释等多种立法形式，全方位推进立法工作。既促进了立法质量的不断提高，保证了法律体系的科学和谐统一，又为保障法律规范的有效实施奠定了基础。
IV.Improvement of the Socialist System of Laws with Chinese Characteristics
四、中国特色社会主义法律体系的完善
The task remains arduous to improve the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics which we have successfully built.To improve that system from a new starting point is an inherent requirement of promotion of the development and improvement of the socialist system with Chinese characteristics.This will also be the primary task for our legislation work in future.形成中国特色社会主义法律体系成就辉煌，完善中国特色社会主义法律体系任重道远。在新的起点上完善中国特色社会主义法律体系，是推进中国特色社会主义制度发展完善的内在要求，也是今后立法工作面临的重要任务。
China is now at a critical stage in deepening reform and opening up, and building a moderately prosperous society in an all-round way, as it has established the development goal for the first 20 years of the 21st century.The need for legal system improvement is urgent in order to meet the challenges of new domestic and international situations, and new demands and expectations of the people, as well as new issues and problems facing China's reform, development and stability.To realize scientific development, accelerate transformation of the economic development mode, and further guarantee and improve the people's livelihood, all need a legal system to promote and give guidance.There is a rising demand for more scientific and democratic legislation, as increasingly diversified stakeholders and complicated interest patterns make it harder to regulate social interests through legislation.中国已经确定了本世纪头二十年发展的奋斗目标，进入改革发展和全面建设小康社会的关键时期。国内外形势的新情况新变化，广大人民群众的新要求新期待，改革发展稳定面临的新课题新矛盾，迫切需要法律制度建设予以回应和调整。实现科学发展，加快转变经济发展方式，进一步保障和改善民生，迫切需要法律制度建设予以推动和引导。利益主体多元化、利益格局复杂化的客观现实，对科学立法、民主立法的要求愈来愈高，通过立法调整社会利益关系的难度愈来愈大。
China will endeavor to meet the requirements of its basic strategies of promoting scientific development, improving social harmony and ruling the country by law.At present and for some time to come, and in accordance with the requirements of economic and social development, as well as scientific development, China will accelerate the transformation of the economic development mode, guarantee and improve the people's livelihood, improve social harmony, and continuously improve the laws and regulations, so as to build a better socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics.适应推动科学发展、促进社会和谐、全面落实依法治国基本方略的要求，当前和今后一个时期，中国将根据经济社会发展的客观需要，紧紧围绕实现科学发展、加快转变经济发展方式、着力保障和改善民生、推动和谐社会建设，不断健全各项法律制度，推动中国特色社会主义法律体系不断完善。China will continuously improve legislation in the economic field.In order to meet the requirements of the development of socialist market economy, we will improve the legal institutions for civil and commercial affairs.To meet the requirements of deepening the reforms of the fiscal, taxation and financial systems, we will improve legal institutions concerned with budget management, fiscal transfer payment, financial risk control and taxation.We will, in particular, attach importance to taxation legislation, and turn taxation regulations made by the State Council on authorization into laws.We will also improve laws regarding the state's management and control of economic activities in order to safeguard the country's economic security, and promote the healthy development of the socialist market economy.继续加强经济领域立法。适应社会主义市场经济发展要求，完善民事商事法律制度；适应深化财税、金融等体制改革要求，完善预算管理、财政转移支付、金融风险控制、税收等方面的法律制度，特别是加强税收立法，适时将国务院根据授权制定的税收方面的行政法规制定为法律；完善规范国家管理和调控经济活动、维护国家经济安全的法律制度，促进社会主义市场经济健康发展。
China will take active measures to strengthen legislation on socialist democracy.In order to meet the requirements of actively yet steadily advancing political reform, we will improve legal institutions concerning election, self-governance among people at the grassroots level and organization of state organs;we will improve legislation regarding administrative procedures to regulate administrative actions, and improve laws concerning audit supervision and administrative reconsideration.In order to meet the requirements of reforming the judicial system, we will revise the Criminal Procedure Law, the Civil Procedure Law and the Administrative Procedure Law, so as to improve the procedure law system.We will also improve the legal system concerning the exercise of power by state organs and the punishment and prevention of corruption, in order to expand socialist democracy, standardize and supervise the exercise of power, and continuously develop socialist democracy.积极加强发展社会主义民主政治的立法。适应积极稳妥推进政治体制改革的要求，完善选举、基层群众自治、国家机构组织等方面的法律制度；加强规范行政行为的程序立法，完善审计监督和行政复议等方面的法律制度；适应司法体制改革要求，修改刑事诉讼法、民事诉讼法、行政诉讼法，完善诉讼法律制度；完善国家机关权力行使、惩治和预防腐败等方面的法律制度，扩大社会主义民主，加强对权力行使的规范和监督，不断推进社会主义民主政治制度的完善和发展。China will strengthen legislation in the social field.We will always put people first, guarantee and improve the people's livelihood, advance social undertakings, improve the social security system, encourage innovation in social management, gradually improve the legal institutions concerning employment, labor protection, social security, social assistance, social welfare, income distribution, education, medical care, housing and social organizations, constantly explore an innovative social management mechanism, and push forward the development of social undertakings.突出加强社会领域立法。坚持以人为本，围绕保障和改善民生，在促进社会事业、健全社会保障、创新社会管理等方面，逐步完善劳动就业、劳动保护、社会保险、社会救助、社会福利、收入分配、教育、医疗、住房以及社会组织等法律制度，不断创新社会管理体制机制，深入推进社会事业建设。
China will attach more importance to legislation in the cultural, scientific and technological fields.In order to meet the requirements of promoting reform in the cultural system and advancing science and technology, we will improve the legal institutions which support public cultural undertakings, develop the culture industry, encourage cultural and scientific innovation, and protect intellectual property rights, so as to realize cultural prosperity and build an innovation-oriented country.更加注重文化科技领域立法。适应推进文化体制改革、促进科技进步的要求，完善扶持公益性文化事业、发展文化产业、鼓励文化科技创新、保护知识产权等方面的法律制度，推动社会主义文化大发展大繁荣，建设创新型国家。
China will attach importance to legislation in the field of the environment.In order to meet the requirements of building an energy-saving and environmentally-friendly society, we will strengthen laws on energy saving and eco-environmental protection, and improve our institutions so as to accelerate the transformation of the economic development mode, solve the contradictions between socioeconomic development and environmental protection, and promote harmony between man and nature.高度重视生态文明领域立法。适应资源节约型、环境友好型社会建设的要求，完善节约能源资源、保护生态环境等方面的法律制度，从制度上积极促进经济发展方式转变，努力解决经济社会发展与环境资源保护的矛盾，实现人与自然和谐相处。While improving various laws, we will attach importance to their implementation, working mechanism and supporting regulations.We will improve the channels and methods for the interpretation of laws, and make it our regular work.We will give timely legal interpretations when the specific meaning of certain provisions needs further clarification, or the application of laws in certain new circumstances needs further explanation.We need to improve the organization, mechanism and method for reviewing and filing regulations, rules, and legal interpretations.Meanwhile, we will improve the revision mechanism as applied to laws and regulations, and make it work on a regular basis in order to make our legal system more scientific and consistent.在完善各项法律制度的同时，更加注重保障法律制度的有效实施。建立健全工作机制，做好法律法规配套规定制定工作；完善法律解释机制的途径和方法，建立法律解释常态化机制，对需要进一步明确法律规定的具体含义或者法律制定后出现新情况需要明确法律适用依据的，及时作出法律解释；健全备案审查机构，完善备案审查机制，改进备案审查方式，加强对法规、规章、司法解释等规范性文件的备案审查；健全法律法规清理工作机制，逐步实现法律法规清理工作常态化，确保法律体系内在科学和谐统一。
We will work to promote scientific and democratic legislation, and improve legislation quality.We will improve the mechanism whereby NPC deputies are involved in legislation, and bring their role to the full.We will improve motion deliberation system and establish a scientific and democratic examination and voting mechanism.We will explore channels and forms for the public to participate in legislation activities in an orderly manner, improve panel discussions, feasibility study meetings, hearings on legislation and the gathering of public opinion through the publication of draft laws and regulations, and establish and improve the mechanism through which public opinion can be heard and feedback can be given, so as to let legislation reflect the will of the public.We will establish and improve a mechanism featuring feasibility studies before making legislation and evaluation after making legislation, constantly endeavor to make legislation more scientific and reasonable, and further improve the practicality of laws and regulations.深入推进科学立法、民主立法，着力提高立法质量。完善人大代表参与立法工作机制，充分发挥人大代表在立法工作中的作用；完善法律案审议制度，建立健全科学民主的审议和表决机制；探索公众有序参与立法活动的途径和形式，完善立法座谈会、听证会、论证会和公布法律法规草案征求意见等制度，建立健全公众意见表达机制和采纳公众意见的反馈机制，使立法更加充分体现广大人民群众的意愿；建立健全立法前论证和立法后评估机制，不断提高立法的科学性、合理性，进一步增强法律法规的可操作性。Concluding Remarks
Social practice is the foundation of laws, and laws encapsulate practical experience.Social practice is endless, and legislative work should also constantly move forward with the times.Building socialism with Chinese characteristics is a long-term historic task.Improving the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics is also a long-term and arduous historic task, and it must advance in tandem with the practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics.The vitality of laws lies in their enforcement.The formation of the socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics has generally solved the basic problem of having laws for people to follow.Now, the problem of ensuring that laws are observed and strictly enforced and that lawbreakers are prosecuted has become more pronounced and pressing.Therefore, China will take active and effective steps to guarantee the effective enforcement of the Constitution and laws, and accelerate the advance of the rule of law and the building of a socialist country under the rule of law.结束语
社会实践是法律的基础，法律是实践经验的总结、提炼。社会实践永无止境，法律体系也要与时俱进。建设中国特色社会主义是一项长期的历史任务，完善中国特色社会主义法律体系同样是一项长期而又艰巨的任务，必须随着中国特色社会主义实践的发展不断向前推进。
法律的生命力在于实施。中国特色社会主义法律体系的形成，总体上解决了有法可依的问题，对有法必依、执法必严、违法必究提出了更为突出、更加紧迫的要求。中国将积极采取有效措施，切实保障宪法和法律的有效实施，加快推进依法治国、建设社会主义法治国家的进程。
第二篇：白皮书-知识产权保护-中英文对照
白皮书-知识产权保护-中英文对照
中国政府白皮书
中国一贯以负责任的态度积极推动知识产权保护工作，在坚持遵循知识产权国际保护规则的同时，按照国情确定相应的知识产权保护水平，努力平衡知识产权创造者、应用者与社会公众之间的利益关系，使知识产权的创造与应用形成良性循环。
China has always adopted a responsible attitude to actively promoting IPR protection.While adhering to the international rules on IPR protection, China has decided on a level of IPR protection appropriate for its own national situation, and made great efforts to balance the interests among intellectual property creators, users and the general public, so as to create a benign circle for the creation and use of intellectual property.多年来，在全社会的共同努力下，中国保护知识产权取得重大进展。
Major progress has been made on IPR protection in China over the past years thanks to concerted efforts made by people from all walks of life.——建立健全符合国际通行规则、门类比较齐全的法律法规体系。上世纪80年代以来，国家颁布实施了《中华人民共和国专利法》、《中华人民共和国商标法》、《中华人民共和国著作权法》和《计算机软件保护条例》、《集成电路布图设计保护条例》、《著作权集体管理条例》、《音像制品管理条例》、《植物新品种保护条例》、《知识产权海关保护条例》、《特殊标志管理条例》、《奥林匹克标志保护条例》等涵盖知识产权保护主要内容的法律法规，并颁布一系列相关的实施细则和司法解释，使中国知识产权保护的法律法规体系不断趋于完善。为对知识产权实行切实有效的法律保护，2001年中国加入世界贸易组织前后，对知识产权保护相关法律法规和司法解释进行了全面修改，在立法精神、权利内容、保护标准、法律救济手段等方面更加突出促进科技进步与创新的同时，做到了与世界贸易组织《与贸易有关的知识产权协议》以及其他知识产权保护国际规则相一致。
-A relatively complete system of laws and regulations that covers a wide range of subjects and is in line with generally accepted international rules has been established and keeps improving.Since the 1980s, the state has promulgated and put into effect a number of laws and regulations covering the major contents in IPR protection.These include the “Patent Law of the People's Republic of China,” “Trademark Law of the People's Republic of China,” “Copyright Law of the People's Republic of China,” “Regulations on the Protection of Computer Software,” “Regulations on the Protection of Layout Designs of Integrated Circuits,” “Regulations on the Collective Management of Copyright,” “Regulations on the Management of Audio-Video Products,” “Regulations on the Protection of New Varieties of Plants,” “Regulations on the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights by the Customs,” “Regulations on the Protection of Special Signs,” and “Regulations on the Protection of Olympic Logos.” China has also promulgated a series of relevant rules for the implementation of these laws and regulations, and their legal interpretation.As a result, the system of laws and regulations on IPR 1 / 6 白皮书-知识产权保护-中英文对照
protection in China has been continuously improved.In 2001, around the time when China was admitted into the WTO, in order to provide effective legal protection to IPR, the country made comprehensive revisions to the laws and regulations regarding IPR protection and their legal interpretation.While more emphasis is given to promoting the progress of science and technology and innovation with regard to legislative intent, content of rights, standards of protection and means of legal remedy, the revisions brought the laws and regulations into conformity with the WTO's “Agreement on Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights” and other international rules on IPR protection.——建立健全协调、高效的工作体系和执法机制。在知识产权保护实践中，中国形成了行政保护和司法保护“两条途径、并行运作”的知识产权保护模式。在中国，有多个部门分别履行保护知识产权的职能，主要包括国家知识产权局、国家工商行政管理总局、新闻出版总署、国家版权局、文化部、农业部、国家林业局、公安部、海关总署、最高人民法院、最高人民检察院等。多年来，这些部门在各自领域开展了卓有成效的工作。为进一步加大知识产权保护力度，2004年中国成立了以国务院副总理为组长的国家保护知识产权工作组，负责统筹协调全国知识产权保护工作。国家保护知识产权工作组办公室设在商务部，承担工作组日常工作。Administrative law enforcement has been strengthened in IPR protection.As gradual improvements are made in the legal system on IPR protection, China has shifted its focus from legislation to law enforcement.Administrative law enforcement has been enhanced through the combination of routine management and supervision with special crackdown campaigns.In August 2004, the Chinese government decided to launch a special one-year campaign to protect IPR across the country from September 2004 to August 2005.It was decided at the national TV and telephone conference on rectification and standardization of the market economic order convened by the State Council on March 31, 2005 that the campaign was extended to the end of 2005.With unified planning, the relevant departments have investigated and dealt with major IPR infringement cases, focusing on major fields in the protection of trademark rights, copyrights and patent rights, on major links in the import and export of goods, all types of exhibitions and wholesale markets of commodities, and on key places where producers and sellers of counterfeit goods were known to be concentrated.Their 3 / 6 白皮书-知识产权保护-中英文对照
quick action and strict law enforcement efforts have dealt a blow on IPR offenders, achieving positive result
——努力提高全社会的知识产权意识。中国政府高度重视知识产权的宣传普及工作。从2004年开始，国家将每年4月20日至26日确定为“保护知识产权宣传周”，利用报刊、电视、广播、互联网等各种媒体，通过举办研讨会、知识竞赛以及制作公益广告等多种形式，在全社会开展知识产权保护宣传教育活动，形成尊重劳动、尊重知识、尊重人才、尊重创造的良好社会氛围，提高广大公众的知识产权意识。
-Efforts are being made to heighten the awareness of the general public about IPR.The Chinese government attaches great importance to publicity concerning IPR.Beginning in 2004, the state designated the week from April 20 to 26 every year as the “week for publicizing the importance of IPR protection.” By making wide use of newspapers, magazines, television, radio and the Internet, and through holding seminars and knowledge contests, and making public interest advertisements, the government carries out publicity and education among the general public regarding IPR protection.The aim is to create a social atmosphere in which labor, knowledge, talent and creation are respected, and heighten the awareness of the general public regarding IPR.——积极履行知识产权国际保护义务。中国积极参加国际保护知识产权的主要公约和条约。自1980年加入世界知识产权组织后，中国相继加入《保护工业产权巴黎公约》、《专利合作条约》、《国际承认用于专利程序的微生物菌种保藏布达佩斯条约》、《工业品外观设计国际分类洛迦诺协定》、《商标国际注册马德里协定》、《商标注册用商品和服务国际分类尼斯协定》、《商标国际注册马德里协定有关议定书》、《与贸易有关的知识产权协议》、《国际植物新品种保护公约》、《保护文学和艺术作品伯尔尼公约》、《世界版权公约》和《保护录音制品制作者防止未经许可复制其录音制品公约》等10多个国际公约、条约、协定或议定书。-Actively fulfilling the international obligations to protect IPR.China has taken an active approach to joining major international conventions and agreements on IPR protection.Following its accession to the World Intellectual Property Organization in 1980, China joined in succession more than ten international conventions, treaties, agreements and protocols, such as the “Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property,” “Patent Cooperation Treaty,” “Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure,” “Locarno Agreement Establishing an International Classification for Industrial Designs,” “Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks,” “Nice Agreement Concerning the International Classification of Goods and Services for the Purpose of the Registration of Marks,” “Protocol Relating to the Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks,” “Agreement on Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights,” “International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants,” “Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works,” “Universal Copyright Convention,” and “Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication.”
/ 6 白皮书-知识产权保护-中英文对照
在严格履行自身所承担的保护知识产权国际义务的同时，中国积极致力于知识产权保护国际规则的调整与完善，使其有利于世界各国共享科技进步带来的成果和利益。近年来，中国与其他国家、国际组织和外商投资企业在知识产权领域广泛开展对话、交流与合作。应美国提议，从2003年起中美双方每年举行一次知识产权圆桌会议，至今已举办两届，就有关知识产权问题达成了广泛共识。2004年，中欧第一次知识产权对话在北京举行，就有关知识产权合作事宜达成初步意向。中国各有关部门与多个国家的相应机构和世界知识产权组织、国际新品种保护联盟等国际组织也建立了良好的合作关系。2003年9月，中国有关部门建立了与外商投资企业定期沟通协调机制，每季度召开一次会议，听取外商投资企业在知识产权保护方面的意见和建议。
While strictly executing its international obligations in IPR protection, China has devoted great efforts to adjusting and improving international rules regarding IPR protection in order to let all countries of the world share the fruits and benefits brought about by the progress of science and technology.In recent years, China has held talks, and engaged in exchanges and cooperation with other countries, international organizations and foreign-invested enterprises in the field of IPR.At the suggestion of the United States, starting in 2003, China and the US have held a round-table conference on IPR every year, and reached agreement on many IPR-related issues at the two round-table conferences.In 2004, China and Europe held their first round of talks on IPR in Beijing.Initial agreement was reached between the two sides on matters of cooperation related to IPR.Relevant Chinese departments have established good cooperative relations with corresponding departments in several countries, and international organizations such as World Intellectual Property Organization and International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants.In September 2003, a mechanism was established for regular contact and coordination between relevant Chinese departments and foreign-invested enterprises.Under the mechanism, a meeting is held every three months to solicit comments and suggestions from the foreign-invested enterprises on issues related to IPR protection.在扶贫开发的过程中，中国政府坚持以经济建设为中心，发展贫困地区的生产力，走开发式扶贫的道路，通过多种方式和途径，采取综合配套措施，帮助农村贫困人口脱贫。
In carrying out its aid-the-poor program, the Chinese Government has persistently centered its efforts on economic construction, developing the productive forces of poverty-stricken areas, and combining development with relief.It aims at helping the rural poor to shake off poverty through various ways and channels, and by adopting comprehensive coordinative measures.坚持开发式扶贫的方针 Adhering to the Policy of Development-oriented Poverty Alleviation
开发式扶贫是对过去传统的分散救济式扶贫的改革与调整，是中国政府农村扶贫政策的核心和基础。坚持开发式扶贫的方针，就是以经济建设为中心，支持、鼓励贫困地区干部群众改善生产条件，开发当地资源，发展商品生产，增强自我积累和自我发展能力。
/ 6 白皮书-知识产权保护-中英文对照
Providing development-oriented aid to the poor is a reform of and adjustment to the old, traditional way of dispersed relief, forming the core and basis of the Chinese Government's aid-the-rural-poor policy.Adhering to the policy of development-oriented aid means centering efforts on economic construction, supporting and encouraging cadres and ordinary people in poor areas to improve their production conditions, exploit local resources, develop commodity production, and strengthen their ability to accumulate funds and develop by themselves.开发式扶贫方针主要包括五个方面内容：第一，倡导和鼓励自力更生、艰苦奋斗的精神，克服贫困农户中普遍存在的“等、*、要”思想。第二，针对贫困地区基础设施薄弱、抵御自然灾害能力较差的实际情况，国家安排必要的以工代赈资金，鼓励、支持贫困农户投工投劳，开展农田、水利、公路等方面的基础设施建设，改善生产条件。第三，国家安排优惠的扶贫专项贴息贷款，制定相关优惠政策，重点帮助贫困地区、贫困农户发展以市场为导向的种植业、养殖业以及相应的加工业项目，促进增产增收。第四，开展农业先进实用技术培训，提高贫困农户的科技文化素质，增强自我发展能力。第五，扶贫开发与水土保持、环境保护、生态建设相结合，实施可持续发展战略，增强贫困地区和贫困农户的发展后劲。
The policy of development-oriented aid mainly consists of the following five aspects: First, advocating and encouraging the spirit of self-reliance and hard work, and helping poor peasant households overcome the common attitude of “waiting for, relying on and requesting” aid.Second, considering that the poor areas are weak in infrastructure and capability for defense against natural disasters, the state encourages and supports poor peasant households to put labor into the construction of infrastructure, such as farmland, irrigation works and highways, by arranging necessary work-relief funds, so as to improve the conditions for developing production.Third, the state provides concessional loans for special aid items at discounted interest, and formulates preferential policies, centering on helping the poverty-stricken areas and peasant households develop market-oriented crop cultivation, aquiculture and poultry raising and corresponding processing industries, so as to increase production and incomes.Fourth, conducting training in advanced practical agrotechiques, in order to improve poor peasant households' sci-tech and cultural levels, and strengthening their ability to develop by themselves.Fifth, combining development-oriented aid with soil and water conservation, environmental protection and ecological construction, implementing the strategy of sustainable development, and helping poor areas and peasant households enhance their ability to make further progress.6 / 6
第三篇：建设新时代中国特色社会主义法治体系
建设新时代中国特色社会主义法治体系
党的十八届四中全会通过的《关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定》提出，全面推进依法治国要形成五个体系。党的十九大总结了过去五年的工作和历史性变革，提出习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想，明确新时代中国共产党的历史使命。进入了新时代，中国特色社会主义法治体系的五大子体系将承担新的任务。
一是完备的法律规范体系。
在具体表述上，党的十八届四中全会提出要推进科学立法、民主立法。在此基础上，十九大报告又新增了依法立法这一新的要求。特别要注意的是。前不久，2017年11月20日召开的十九届中央全面深化改革领导小组第一次全体会议强调，要根据立法法的有关规定，紧紧围绕提高立法质量这个关键，更好发挥立法在表达、平衡、调整社会利益方面的重要作用，努力使每一项立法都符合宪法精神，反映人民意志得到人民拥护。依法立法是立法必须坚持的基本原则之一。首先要依宪立法；其次要贯彻党的方针政策，使党的主张和人民意志通过法定程序统一起来；最后要规范立法，促进立法内在协调。二是高效的法治实施体系。
包括加强宪法实施，推进合宪性审查工作，维护宪法权威，推进依法行政，严格规范公正文明执法，加大普法力度，建设社会主义法治文化，树立宪法法律至上、法律面前人人平等的法律理念。关于这个问题，前几年提的社会主义法治理念的五句话，已经发展为“宪法法律至上和法律面前人人平等”两句话。而尤其要注意，深化司法体制改革，是建设高效的法治实施体系的核心和重要依托。党的十八大以来，司法体制改革一直就是法治中国建设的重点，甚至被认为是依法治国的突破点。司法改革一直是国家最高层面关注的改革重点。据统计，党的十八届三中全会至十九大之间，习近平总书记先后主持召开了38次中央全面深化改革领导小组会议，其中28次涉及司法体制改革议题，至少审议通过了50个司法体制改革文件。11月20日，习近平总书记又主持召开了十九届中央全面深化改革领导小组第一次全体会议。可以说，司法体制改革已全面展开，各方面都取得了巨大成就，但司法制度本身乃是一个整体，司法体制改革最终的效果要取决于各项改革之间的“综合配套”。基于此，十九大报告特别强调深化司法体制“综合配套改革”。三是严密的法治监督体系。
法治监督体系的重心是加强对公权力的监督。行政权力具有管理事务领域宽、自由裁量权大等特点，法治监督的重点之一就是规范和约束行政权力。党的十八届四中全会《决定》对于行政权力监督列举了监督种类，即“加强党内监督、人大监督、民主监督、行政监督、司法监督、审计监督、社会监督、舆论监督制度建设，努力形成科学有效的权力运行制约和监督体系，增强监督合力和实效”。十九大报告进一步明确了监督的实质内涵，提出了有效的权力监督网络，即“强化自上而下的组织监督，改进自下而上的民主监督，发挥同级相互监督作用，加强对党员领导干部的日常管理监督。深化政治巡视，坚持发现问题、形成震慑不动摇，建立巡视巡察上下联动的监督网。”这样，进一步疏通了监督的制度渠道，强化了监督的实效。为了确保国家监察全覆盖落到实处，十九大报告要求深化监察体制改革，成立监察委员会，制定国家监察法，实现对所有行使公权力的公职人员监察全覆盖。“国家监察委员会就是中国特色的国家反腐败机构，国家监察法就是反腐败国家立法。”四是有力的法治保障体系。
十九大报告特别强调：“党政军民学，东西南北中，党是领导一切的。”“党是最高政治领导力量。”党的领导是中国特色社会主义最本质的特征，是社会主义法治最根本的保证。尤其是，党的十九大提出成立中央全面依法治国领导小组，以此来加强党对法治建设的统一领导。这是十九大报告的一大亮点，也是党中央深化依法治国实践最根本的举措。中央全面依法治国领导小组是对未来全面依法治国最大的组织保障。新时代在法治建设的各个方面、各个环节，都要以中央全面依法治国领导小组的顶层设计为依据。五是完善的党内法规制度体系。
十八届四中全会将“形成完善的党内法规体系”确定为全面推进依法治国总目标的重要内容，强调“党内法规既是管党治党的重要依据，也是建设社会主义法治国家的有力保障”。党的十九大报告指出：“增强依法执政本领，加快形成覆盖党的领导和党的建设各方面的党内法规制度体系，加强和改善对国家政权机关的领导。”十九大修订了《中国共产党章程》；加上十八大以来对一系列党内重要法规诸如《关于新形势下党内政治生活的若干准则》《中国共产党党内监督条例》《中国共产党问责条例》《中国共产党廉洁自律准则》《中国共产党纪律处分条例》等的制定完善，使党的政治建设、思想建设、组织建设、作风建设、纪律建设和反腐败斗争在制度层面得以进一步落实。依规治党、用法治的思维推进全面从严治党所取得的伟大成就，让我们进一步坚信：“办好中国的事情，关键在党，关键在党要管党、从严治党。”新时代要求从党内法规的制定、备案、解释、执行等方面，进一步加强党内法规制度建设；要求从理论和实践层面理顺党内法规和国家法律的关系；同时，对党内法规在从严治党、管党方面的效用进行评估，为修改完善党内法规提供依据。第四篇：“五位一体”的中国特色社会主义法治体系
“五位一体”的中国特色社会主义法治体系
王征国
（中共湖南省委讲师团，湖南 长沙 410011）
[摘 要] “五位一体”的中国特色社会主义法治体系是指：完备的法律规范体系，它坚持以科学立法、民主立法、道德立法为衡量标准；高效的法治实施体系，它以完善立法程序、完善司法制度、完善执政方式等为基本内容；严密的法治监督体系，它包括全国人大的制约监督、行政机关的制约监督、司法机关的制约监督、社会舆论的制约监督、公民的制约监督等各类监督；有力的法治保障体系，它以树立和维护司法权威、实施和促进司法公开、适应和满足法治需求等为重要保障；完善的党内法规体系，它以党规党纪严于国家法律、党内法规体系需要配套完备、制度反腐将成为治本新常态等为前进方向。
[关键词] 法律规范体系 法治实施体系 法治监督体系 法治保障体系 党内法规体系
[作者简介] 王征国（1951-），男，湖南武冈人，中共湖南省委讲师团教授、湖南省创新与方法研究所所长，研究方向为马克思主义哲学。
习近平同志指出：全面推进依法治国，总目标是建设中国特色社会主义法治体系，建设社会主义法治国家，并对这个总目标作出了阐释：即“在中国共产党领导下，坚持中国特色社会主义制度，贯彻中国特色社会主义法治理论，形成完备的法律规范体系、高效的法治实施体系、严密的法治监督体系、有力的法治保障体系，形成完善的党内法规体系，坚持依法治国、依法执政、依法行政共同推进，坚持法治国家、法治政府、法治社会一体建设，实现科学立法、严格执法、公正司法、全民守法，促进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化。” 1 这就是说，全面推进依法治国，已经从“完善法律体系”提升到了“建设法治体系”。“法律”与“法治”仅一字之差，却反映出从静态到动态、从法规到践行的巨大变化。从践行的角度，这个“治”字的精髓和灵魂是把公权力关进制度的笼子里，迫使官员正当行使手中的权力，正确履行法定职责，实现权力和职责的有机统一。官员的法治意识，有利于全社会形成一种自觉守法的风气。而且，“法律体系”也不单是个“完善”的问题，更是个“建设”的问题，即建设“五位一体”的中国特色社会主义法治体系，包括法律规范体系、法治实施体系、法治监督体系、法治保障体系，以及党内法规体系等。
习近平：关于《中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定》的说明，载《人民日报》2014年10月29日，第2版。
一、完备的法律规范体系
2003年3月，吴邦国委员长说：要争取在十一届全国人大任期内，基本形成中国特色社会主义法律体系。2011年3月10日上午，吴邦国代表全国人大常委会在十一届全国人大四次会议举行的第二次全体会议上作报告。他指出：1982年通过了现行宪法，此后又根据客观形势的发展需要，先后通过了4个宪法修正案。到2010年底，我国已制定现行有效法律236件、行政法规690多件、地方性法规8600多件，并全面完成对现行法律和行政法规、地方性法规的集中清理工作。目前，以宪法为核心，以法律为主干，包括行政法规、地方性法规等规范性文件在内的，由七个法律部门、三个层次法律规范构成的中国特色社会主义法律体系已经形成，国家的经济建设、政治建设、文化建设、社会建设以及生态文明建设总体上都已实现了有法可依。然而，形成的法律体系是否得到贯彻落实？现实情况并不令人满意，因为有法不依、法律意识淡薄仍是十分普遍的问题。而形成的法律体系是否需要继续完善？现实仍然给予了肯定性回答，因为当前中国法律法规体系还存在漏洞缺失，社会法治观念还相当淡薄，官员滥用权力时有发生。所以，中共十八届四中全会《决定》强调要“形成完备的法律规范体系”。显然，“完备”性要求比“完善”更进了一步，“法律规范体系”也明显高于“法律体系”。其实，衡量一个社会、一个国家的法律规范体系是否完备，最主要标准是看以下三条：
——科学立法。完备的法律规范体系涉及到人们生活的方方面面，但主要包括两部分：一部分是横向的，个人之间的交往、家庭、婚姻、经济往来，我们通常称之为私法规则，调整的是个人与个人之间的关系。另一部分是公法规则，调整的是国家和个人的关系，它解决个人的自由有多大的范围、国家的权力从何而来、国家的权力如何运行等问题。私法规则强调的是自治，而公法规则强调的是民主、公正、理性。私法不强调理性，可以是非理性的。比如一个女孩子爱上一个男孩子。这个男孩子长得虽然风流，但是感情不专一，不负责，所以在旁人看来，这个女孩子与这个男孩子谈爱是非理性的，但任何人没有干预她嫁给这个男孩子的自由权力。公法的运作不能非理性。这是公法与私法的一个最大的区别。在公法里边更强调程序，更强调怎么体现、怎么保障民主参与、怎么保障科学合理。它的理性化靠程序来保障。因此，要加强党对立法工作的领导，完善党对立法工作中重大问题决策的程序，健全有立法权的人大主导立法工作的体制机制，依法赋予设区的市地方立法权；要完善立法项目征集和论证制度，健全立法机关 主导、社会各方有序参与立法的途径和方式，拓宽公民有序参与立法途径；要加强重点领域立法，加快完善体现权利公平、机会公平、规则公平的法律制度，保障公民人身权、财产权、基本政治权利等各项权利不受侵犯，保障公民经济、文化、社会等各方面权利得到落实；要实现立法和改革决策相衔接，做到重大改革于法有据、立法主动适应改革和经济社会发展需要。
——民主立法。完备的法律规范体系，必须建立在民主的基础之上，尤其是那些事关民生的重要法规。这些年来，我国制定了很多法律法规，但总体上看，我国的立法民主程度是比较低的。我国的立法是专家立法。专家包括两部分，一部分是专家学者，他们了解国外的情况，从事研究。很多法律是出于他们之手，叫专家建议稿。另一类是实务界专家，我把他们叫做技术官僚，包括国务院法制办的从事法制工作的一些官员，包括全国人大从事法制工作的官员，也包括最高法院的一些法官。“官僚”一词是中性的，不是贬义的。他们了解情况。他们参与立法，通过法条把他们认为是正确的东西规定下来。可是广大的民众参与是非常有限的。西方国家的立法有一个重要机制，就是利益团体参与立法的机制。美国有一栋大楼，这个大楼里住了1万多名说客，利益团体的说客，代表各个利益团体向议员们的私人秘书进行立法游说。在美国有535名议员，其中100名参议员，435名众议员。每一个参议员有4个秘书（国家出钱，议员自己去聘）。这些说客们的游说，由议员的秘书们收集整理、分类，并反映给议员。议员们选择其代表的利益团体，并把他们的意见反映在立法之中。在我国，由于利益团体不发达，参与机制不健全，所以主要是专家立法。专家立法的一个弊端是学者们是过于理想，对现实世界把握有限，而工作人员往往容易部门化、个人倾向化（他不受什么制约），所以，有许多法规还存在很多问题。
——道德立法。形成完备的法律规范体系，必须体现人类最低的道德追求，包括程序上的自治、自由的追求，也包括公法上的公正、民主等追求。法治和德治是相辅相成的。法律的背后都有道德的标准。比如不许杀人，背后体现了对人的生命的尊重。所以有人说法律是人类的最低道德要求，而法律的最高追求是道德。纯粹的德治是有缺陷的。德治有两个不足：一是难有统一的标准，不同环境中生长的人道德标准是不一样的。比如制定婚姻法时，在对待婚外恋问题上，年纪大的学者包括各部门的同志都主张对婚外恋进行制裁。但是年纪轻一点的、中年的一些学者，包括各部门的同志对此则持比较暧昧的态度。因为婚外恋是一个很复杂的问题，实际上是人类社会发展的一个副产品。在比较原始的农业时代，3 人们生活的空间有限，一辈子固守一份感情比较容易做得到。在工业时代，一辈子固守一份感情也勉强做得到。到信息时代，社会在飞速的变化，唯独感情自始至终不变，这是不合情理的（除非两个人齐头并进）。凡是经济比较发达的国家都有同样的问题。当然解决的方式不同，美国解决的方式是拜拜；日本解决的方式是婚外恋（日本人婚外恋达70%）；我们国家的婚外恋也很多，道德约束力正在失去。所以，道德标准不能统一，若要统一就统一在法律上。当然道德标准有很多已职业化，比如教师、公务员的职业道德是有严格要求的，而这种道德要求都是带有法律属性的，比如公务员道德标准是由公务员法规定的，律师的道德标准在比较发达的国家也是通过类似立法的形式来规定的。德治的另一个不足就是没有强制力的保障，然而道德立法的强制力就弥补了这个不足。
二、高效的法治实施体系
高效的法治实施体系，以全民守法为目标。要通过在全社会深入开展法治宣传教育,使社会主义法治精神真正进社区、进乡村、进机关、进企业、进学校，并逐步深入人心。要创新法治宣传方式,提高舆论引导能力,抵御错误观点的干扰和影响,让社会公众在学法尊法守法用法中深化对社会主义法治精神的认识和信仰。要坚持依法治国和以德治国相结合,高度重视道德对社会公众的规范作用,大力推进公民道德建设工程,培育知荣辱、讲正气、作奉献、促和谐的文明道德风尚,形成依法维护权利、自觉履行义务的现代公民意识。同时，又要努力完善立法程序、司法制度和执政方式。
——完善立法程序。立法工作好不好，质量高不高，关键是要把握好立法工作是否遵循市场经济规律、政治文明发展规律、法律体系内在规律、立法工作自身规律，严格按照立法程序办事。这就要加强对法条词语运用、法规体例与内容安排等技术问题的研究，在统筹法律法规“立、改、废、编、配”的基础上，实现法律体系的内部和谐。要完善立法规划，加强对立法规划的科学论证，深入调查研究，全面考察立法规划的客观性与可行性。要健全立法立项制度，尽可能改变立项由政府部门主导的现象，从实际需要出发，组织专业人员审查申请立项的立法条件是否成熟，科学编制立法工作计划。要提高立法审议质量，加强法案审议的专业性，适当提高审议人员中专家所占的比例，完善政府立法争议协调制度。要重视立法评估建设，建立健全法律法规实施效果评估机制，并使之规范化、制度化。
——完善司法制度。中国特色社会主义司法制度，是以马克思主义法律观为指导，在充分考虑中国国情，总结我国社会主义司法实践的成功经验，积极吸收人类法治文明优秀成果的基础上建立起来的，是人类法治发展史上的伟大创造，具有鲜明的中国特色。在司法权的来源上，司法权来自人民，属于人民；在司法权的配置上，侦查权、检察权、审判权、执行权既相互制约，又相互配合；在司法权的行使上，审判机关、检察机关既依法独立公正行使职权，又自觉接受党的监督、人大监督、政协监督、群众监督；在司法权的运行方式上，坚持专门机关工作与群众路线相结合，等等。我国社会主义法治建设的实践证明，中国特色社会主义司法制度符合中国国情，顺应了人类社会发展规律和社会主义建设规律，保障促进了中国特色社会主义事业的发展进步。然而，面对人民群众需求变化、刑事犯罪高发、诉讼纠纷大幅度上升的严峻形势，仍然要在改革完善司法工作制度上下功夫、积极探索建立诸如行政审批简化办理机制、轻微案件快速处理机制、扩大简易程序适用范围等机制和办法，简化办案办事程序，提高办案办事效率。
——完善执政方式。全面推进依法治国，关键在“提高党科学执政、民主执政、依法执政水平”。中国共产党依法执政，集中反映了我们党在新形势下治国执政方式的与时俱进和制度创新，突出体现了执政党在领导国家法治建设中的积极性、主动性和创造性，有力巩固了我们党的执政地位、提高了党的执政水平。通过全面推进依法治国，把党的意志和路线方针政策规范化、程序化、法律化，落实到经济、政治、文化、社会和生态文明建设的各个方面和各个环节，是我们党有效应对执政考验、改革开放考验、市场经济考验、外部环境考验以及提高拒腐防变和抵御风险能力的必然要求。而且，法律能否得到有效实施，关键也在党。一方面，各级党组织和全体党员要自觉在宪法和法律范围内活动，带头维护宪法和法律权威，各级领导干部要率先垂范，自觉接受监督，支持各级国家机关及其工作人员依法行使职权，各尽其职地开展法律监督工作；另一方面，也要进一步强化党内纪律检查，切实加强对执法司法活动的监督，确保法律的正确实施。
三、严密的法治监督体系
中共“十五大”以来，我国已经建立起全方位、多层次的有中国特色社会主义的法律制约监督体系。中国共产党的制约监督主要体现在政治领导、纪律检查，特别是对各级党员领导干部的监督。其中，党对政法机关及其执法司法工作的监督是加强党对政法工作领导的重要组成部分，是保证执法公正的重要措施。中国 5 人民政治协商会议的制约监督，是在坚持四项基本原则基础上，通过提出意见、批评、建议等方式进行的政治监督。各民主党派的制约监督，是指在坚持中国共产党领导的前提下，各民主党派可参与国家政权的组成，参与国家法律、法规及重大国策的协商，参与国家事务的管理。社会团体的制约监督，主要是相关社会组织通过批评、建议、申诉、控告、检举和诉诸舆论等方式，制约监督有关权力的运行。为此，严密的法治监督体系以下列各类监督为重要保障。
——全国人大的制约监督。全国人大作为国家权力机关，负责对享有立法权的国家机关的立法活动及其结果的合法性进行监督，主要方式有批准、备案、发回、宣布无效、改变或撤销等。全国人大监督宪法的实施，全国人大常委会监督宪法和法律的实施，有权处理违宪事件，其处理方式包括宣布违宪的法律、法规和其他决定、命令无效，也包括罢免违宪失职的国家领导人。此外，还可以通过听取和审议最高行政机关与司法机关的工作报告，向有关部门提出质询案，对重大问题组织调查委员会进行调查处理等方式，对宪法和法律的实施进行监督。地方各级人大保证宪法和法律在本行政区域内的实施，分别按照权限进行法律监督。各级人民代表大会及其常委会依法对本级人民政府和人民法院、人民检察院进行监督。
——行政机关的制约监督。关键在加强国家行政机关内部自我约束与控制。上级国家行政机关和法律、法规规定的其他机关，根据行政相对人的申请，依法对下级行政机关引起争议的具体行政行为进行复查并作出决定。通过行政复议促进行政机关不断规范行政行为，提高依法行政水平。行政监察机关对国家行政机关及其工作人员和国家行政机关任命的其他人员执行法律、法规、政策和决定、命令的情况以及违法、违纪行为的监督，依法行使检查权、调查权、建议权以及行政处分权。国家审计机关对有关国家机关、财政金融机构、企事业单位的财政财务活动、经济效益、财经法律法规遵守执行情况依法加强检查、审计、评价、鉴证，以保证其真实性、合法性和有效性。同时，国家行政机关运用行政管理职能依法对相关领域社会生活秩序进行检查与监督，以保障法律、法规、规章的执行和行政目标的实现。
——司法机关的制约监督。人民检察院作为国家法律监督机关，依法行使检察权，履行法律监督职能，维护司法公正和法制统一。通过依法查办贪污受贿和渎职侵权犯罪，监督国家机关工作人员的贪污受贿和渎职侵权行为；通过批捕、决定起诉或不起诉等方式，依法监督侦查活动的合法性；通过参与审判活动特别 6 是依法提起抗诉等，监督审判机关审判活动的合法性，同时，对刑事案件判决、裁定的执行和对监狱、看守所的活动及其合法性进行法律监督。人民法院作为审判机关，依法对其系统内部和其他国家机关、社会组织、公民的执法、司法以及守法活动进行法律监督。人民法院内部自上而下的法律监督主要通过审级监督来实现，监督主体是最高人民法院和上级人民法院，其监督通过二审程序、再审程序、核准程序、死刑复核程序等来完成。人民法院通过行政审判，监督国家行政机关及其工作人员的具体行政行为的合法性与执法情况。
——社会舆论的制约监督。公众和新闻舆论对政府及司法工作的监督渠道不断拓宽，质询、问责、经济责任审计、引咎辞职、罢免等制度的日益健全，保证了对国家公务人员的监督有力有效。社会舆论的制约监督，能把国家机关及其工作人员置于社会公众的监督之下，使得他们务必依法审慎行使权力；能把权力行使的规程告知公众，使他们可以依据法律条文来衡量国家机关及其工作人员行使权力的专业水准和职业操守；能把权力行使的过程与结果，通过传媒诉诸社会公众，有利于排除影响权力依法行使的各种干扰因素。当然，社会舆论的制约监督应当是依法、客观公正、建设性的，有利执法司法机关改进执法司法作风，提高执法司法水平。缺乏制约或不当的监督，也会给依法公正行使权力造成负面影响。
——公民的制约监督。我国宪法规定，公民享有参政权、选举权和被选举权，通过各种途径和形式管理国家事务，管理经济、文化和社会事务；公民对任何国家机关和工作人员，有提出批评和建议的权利；对国家机关及其公职人员的违法失职行为有提出申诉、控告或检举的权利，及取得损害赔偿的权利等，这些为公民对国家权力主体进行监督提供了依据、途径和方式。公民的制约监督是对国家管理最直接、最广泛的制约监督方式，只有充分调动和发挥人民群众有序政治参与的积极性，才能确保权力正确行使。正如习近平同志所说：“人民的眼睛是雪亮的，人民是无所不在的监督力量。只有让人民来监督政府，政府才不会懈怠；只有人人起来负责，才不会人亡政息。” 2
四、有力的法治保障体系
法治是一个国家发展的重要保障。“法令行则国治，法令弛则国乱。” 国家治理的一切活动都并入法治的轨道运行，法治政府、创新政府、廉洁政府是打 2习近平：《在庆祝全国人民代表大会成立60周年大会上的讲话》（2014年9月5日），载《人民日报》2014年9月6日，第2版。造现代政府的必由之路，宪法意识、法律观念、法治思维是全社会所有成员必备素质。同时，我们还要注重司法权威是否建立、司法公开是否实施、法治需求是否满足。
——树立和维护司法权威。这就需要各级党组织和各级领导干部带头依法办事，带头依法行政，支持和保障审判机关、检察机关依法独立公正地行使审判权、检察权，支持和帮助司法机关抵御、克服影响公正司法的各种干扰，消除地方保护主义和部门本位主义的影响。要教育广大党员维护宪法和法律的权威，维护社会主义法制的统一、尊严、权威，支持司法机关依法办案、公正司法。要坚持在全社会深入开展法制宣传教育，提高全民法律意识，在全社会形成尊重法律，尊重司法的观念。同时要建立和完善惩戒妨碍司法机关执行公务、拒不执行司法机关依法作出的公正裁决等违法犯罪行为的法律规定。过去人们总是靠“领导批示”解决问题，现在主要靠“律师出面”维护合法权益。
——实施和促进司法公开。司法机关应积极实施和促进司法公开，在司法活动中体现和保障人民当家作主的权利。这主要体现在三个方面： 一是促进司法公开，必须切实尊重和维护人民群众的知情权、参与权、表达权、监督权，以让人民群众看得见、听得懂、感受得到的方式保障司法公正。二是促进司法公开，必须健全依法对当事人公开的各项制度。对当事人公开，应当贯穿于司法活动的全过程。要依法公开司法过程和程序，依法公开案件各个环节和有关信息。对涉及当事人权益的事项，要依法及时告知当事人。司法机关作出决定或裁判，应当及时将决定或裁判的内容、事实和法律根据告知当事人。三是促进司法公开，必须健全依法对社会公开的各项制度。依法公开审理的案件，我国公民可以持有效证件旁听。司法机关也可以有计划地通过相关组织安排群众旁听，邀请人大代表、政协委员旁听案件，增进广大群众、人大代表、政协委员对司法工作的了解。
——适应和满足法治需求。习近平同志反复强调:“坚决纠正违宪违法行为”，“司法权是判断权，司法权是中央事权”,“掌握法治思维和法治方式”等等，这完全是为了适应和满足现实生活对法治的真实需求。对此，复旦法学院院长孙笑侠教授在回答记者提问时说:“当下的中国，法治为何会成为老百姓的口头禅，就是因为法治已成了百姓的真需求，我们需要法治来改变拆迁或城管制度；需要政府把政府权力清单挂在阳光底下；需要政府减少许可审批给市场主体更多自由；需要法治保障投资风险的减少；需要法治来保证每人都不会吃到有毒食物；需要法治保障教育与就业机会的公平；需要法治保障个人意见有正常畅通的渠道 8 和方式得以表达；需要法治来保证自己的官司受到法院公平对待；需要法治来保证自己不被侦查机关任意监控和关押„„”“ 总之，大家意识到推进法治不只是律师和法官们的事，还是企业家、知识人、政治家等社会各界的事，更是事关老百姓人权与民生的事，推行法治成为中国人的真实需求。” 3
五、完善的党内法规体系
党的事业发展，既要求管好党、治好党，又要求建设好党。拥有一套完整的党内法规是我们党的一大政治优势。经过近百年的实践探索，我们党已经形成了包括党章、准则、条例、规则、规定、办法、细则在内的党内法规制度体系。然而，王岐山在十八届中纪委四次全会上指出：与时俱进是我们党的理论品质，要认真总结我们党93年、无产阶级政党100多年、世界政党300多年制度建设理论和实践经验，立足当前、着眼长远，统筹推进党内法规制度建设，确保到建党100周年时，建成内容科学、程序严密、配套完备、运行有效的党内法规制度体系。这就为把从严治党与依法治国结合起来，把党纪与国法之间的“缝隙”衔接起来，找到找准了能够牵动全局的最佳穴位。
——党规党纪严于国家法律。我们社会当中的每个人包括中国共产党党员都要接受国家法律的约束，从这个意义上说国法当然高于党纪。然而，法律只是对每个人的底线要求，如果我们的党员仅局限在遵守国家法律这个底线要求上，那就不能称其为共产党员了。因为中国共产党是中国工人阶级的先锋队、中国人民和中华民族的先锋队，党是肩负神圣使命的政治组织，党员是有着特殊政治职责的公民，理所当然应该接受比普通人更严格的约束。每个申请入党的同志，当面对党旗宣誓时，就成了有组织的人，就意味着主动放弃一部分普通公民享有的权利和自由，就必须多尽一份义务，就要在政治上讲忠诚、组织上讲服从、行动上讲纪律。党的领导干部尤其是高级干部放弃的要更多，责任和担当要更大。如果执政党连自己的党规党纪都守不住、执行不下去，依法治国、依法执政就是一句空话。党员违反党纪就必须受到纪律审查，接受组织处理，切实做到以严的标准要求党员、严的措施管住干部。2014年初，中央组织部文件规定“裸官”不得在五类岗位任职，各省区市据此展开了“裸官”整治和调岗专项行动，“迁徙自由”虽然是公民权利，但是鉴于“裸官”的贪腐风险，党规党纪作出了严于法律的规定。随后，中纪委在通报官员的调查处理结果时，多次采用“与他人通奸” 3 郭涛涛：《依宪治国将成依法治国核心》，载《第一财经日报》（上海）2014年10月9日，第B06版。的表述。现行刑法等相关法律并未对“与他人通奸”作出规范，但《中国共产党纪律处分条例》有明确规定。可见，党纪严于国法。不过，党规党纪严于国家法律，并不是说党规党纪可以凌驾于国法之上，相反，更要注重党内法规同国家法律的有机衔接，更要把党纪限制在党内而不能超出其适用范围。
——党内法规体系需要配套完备。党内法规既是管党治党的重要依据，也是建设社会主义法治国家的有力保障。党章规定了党的理想信念、宗旨意识、组织保障、行为规则、纪律约束等基本内容，全党必须一体严格遵行。每一名党员都要无条件地履行党章规定的义务，遵守党的纪律。各级党组织要切实把党章作为指导党的工作、党内活动、党的建设的根本依据。党员干部要树立党的观念，学习党章、遵守党章、贯彻党章、维护党章，加强党性修养，切实维护党章的严肃性和权威性。当前，党内法规制度建设理论研究相对薄弱，对党规党纪的历史渊源、地位作用、体例形式、产生程序等均需系统研究、予以确定；有的党规党纪与国家法律交叉重复，有的过于原则、缺乏细节支撑，可操作性不强，亟待完善。我们要根据《中国共产党党内法规制定条例》和《中央党内法规制定工作五年规划纲要（2013—2017年）》的要求，完善党内法规制定体制机制，加大党内法规备案审查和解释力度，形成配套完备的党内法规制度体系，运用党内法规把党要管党、从严治党落到实处，促进党员、干部带头遵守国家法律法规。要着重规范党的政治纪律、组织纪律，做到要义明确、简明易懂、便于执行。要求真务实、循序渐进，先从提出工作要求入手，探索实践、不断总结，成熟后再上升为制度。要将党的纪律检查体制改革的实践成果固化为制度，修订《中国共产党党员领导干部廉洁从政若干准则》、《中国共产党纪律处分条例》、《中国共产党巡视工作条例（试行）》等，不断完善党风廉政建设和反腐败工作相关党规党纪和法律法规。
——制度反腐将成为治本新常态。回顾新中国成立以来我国相继采取的反腐形式，大多党纪政纪缺少与其配套的具体规定，在实际操作中缺乏强制性和约束力。2010年发布的反腐白皮书首次明确，我国反腐败和廉政建设的职能机构，主要有中国共产党纪律检查机关、国家司法机关、政府监察机关和审计机关以及国家预防腐败局。但是，在实际运作中，各机构的协同配合还不尽如人意，存在“龙多不治水”的问题。检察机关是国家查处职务犯罪的专门机关，拥有其他部门所不具备的办案手段，但在查办案件的过程中，由于介入过晚，往往造成当事人家属或其他同伙销毁证据、转移财产，从而错失最佳办案时机。大量的廉政法 10 规表现为“严禁”或“不准”等禁止性规定，但对于由谁或什么机构来负责执行，缺乏明确的规定，对于违反禁令如何处理却缺乏具体的规定。2013年全国“两会”期间，国家最高权力机关首次公布“反腐立法时间表”。除了源头立法，在认真研究国外境外反腐败法律、法规的基础上，启动综合性国家反腐败法的制定工作也很有必要。值得注意的是，伴随着2013年8月我国首部预防腐败地方法规在广东省汕头市的实施，一场反腐立法的“探路”已在地方层面悄然铺开。中共十八届四中全会以依法治国为主题，其中不少议题都和当前反腐、治腐工作紧密相关。中央纪委四次全会紧随其后召开，有利于尽快“坐实”运用法治思维反腐的理念，推进十八大之后的铁腕反腐从“治标”向“治本”过渡，制度反腐将成为治本新常态。
第五篇：“五位一体”的中国特色社会主义法治体系
“五位一体”的中国特色社会主义法治体系
“五位一体”的中国特色社会主义法治体系
王征国
（中共湖南省委讲师团，湖南 长沙 410011）
[摘 要] “五位一体”的中国特色社会主义法治体系是指：完备的法律规范体系，它坚持以科学立法、民主立法、道德立法为衡量标准；高效的法治实施体系，它以完善立法程序、完善司法制度、完善执政方式等为基本内容；严密的法治监督体系，它包括全国人大的制约监督、行政机关的制约监督、司法机关的制约监督、社会舆论的制约监督、公民的制约监督等各类监督；有力的法治保障体系，它以树立和维护司法权威、实施和促进司法公开、适应和满足法治需求等为重要保障；完善的党内法规体系，它以党规党纪严于国家法律、党内法规体系需要配套完备、制度反腐将成为治本新常态等为前进方向。
[关键词] 法律规范体系 法治实施体系 法治监督体系 法治保障体系 党内法规体系
[作者简介] 王征国（1951-），男，湖南武冈人，中共湖南省委讲师团教授、湖南省创新与方法研究所所长，研究方向为马克思主义哲学。
习近平同志指出：全面推进依法治国，总目标是建设中国特色社会主义法治体系，建设社会主义法治国家，并对这个总目标作出了阐释：即“在中国共产党领导下，坚持中国特色社会主义制度，贯彻中国特色社会主义法治理论，形成完备的法律规范体系、高效的法治实施体系、严密的法治监督体系、有力的法治保障体系，形成完善的党内法规体系，坚持依法治国、依法执政、依法行政共同推进，坚持法治国家、法治政府、法治社会一体建设，实现科学立法、严格执法、公正司法、全民守法，促进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化。” [1]这就是说，全面推进依法治国，已经从“完善法律体系”提升到了“建设法治体系”。“法律”与“法治”仅一字之差，却反映出从静态到动态、从法规到践行的巨大变化。从践行的角度，这个“治”字的精髓和灵魂是把公权力关进制度的笼子里，迫使官员正当行使手中的权力，正确履行法定职责，实现权力和职责的有机统一。官员的法治意识，有利于全社会形成一种自觉守法的风气。而且，“法律体系”也不单是个“完善”的问题，更是个“建设”的问题，即建设“五位一体”的中国特色社会主义法治体系，包括法律规范体系、法治实施体系、法治监督体系、法治保障体系，以及党内法规体系等。
一、完备的法律规范体系 2003年3月，吴邦国委员长说：要争取在十一届全国人大任期内，基本形成中国特色社会主义法律体系。2011年3月10日上午，吴邦国代表全国人大常委会在十一届全国人大四次会议举行的第二次全体会议上作报告。他指出：1982年通过了现行宪法，此后又根据客观形势的发展需要，先后通过了4个宪法修正案。到2010年底，我国已制定现行有效法律236件、行政法规690多件、地方性法规8600多件，并全面完成对现行法律和行政法规、地方性法规的集中清理工作。目前，以宪法为核心，以法律为主干，包括行政法规、地方性法规等规范性文件在内的，由七个法律部门、三个层次法律规范构成的中国特色社会主义法律体系已经形成，国家的经济建设、政治建设、文化建设、社会建设以及生态文明建设总体上都已实现了有法可依。然而，形成的法律体系是否得到贯彻落实？现实情况并不令人满意，因为有法不依、法律意识淡薄仍是十分普遍的问题。而形成的法律体系是否需要继续完善？现实仍然给予了肯定性回答，因为当前中国法律法规体系还存在漏洞缺失，社会法治观念还相当淡薄，官员滥用权力时有发生。所以，中共十八届四中全会《决定》强调要“形成完备的法律规范体系”。显然，“完备”性要求比“完善”更进了一步，“法律规范体系”也明显高于“法律体系”。其实，衡量一个社会、一个国家的法律规范体系是否完备，最主要标准是看以下三条： ——科学立法。完备的法律规范体系涉及到人们生活的方方面面，但主要包括两部分：一部分是横向的，个人之间的交往、家庭、婚姻、经济往来，我们通常称之为私法规则，调整的是个人与个人之间的关系。另一部分是公法规则，调整的是国家和个人的关系，它解决个人的自由有多大的范围、国家的权力从何而来、国家的权力如何运行等问题。私法规则强调的是自治，而公法规则强调的是民主、公正、理性。私法不强调理性，可以是非理性的。比如一个女孩子爱上一个男孩子。这个男孩子长得虽然风流，但是感情不专一，不负责，所以在旁人看来，这个女孩子与这个男孩子谈爱是非理性的，但任何人没有干预她嫁给这个男孩子的自由权力。公法的运作不能非理性。这是公法与私法的一个最大的区别。在公法里边更强调程序，更强调怎么体现、怎么保障民主参与、怎么保障科学合理。它的理性化靠程序来保障。因此，要加强党对立法工作的领导，完善党对立法工作中重大问题决策的程序，健全有立法权的人大主导立法工作的体制机制，依法赋予设区的市地方立法权；要完善立法项目征集和论证制度，健全立法机关主导、社会各方有序参与立法的途径和方式，拓宽公民有序参与立法途径；要加强重点领域立法，加快完善体现权利公平、机会公平、规则公平的法律制度，保障公民人身权、财产权、基本政治权利等各项权利不受侵犯，保障公民经济、文化、社会等各方面权利得到落实；要实现立法和改革决策相衔接，做到重大改革于法有据、立法主动适应改革和经济社会发展需要。
——民主立法。完备的法律规范体系，必须建立在民主的基础之上，尤其是那些事关民生的重要法规。这些年来，我国制定了很多法律法规，但总体上看，我国的立法民主程度是比较低的。我国的立法是专家立法。专家包括两部分，一部分是专家学者，他们了解国外的情况，从事研究。很多法律是出于他们之手，叫专家建议稿。另一类是实务界专家，我把他们叫做技术官僚，包括国务院法制办的从事法制工作的一些官员，包括全国人大从事法制工作的官员，也包括最高法院的一些法官。“官僚”一词是中性的，不是贬义的。他们了解情况。他们参与立法，通过法条把他们认为是正确的东西规定下来。可是广大的民众参与是非常有限的。西方国家的立法有一个重要机制，就是利益团体参与立法的机制。美国有一栋大楼，这个大楼里住了1万多名说客，利益团体的说客，代表各个利益团体向议员们的私人秘书进行立法游说。在美国有535名议员，其中100名参议员，435名众议员。每一个参议员有4个秘书（国家出钱，议员自己去聘）。这些说客们的游说，由议员的秘书们收集整理、分类，并反映给议员。议员们选择其代表的利益团体，并把他们的意见反映在立法之中。在我国，由于利益团体不发达，参与机制不健全，所以主要是专家立法。专家立法的一个弊端是学者们是过于理想，对现实世界把握有限，而工作人员往往容易部门化、个人倾向化（他不受什么制约），所以，有许多法规还存在很多问题。
——道德立法。形成完备的法律规范体系，必须体现人类最低的道德追求，包括程序上的自治、自由的追求，也包括公法上的公正、民主等追求。法治和德治是相辅相成的。法律的背后都有道德的标准。比如不许杀人，背后体现了对人的生命的尊重。所以有人说法律是人类的最低道德要求，而法律的最高追求是道德。纯粹的德治是有缺陷的。德治有两个不足：一是难有统一的标准，不同环境中生长的人道德标准是不一样的。比如制定婚姻法时，在对待婚外恋问题上，年纪大的学者包括各部门的同志都主张对婚外恋进行制裁。但是年纪轻一点的、中年的一些学者，包括各部门的同志对此则持比较暧昧的态度。因为婚外恋是一个很复杂的问题，实际上是人类社会发展的一个副产品。在比较原始的农业时代，人们生活的空间有限，一辈子固守一份感情比较容易做得到。在工业时代，一辈子固守一份感情也勉强做得到。到信息时代，社会在飞速的变化，唯独感情自始至终不变，这是不合情理的（除非两个人齐头并进）。凡是经济比较发达的国家都有同样的问题。当然解决的方式不同，美国解决的方式是拜拜；日本解决的方式是婚外恋（日本人婚外恋达70%）；我们国家的婚外恋也很多，道德约束力正在失去。所以，道德标准不能统一，若要统一就统一在法律上。当然道德标准有很多已职业化，比如教师、公务员的职业道德是有严格要求的，而这种道德要求都是带有法律属性的，比如公务员道德标准是由公务员法规定的，律师的道德标准在比较发达的国家也是通过类似立法的形式来规定的。德治的另一个不足就是没有强制力的保障，然而道德立法的强制力就弥补了这个不足。
二、高效的法治实施体系
高效的法治实施体系，以全民守法为目标。要通过在全社会深入开展法治宣传教育,使社会主义法治精神真正进社区、进乡村、进机关、进企业、进学校，并逐步深入人心。要创新法治宣传方式,提高舆论引导能力,抵御错误观点的干扰和影响,让社会公众在学法尊法守法用法中深化对社会主义法治精神的认识和信仰。要坚持依法治国和以德治国相结合,高度重视道德对社会公众的规范作用,大力推进公民道德建设工程,培育知荣辱、讲正气、作奉献、促和谐的文明道德风尚,形成依法维护权利、自觉履行义务的现代公民意识。同时，又要努力完善立法程序、司法制度和执政方式。
——完善立法程序。立法工作好不好，质量高不高，关键是要把握好立法工作是否遵循市场经济规律、政治文明发展规律、法律体系内在规律、立法工作自身规律，严格按照立法程序办事。这就要加强对法条词语运用、法规体例与内容安排等技术问题的研究，在统筹法律法规“立、改、废、编、配”的基础上，实现法律体系的内部和谐。要完善立法规划，加强对立法规划的科学论证，深入调查研究，全面考察立法规划的客观性与可行性。要健全立法立项制度，尽可能改变立项由政府部门主导的现象，从实际需要出发，组织专业人员审查申请立项的立法条件是否成熟，科学编制立法工作计划。要提高立法审议质量，加强法案审议的专业性，适当提高审议人员中专家所占的比例，完善政府立法争议协调制度。要重视立法评估建设，建立健全法律法规实施效果评估机制，并使之规范化、制度化。
——完善司法制度。中国特色社会主义司法制度，是以马克思主义法律观为指导，在充分考虑中国国情，总结我国社会主义司法实践的成功经验，积极吸收人类法治文明优秀成果的基础上建立起来的，是人类法治发展史上的伟大创造，具有鲜明的中国特色。在司法权的来源上，司法权来自人民，属于人民；在司法权的配置上，侦查权、检察权、审判权、执行权既相互制约，又相互配合；在司法权的行使上，审判机关、检察机关既依法独立公正行使职权，又自觉接受党的监督、人大监督、政协监督、群众监督；在司法权的运行方式上，坚持专门机关工作与群众路线相结合，等等。我国社会主义法治建设的实践证明，中国特色社会主义司法制度符合中国国情，顺应了人类社会发展规律和社会主义建设规律，保障促进了中国特色社会主义事业的发展进步。然而，面对人民群众需求变化、刑事犯罪高发、诉讼纠纷大幅度上升的严峻形势，仍然要在改革完善司法工作制度上下功夫、积极探索建立诸如行政审批简化办理机制、轻微案件快速处理机制、扩大简易程序适用范围等机制和办法，简化办案办事程序，提高办案办事效率。
——完善执政方式。全面推进依法治国，关键在“提高党科学执政、民主执政、依法执政水平”。中国共产党依法执政，集中反映了我们党在新形势下治国执政方式的与时俱进和制度创新，突出体现了执政党在领导国家法治建设中的积极性、主动性和创造性，有力巩固了我们党的执政地位、提高了党的执政水平。通过全面推进依法治国，把党的意志和路线方针政策规范化、程序化、法律化，落实到经济、政治、文化、社会和生态文明建设的各个方面和各个环节，是我们党有效应对执政考验、改革开放考验、市场经济考验、外部环境考验以及提高拒腐防变和抵御风险能力的必然要求。而且，法律能否得到有效实施，关键也在党。一方面，各级党组织和全体党员要自觉在宪法和法律范围内活动，带头维护宪法和法律权威，各级领导干部要率先垂范，自觉接受监督，支持各级国家机关及其工作人员依法行使职权，各尽其职地开展法律监督工作；另一方面，也要进一步强化党内纪律检查，切实加强对执法司法活动的监督，确保法律的正确实施。
三、严密的法治监督体系
中共“十五大”以来，我国已经建立起全方位、多层次的有中国特色社会主义的法律制约监督体系。中国共产党的制约监督主要体现在政治领导、纪律检查，特别是对各级党员领导干部的监督。其中，党对政法机关及其执法司法工作的监督是加强党对政法工作领导的重要组成部分，是保证执法公正的重要措施。中国人民政治协商会议的制约监督，是在坚持四项基本原则基础上，通过提出意见、批评、建议等方式进行的政治监督。各民主党派的制约监督，是指在坚持中国共产党领导的前提下，各民主党派可参与国家政权的组成，参与国家法律、法规及重大国策的协商，参与国家事务的管理。社会团体的制约监督，主要是相关社会组织通过批评、建议、申诉、控告、检举和诉诸舆论等方式，制约监督有关权力的运行。为此，严密的法治监督体系以下列各类监督为重要保障。
——全国人大的制约监督。全国人大作为国家权力机关，负责对享有立法权的国家机关的立法活动及其结果的合法性进行监督，主要方式有批准、备案、发回、宣布无效、改变或撤销等。全国人大监督宪法的实施，全国人大常委会监督宪法和法律的实施，有权处理违宪事件，其处理方式包括宣布违宪的法律、法规和其他决定、命令无效，也包括罢免违宪失职的国家领导人。此外，还可以通过听取和审议最高行政机关与司法机关的工作报告，向有关部门提出质询案，对重大问题组织调查委员会进行调查处理等方式，对宪法和法律的实施进行监督。地方各级人大保证宪法和法律在本行政区域内的实施，分别按照权限进行法律监督。各级人民代表大会及其常委会依法对本级人民政府和人民法院、人民检察院进行监督。
——行政机关的制约监督。关键在加强国家行政机关内部自我约束与控制。上级国家行政机关和法律、法规规定的其他机关，根据行政相对人的申请，依法对下级行政机关引起争议的具体行政行为进行复查并作出决定。通过行政复议促进行政机关不断规范行政行为，提高依法行政水平。行政监察机关对国家行政机关及其工作人员和国家行政机关任命的其他人员执行法律、法规、政策和决定、命令的情况以及违法、违纪行为的监督，依法行使检查权、调查权、建议权以及行政处分权。国家审计机关对有关国家机关、财政金融机构、企事业单位的财政财务活动、经济效益、财经法律法规遵守执行情况依法加强检查、审计、评价、鉴证，以保证其真实性、合法性和有效性。同时，国家行政机关运用行政管理职能依法对相关领域社会生活秩序进行检查与监督，以保障法律、法规、规章的执行和行政目标的实现。
——司法机关的制约监督。人民检察院作为国家法律监督机关，依法行使检察权，履行法律监督职能，维护司法公正和法制统一。通过依法查办贪污受贿和渎职侵权犯罪，监督国家机关工作人员的贪污受贿和渎职侵权行为；通过批捕、决定起诉或不起诉等方式，依法监督侦查活动的合法性；通过参与审判活动特别是依法提起抗诉等，监督审判机关审判活动的合法性，同时，对刑事案件判决、裁定的执行和对监狱、看守所的活动及其合法性进行法律监督。人民法院作为审判机关，依法对其系统内部和其他国家机关、社会组织、公民的执法、司法以及守法活动进行法律监督。人民法院内部自上而下的法律监督主要通过审级监督来实现，监督主体是最高人民法院和上级人民法院，其监督通过二审程序、再审程序、核准程序、死刑复核程序等来完成。人民法院通过行政审判，监督国家行政机关及其工作人员的具体行政行为的合法性与执法情况。
——社会舆论的制约监督。公众和新闻舆论对政府及司法工作的监督渠道不断拓宽，质询、问责、经济责任审计、引咎辞职、罢免等制度的日益健全，保证了对国家公务人员的监督有力有效。社会舆论的制约监督，能把国家机关及其工作人员置于社会公众的监督之下，使得他们务必依法审慎行使权力；能把权力行使的规程告知公众，使他们可以依据法律条文来衡量国家机关及其工作人员行使权力的专业水准和职业操守；能把权力行使的过程与结果，通过传媒诉诸社会公众，有利于排除影响权力依法行使的各种干扰因素。当然，社会舆论的制约监督应当是依法、客观公正、建设性的，有利执法司法机关改进执法司法作风，提高执法司法水平。缺乏制约或不当的监督，也会给依法公正行使权力造成负面影响。
——公民的制约监督。我国宪法规定，公民享有参政权、选举权和被选举权，通过各种途径和形式管理国家事务，管理经济、文化和社会事务；公民对任何国家机关和工作人员，有提出批评和建议的权利；对国家机关及其公职人员的违法失职行为有提出申诉、控告或检举的权利，及取得损害赔偿的权利等，这些为公民对国家权力主体进行监督提供了依据、途径和方式。公民的制约监督是对国家管理最直接、最广泛的制约监督方式，只有充分调动和发挥人民群众有序政治参与的积极性，才能确保权力正确行使。正如习近平同志所说：“人民的眼睛是雪亮的，人民是无所不在的监督力量。只有让人民来监督政府，政府才不会懈怠；只有人人起来负责，才不会人亡政息。” [2]
四、有力的法治保障体系
法治是一个国家发展的重要保障。“法令行则国治，法令弛则国乱。” 国家治理的一切活动都并入法治的轨道运行，法治政府、创新政府、廉洁政府是打造现代政府的必由之路，宪法意识、法律观念、法治思维是全社会所有成员必备素质。同时，我们还要注重司法权威是否建立、司法公开是否实施、法治需求是否满足。
——树立和维护司法权威。这就需要各级党组织和各级领导干部带头依法办事，带头依法行政，支持和保障审判机关、检察机关依法独立公正地行使审判权、检察权，支持和帮助司法机关抵御、克服影响公正司法的各种干扰，消除地方保护主义和部门本位主义的影响。要教育广大党员维护宪法和法律的权威，维护社会主义法制的统一、尊严、权威，支持司法机关依法办案、公正司法。要坚持在全社会深入开展法制宣传教育，提高全民法律意识，在全社会形成尊重法律，尊重司法的观念。同时要建立和完善惩戒妨碍司法机关执行公务、拒不执行司法机关依法作出的公正裁决等违法犯罪行为的法律规定。过去人们总是靠“领导批示”解决问题，现在主要靠“律师出面”维护合法权益。
——实施和促进司法公开。司法机关应积极实施和促进司法公开，在司法活动中体现和保障人民当家作主的权利。这主要体现在三个方面：一是促进司法公开，必须切实尊重和维护人民群众的知情权、参与权、表达权、监督权，以让人民群众看得见、听得懂、感受得到的方式保障司法公正。二是促进司法公开，必须健全依法对当事人公开的各项制度。对当事人公开，应当贯穿于司法活动的全过程。要依法公开司法过程和程序，依法公开案件各个环节和有关信息。对涉及当事人权益的事项，要依法及时告知当事人。司法机关作出决定或裁判，应当及时将决定或裁判的内容、事实和法律根据告知当事人。三是促进司法公开，必须健全依法对社会公开的各项制度。依法公开审理的案件，我国公民可以持有效证件旁听。司法机关也可以有计划地通过相关组织安排群众旁听，邀请人大代表、政协委员旁听案件，增进广大群众、人大代表、政协委员对司法工作的了解。
——适应和满足法治需求。习近平同志反复强调:“坚决纠正违宪违法行为”，“司法权是判断权，司法权是中央事权”,“掌握法治思维和法治方式”等等，这完全是为了适应和满足现实生活对法治的真实需求。对此，复旦法学院院长孙笑侠教授在回答记者提问时说:“当下的中国，法治为何会成为老百姓的口头禅，就是因为法治已成了百姓的真需求，我们需要法治来改变拆迁或城管制度；需要政府把政府权力清单挂在阳光底下；需要政府减少许可审批给市场主体更多自由；需要法治保障投资风险的减少；需要法治来保证每人都不会吃到有毒食物；需要法治保障教育与就业机会的公平；需要法治保障个人意见有正常畅通的渠道和方式得以表达；需要法治来保证自己的官司受到法院公平对待；需要法治来保证自己不被侦查机关任意监控和关押……”“总之,大家意识到推进法治不只是律师和法官们的事，还是企业家、知识人、政治家等社会各界的事，更是事关老百姓人权与民生的事，推行法治成为中国人的真实需求。” [3]
五、完善的党内法规体系
党的事业发展，既要求管好党、治好党，又要求建设好党。拥有一套完整的党内法规是我们党的一大政治优势。经过近百年的实践探索，我们党已经形成了包括党章、准则、条例、规则、规定、办法、细则在内的党内法规制度体系。然而，王岐山在十八届中纪委四次全会上指出：与时俱进是我们党的理论品质，要认真总结我们党93年、无产阶级政党100多年、世界政党300多年制度建设理论和实践经验，立足当前、着眼长远，统筹推进党内法规制度建设，确保到建党100周年时，建成内容科学、程序严密、配套完备、运行有效的党内法规制度体系。这就为把从严治党与依法治国结合起来，把党纪与国法之间的“缝隙”衔接起来，找到找准了能够牵动全局的最佳穴位。
——党规党纪严于国家法律。我们社会当中的每个人包括中国共产党党员都要接受国家法律的约束，从这个意义上说国法当然高于党纪。然而，法律只是对每个人的底线要求，如果我们的党员仅局限在遵守国家法律这个底线要求上，那就不能称其为共产党员了。因为中国共产党是中国工人阶级的先锋队、中国人民和中华民族的先锋队，党是肩负神圣使命的政治组织，党员是有着特殊政治职责的公民，理所当然应该接受比普通人更严格的约束。每个申请入党的同志，当面对党旗宣誓时，就成了有组织的人，就意味着主动放弃一部分普通公民享有的权利和自由，就必须多尽一份义务，就要在政治上讲忠诚、组织上讲服从、行动上讲纪律。党的领导干部尤其是高级干部放弃的要更多，责任和担当要更大。如果执政党连自己的党规党纪都守不住、执行不下去，依法治国、依法执政就是一句空话。党员违反党纪就必须受到纪律审查，接受组织处理，切实做到以严的标准要求党员、严的措施管住干部。2014年初，中央组织部文件规定“裸官”不得在五类岗位任职，各省区市据此展开了“裸官”整治和调岗专项行动，“迁徙自由”虽然是公民权利，但是鉴于“裸官”的贪腐风险，党规党纪作出了严于法律的规定。随后，中纪委在通报官员的调查处理结果时，多次采用“与他人通奸”的表述。现行刑法等相关法律并未对“与他人通奸”作出规范，但《中国共产党纪律处分条例》有明确规定。可见，党纪严于国法。不过，党规党纪严于国家法律，并不是说党规党纪可以凌驾于国法之上，相反，更要注重党内法规同国家法律的有机衔接，更要把党纪限制在党内而不能超出其适用范围。
——党内法规体系需要配套完备。党内法规既是管党治党的重要依据，也是建设社会主义法治国家的有力保障。党章规定了党的理想信念、宗旨意识、组织保障、行为规则、纪律约束等基本内容，全党必须一体严格遵行。每一名党员都要无条件地履行党章规定的义务，遵守党的纪律。各级党组织要切实把党章作为指导党的工作、党内活动、党的建设的根本依据。党员干部要树立党的观念，学习党章、遵守党章、贯彻党章、维护党章，加强党性修养，切实维护党章的严肃性和权威性。当前，党内法规制度建设理论研究相对薄弱，对党规党纪的历史渊源、地位作用、体例形式、产生程序等均需系统研究、予以确定；有的党规党纪与国家法律交叉重复，有的过于原则、缺乏细节支撑，可操作性不强，亟待完善。我们要根据《中国共产党党内法规制定条例》和《中央党内法规制定工作五年规划纲要（2013—2017年）》的要求，完善党内法规制定体制机制，加大党内法规备案审查和解释力度，形成配套完备的党内法规制度体系，运用党内法规把党要管党、从严治党落到实处，促进党员、干部带头遵守国家法律法规。要着重规范党的政治纪律、组织纪律，做到要义明确、简明易懂、便于执行。要求真务实、循序渐进，先从提出工作要求入手，探索实践、不断总结，成熟后再上升为制度。要将党的纪律检查体制改革的实践成果固化为制度，修订《中国共产党党员领导干部廉洁从政若干准则》、《中国共产党纪律处分条例》、《中国共产党巡视工作条例（试行）》等，不断完善党风廉政建设和反腐败工作相关党规党纪和法律法规。
——制度反腐将成为治本新常态。回顾新中国成立以来我国相继采取的反腐形式，大多党纪政纪缺少与其配套的具体规定，在实际操作中缺乏强制性和约束力。2010年发布的反腐白皮书首次明确，我国反腐败和廉政建设的职能机构，主要有中国共产党纪律检查机关、国家司法机关、政府监察机关和审计机关以及国家预防腐败局。但是，在实际运作中，各机构的协同配合还不尽如人意，存在“龙多不治水”的问题。检察机关是国家查处职务犯罪的专门机关，拥有其他部门所不具备的办案手段，但在查办案件的过程中，由于介入过晚，往往造成当事人家属或其他同伙销毁证据、转移财产，从而错失最佳办案时机。大量的廉政法规表现为“严禁”或“不准”等禁止性规定，但对于由谁或什么机构来负责执行，缺乏明确的规定，对于违反禁令如何处理却缺乏具体的规定。2013年全国“两会”期间，国家最高权力机关首次公布“反腐立法时间表”。除了源头立法，在认真研究国外境外反腐败法律、法规的基础上，启动综合性国家反腐败法的制定工作也很有必要。值得注意的是，伴随着2013年8月我国首部预防腐败地方法规在广东省汕头市的实施，一场反腐立法的“探路”已在地方层面悄然铺开。中共十八届四中全会以依法治国为主题，其中不少议题都和当前反腐、治腐工作紧密相关。中央纪委四次全会紧随其后召开，有利于尽快“坐实”运用法治思维反腐的理念，推进十八大之后的铁腕反腐从“治标”向“治本”过渡，制度反腐将成为治本新常态。
[1]习近平：关于《中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定》的说明，载《人民日报》2014年10月29日，第2版。[2]习近平：《在庆祝全国人民代表大会成立60周年大会上的讲话》（2014年9月5日），载《人民日报》2014年9月6日，第2版。
[3]郭涛涛：《依宪治国将成依法治国核心》，载《第一财经日报》（上海）2014年10月9日，第B06版。
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