第一篇：打印修改------浅谈拉威尔音乐作品的融合性(毕业论文初稿)
拉威尔音乐作品中的民族风格分析
——以《西班牙狂想曲》和《鹅妈妈》为例
中 文 摘 要
莫里斯·拉威尔是19世纪末、20世纪初法国音乐史上承前启后的重要作曲家之一，也是法国民族乐派的重要作曲家之一。作为一位杰出的管弦乐配器大师和钢琴家，拉威尔一生创作了许多优秀的作品。在其作品中，都不乏对西班牙、法国以及其他国家民族音乐元素的运用。他的早期作品接近印象主义风格，之后，在追寻法国更古老的音乐传统以及在对法国古典、浪漫主义音乐法则的综合把握中，想成了独特的民族艺术风格。
对拉威尔音乐作品中民族风格的分析，不但能够细致的了解拉威尔的独特音乐风格，更能对拉威尔乃至19世纪末20世纪初的音乐，尤其是民族音乐有更加宏观的认识，这些分析对进一步诠释拉威尔的音乐作品以及在以后的教学上都有重要意义。关键词：拉威尔；民族风格；《西班牙狂想曲》；《鹅妈妈》组曲
前言
19世纪末20世纪初，法国所存在的各种思潮因其稳定的背景而异常活跃。不同的文化领域，都产生新的新式。其中象征艺术的文学和绘画最早风行于法国。这时，音乐的创作，不可避免的的受其影响，也产生了巨大的变化。在法国历史上占据了重要位置便是法国民族音乐的复兴，法国音乐的复兴对印象主义音乐产生发展起了重要的推动作用。
20世纪初的艺术虽然是对古典音乐、传统音乐写作手法的一种颠覆，但对民族民间的音乐元素保留浓厚的兴趣，不论是本国民间民歌还是中国，俄罗斯的等东方的民族音乐元素，都会吸收到他们所创作的音乐中，是创作的必要因素之一。
莫里斯·拉威尔作为这一时期杰出的作曲家之一，也在创作中添加了大量的民族音乐元素，表现出他对各国民族音乐的喜爱，尤其对法国和西班牙的音乐的音乐更是钟爱，他的任何一部音乐作品几乎都会涉及到民族民间音乐元素，例如在《西班牙狂想曲》中大量的使用西班牙的舞曲节奏，在音乐会狂想曲《茨冈》中用到了匈牙利的民间音调，在《鹅妈妈》组曲中用到中国的传统的五声调式等等，这些都使得他的作品表现出浓厚的异国情调。
一、拉威尔及法国民族乐派概述
法国作曲家莫里斯·拉威尔（Manirce Ravel 1875—1937）在1875年3月7日生于法国南部靠近西班牙的山区小城西布勒（Ciboure）一个工程师家庭。父亲是瑞士人，母亲是西班牙人，在他的创作中，经常会出现法国和西班牙的民族音乐元素。拉威尔 的父亲虽然是个平民工程师，但对艺术极度热爱，拥有非常丰富的音乐知识，有极高的音乐修养。在对拉威尔的音乐教育上也是非常重视的，并努力培养拉威尔成为钢琴家。可以说，父亲是拉威尔音乐道路上的启蒙老师。拉威尔曾这样评价其父亲：“音乐修养比大多数音乐爱好者要高得多，他知道怎样开发我对音乐的兴趣，怎样在恰当的时机激发我对音乐的热情”。在充满艺术氛围与宽松自如的环境中，拉威尔如鱼得水的吸收着各种各样的音乐元素，为他多样性的民族音乐创作打下坚实的基础。
俗话说：“民族的就是世界的。”这句话在音乐中也同样适用，如果音乐在创作中脱离了属于他的民族，那么即使这样创作出来的音乐也是没有灵魂的，无法打动人心的，无论在何时何地，无论在任何国家，音乐都是有其民族性的。在西方音乐的历史长河中，民族音乐的位置是至关重要的。同根源的民族拥有着共同的的文化和艺术，民族主义通常带有着爱国之心，人们将自己的感情通过音乐或文学传达出来。从音乐的角度上来看，民族音乐家所创作的作品都是为了振兴本民族的音乐，他们把民间音乐素材融入到作品中，现实的生活，民族的历史为创作题材，对自己民族的深厚感情和爱国之情为主要表达内容。当时法国民族音乐的复兴运动进行的轰轰烈烈，将法国音乐的发展推向了一个历史性的高潮。圣—桑、弗朗克、弗莱、丹弟等作为民族音乐复兴运动的先行者，为后来的音乐家们开辟了新的创作视野。拉威尔和德彪西在他们的基础上继续对法国传统音乐推陈出新。他们吸收传统音乐的精髓，又对固有的条条框框进行开拓、创新，形成一种新的形式。他们吸收本国民族音乐所特有的风格特点，将古老传统的格里高利圣咏歌和巴洛克时期的音乐放进所创作的音乐中，东方民族，西班牙，匈牙利，法国和俄罗斯等现代民歌音乐元素也在音乐中与古老的传统形式相结合。这就形成了拉威尔独有的民族音乐风格。
法国民族音乐主要的代表人物是德彪西和拉威尔，在他们的作品中不难发现一些具有法国、西班牙民歌或者是其他国家民间音乐的元素。“所有有创造力的艺术家都和他的民族有着切不断的联系，也都有属于自己的创作原则。”值得一提的是，其他国家的民族音乐元素，如西班牙的舞蹈音乐，俄罗斯民族音乐，美国黑人音乐，爵士乐等等同样受到音乐家的重视，取材于此用带有法国特有的音乐创作手法来创作，吸收进自己的音乐中。法国民族乐派的音乐家更偏爱描写生活场景和大自然的景物而不是重大事件，历史人物等却极少涉及。在拉威尔看来，民族音乐元素是至关重要不可或缺的，在他的作品中无论是钢琴作品还是管弦乐作品，民族民间音乐可以说是无处不在。
二、影响拉威尔民族风格形成的因素
拉威尔爱好广泛，喜爱各种各样的艺术，不论是音乐，诗歌还是绘画他都很有兴趣。古典的与新型的，本国的与异的他都一并接受。创新，他音乐创作中的一大特色，在他的创作中，连当下流行的音乐元素都能够被发现，作品呈现风格也是多样化的。同时，拉威尔非常有理智，虽然敏感，但却极有主见。外界的变化几乎不会影响他自己的想法。他的性格决定了其音乐作品，作品采用整体构思和逻辑向思维，结构精准，逻辑严密。
巴黎是拉威尔成长和学习的地方，法国传统音乐元素早已在无形中
扎根于拉威尔的心理。拉威尔认为“艺术作品是作曲家独特意识的产物，他是无法摆脱他的民族传统的约束的”法兰西民族音乐的特点，柔美雅致，精制线条都成为了拉威尔音乐创作的依据。
福雷是拉威尔在巴黎音乐学院的作曲老师，他对拉威尔的影响可以说是最大的一位。福雷的一生都致力于发展法国音乐，同时也是法国民族音乐学会的创作者和领导人。拉威尔所具有的古典作曲规则功底，是从他老师福雷那里学到的。温和的语言，含蓄的表达风格，并不刺骨的批判讽刺，是福雷的风格，同时拉威尔也巧妙地借鉴模仿老师对于民族民间音乐元素的运用，把其运用到自己的音乐中。这也是其音乐创作的一大特色。福雷给拉威尔充分的空间让其发展，并且支持其创新创作。拉威尔对这位老师充满了敬爱之情，那首著名的钢琴作品《水之嬉戏》便是其送给恩师福雷的。
夏布里埃，是另一位对拉威尔影响重大的法国组曲家。夏布里埃的音乐也是特色十足，传统和创新元素都可以在他的音乐创作中找到。拉威尔称其为“法国现代音乐的鼻祖”。夏布里埃创造了法国式的和声，在全音阶中将调式音乐与和声统一。这种新的和声形式的出现为拉威尔的音乐创作仿佛打开了另一扇窗户，继承与发展的大胆创新，进一步的丰富了法国音乐。拉威尔的音乐创作里有着夏布里埃的影子，他的早期钢琴作品也是模仿其特殊的音乐风格的，《古风》和夏布里埃的《牧歌》如出一辙，清澈见底，如诗如画的意境让人陶醉。
艺术联盟是拉威尔和瑞卡多·维涅两人在1902年发起，自称“捣蛋帮”（Societe Des Apaches）。是对有创新精神的艺术家进行支持的团体。每当其中的人有创作或是有新的想法时，成员们都会相互鼓励，进项研究和讨论并且支持其创新精神。这在一定程度上也帮拉威尔开阔视野，拓宽了他的音乐研究的道路。当时，俄罗斯和西班牙的音乐让拉威尔沉醉其中，他把这些充满异国情调的音乐元素放到他的创作里，使其
作品充满了奇异的异国色彩。管弦乐曲《西班牙狂想曲》就是在这种情况下产生的。浓厚的异域色彩越来越多的出现在曲子中掩盖了传统的元素。
三、拉威尔音乐作品中的民族风格分析
拉威尔的作品中重视对民间音乐的运用，如“法国、匈牙利的民间音调和节奏；古老的巴斯克民间音调；吉普赛人而热情的音乐；东方音乐特别是对其母亲的故乡西班牙的音乐更为熟悉和喜爱，”在其作品中，都不乏对这些音乐元素的运用。
（一）以《西班牙狂想曲》为例
狂想曲（Rhasody）这个名词，源于古希腊的史诗咏吟者，他们用乐器伴奏歌唱或朗诵，后来在专业创作中是指以民歌曲调为主题而发展的器乐幻想曲。大多数“狂想曲”是以缓慢的民歌曲调为基础进行变奏，又与宣叙调的段落和快速的民间舞曲段落相对比，音乐富于民间特色。十九世纪以后，狂想曲运用民族民间音乐素材进行发挥，结构较自由，具有史诗风格和民族色彩的器乐独奏或管弦乐曲，多具有鲜明的民族色彩和叙事性段落。
《西班牙狂想曲》是拉威尔1907年创作的一部管弦乐作品，当时正是作者创作精力旺盛、技术成熟的时期，他将富于魅力的民间音乐融化在自己独特的风格中，并在配器手法上大胆而成功地进行创造，生动的描绘了西班牙生活风俗场面。全曲由四个乐章组成：《夜的前奏曲》、《马拉加舞曲》、《哈巴涅拉舞曲》和《市集》。“这是他作品中唯一一部专为管弦乐构思，而不是在一定程度上潜伏在作曲家头脑中的某种朦胧的、未成形的计划构思的作品”。1908年3月15日这部作品在巴黎首演，据说当时大厅的保守派发出嘲弄的声音，学生和
穷人却报以热烈的掌声，他们向那些不理解音乐的高贵听众喊到：“你们这些人，如果这首乐曲是瓦格纳写的，你们一定会喝彩。”西班牙作曲大师法雅对这部作品的评价平息了这场争论：“这首狂想曲让人吃惊的是通过运用我们西班牙的流行音乐的调式和装饰音型，他所表现出来的纯粹的西班牙特性丝毫没有被作曲家的风格所改变。”许多听众认为这部作品是无与伦比的，它以如画般的手法描绘出浓郁的西班牙气氛和西班牙精神，具有鲜明的西班牙情趣。这部作品是作曲家第一部成功的管弦乐作品，在作曲家的创作生涯中占有十分重要的地位。
1、夜的前奏曲（第一乐章）
“夜的前奏曲”是一首以持续反复的四音动机为基础写成的别具一格的西班牙夜曲，这个主导动机（有时简化为三个音）在小提琴、中提琴和大提琴的各个音区，在木管乐器法国号和钢片琴上始终不断地反复着，并同3/4拍子的基本
构成一种交错节奏。
而在这背景上则可以看到个别音调或简短动机呈现——这是西班牙民间音乐的歌曲与舞曲样式的概括，它有时是忧郁的冥想主题，带有几乎觉察不出的东方色彩，现有两个现有两个单簧管相隔八度奏出： 谱例5
而有时则完全是典型的西班牙旋律进行，像这样的旋律模式，我们在作者的《西班牙时钟》中、在德彪西的《格拉纳达之夜》和其他作品中都长可看到： 谱例6
这些乐句以其阿拉伯式花纹，增添了乐曲所要体现的那充满温柔和倦意的南国之夜的神秘气氛。
2、马拉加舞曲（第二乐章）
“马拉加舞曲”原是西班牙南部安达卢西亚省马拉加地区的一种很有力的凡旦戈舞曲，常带有即兴性的歌唱，通常为3/8拍，速度为“适当中速”。拉威尔运用这一题材写成了这首篇幅短小、色彩艳丽、技术新颖的乐曲。他将这首舞曲一改通常所用的3/8拍，采用了3/4拍，使得音乐更加自由，而速度则适当要求轻快（Assezvif）。
在该乐章的前段，这首马拉加舞曲保持着典型的舞曲形式，例如：其中三拍子的活跃进行，伴奏中富有特点的节奏以及三小节构成的一单元的结构等。谱例7
作者把马拉加舞曲的这个三小节的舞蹈性动机，放在低音提琴隆隆作响的低音区，因而
带有一种神秘和警觉的意味，而在这多次反复的音型之上的乐队变奏（木管乐器上几近于滑奏的流畅音阶和其他一些简短的旋律），又显得十分轻快，几乎带有虚幻的色彩。但是，随后出现一个带有朗诵调特点的舞蹈旋律： 谱例8
之后，音乐的速度随即转快，主题从b小调移入升g小调，显得比前便更加有力，这个主题只有属和弦构成。值得注意的是，这主题只有属和弦构成，这是西班牙舞蹈音乐富有特点的手法之一。乐曲的中段出现由英国管的独奏乐句，这是一种热烈的冥想性独白，情绪有点抑郁，同前面的活跃激烈形成对比： 谱例9：
英国管的简短叙述才刚开始，前一首“夜曲”的四音动机便蓦地出现，并立即把音乐带入最后一段。现在，英国管的旋律被长笛和 单簧管半音下行的急速乐句所取代，马拉加舞曲的固定动机在低音弦乐器中又隐约可闻，最后音乐在十分轻柔的气氛中淡然消失。
3、哈巴涅拉舞曲（第三乐章）
“哈巴涅拉” 是起源于古巴哈瓦那的一种较慢的二拍子舞曲，19世纪中叶传入西班牙，在西班牙有很大发展，而且广泛流传到欧洲各国，在法国也引起很多作曲家的兴趣。此曲是最早写出的一个乐章，作曲家在将其收入进《西班牙狂想曲》时，连一个音符也没改变可见这首乐曲非常精致并富有浓郁的西班牙风格。
谱例10
3、市集（第四乐章）
“市集”即“民间节日”，具有西班牙舞曲风格的辉煌的环线乐曲，情绪热烈、活跃，用民间音乐的节奏和旋律模式写成，它的巨大的篇幅组成了民间节日市集上的喧闹、欢乐的生动画面。
这首乐曲从短笛从C大调的属音（G音）上编织的快捷音型开始，在这一背景上，有长笛奏出一个奇特而美丽的舞蹈性动机，少顷又转到单簧管声部，与此同时，好像作为这个动机的一种反响，从弦乐低声部也两次出现某种不明显的神秘音响——这是节日的喧嚣声，但这是他只是从远处传来，一切还显得相当朦胧而柔和。谱例11
（二）以《鹅妈妈》组曲为例
儿童组曲《鹅妈妈》法国作曲家拉威尔的《鹅妈妈》组曲，原来是四手联弹钢琴组曲，是一部名副其实的儿童组曲 — 采用儿童题材、为儿童创作、供儿童演奏的组曲。采用儿童题材 — 内容取材于法国作家贝洛（1628—1703）、奥努瓦夫人（约1650—1705）和 博蒙夫人（1711—1780）的童话；为儿童创作这部组曲是1909年拉威尔为他的好朋友哥台勃斯基的两个孩子创作的，并把这部作品献给了他们；供儿童演奏——1910年4月，这部组曲在巴黎独立音乐协会的一次音乐会上初次演出时，担任钢琴四手联弹的是六岁的韦尔热尔和十岁的拉米。《鹅妈妈》作为一部地道的儿童组曲，似乎只差作曲者不是儿童了。但拉威尔告诉我们：“我写这部组曲，目的是要唤起童年时代的诗意，因此手法就必须单纯，一切表面的效果只好摒弃不用。”可见作曲家也是怀着一颗童心来创作的。
1911年，拉威尔把《鹅妈妈》改编为管弦乐组曲，后来又加上了两个乐章，改变
了各乐章的次序，并用间奏曲把它们贯串起来，成为舞剧音乐。舞剧由拉威尔根据贝洛等的鹅妈妈故事编剧，让娜·于加尔编舞，1912月首演于巴黎。
《鹅妈妈》组曲共有五首乐曲，并都带有小标题，这些乐曲中都不同的加入了民族音调和节奏。
1、帕凡舞曲
帕帆舞，又称之为孔雀舞，Pavane（或称之为pavan），是一种16世纪（文艺复兴时期）欧洲盛行的缓慢双宫廷舞步，由许多对双人舞者组成一个队列，2/2拍，舞步缓慢而庄重。通常帕帆舞会与盖里尔舞（Galliard.）配对演出。近代作曲家亦采用此舞曲进行创作，如福雷的《帕凡》，拉威尔的《悼念公主的帕凡舞曲》，沃恩·威廉斯的《约伯》（job）中的帕凡舞曲。
在该曲的第一首乐曲“森林中睡美人的帕凡舞曲”中，使用了古老的帕凡舞曲。这支舞曲很简短，共有十二小节，它的速度缓慢，旋律融合了法国民间音调和巴斯克族音调，出了三个半音的进行之外，几乎都是自然音进行，有五声音阶的倾向，他那柔顺而倦慵的旋律具有摇篮曲的特点： 谱例12
这只小调旋律在管乐器声部传递，有时同法国号的旋律相交织，充满温柔的诗意，又略带忧郁之感。这首乐曲通《为已故小公主而写的帕凡舞曲》属于同一题材。
2、萨拉班德舞曲
萨拉班德是西欧古老舞曲之一种。据传16世纪初由波斯传入西班牙。16世纪后期传入法国演变成速度缓慢而庄重的舞曲。17世纪前半叶起，常见于德国古组曲，为其中四首固定舞曲的第三首。三拍，第二拍时值较长为其特色。两段体结构，速度缓慢，气氛庄重，是古典组曲中四首固定舞曲中的第三首。
该曲的第五首乐曲，“仙境般的花园”中，使用了萨拉班德舞曲，这段舞曲音乐是剧情发展到王子出现时响起的一段音乐，这段音乐的语言格外的简洁，整首乐曲几乎全在自然音
阶的音列之中，乐曲是从弦乐合奏开始的，它的节奏便是古老的萨拉班德舞曲。下面这一段是用独奏小提琴和钢片琴奏出的一段主体： 谱例13
这段舞曲的的出现是剧中王子来到仙境时，安谧的花园的写照，同时也显示了作者富于诗意的心境。
3、中国五声调式
五声调式是中国特有的名族调式，音阶一般是12356，拉威尔一直以来对遥远的东方的音乐充满了好奇感，所以在第三首乐曲“瓷偶女皇蕾德隆娜”中作者为了表现瓷偶的能歌善舞，他选用了所谓“古典”的升F大调调性，以便用黑键来演奏中国的的五声音阶旋律来表现想象中的玩偶王国。谱例14
三、拉威尔民族音乐风格总结
拉威尔在艺术上有其独到的见解，他说：“严格地说，我不是一个„现代作曲家‟，因为我的音乐远不是一场„ 革命‟，而只是一种„进化‟。虽然我对音乐中的新思潮一向是虚怀若谷、乐于接受的，但我从未企图摒弃已为人们公认的和声作曲规则。相反，我经常广泛地从一些大师身上吸取灵感(我从未中止过对莫扎特的研究)，我的音乐大部分建立在过去时代的传统上，并且是它的一个自然的结果。我可不是一个擅长于写那种过激的和声与乱七八糟的对位的„现代作曲家‟，因为我从来不是任何一种作曲风格的奴隶。我也从未与任何特定的乐派结盟。”
拉威尔认为在艺术上的“倾向”和“民族性”是不会让音乐家抛弃自己的民族意识，而音乐家创作的根源正是来自于民族。将具有民族风格的题材，节奏，旋律，调式等作为引子放入音乐创作中，形成了属于自己特点的音乐，这边是拉威尔在音乐中所追求的民族性效果。
拉威尔不但大力弘扬法国本土民族音乐，还对其他国家的民族音乐有着浓厚的兴趣，像是西班牙民间音乐，俄罗斯民间音乐，还有东方国家的民族民间音乐。正是因为这样，他所写的旋律优美动听，充满异国情调，就像是民歌一样通俗易懂，在民间大受欢迎，流传甚广。
民族音乐中的舞曲也是拉威尔特别感兴趣的题材，法国小步舞曲，西班牙马拉加舞曲，波罗来舞曲，美国爵士舞等都能在他的音乐作品中找到身影。特别是节奏，无趣的节奏多变动感，成了拉威尔的重要取材部分。其次感兴趣的是各个国家的民间歌曲，拉威尔曾写了许多异国民歌。这些都彰显了拉威尔对本国的热爱，对异国民间歌曲的热爱。
节奏，对位，和声，配器等多个音乐创作的领域里都可以发现拉威尔的两个特征——精湛的技巧和让人难以预料。拉威尔的思想和他的高超技巧站在同一条线上，就是因为他的思考才会写出这么有高品位的的作品。他的作品不但丰富了印象主义音乐还给人们以启迪。拉威尔音乐中那迷人的旋律也要归功于他对民族民间音乐和异国音乐的热爱，将这些民族音乐元素和拉威尔的创新形式相融合，所作出的乐曲也是火花四溅。拉威尔自己认为“我不是某一派别”，他是一位创新大师，完美平衡力的天才，他的多元化的音乐对法国乃至世界的音乐都有着深远的影响。
结语
拉威尔一生坚持的原则是博采众长，正如《新格罗夫音乐辞典》所说：“学习研究前辈的作品是拉威尔创作实践的关键”，他喜欢传统的东西，也喜爱新的东西，只要是对自己创作有有利的，他都加以借鉴，从而形成自己独特的民族艺术风格。
拉威尔以自己的方式回归传统，又开拓创新，在作品中表现出两个极点的完美结合。在早期，拉威尔的音乐受到印象主义思潮的影响;但从后来的发展来看，他逐渐摆脱了印象主义的美学思想的约束，写出了一些形象清晰、生动，色调明朗，在艺术上有许多创造并给后人以启迪和影响的作品。他的音乐，是以法国的音乐文化为基础的，融合其他民族音乐文化并以自己的方式加以创新。因此，拉威尔的音乐作品在法国乃至世界音乐史上占有重要地位。
参考文献
[1][美]唐纳德·杰·格劳特：《西方音乐史》[M],人民音乐出版社，1996(1)。[2]沈旋 粱晴 王丹丹 ：《音乐史导学》[M]，上海音乐出版社，2008(1)。
[3]冯志平：《西方音乐史与名作赏析》[M],上海音乐出版社，2008(1)。[4]张式谷 潘一飞：《西方钢琴音乐概论》[M] 人民音乐出版社 ,2006(2)。[5]于润洋：《西方音乐史》[M]，上海音乐出版社，2006(3)。[6]杨民望：《世界名曲欣赏》[M]，上海音乐出版社，1987(2)。[7]林逸聪：《音乐圣经》[M]，华夏出版社，2000(1)。
[8]李翔宇：《印象派音乐之德彪西与拉威尔风格比较》[J]，艺术探索，2008（03）。[9]刘菁媛：《最精确的瑞士钟表匠》，[J]，科技创新导报，2008（18）。.
第二篇：毕业论文修改
分类号
UDC
单位代码
1166
1密 级
公开
学
号
2009402034
四川民族学院
学士学位论文
高中英语词汇教学的探析
(初稿)
论文作者：
周均梅 指导教师：
学科专业：
研究方向：
提交日期：
2013年
月
日
中 国 康定
English Department
Sichuan University for Nationalities
Analysis of Lexical Teaching in Senior High Schools
by ZHOU Jun-mei
A Thesis
Submitted to the English Department In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement For the Degree of B.A.in English
Sichuan University For Nationalities May 2013 Thesis Supervisor:
高中英语词汇教学的探析
摘要
爱玛在高中英语词汇教学中，传统的教学模式给老师的授课和学生的学习带来很多问题。致力于语言教学的国内外学者普遍认为词汇知识在语言运用和篇章理解方面有着至关重要的作用。自新课改以来，大多数中学都采用了新思路和新的教学方法，就本文的问卷调查来看，其成果不可忽视。该文章意在遵循新课改的要求，探析英语词汇教学中的规律和方法，主要从三个方面进行阐述：其一，新课改下,英语词汇教学的现状，从正反两方面分析，提出问题。其二，.英语词汇教学应遵循的规律，着重研究词汇教学中应注意的单词固有规律、学生生理与心理特点以及学生的记忆规律。其三，针对英语词汇教学探究的教学方法，具体有语境记单词教学法，以及对所学单词的复现和运用。
关键词：语词汇教学;注意因素;有效方法
i
Analysis of Lexical Teaching in Senior High Schools
Abstract
In terms of vocabulary teaching in senior high school, the traditional pattern has caused lots of problems to both the teachers and students.The domestic and abroad scholars, devoted to language teaching, generally believe that lexical knowledge is pretty crucial for the use of language and the comprehension of writings.Since the New English Curriculum, innovative ideas and teaching methods are introduced in most senior high.From the survey I conducted, the achievement it has got can’t be ignored.Based on the New English Curriculum, this essay aims at exploring the rules and approaches in vocabulary teaching, and it can be divided into three parts: first, the recent situation of words teaching under the reform.Both the positive and negative sides are presented, and key questions are put forward.Second, the rules one should obey, namely, words’ rules, students’ characteristics on physiology and psychology, and the memory law.Last but not least, some practible ways on this topic, like using contexts together with any other methods(such as roots, affix, and derivative terms), phonetic teaching, classification and utilization of words, and combination of related words, are provided.Key words: vocabulary teaching；factors；effective methods
ii
Acknowledgements
Here I owe the most sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Ms Xiao who leads me to finish this article.I thank her for her endless patience towards me and smart guide in mentality.She impressed the definition of teaching methods on me, and let me know that what I write must be practical and effective.Based on this, a survey among students seems a must.Therefore, I appreciate those friends who helped me finish the survey among freshmen in Southwest Petroleum University.As far as I am concerned, it is tough work to convince the freshmen to believe this is an innocent survey.Obviously, this investigation is very critic to my essay.And I thank them to analyze the questionnaire.I’ll also grateful to my classmates, because they gave me appropriate suggestions, and recommended me many useful books.As to some parts of my essay, they raised very meaningful questions and shared their opinions with me, which benefited my article a lot.Thus I realize that my essay have to be referred to the real situation in the class of senior high schools, the objective of the New English Curriculum, and some rules teachers need to obey.Last but not least, I thank my family very much.During my stay at school, they encourage me all the way, and provide me with careful care and sufficient money.What’s more, they are my inexhaustible.iii
Contents 中文摘要……………………………………………………………………………i Abstract………………..………………………………………………….………ii Acknowledgements..………………………………………………………….iii Introduction………………………………………………………… …………..1 Chapter One The present situation of lexical teaching in Senior High schools.........................................................................................3 1.1 Definition Positive phenomena are showed: teaching approaches of teachers and study methods of students are both improved.......................3 1.2 Negative aspects: unavoidable problems exist…………………………4 1.3 Questions are put forward…………………………………………………..5 Chapter Two The rules and factors that teachers should obey during their teaching……………………………………………….6 2.1.The rules and factors that teachers should obey during their teaching………………………………………………………………………….…6 2.1.1 The rules in vocabulary itself………….………………………… …… ….6 2.1.2 The factors of students’ physiology and psychology……………………..8 2.1.3 Teaching procedures should be in line with the memory law...................9 2.2 Feasible teaching approaches on English lexicon………………………9 2.2.1 The importance of the context and extra-curriculum reading……………9 2.2.2.Using the context as a medium to convey multiple effectual lexical teaching approaches……………………………………………………………….11 2.2.3 Activities to help remembering words……………………………… ……14 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………....15
Bibliography….………………………………………………….… ……………16 Appendix A….………………………………………………….… …………......17 Appendix B….………………………………………………….… ……………..19
ii
Analysis of Lexical Teaching in Senior High Schools
Introduction
Since 20 century 70s, with the further researches into acquisition of language, we can recognize clearly that the mastery of vocabulary is quite crucial for language understanding and language output(Wang Jing，2009:11).The famous linguist Wilkins said: ―Without grammar, we can hardly express something;while without words, we can not express anything.‖（Wilkins D.A.，1972:85）So if one wants to learn a language well, the most basic thing he needs to do is learn words.While in traditional teaching pattern, teachers usually teach words solely.That is: they teach students to read new words, and give students the meanings, some collocations, and then ask them to remember.That is force-feeding method of teaching，aiming at increasing the quantity of words, not the quality of words’ output.As a result, students will be in a state of ―passive‖, very negative and lack interest, to some extent.Successful learning is forged out of learners’ motive and impulse, compiling methods of studying materials , interesting ,etc（He Keyong,2002:334）.There is no doubt that teachers are supposed to respect students’ emotion and interest, to obey the memory law.Besides, most words have not only a single meaning, and they are connected with other words and phrases closely.Quite a few linguists consider that teachers can not teach vocabulary solely.They should provide concrete context and typical sentences to teach, classify words due to meanings, expand interrelated words(synonyms, antonym, hyponymy),adopt topic inductions(based on a certain topic, students are going to imagine other words and collocations), and also conduct ways of roots、derivatives and compound words.But vocabulary is the sign of one’s thought, we learn and use them constantly because they can convey some meaning, and offer us ideas(He Keyong, 2002:344).To have a solid knowledge of learned words, students should practice them in real situations, and promote ability of using them.There is also another thing we should pay attention to that among the information we have forgotten, 80% is acquired at the first time of learning, and we lost it within 24 hours, after which the forgetting rate will decline(Li Guanyi, 2007:8).Besides observing this rule ,students also need remember the words repeatedly and regularly.Moreover ,as a teacher, presiding students actively output vocabulary rightly by using communicating principles of teaching is necessary In this essay ,I intend to discuss some factors influencing results of teaching and effective teaching methods for vocabulary, coming up with an approach of putting new words in contexts , and then students can think out their own ways to quicken and fortify their memory, such as working in groups to show special ways of remembering words ,using roots and derivatives.Chapter One The present situation of lexical teaching in Senior High schools.1.1 Positive phenomena are showed: teaching approaches of teachers and study methods of students are both improved.The modern education of China focuses on students’ quality education, and promotes their all-around ability.In line with this objective, the New English Curriculum was conducted at the beginning of 21 century, aiming at upgrading students’ mind, lighten their study burden, and make them more skillful in practice.In terms of the reform, the English teachers are required to plan the classes fit for the traits of teenagers’ physiology and psychology, linguistic rules of acquiring linguistics, in order to meet different needs of students.The questionnaire conducted among the freshmen(whose hometown is Chengdu)in Southwest Petroleum University this year, is named ―Questionnaire on how the Senior High students study English and remember English words‖(It is abbreviated as ―Questionnaire‖ in the following contents).From questions 11-14 in the Questionnaire, one can judge that English teachers have noticed that students play an most important role during lexical teaching, so that they have been adopting a series of effective approaches to present new looks in class:
To introduce cooperative and inquiry learning process, and lessen students’ study burden to give more time and space. To change the dubious and sole way of explaining and extending vocabulary, to practice the learnt words in certain contexts, and to set scenes to use them. To adopt new and interesting ways(the Natural Approach/ Total Physical Response/ the Silent Way/Audio-lingual Method, etc.)based on students’ features. To apply multimedia which gather pictures/sound/letters/ video together besides the basic teaching device like chalks and blackboards, thus make the word
teaching more vivid and direct, and making the students more impressive on what the teacher imparts.While teachers’ aim is not to teach knowledge but methods, thus drawing out their study potential, achieving the goal of teaching.During the New English Curriculum, students’ study is more and more drew our attention.Among the Questionnaire, questions 6、8、11、17、24、26、27、30、31 have showed that: They have realized that they themselves are the master of study;therefore they summarize effective approaches of learning and remembering vocabulary and discuss their doubts actively. They are exploring the rules of study constantly, classify the words which are similar in pronunciation, spelling, meaning, or have opposite meaning;they are also engaged in analyzing lexical roots, the speech, derivation and collocation.Then they can easily form a memory system. Besides applying what they have learned in practice, students use their spare time to learn extracurricular material, enriching their mind.From these phenomena we can conclude that the lexical teaching methods of Senior High schools in Chengdu are efficient to some extent.However, there are also many aspects need improving because there are some unavoidable problems.1.2 Negative aspects: unavoidable problems exist
The New English Curriculum is certainly a kind of reform, and it can be more effective in exploiting students’ potential and interest in applying the knowledge, which adapts to the social development better.Nevertheless, the solutions are always accompanied with problems.The reform helps to promote, while it never can achieve its goal in a short of time.The traditional lexical teaching still prevails among the Senior High schools, which means not that all the traditional ways are useless, but one needs to remove its bad ones.From questions 1、15、19、28 , one can conclude some drawbacks: The teacher, as a leading factor, and the textbook, as a classroom center unscientifically dominate the whole class, making students have little time and
chance to think and participate. The teachers teach nonstandard pronunciation, causing students’ difficulties in listening and communication;the teacher imparts words solely without any context and explains words simply, causing students’ great troubles in translation and comprehension. The teacher goes against the memory law because he/ she doesn’t lead students to do review, and rarely put them in use. The teacher seldom expand the words to other usage except in the book, making students can’t master and use them flexibly.These problems led to some ―problem students‖.From questions 3, 4, 5,7,25, one can get the following troubles of the students. Most students are quite reliable on their teachers, short of perseverance, can’t review the learnt vocabulary regularly actively, and don’t look up words in dictionaries. Most students have got used to the teacher acting as a leading factor in class, reciting words repeatedly in order to pass exams. Students can use what they have remembered to solve practical problems, and can’t flexibly understand the words in other contexts and scenes.1.3 Questions are put forward.These negative sides are not produced in one day, and they are brought by the traditional teaching which has profound origins.That’s to say, we can’t handle them in one moment.It is the specific situations that one takes in account to reform the previous teaching selectively.Only borrowing the essence of lexical teaching overseas and innovate new approaches, can one succeed.Therefore, what causes these problems in lexical teaching? Certainly it connects closely with the necessary factors of the class: teachers, students, textbooks, the vocabulary itself, teaching approaches, etc.However everything has its rules.So in the teaching procedures, what kind of rules will the teachers obey and what factors they need to notice? Is there any effective lexical teaching methods?
Chapter Two The factors and rules that English teachers need to notice in lexical teaching.2.1 The rules and factors that teachers should obey during their teaching.2.1.1 The rules in vocabulary itself
Each language has an abundant glossary, and every word is unique, but not isolated(Lan Chun, 2009:82).Without connection with those elements to which it closely relates to, the teaching is ineffective, and efforts don’t get reward.In order to make the teaching procedure promptly and effectively, and deepen students’ impression, comprehension and flexibility of using the words, teachers must analyze a certain word in different perspectives, as well as what it is associated with.Phonetic factors.Linguisticians believe that though the definition of vocabulary is various, the relevant basic content it refers to is just a matter of sound and meaning(Lu Guoqiang, 2007:1).From questions 10 and 23, one can judge that it is a popular recognition of students that the standard pronunciation helps a lot to listening and spelling.As a matter of fact, the standard pronunciation can benefits their expressions.Therefore, teachers ought to lead students to analyze phonetic symbols, spell and articulate correctly.Then students practice in this way repeatedly and regard it as a way of remembering words, which can avoid learning by rote.―Tease‖, taken for example, is pronunciated [ti: z].Before teaching students to read it, teachers can ask them to count how many vowels there are, whether every vowel has a corresponding pronunciation, and if they have, then how to?
Through analyzing, one can know that there are 3 vowels, among which, the ―ea‖ in the middle reads [i:], and the ―e‖ at the end is silent.From this, students can see that there is just only one vowel sound in the phonetic symbol, so‖ tease‖ is a single syllable.In that way, it is stressed.Those words like eat, meat, neat, least, beat, contain ―ea‖ reading [i:].Besides, teachers will also guide students to find out differences between [t]and[d], [i:] and[i], [s]and[z].Thus students will master some
pronunciation rules themselves, generalize some words containing the same pronunciation, and they can learn vocabulary by themselves in the long run.Word-formation.Aimed at fostering students’ ability to decompose word-buildings, and strengthen their understanding, the approaches like conversion, derivative, compound, acronym, blend, backformation, etc, are introduced.Here, examples are given about the former three kinds.Conversion.Among the English words one learns, the words whose part of speech can be conversed account a large proportion.For example, ―look‖ is usually used as a verb means ‖看‖ in Chinese.While in the phrase ―have a look‖, it is a noun.What’s more, when it refers to the expressions on face, it is a noun.Another example, ―head‖ is usually used as a noun, meaning ―头部‖ in Chinese.While when it acts as a verb, it means ―to lead‖, ―to entitle‖.Here examples are given to show nouns changed into verbs.Besides this, there are also adjectives changed into verbs(like better), adverbs changed into verbs(like out), adjectives changed into nouns(like the old), etc.Derivations.Generally prefix and suffix are added to words to alter their part of speech and meaning.For example, ―-r‖ is added to the verb ―write‖, and the noun ―writer‖ is formed.―Dis-‖ is added to the verb ―like‖, then the antonym ―dislike‖ got.―Ness‖ is added to the adjective ―nice‖, and then the noun ―niceness‖ formed.The following are some common affixes:
Noun affixes:-ness,-or,-er,-tion,-ence,-ian,-ess,-ty,-al,-sion； Verb affixes:-fy, en-,-ize,-ate;
Adjective affixes:-y,-ed,-ful,-tive,-able,-ing,-ish,-less,-y;Negative affixes: dis-,il-, im-,-in, anti-, mis-, non-;
If students have mastered these common affixes, they can be more skillful in applying words in practice.Compound.Compound words are formed by two or more words, which are easily understood.For example, a noun and a noun: policeman, blackboard, weekend, airplane, chairman；a gerund and a noun: waiting-room, living-room, dining-room；a adjective and a noun: gentleman, blue-sky, warm-heart, present-day.Besides, there 7
are also compound words that consisting of adjectives and verbs, prepositions and nouns, verbs and adverbs, adjectives and adverbs, etc.Very word has its unique traits and if students find and take advantage of them, they can go further and avoid cram up.2.1.2 The factors of students’ physiology and psychology.Education must adapt to students’ growth.It must be based on the development situation of personal physiology and psychology, development rules, mature mechanism, as well as fit for a certain level of growth, the developing order, all-round cultivation, uniqueness, etc.Thus, education can be a reliable insurance(Li Sen &Chen Xiaorui，2009:59).The Senior High students are transmitting from youngsters to adults, and finalize their shapes and personalities.Though their bodies and minds become mature gradually, their intelligence is more and more perfected, and their improvement on the faculty of memory, judge, logic thinking is outstanding, there appear many conflicts and contradictions.Above all, they strengthen their self-consciousness, independence of judging things, and competence of analyzing;on the other hand, their psychology is so unstable and sentimental that they are easily disturbed by outside things and will easily rebel others.Second, their perseverance increase to a higher level, and they can control and drive themselves to some extent;however, they still lack of willpower, and easily turn impulse and paranoid.Third, they are very enthusiastic and self confident;but they are also conceited.When they fail, they can never recover and then they will feel the study is boring.In addition, the day they step into the Senior High schools, they begin to burden all kinds of pressure, especially the college entrance examination.This results in their anxiety, tense, and tiredness.Based on the above analysis, one can judge that those students’ potential to learn is endless.But if the English teachers merely add the task of remembering and doing exercises, or just tell them some skills to cope with exams, their subjective initiative, activity, and the ability to think can’t find a way out.As a result, teachers, the ones that they can depend on, will one day make them lose their own thinking and creativity.Therefore, under the New English Curriculum, tedious lexical teaching approaches should be renewed, students’ potential needs exploiting, and passing exams is not that important as previous.To find out efficient methods, in what way students want to be taught must be taken into consideration.To sum up, I think that the approaches which can activate students’ initiative and interests, that to say, fit for their physiology and psychology, deserve the description ―efficient‖.2.1.3 Teaching procedures should be in line with the memory law.The great psychologist, H.Ebbinghaus discovered that lethe begins upon the moment the study stops.While the process is not heterogeneous.First, the Lethe’s speed is fast and quantity large, and then its speed will slow down and quantity small(Yang Hong&Wu Tianwu&Wang Chengxiang, 2006:143).As to daily study, teachers need to supervise and urge students to make a plan of remembering vocabulary and conduct it regularly.Sometimes, tests are supposed to be given to help them consolidate their impression and understanding.To deal with the newly learnt words, teachers can introduce this method: remembering the words every a unit time.For example, a student learns 10 words in 5 minutes in the morning;and uses another 5minutes to review in the middle of the morning;and repeats the review in more times until the student can remember all of them.What’s more, in daily class, teachers repeat the words to make them notice and review.In addition, contexts and scenes are supposed to be introduced.2.2 Feasible teaching approaches on English lexicon.2.2.1 The importance of the context and extra-curriculum reading.There is no doubt that all kinds of efficient methods have been put forward and applied in practice.Among these methods, one can find out that the most popular ones are like conversion, derivative, compound, acronym, blend, backformation which have been mentioned above.What’s more, introducing some social common sense by using the target word, giving students some scenes or contexts to figure out the word’s meaning, making some comparison between the similar words and
phrases, using the target words to tell or make up stories which can interest students, are also prevail among the Senior High classes.However, the context is the crucial factor or medium which determines different connotations of the same word, that is to say, without the context, a word’s diverse meaning can’ t be conveyed, and this word means little to the learners.As a result, learners can understand the same word in different texts, let alone use it flexibly.There is a common view that different contexts can endow the same word different connotation.On the other hand, individual words are critical in building blocks in text-meaning construction, efficient in converting graphic symbols into sound or meaning or information, and indispensable in comprehension(Keiko Koda, 2007:29).All in all, reading texts and studying glossary are simultaneous, and each of them benefits the other.From this reason, one can judge that lexical learning or teaching can’t be separated from the context.But in the textbooks, there are indeed many writings and grammar points, which are mastered by the students skillfully.Then why they can’t understand other texts from extra-curriculum materials, consisting of the same vocabulary they have learned? And why they can’t use the same glossary elastically in another way which is different from the usage in the text book?
That’s because students are lack of extra-curriculum reading.Repeated contact with a large amount of words in print is potential to gaining scholarly glossary, and developing techniques for studying new words from texts.It is quite necessary.While in most Senior High schools’ English classes, the textbook is the main-oriented material and teachers spend little time to notice the importance of extra-curriculum reading to students’ study.And then students have the excuse that it is not necessary to read other things because their main objective is to pass exams and get high scores and the teachers design the exams in line with the textbook.So this is a vicious circle in our education.So, from here, one can discover the reason for the students do little extra reading in English.If effective methods are intended to acquire, extra reading must be encouraged and studying new words in personal-suit ways should be incited.Nevertheless, teachers can’t spend much time in guiding students to do extra-reading in class because the class time is limited and the chief aim is to meet the syllabus’ requirements.Therefore there must be a plan, which both can make teachers have time to lead students to do extra-reading, and doesn’t affect the teaching procedures.But how to design that kind of plan? 2.2.2.Using the context as a medium to convey multiple effectual lexical teaching approaches.To assure the normal teaching process, teachers can lead students just do extra-reading once or twice a week.However, there are so many good methods to teach words.And if teachers merely use only the context, that will be tedious and soon the students will get bored.So how can the teachers balance the context and the vivid atmosphere?
As far as I am concerned, using the context as a medium to convey multiple effectual lexical teaching approaches.Well, maybe it makes people feel confused.Let me explain.Teachers can choose one passage from the extra-reading exercises as an example, but the passage must be suitable for students in both the degree of difficulty and rationality of arranging the new words.In that case, teachers have to figure out which level of English and vocabularies have the students are in, which part the students know well and which part they should make efforts to remedy.Referring to the passage ―After Divorce‖ in Appendixⅱ, one can see clearly how to make it.First, the passage is given with the 10 new words which are going to be learnt, and phonetic symbols are showed just after these words to facilitate students to pronounce.Second, after students finish the whole passage, they ought to know the main idea of the passage.Then, they’ll do a test.In the text, 10 questions are designed directed against the 10 words one by one.These questions are mainly about the words’ meaning, and conducted to let the students to dope out their meaning according to the context.Each question has 3 options that show 3 kinds of meaning of the same word, and students are required to choose the best one due to their
understanding.Third, the teacher leads students to analyze these questions one by one.While I have mentioned that each has its own traits, so various ways are encouraged to use that is to say, each word has a special way to learn.The specific learning procedures of each word is showed obviously in Appendixⅱ.And here I just select some typical points to discuss.Take the first word, ―split‖ for example, this word is very simple, but it is not easy to remember because its pronunciation /split/ and spelling will easily make students mix it with ―spilt‖, ―slip‖, ―splice‖, ―spiel‖ etc.So I suggest that teachers can use phonetic factors to remember.Above all, teachers teach students to enunciate the phonetic symbol ―sp‖, and to generalize some words containing the same sound: speed, space, spot, speak, spic, etc.Then, teachers can teach students to articulate the sound ―spl‖, and classify some words owning the articulation, splat, slake , spleen, splice, spore, etc.Therefore, the word ―split‖ can impress students well with its pronunciation.In addition, teachers can introduce the phrases ―split the vote‖, ―split the ticket‖ to students.In this way, students can learn something about the American election as well as the phrases themselves.I think this is better than only explaining the word or phrases.The same way is also applied to explain the second word ―parochial‖, the third word ―welfare‖, the fifth word ―utilities‖, etc.Another way is to use derivatives.For instance, the forth word ―comfortably‖, here I adopt derivatives.First of all, this word is derived from ―comfort‖, from which one can get a series of words.Com-in ―comfort‖ originally means combination/commonness, or serves as a root to stress the tone.And the ―-fort‖ originally refers to strengthen/enhance/reinforce.So the word ―comfort‖ can be explained in this way: if people come together to strengthen their union and care each other, the world will be peaceful and people will be cozy.Based on this, ―comfortable‖, ―comforts‖, ―comforting‖, ―comforter‖, ―comfortably‖ are got.The same way is suitable for the seventh word the eighth one ―extended‖.Then, I must mention that using interesting story to arouse students’ interest in
learning the knowledge the teachers are talking about is very popular nowadays.In the passage After Divorce, the word, ―teased‖ whose archetype is ―tease‖, is imparted through a fair tale.To explain the phrase, I use the story of the Crow and the Fox which has been very familiar to all the students in their childhood.Here it is used to show the fox cheats the crow to drop the meat from her mouth with a cunning strategy.This action of the fox is called ―to tease out the meat from the crow‖.Among the ten words, the tenth one ―hardship‖ is a compound word.In this situation, when learners meet it, first of all, they need to find how many words subject to ―hardship‖.It is easy to know that there are two words in it: ―hard‖ and ―ship‖.―Hard‖ means strict, severe, difficult, tough, solid, rigid, etc, and ship is a noun and verb meaning a large boat which carries passengers or cargo.Furthermore, it means a kind of relationship, ability, or situation, like judgeship, friendship, headship, relationship, etc.In this case, hardship can be explained this way: a sort of difficult situation.Besides all of above, I also use turn scenes into sentences which contain target words to require students to think out the word’s meaning in differences.This is used on the word ―split‖, ―teased‖, ―extended‖ in the passage After Divorce.What’s more, giving students target word’s synonymies and anonyms which I have used to explain nearly all the ten words.Perhaps limited by the passage, many interesting and effective methods are not adopted in these words.While if possible, teachers can integrate more in teaching.For example, telling differences between two or more words and phrases, making dialogues, reciting tongue twisters, making up short stories.Forth, after learning all the words, students are asked to reread the passage and redo the questions.At the same time, their speed should be much quicker.Fifth, students may forget what they have learnt very quickly within 24 hours.Consequently, the next class, teachers have to review those words for them.But, that will make the students passive.Therefore, students need to do the review themselves.They should work in groups, and each group has 2-3 people.The task is
that each group has to come up with a way to deepen the memory of at least two new words.They can copy the teachers’ way but their explanation must be correct;they can also create new ways like singing a song, playing a game, reciting something, doing some comparison, etc.However, since time is limited, their review should be controlled within 10 minutes.And every class, 2 or 3 groups are supposed to perform.As to the rest of the words which have been learnt last time but not reviewed by groups’ performance, teachers can help students go through them in 5 minutes.2.2.3 Activities to help remembering words.Although some students have a very large vocabulary, they always do badly in exams.To some extent, it is because they don’t know how to use them.And they are under great pressure of the college entrance examination, and have much exercise to do.So, English teachers can plan some activities to arouse their initiative in lexical learning, and use their mastered glossary in practice.These activities can be words’ competition, using given words to make up a short story in 5minutes, singing English songs, watching interesting movies and then taking notes to repeat the plots in English, debates, etc.Whatever ways teachers apply, the aim is to enhance the students’ ability of using what they have learnt in practice.This benefits a lot to their listening, reading comprehension, writing, speaking, and even single option.And this method can also lessen their stress, finding some pleasure similar to the undergraduates.14
Conclusion
It’s easy to point out the drawbacks of teachers’ teaching pattern;it’s a bit difficult to figure out the reasons;the most difficult thing is to feel the feasible ways of teaching and they will turn out effective in practice.While teaching lexicon is a very applicative technique, in that case, if one designs new methods to teach, he must conduct it in class.And based on observe and study teaching situation and the average level of the student body in a certain school, one can come up with the authentic problems and set a point where teachers should focus on their weak parts and make great efforts to improve.Only in this way can the methods agree with the real conditions, and turn out successful.As to new teachers, raising some new approaches to solve teaching lexical problems is not an easy thing.Therefore, except doing and analyzing investigates, and comparing different results caused by different methods, they need to consult those teachers who have rich experience, and good at managing the whole class.Perhaps not all the suggestions those teachers give are suitable for a certain school, but one can combine the advice with the local situation, and come up with the way fit for the class.That’s to say, selecting the ones fit the teachers’ personalities and the students’ study.Besides that, as I stated before, taking the factors: rules in vocabulary itself, students’ physiology and psychology, the memory law into consideration is really an important stage.And the method, using the context as a medium to convey multiple effectual lexical teaching approaches is just a minimum one, and whether it suits specific classes, one needs to implement it and refine it.Anyway, this procedure is mainly to explain in all kinds of ways.Thus, it can not be avoided that the students will get tired to some extend.Therefore, I propose some activities which interest students and provoke their potential.And of course, teachers need to consider the local conditions.Generally speaking, watching movies, performing a play, holding a debate, etc are all ways to make students learn something and happy.Bibliography 崔刚，孔宪遂，《英语教学十六讲》，北京:清华大学出版社，2009。
王晶，《词汇深度知识及其在教学上的运用》，辽宁：沈阳航空工业学院外国语学院，2009（11）。
Wilkins D.A.Linguistics in Language Teaching.Cambridge: MIT press, 1972.何克勇，《英语词汇及起源》，北京: 清华大学出版社，2002。
李观义，《具有中国特色的外语教学法》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，2007。Keiko Koda.Insight into Second Language Reading.Beijing: Cambridge University press, 2007.伍谦光，《语义学导论》，长沙：湖南教育出版社，1998。
李森，陈晓瑞，《现代教育学基础》，上海：华东师范大学出版社,2009。阳红，吴天武，王呈祥：《心理学新编》，武汉：华中师范大学出版社，2006。蓝纯，《语言学概论》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2009。
Plagiarism
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original Contextual Spelling Check 50issues
Spelling(50)Ignored words
Commonly confused words Use of articles(16)
Incorrect use of prepositions(2)Pronoun agreement(2)
Punctuation within a sentence(61)Capitalization(1)Closing punctuation Writing style(27)Vocabulary use(26)Grammar 160issues
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Appendix A 新课改下高中学生对英语学习和英语单词记忆问卷调查
调查对象：西南石油大学2012届成都籍新生
调查人数：100人 调查时间：2012年9月1日~2012年9月9日
调查人：周均梅
1.你在做英语试卷的时候，觉得哪部分是最难的？（）
A．听力（40％）B.单项选择（4％）C.完形填空（32％）D.阅读理解（12％）
E.书面表达
（8％）
F.短文改错（4％）2.你一周上英语课的节数（不含晚自习）（）
A.14节（20％）B.12节（28％）C.11节（16％）
D.10节（8％）
E.9节（4％）F.8节（0%）
G.7节（0%）
H.6节（24%）3.你有没有制定自己的记忆单词的计划？为什么？（）
A.有，这样可以帮助我更好地巩固单词，形成单词记忆的系统。（12％）B.没有，感觉没必要，平时要考试或者听写的时候再临时记忆。（32％）C.有时，但是不能坚持，缺乏毅力。（48％）D.从未，我不喜欢学习英语，觉得记忆单词非常枯燥。（8％）4.在英语课堂上，你喜欢―老师努力讲解，学生认真听和记笔记‖这种教学方法吗？（）
A.非常喜欢（8％）B.喜欢（12％）C.还可以（48％）
D.不喜欢（32％）5．你会对学过的单词做及时的复习吗？（）
A.会复习（28％）B.不会复习（24％）
C.有时复习（44％）
D.大部分时间会复习（4％）
6.到目前为止，你认为记忆单词最有效的方法是？（）
A.老师指导的方法（20％）
B.自己总结的方法（44％）
C.同学介绍的方法（20％）D.其他方面的方法（16％）
7.你在读英语文章碰到生词时，会查字典吗 ？（）
A.读完文章后推测该词的含义，再查字典（28％）B.先停下来查字典，确定其含义后再继续读。（28％）
C.只要了解文章大意，推断出文章的大意即可（8％）
D.知道文章的大意就好，没必要追究每个单词的含义（36％）
8.你平时记忆单词的时候，会把拼写相似、含义相近或相反、发音相似等词进行联系记忆吗？（）
A.经常会(16％)
B.偶尔会（64％）C.一般不会（8％）
D.从不（12％）9.你记忆生词时会将该词的名词形式、动词形式、形容词形式、副词形式以及其基本用法综合记忆吗？（）
A.经常会（12％）B.偶尔会（48％）
C.一般不会（28％）
D.从不（12％）10.你认为标准发音和单词记忆有联系吗？（）
A.完全无关（20％）
B.正确发音能增强学生语感，帮助正确拼写单词（40％）
C.有一定联系，但不大（20％）
D.不清楚（20％）
11.你是喜欢老师以―单词读音—单词含义—单词运用‖的教学方法一个人讲解，还是喜欢参与小组讨论、与同学合作学习的方法来记忆单词？（）
A.老师一个人讲解，学生做笔记（12％）
B.两种方法都用会比较好（32％）
C.比较喜欢与同学讨论，合作性学习（48％）
D.用任何一种都行（8％）12.学习新单词的时候，老师会提供一定的语境进行练习吗？（）
A.经常（44％）
B.偶尔（28％）
C.很少（16％）
D.基本没有（12％）13.你所在的学校，已经使用多媒体对英语进行教学了吗？（）
A.是的，全多媒体教学（32％）
B.是的，偶尔使用（24％）
C.有在用，但是很少（20％）
D.基本没有（24％）
14.通常你的英语老师会用一些有趣的方法帮你记单词吗？（例如：编顺口溜、玩游戏、讲故事）（）
A.经常（14％）
B.偶尔（32％）
C.很少（24％）
D.基本没有（32％）15.你认为老师应着重哪些方面的讲解（）（可多选）
A、语法（20％）
B、词汇（28％）C、翻译（44％）
D、语篇分析
（28％）
E、做题技巧（16％）
16.你认为大学英语教学的重心应该是（）（可多选）
A、语法（16％）
B、听力（48％）
C、阅读（20％）
D、口语（44%）
E、写作（8％）
17.你认为在英语课堂中，最有利于提高你的英语能力的活动是：（）（可多选）
A、两人对话（12％）B、小组讨论（28％）C、个人发言（36％）D、其他（24％）18．每天你课外学习英语多长时间？（）
A．2小时以上
（8％）
B、1小时左右（40％）C.一个半小时左右（16%）D、少于1小时（36％）
19． 你阅读除课文以外的其它英语读物吗？（）
A、经常（20％）
B、偶尔
（20％）
C、从不（40％）20.在听英语时，碰到生词我会跳过生词继续听下去。（）
A、非常同意（12％）B、同意（48％）
C、不同意（12％）D、无所谓（28％）21.在英语课上，我注意老师在口语表达中常用的词语（）。
A、经常注意（12％）B、有时注意（52％）C、没注意过（20％）
D、他用什么词语与我无关（16％）
22．我会有选择的记忆课外阅读材料中碰到的生词和未学过的短语。（）
A：非常同意（18％）
B：同意（30％）C：有点同意（18％）
D：有点不同意（28％）
E：不同意（6%）
F：非常不同意（0%）
23．假如在听力时碰到生词，我会尽量记住生词的发音，然后根据发音在字典上查找它的拼写及相关意思。（）
A：非常同意（20％）B：同意（20％）C：有点同意（36％）D：有点不同意（20％）
E：不同意（4％）
F：非常不同意（0%）24．写作文时我尽量使用刚学过的生词和短语。（）
A：非常同意（32％）B：同意（40％）C：有点同意（12％）D：有点不同意（8％）
E：不同意（4％）
F：非常不同意（4％）
25．我用重复念和重复拼写的方法来记生词。（）
A：非常同意（28％）B：同意（48％）
C：有点同意（8％）D：有点不同意（12％）
E：不同意（4％）F：非常不同意（0%）26．记单词时，我会联想有关的同义词或反义词。（）
A：非常同意（20％）
B：同意（28％）C：有点同意（16％）
D：有点不同意（20％）
E：不同意（16％）
F：非常不同意（0%）27．记单词时，我经常联想同词根的词。.（）
A：非常同意（8％）B：同意（40％）C：有点同意（44％）D：有点不同意（12％）
E：不同意（16％）F：非常不同意（4％）
28．学习单词时，我只记忆精读课本词汇表上列出的词。（）
A：非常同意（20％）B：同意（28％）C：有点同意（12％）D：有点不同意（20％）
E：不同意（20％）F：非常不同意（0%）
29．我不仅学习词汇在课文中的意思，而且学习词汇在课文以外的意思。（）
A：非常同意（20％）
B：同意（40％）
C：有点同意（12％）
D：有点不同意（16％）
E：不同意（4％）
F：非常不同意（8％）30．我课外主动看英语电视和电影。（）
A：非常同意（12％）B：同意（44％）C：有点同意（28％）D：有点不同意（8％）
E：不同意（8％）
F：非常不同意（0%）31．我坚持每星期用英语写一篇日记。（）
A：非常同意（8％）B：同意（28％）C：有点同意（24％）D:有点不同意（16％）
E：不同意（24％）F：非常不同意（0%）32．我经常去英语角和别人交谈。（）
A：非常同意（24％）
B：同意（24％）
C：有点同意（12％）
D：有点不同意（32％）
E：不同意（4％）
F：非常不同意（4％）33．我主动通过生词的汉语意思来记住所学的生词。（）
A：非常同意（4％）B：同意（32％）C：有点同意（24％）D：有点不同意（24％）
E：不同意（12％）
F：非常不同意（4%）
Appendix B After Divorce My parents divorced/ di′v ɔ:st /（离婚）when I was two, and the repercussions/、ri:p ə ｀k ʌ ʃ ə n/(影响)of their split /split/lasted long after it was final.My mother was a parochial /p ə｀rəukiə l/school teacher who earned just enough to stay off welfare/｀welfεə /, but not enough for us to live comfortably/｀k ʌ mf ə t ə bli/.Utilities /ju:｀tiliti/in our home were shut off（不够用）from time to time, and it seemed like we would never catch up.My mother also worked nights, so after school I would go to my grandparents' house.I spent little time with my mother because she worked during the week, and eventually(最后)on weekends, too.My most painful memories of that time are not of being teased/ti:zd/ for my limited wardrobe/｀w ɔ:dr əu b/, or the times we had no running water because my mother missed payments.The most difficult experience was watching my mother cry at night, while I hugged her and told her I loved her.Through all this, I learned so much.I came to value education, family and faith.I worked hard in school, and earned good grades.I learned from my mother's example(she went back to school after three children and a divorce)that it is important for a woman to go to college and not depend on a man.I came to value extended/iks｀tendid/ family support and developed a close relationship with my grandparents and cousins because I was with them so much while my mother
worked.Last, my faith became very strong.Although my mother was very busy, she made sure we all went to church together every Sunday.Most important, we did not blame God for our situation.Instead, we thanked Him for the good things in our lives.We were grateful for the people who cared about us, for not being on the streets, and for good health when we did not have health insurance/in｀ʃ uərəns /.My parents' divorce caused hardships/｀ha:dʃip/ and pain, but it was also an experience that I would not change because of how much I learned.1.What does the word ―split‖ mean?()
A.An opening(裂缝)made violently as by pulling apart;B.A break or separation in some relationship.C.A promised or claimed share of loot(战利品)or money.2What does the word ―parochial‖ mean?()
A Relating to or supported by or located in a parish(教区)；
B.Narrowly limited in outlook or scope;C.Some place which is too far away or remote.3.What does the word ―welfare‖ mean?()
A.Governmental provision of economic support to people in need.B.Something beneficial that aids or improves someone’s life or well-being.C.A contented(满足的)state of being happy, healthy and prosperous(繁荣的).4.What does the word ―comfortably‖ mean?()A.In mental comfort(舒适);without stress.B.In physical comfort.C.In financial(经济的)comfort.5.What does the word ―Utilities‖ mean?()
A A company that performs a public service;subject to government regulation.B Some daily tools or things used in household such as soap(肥皂)and washing powder.C The quality of being of practical use.6.What does the word ―teased‖ mean?()A.Feeling mild pleasurable excitement.B.Mock or make fun of some one;playfully.C.Annoy(使 烦恼)persistently（不断地）7.What does the word ―wardrobe‖ mean?()
A A tall piece of furniture that provides storage(储存)space of clothes;has a door and rails or hooks for hanging clothes.B Collection for clothing belonging to one person.C Collection for costumes(服饰)belonging to a theatrical（剧院的）company.8.What does the word ―extended‖ mean?()A Quite long in duration(延长);B Great in rang(范围)or scope(视野)C Became large in material(物质)rang or stretched forth 9.What does the word ―insurance‖ mean?()
A Promise of reimbursement(退还，偿还)in the case of loss;a kind of business paid to people or companies that so concerned about danger that they have made B Written contract or certificate of insurance;
C Protection for the safety of somebody or something.10.What does the word ―hardships‖ mean?()
A Situation in which your life is difficult or unpleasant, often because you don’t have enough money.B Ships which is old and can’t work well.C Some problems which are hard to solve.Following is the teaching procedures: 1.Split.①Giving basic information about this word, that is :Due to phonetic symbol in the passage, Teacher leads students to spell and pronunciate it correctly.Then give them its part of speech.And its elementary meaning is‖分开、分裂、断裂、分担‖，which in English we can connect it with‖cut/share/break/crack/segment/disagree/divide/sever/separate,etc‖.Moreover, Split can be transitive verb, intransitive verb, adjective and noun.What’s more ,students can associate the opposite meaning:―联合、团结、联系、结合‖，which in English we can say ―unite/connect/combine/together/same/cooperate, etc‖.②Give students the following sentences and ask them to figure out what split means in each sentence:
*If something splits or you split it, it is broken into parts.*A split in a group is a disagreement between its members.*A split is a long crack.*If some people split something, they share it with each other.③ Giving some usage of split in order to help students to consolidate their impression about it.Ask them whether they know ―split the ticket/split the vote/split one’s side‖.Then Teacher explains them in details.*split the vote:(the candidate, the small parties)to attract another candidate’s or party’s votes causing destruction to both sides and makes the third win.And this usually happens in the western countries.*split the ticket: to vote for more than one party.*split one’s sides: to laugh very happily so that one will press his belly.④Based on these analyses, Teacher lets students look at ―split‖ in the passage, identify its meaning and finish exercise 1.2.Parochial ①Giving basic information about this word, that is :Due to phonetic symbol in the passage, Teacher leads students to spell and pronunciate it correctly.Generally speaking, it is adjective.When teaching this word, Teacher shows the meaning in English;at the same time, students guess it in Chinese.For example, parochial is closely connected with parish;it also refer to ―narrow/limited/ short sighted/small-minded‖ ②Parochial school.It is a kind of religious school, as a sort of assistant education of normal one in West countries, especially America.Another narrow usage is that it refers to the grammar schools of Christianity established by small parishes.As to British education, the parochial schools set up by the national religion form the basis of the educational system assisted by the state.③Some collocations and use in scene.For example: *parochial affairs;
*He is too parochial in his outlook because he is in parish.④Based on these analyses, Teacher lets students look at parochial in the passage, identify its 21
meaning and finish exercise 2.3.Welfare.①Giving basic information about this word, that is :Due to phonetic symbol in the passage, Teacher leads students to spell and pronunciation it correctly.In English, its meaning is very similar to or closely connected with benefit/prosperity/interest/advantage/health/peace.So students can guess its basic meaning is ―福利、健康、安宁、幸福‖.And it is a noun.②Next analyze its formation to make it impressed on students.From its spelling and pronunciation we can jude that welfare consists of two parts: ―wel‖ and ―fare‖.―Wel‖ is similar to well, and we can treat it as ―good/fine/well‖；on the other hand, ―fare‖ convey the meaning ―fee/the price of ticket/food‖.In that case, the compound word ―welfare‖ is associated with benefit/prosperity/interests, etc.③ Teacher gives students some expressions of welfare in our daily life.* welfare fund
*social welfare
*welfare state
*child welfare
④Based on these analyses, Teacher lets students look at ―welfare‖ in the passage, identify its meaning and finish exercise 3.4.Comfortably.①Giving basic information about this word, that is :Due to phonetic symbol in the passage, Teacher leads students to spell and pronunciation it correctly.In English, its meaning is very similar to or closely connected with cosines/ease/pleasure, etc.What’s more, it is an adverb.② Point out that comfort is comfortably’s derivation.Let’s start from the derivation, comfort(it can be a noun and a verb), which can be divided into two parts: ―com‖ and ―fort‖.The root ―com‖ is interrelated with combination/commonness, that is to say, it means ―共同的‖in Chinese;on the other hand, it serves as a root to stress the tone.The root ―fort‖ is closely linked with strengthen/enhance/reinforce, which mostly means ―加强‖in Chinese.So the word comfort can be explained in this way: if people come together to strengthen their union and care each other, the world will be peaceful and people will be cozy.Comfort +-able(an adjective derivational morpheme, meaning‖可……的‖ in Chinese):comfortable(舒适的)；
Comfort +-ing(an adjective derivational morpheme, meaning possessing a certain quality): comforting(令人舒适的)；
Comfort +-er(an noun derivational morpheme, meaning a kind of people or thing): comforter(安慰者、羊毛围巾)；
Comfortable +-ly(an adverb derivational morpheme): comfortably(舒适地)；
Comfort +-s(a plural derivational morpheme，standing nouns): comforts(令人愉快的人或物)③Give some expressions used in daily life, and set a scene to make students to use them in conversation.*comfortably off
*creature comforts
* comfortable winner ④Based on these analyses, Teacher lets students look at ―comfortably‖ in the passage, identify its meaning and finish exercise 4.5.Utilities.①Giving basic information about this word, that is :Due to phonetic symbol in the passage, Teacher leads students to spell and pronunciation it correctly.Teacher leads students to figure out its archetype ―utility‖, which can be both a noun and a adjective.Being a noun, it possesses two parts of meaning.On the one hand, its meaning is abstract, sharing the same connotation with effectiveness/use/function to some degree;on the other hand, its meaning is concrete, sharing the same connotation with service/ public welfare/tool/implement to some
degree.Being an adjective, it means useful in many ways or works.Teacher gives definitions or examples to make it more clear to students:(1).The utility of something is its usefulness.(2).A utility is an important service such as water, electricity, or gas that is provided for everyone, and that everyone pays for.② In English, the root ―util-‖ refers to ―use‖.In that case, ―-ity‖ is added to it to form a word ―utility‖, connecting with ―use‖.③So Teacher show students some utility’s phrases.First, let them guess;And then give them the answers;Last, set some scenes to practice.*utility pole
*domestic utility
*utility service
*utility room
*utility theory ④Based on these analyses, Teacher lets students look at ―utilities‖ in the passage, identify it-s meaning and finish exercise 5.6.Teased.①Giving basic information about this word, which is: Due to phonetic symbol in the passage, Teacher leads students to spell and pronunciation it correctly.Teacher point-s out that its archetype is tease, which can be a noun and a verb.As a noun, it has the meaning of ―someone who likes laughing at or playing jokes on others‖.As a verb, it means ―to laugh at others or make jokes about them in order to embarrass, annoy, or ups-et them.‖ Teacher shows students several sentences to deepen their comprehension.*My brother is such a tease.*The best way to deal with a tease is to ignore him.*The other boys tease him because he is fat.②From tease, one can get teaser, possessing the same meaning as ―someone who likes laughing at or playing jokes on others‖.What’s more, it refers to ―a difficult question, especially in competition‖.For example, whether to accept this offer is really a teaser.③ Teacher uses the tale of the Crow and the Fox to explain the phrase ―tease out‖.ThenTeacher gives a conclusion: the phrase means using some cunning way to get certain information / solution/secret/profit, etc.So in this tale, the fox tries to tease out the meat from the crow.More sentences are imparted: *They try to tease out the answer without appearing to ask him.*The thief intended to tease out the key to the door from the baby.④Based on these analyses, Teacher lets students look at ―teased‖ in the passage, identify its meaning and finish exercise 6.7.Wardrobe.①Giving basic information about this word, that is :Due to phonetic symbol in the passage, Teacher leads students to spell and pronunciation it correctly.It is a nou-n.When one sees this word, he can get the same meaning from closet/bureau, and kn-o w that it means ―a tall cupboard or cabinet in which one can hang your clothes‖.More sentences are showed to students:
*Someone’s wardrobe is the total collection of clothes that they have.*She stuffed her clothes in the wardrobe.② Wardrobe can be divided into two parts: ―ward‖ and ―robe‖.Ward: as a noun, it means ―a room in a hospital which has beds for many people, ofte-n people who need similar treatment‖(病房)or ―a district which forms part of a political constituency or
local council‖（行政区、选区）.*Ward off(v.avoid)
*warder(n.someone who works in a prison supervising the prisoners.)
*warden(n.doorkeeper/the head of a county)
Robe: a loose piece of clothing which covers all of your body and reaches the ground.(睡袍)For example, she put her robe on the chair.*Work robe
*baby robe
To sum up, the word, wardrobe can be explained this way: a cabinet where one’s clot-hes are deposited.③Based on these analyses, Teacher lets students look at ―wardrobe‖ in the passage, identify its meaning and finish exercise 7.8.Extended.①Giving basic information about this word, that is :Due to phonetic symbol in the passage, Teacher leads students to spell and pronunciation it correctly.First, Teach –er shows students its archetype ―extend‖.Extend is a transitive verb and intransitive verb.And ―extend‖ contains two-faced meaning.On the one hand, it approximates to reach /increase/expand /enlarge /stretch/ magnify /broaden/ lengthen out, meaning ―延伸、增大、扩大‖ in Chinese.On the other hand, it approximates to donate /give grant supply/ furnish /contribute /allot/ provide /present, meaning ―给予、捐赠、分配‖in Chinese.Some examples are given: *The boss extended money to create new products.*This metal will extend when it is heated.②Extend can be separated into two parts: ―ex-‖ and ―-tend‖.Ex-: A: to make something out, such as exclude/expel/expose/extract, etc.B: something or someone is no longer the one it or he once was, such ex-wife, ex-president, ex-colonial.Tend-: A: to notice/ look after /care/mind, etc.B: something is likely to happen frequently;someone is likely to behave/say in a certain way.To sum up, ―extend‖ basically can be explained this way: something is likely to get larger/more/longer/out/spread.More meaning of it is show in the following sentences: *This speech has extended for two hours.(持续)*This paper extends to a lot of practical problems.(涉及)*I’m glad that you extended my mother an invitation.(发出)③Based on these analyses, Teacher lets students look at ―extended‖ in the passage, identify its meaning and finish exercise 8.9.Insurance.①Giving basic information about this word, that is :Due to phonetic symbol in the passage, Teacher leads students to spell and pronunciation it correctly.Generally speaking, it is a noun, meaning an arrangement where you pay money to a company, and they pay money back once something bad occurs to you, such as if your belongings are stolen or damaged/ if you catch a severe disease(保险);What’s more it also refers to some measures done to make up great loss in future（保险措施）.②Teacher tells students that insurance’s verb is insure(intransitive and transitive).And insure can be analyzed as following: insure consists of two parts: ―in‖ and ―sure‖.In-: inside;in power;on position or it is a negative affix.Sure: certain;firmly assure something;and it can be both an adjective and adverb.Therefore we can explain ―insure‖ in this way: one is certain about something heartily(确
定)；one promises somebody something(保证);one safeguards somebody/something（保护）.Moreover, some synonyms are offered: *assure
*affirm
*guarantee
*certify ③Teacher introduces some expressions used in daily life: *insurance company
* insurance act
* insurance law
*insurance amount
*insurance industry ④Based on these analyses, Teacher lets students look at ―insurance‖ in the passage, identify its meaning and finish exercise 9.10.Hardship.①Giving basic information about this word, that is :Due to phonetic symbol in the passage, Teacher leads students to spell and pronunciation it correctly.It is usually used as a noun, approximating to ―difficulty/ trouble/ handicap, etc‖.②Two parts(hard and ship)forms ―hardship‖.From this, hardship is defined as a compo--und word.Hard: strict, severe, difficult, tough, solid, rigid, etc.Ship: a noun and verb;a large boat which carries passengers or cargo.Furthermore, it means a kind of relationship, ability, or situation, like judgeship/friendship/leadship/relationship, etc.So in hardship,-ship means a kind of situation, and hard refer to difficult.Thus, hards--hip signifies a sort of difficult situation.③Based on these analyses, Teacher lets students look at ―insurance‖ in the passage, identify its meaning and finish exercise 10.25
第三篇：毕业论文修改注意事项
毕业论文修改注意事项
1、不要出现错别字；
2、所有数字、字母都要在英文状态下输入，字母要倾斜；
3、论文中红字的地方要注意；
4、封面的版本注意统一，题目下面部分没有学号这一行；
5、论文题目太长的可以分成两行写，要居中；
6、封面的下划线注意粗细长短统一，不要一长一短一粗一细；
7、目录中，二级标题注意空格，不要顶格写，和一级标题区分开，有层次；页码尽量对齐，不要明显长短不一；
8、论文中（包括英文翻译中）不要有你的名字，学号，指导老师姓名；不要出现“本文”、“我们”等词语；
9、改的时候，文件保存名，就用答辩序号加“毕业论文”，如24号.毕业论文.doc；
10、摘要，关键词，参考文献，这几个字不要用【】括起来，摘要两字之间有空格；
11、摘要，关键词，不要顶格写，要空两格，包括英文翻译；
12、每一段空两格，不要总是顶格开始；
13、英文翻译注意去掉背景；
14、关键词，key words，注意加s，因为关键词有几个，是复数；每个关键词中间用“；”隔开，英文每个关键词语第一个字母不要大写；
15、题目下一行写“数学与应用数学2008级(1)班”，英文翻译“Mathematics and applied mathematics2008(1)class”；
16、表格、图等要居中排列，表名加黑；
17、参考文献，这四个字顶格写，序号用[1] [2] [3] [4] [5]，括号不要用【】这种，在序号要后空一格，如
[12] 谭小江，伍胜健，复变函数简明教程.北京:北京大学出版社，2006.[13] 夏志，一类复变函数极点阶数的确定.渤海大学学报（自然科学版），2005.18、行距一般为1.5倍；
这些只是常出错的地方，具体情况具体分析，不包括所有论文。
大家一定相互传阅，不要坚定自己的就一定是最标准的格式，多和几个人比较才能减少问题的出现。修改好后，明天（3月7号）自己发给黄朝军老师（hcjh6@163.com）。
第四篇：毕业论文原创性声明
毕业论文原创性声明
本人郑重声明：所呈交毕业论文，是本人在指导教师的指导下，独立进行研究工作所取得的成果。除文中已经注明引用的内容外，本论文不包含任何其他人或集体已经发表或撰写过的作品成果。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中以明确方式标明。本人完全意识到本声明的法律结果由本人承担。
Xxx
2011年3月13日
摘要
随着生着生产力的大发展及国际分工进一步深化,世界产业结构发生了较大的调整,服务业逐渐成为世界经济结构的重心,也成为各国经济增长的主要动力。伴随着经济全球化进程加快,国与国之间依赖加强，贸易往来密切，当今国际服务贸易迅猛增长,日益成为国际贸易的主要对象和内容,由此导致服务贸易在国际贸易中的地位不断上升,亦成为一个国家或地区经济的国际竞争力的重要标志。在服务业中,生产者服务作为服务业和制造业的粘合剂 ,成为先进工业化国家后期工业化的重要特征。中国作为发展中国家,制造业发展迅速,但服务水平较低,服务贸易存在大量的逆差,尤其在高新技术含量和知识含量高的生产者服务贸易上与发达国家差距显著,缺乏国际竞争力,成为产业价值链中较薄弱的环节,直接影响和制约着中国在经济全球化中的国际分工格局与利益分配。基于对中国生产着服务贸易研究,结合相关理论，本文引用实证描述了中国生产者服务贸易的发展现状，接着通过对一些实际数据进行深入分析，提出了我国生产性行业所存在的问题,并针对性的给出了政策建议.【关键词】生产者 服务贸易 进出口结构 现状 对策
Abstract
目录
第五篇：硕士毕业论文修改葵花宝典
论文修改宝典
Papertest检测常识（以下简称PT）
一、亲们最关心的是哪些地方需要改，哪些地方不需要改以及如何修改！
不需要改的地方：
A、由于PT是采用通篇检测的原则，所以目录、声明、小标题和参考文献部分也会参与检测，这几部分如果有标红的地方可以直接跳过，不改，也可以在提交PT论文检测的时候将目录、声明、参考文献删除，不参与检测，还能省钱。（这部分字数少，不检测的话对
重复率的影响就1%左右）
B、论文检测，本来就是个机器活，机器肯定不如人脑，会有一定的误判存在，这个是可以理解的。而PT的检测又是最严格，那么肯定会存在少量太严不沾边的误判，这些可以直接跳过，不修改。比如：“我是她儿子”和“她是我儿子”任何检测系统检测出来肯定都是百分百相似。机器是死的，人是活的，我们可以灵活修改。
C、当抄袭的内容是法规条文名人名言概念真理等固定的条款，这种情况就不需要修改了，改也改不出一个道道。
需要修改的地方：
PT检测报告中：句子不同颜色表示不同的相似度，红色表示相似度在百分之70以上，橙色表示相似度在百分之40-70，绿色表示合格的句子。所以在排除以上三种不需要改的情况之后，红色句子重点修改，橙色句子稍微修改。绿色句子中要是有您知道是抄袭的句子也需要修改。（任何系统的对比库都是有限的，虽然有几十亿上百亿的数据，但毕竟这世界资料那么多，而且很多是有版权的，肯定不可能全部都收录，存在部分检测不到是正常的）
修改方法总结：
只留下肯定改不了的部分如专业术语、数据等，其他的都用同义词替换，并改变描述方式（变原句为倒装句、被动句、主动句），另外还可以把超长句拆分成几个短句。注意修改过程中可以适当增减字数，但是不能改变太多，比如原本一个句子四十个字被改成十个，或者八十个，甚至直接删除标红的句子，这样有可能会越改越重复，甚至还可能导致原本检测不重复的地方在下次检测中会变成重复的。（这是由于PT和知网检测系统都采用了模糊算法，如果整体结构和大纲被打乱（比如删除了A这个标红的句子），可能引起句子B前后检测标红不一致（第一次检测合格，第二次却被标红）简而言之，修改会引起“蝴蝶效应”，所以当您的文章相似度比较少的时候（比如低于30%），修改过程中不要对字数改变太大，而如果您的相似度很高，（比如高于40%）您就可以大刀阔斧的修改，甚至直接删除标红的句子，否则几乎每个句子都要重新修改又要考虑到字数的话就工作量太大了。具体修改案例见底部。
二、PT数据库有哪些
PaperTest的比对指纹数据库库由超过9000万的学术期刊和学位论文，以及一个超过10亿数量的互联网网页数据库组成。指纹库是指提取的文章关键性特征信息，并非全文。
现在大家写论文主要都是通过互联网来收集资料，为了更大程度顺应市场规则，PT采用优先互联网匹配原则，也就是说当我们匹配到了互联网的文章后，就不会再去匹配论文资源库了，这样就能为最多的买家提供最有效最准确的论文修改指导。另外大家注意到两个问题：一是买家A第一次用PT检测是90%，修改数次之后用PT检测只有10%，那么可以很肯定的说知网也低于10%（因为PT比知网严格，几乎检测的相似度都比知网高，而如果）
为什么引用也会全部标红？先说一下知网对于引用库的检测原则吧，知网在检测专用术语中有两种库的概念，我们暂且用一种通俗易懂的语言来解释，一种是抄袭库，一种是引用库。断句的时候，当发现一句话，来自于抄袭库，他则算是抄袭，如果发现是引用库的时候，则算引用，所以无论你在文中的引用符号标得多么先进，他都以他的库为标准，所以建议不要过度引用。在PaperPass论文修改的过程中，你加了引用的地方可以暂且先pass掉，毕竟论文中是允许存在一定的引用的。
所有的修改完后，建议再次进行一次检测，检测完后，确定无问题了，无可以修改的地方了，可以采用知网做一次定稿检测。为了论文顺利通过，修修改改是必要的，别偷懒，顺利毕业比什么都重要。
修改方法案例分析
例如下句：
过热故障中的过热与变压器正常运行下的发热是有区别的，正常运行时的其发热源来自于绕组和铁芯，即铜损和铁损，而变压器过热故障是由于受到有效热应力而造成的绝缘加速劣化，它具有中等水平的能量密度。
论文更改为：
几乎被标红，说明与相似文献存在重合和高度相似，经过以上方式结合，本句可改为： 过热故障中出现的过热容易与变压器正常运行下的发热相混淆，后者是因为其绕组和铁芯会出现铜损和铁损的现象，这是正常运行过程中的发热，而变压器过热故障是受到有效热应力造成的绝缘加速劣化，具有中等水平的能力密度。
这样修改几乎可以降低抄袭率一半。
例如下句：
上世纪九十年代以来，在生产力提高、科技进步、跨国公司活跃等因素的共同驱动下，经济全球化席卷全球，世界经济越来越成为一 个整体，跨国公司根据其战略部署在世界范围内对生产要素和资源进行优化配置和重新整合，这导致国际贸易和分工的方式悄然发生 了变化，由传统的产业间分工模式逐步演化为同一产品不同工序和区段上的分工体系，即产品内分工。
论文更改为:
从20世纪末以来，在新的科技革命及跨国公司迅速发展的带动下，全球经济日趋一体化，各国经济在世界范围内实现了竞争与协作相结合的良好共存局面。在全球范围内，各生产要素由于跨国公司的快速发展实现了优化配置和重新整合，从而使国陈贸易和世界分工的方式产生了适应新时代要求的变化，传统的产业分工方式开始转变为因产品在工序和区段上的差异而进行的分工方式，这也就是我 们所说的产品之中的分工。
例如下句：
在透明水杯的清水中放入少量纤维进行搅动，便可以直观地发现纤维呈立体悬浮状乱向分散，且长时间放置都不会有太大变化，说明合成纤维的质量较好；质量差的纤维经搅动后可能分散，但时隔不久便会上浮为一絮状层。质量差的纤维在混凝土的实际配制过程中多不易均匀分散。
论文更改为：
（本段完全被标红，修改方式只有一种，就是打乱顺序，重新组织）
将少量纤维放入盛装清水的透明容器中，边搅动边观察纤维变化情况，如果合成纤维质量较好，那么就可以直观地看到纤维呈立体悬浮状分散，随着时间的推移，位置也不会发生明显的变化；若合成纤维质量较差，那么搅动的过程中，纤维可能分散，并且容易上浮形成絮状层。质量差的纤维在混凝土的实际配制过程中多不易均匀分散。
例如下句：
对施工单位或业主提出的设计变更要求要进行统筹考虑，确定其必要性，同时将设计变更对施工工期和费用的影响进行全面分析，非改不可的要调整施工计划，以尽可能减少对工程的不利影响。
论文更改为：
施工单位或业主一旦提出设计变更要求，要进行统筹考虑，考察变更的必要性，同时，将设计变更对施工工期、费用等方面可能造成的影响进行全面而科学的分析，遇到非改不可的变更要调整施工计划，尽可能将其对工程的不利影响降到最小
“反反抄袭”密招一：改写
躲避“论文测谎仪”的方法听起来有些笨，但却很“实用”，那就是——改写。“不是论文不能抄，要看你会抄不会抄！”。
东拼西凑其实并没有过时，关键在于要仔细，不能露出马脚。首先在不同的资料当中找到我需要的东西，然后把每句话变变句式，换换说法，加一些解释性的扩充，略作增删，最后把这些部分组织到一起，论文就大功告成了。虽然繁琐一点，但是最后出炉的论文，绝对就像去韩国做了整容手术，焕然一新！再牛的测谎仪见到我这论文，估计也只有哀叹的份儿。
多加参考书目，把脚注一通乱加，那就是双重保险了！”有的时候，东拼西凑出一大段话，但是又不知道怎么改写更好，就干脆给这段话原封不动地加上一个引号，然后再给这段话编一个相应的脚注。首先，„引用‟部分不算作抄袭，论文测谎仪会自动剔除；其次，老师根本不可能有精力去检查我的每个脚注是否真实。这样一来，我的抄袭怎么可能被发现呢？
“反反抄袭”密招二：翻译
要抄，就不能留下任何痕迹。她的方法更加繁琐，但也更加保险，那就是翻译。跨语言的论文测谎系统还没有研发出来。广泛查阅外文资料，挑出可以为我所用的部分，按照一定框架合在一起，一篇拼凑的英文论文就诞生啦！再把它翻译成中文，毕业论文不就有着落了吗？说抄袭，测谎仪软件查得出来吗？
这种方法对英语水平有很高要求，不过，英语一般的同学也有自己的“门道”。有些同学付钱给学校里英语专业的研究生，请他们对自己的“双语论文”全程把关。“很多学校的墙上贴着这种小广告，英语专业的学生为人操刀论文，价格也不菲，少则几百元多则上千元。
“反反抄袭”密招三：取巧
改写也好，翻译也罢，都是力气活儿。几万字的论文，如果字字改写，句句翻译，恐怕论文没写完，已经是人比黄花瘦，华发上鬓头了。理工科学生是天下最幸福的人，因为“理工科的论文，变变数据图表啊，变变操作环节啊，就可以变成自己的东西了，反抄袭软件根本查不出来”。理工科的个人成果要好出一些，数据不一样，画图不一样，结果就不一样。自己写个软件，下载一个源代码，然后根据需要加以修改，就能把代码变成自己的啦！最后用自己的框架搭建起来，毕业设计就完成了。
“反反抄袭”密招四：Google新用
如果说以上所有同学的“反反抄袭”密招都还在大家的理解范围之内的话，那么这种“反反抄袭”法，则让人瞠目结舌，以为自己遇到了火星人。
这种方法，命名为“Google法”。“所谓„Google法‟，就是找一篇现成的论文，把论文的每一段都用Google在线翻译成英文，然后将翻译好的英文用Google在线翻译全部转回中文。猛地看上去，跟原文差不多；可是仔细一看，其实每句话都不一样！只要自己再把少量的语病改一改，就大功告成了。”
提交论文之前，上淘宝网，有很多卖家会提供论文检测服务！卖家也持有类似的论文检测软件，通过卖家可以查看自己的论文有哪些破绽，再把露出马脚的部分精心修改。这样一来，把毕业论文交上去，就不会有什么风险了。有很多同学都准备这样做，花钱买个放心呗！
修改其实很简单，不要被红字所吓倒，沉下心来，任何文章都能改好，最后祝您顺利通过学校的论文答辩！！
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