语言学概论_课后参考答案__杨信彰[精选多篇]

第一篇：语言学概论_课后参考答案__杨信彰

Charpter1 1.1.1 1.a.This sentence may have three interpretations: 1)He rolled from side to side in his grave.2)He returned his grave.3)He handed in his grave.b.There are two interpretations to this sentence: 1)They gave preference to both young men and young women.2)They gave preference to women and young men.2.Units that have reference: I, saw, Mary, went, the library.Units that indicate structure: when, to.3.a.This sentence is grammatical, but is nonsensical.b.This sentence is ungrammatical and nonsensical.c.This is a good sentence.d.This is a good sentence.1.1.2 1.a.This sign is a symbol.It means we will have good luck.I know it from my cultural background, because the Chinese character “福” means “luck” and the color red symbolizes “goodness”.The Chinese meaning of “upside down” is “倒”, which has the similar pronunciation of “到(arrive)”.Thus, when the character “福” is put upside down, it means that luck arrives.b.This sign is an icon.It means no smoking, and I know it from the picture.c.This sign is a mixture of a symbol and a icon.It means that “parking” is only allowed for disabled people.2.I think the house is on fire because smoke is a index of fire.3.To the physician, it means that the man has got a fever.4.I think so, but not exactly, because the difference of the consonants does not mean the bird in different places cries differently.1.1.3 1.according to the arbitrariness theory, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.The link between them is a matter of convention.Thus, the name Xiao Long is just a label for the son.However, in Chinese culture dragon was the symbol for the emperor.Thus, the name may have certain associative meanings.2.No.The speaker of a language, based upon the convention established in the speech community, associates linguistic signs with things and concepts.In people's mind, “pig” stands for foolishness and laziness.If I name it Pig Hair Shampoo, no one will buy it.3.Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use.Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules.The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.1.1.4 1.I prefer to use the spoken language.In a supermarket, the spoken language is much more convenient for people to communicate with each other.People do not have the time and necessity to use written language in communication.2.I think listening and speaking should come first.The primary medium of language is sound, and language is primarily vocal.What's more, children can learn to listen and speak a foreign language more quickly than they read and write.1.1.5 1.No, I don't agree with this point of view.Language is human specific, so humans and dogs can not communicate with each other.2.A parrot only can say what it is taught.It can not form an infinite set of utterances from a finite use of units.So, a parrot talking can not be equated with human language.3.That is only the result of the stimulus-response training.4.Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects: 1)Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space.In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey such ability.2)Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3)Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4)Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animal communication system.5)Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages are open-ended.1.1.6 1.The advanced technology such as telephones and the Internet makes human communication become much more convenient and frequent.People can communicate with others in remote places freely.2.There may exist several causes: 1)The sender can not express himself or herself clearly.2)The receiver can not understand what the sender said.3)The receiver is unwilling to communicate with the sender.4)There exists misunderstanding because of the different cultural background of the sender and the receiver.3.We must pay key attention to learning the knowledge of the ways of thinking, acting and speaking of a language, for differences in this kind of knowledge may cause trouble in intercultural communication.1.2.1 1.a.Physiological function b.Performative function c.Phatic function d.Informative function 2.People like poetry because people can enjoy the rhythm and the melody of certain combinations of sounds in the poetry.And most creative uses of language in the poetry can provide people considerable pleasure through the generation of puns, paradoxes, ambiguities and metaphors.3.I may not say anything, but move the desk away.1.2.2 1.General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language whilst metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use.2.No.According to Halliday, every sentence in a text is multifunctional and has three metafunctions simultaneously: ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.3.Halliday's functional theory emphasizes the relationship between language structure and the language functions in social life, while the traditional grammar emphasizes the forms of the sentence.1.3.1 1.I agree to the evolutionary theory which tends to believe that man evolved from lower forms of life, and so did language.This is a scientific approach to the origin of language as it is based on a wide range of studies over years by biologists, anthropologists, psychologists, neurologists, primatologists and linguists.With many significant changes since its early introduction, the evolutionary theory shows us the origin of language from various aspects, such as the organic evolution, environmental factors.2.轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪

3.Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc.According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.1.3.2 1.Usually, there are two main ways of classifying languages: the genetic(or genealogical)and the typological.The historical classification is based on the assumption that languages have diverged from a common ancestor.This criteria is to research into the history and relatedness of languages.On the other hand, the typological classification is based on a comparison of the formal similarities which exist between languages.It is an attempt to group languages into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary, rather than in terms of any real or assumed historical relationship.2.Currently, we cannot say that all languages in the world derived from one common ancestor.It might be true that some languages have diverged from one common ancestor, for example, French, Spanish, Italian and other Romance languages were clearly descended from Latin, but no evidence show that all languages in the world have the same origin.As research shows, there are at least 29 language families in the world.However, this problem will be solved when we have enough evidence to show that human beings have one common ancestor.3.The major causes for the language diversity in the world include grammatical structure, historical factors, social factors, intercultural contact, etc.1.4.1 1.The two sentences perform the same function of requesting.However, The two sentences have different choices of words and syntax structures.Sentence(a)is structurally an imperative sentence, while Sentence(b)takes the form of a question and the word 'please' is added.So, the effects of the two utterances are different.Sentence(b)would sound more polite.When we are decoding them, we would take into account such factors as choice of words and syntactic structures, the principle of politeness and the context.2.As a science, linguistics demands a scientific outlook upon language.To conduct a study of language scientifically, we must take an objective view of language and all linguistic phenomena and study language and reflect on it in a detached and unbiased way.Even a local variety with few native speakers may also fall within our investigations.Moreover, we should adopt the general principles of empirical research procedures to observe and analyze data found in natural languages.3.The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages in the world.We need to look into the common features of all languages, the range of variations among languages, the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language, the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.1.4.2 1.It is very important to study speech in linguistics, because language is primarily vocal.As we know, no community has a written form only, though many have a spoken language only.Children learn spoken language first and most easily.Earlier in the 20th century certain linguists began to doubt the priority of writing.Bloomfield argued that writing was not language but merely a way of recording language.The contemporary linguistics maintains that the spoken language is primary and that writing is essentially a means of representing speech in another medium.Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech because it is the “natural,” or primary, medium in which language is manifest, and written language derives from the transference of speech to a secondary, visual medium.2.There is no absolute standard of correctness because linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive.Different groups of people may use different varieties of language.The correctness in language use should not be prescribed grammatically.3.In reality, it is impossible to have a standard language.The reason is that linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive.There is no absolute standard of correctness.What's more, as we know, with the passage of time, all languages are subject to change.All living languages are there to serve the different social needs of the communities that use them.As these needs change, languages will tend to change to meet the new situations.Thus, a standard language is not possible.1.5.1 1.There are many external factors related to language.Cultural factors influence the full meaning of the language conveys.Social factors include the social backgrounds of both the speaker and the addressee(i.e.their age, sex, social class, ethnic background, degree of integration into their neighborhood, etc.), the relationship between speaker and addressee and the context and manner of the interaction.Psychological factors have effects on people's behaviors.2.Though there are many translation softwares in the market, translations done by machines are full of errors and require much post-editing.The key problem is the lack of a good linguistic theory to provide a frame of reference for machine translation.It is unlikely that machines will replace human translators.3.Foreign language learning and teaching involves several interrelated factors.These are: linguistic theories, situational factors, input and interaction, learner differences, learner processes, linguistic output, curriculum and syllabus design, teaching methodology, learner and teacher roles, textbook writing, language planning, and so on.1.5.2 1.Linguistic studies have gone through many changes.Since the 1930s down to the present, the expansion of knowledge in so many directions have led to several attempts to make synthesis and to develop a unified theory of language.Several schools of thought have emerged round a few prominent linguists such as Firth, Halliday, Hjelmslev and Chomsky, major centers of linguistic study like Prague School, Geneva School, Copenhagen School, and leading concepts such as structuralism, functionalism, tagmemics, systemic functional grammar, transformational generative grammar, speech act theory.2.I think discourse analysis is a proper way to study language.Traditional linguistic analysis has concentrated on the internal structure of sentences, but discourse analysis is interested in the analysis of units larger than sentences.Thus, the term discourse or text refers to all linguistic units with a definable communicative function, spoken or written.It stresses the need to see language as a dynamic, social, and interactive phenomenon.3.A corpus is always needed in linguistics.Over the past few years, the study of language in actual use has required a corpus-based research.Scholars need a corpus to analyze patterns of use in natural texts.The importance of corpus to language study is aligned to the importance of empirical data because empirical data enable the linguist to make objective statements, rather than those based upon the individual's own subjective perception of language.So, corpus linguistics should be seen as a subset of the activity within an empirical approach to linguistics.Charpter 2 2.1.1 1.Articulatory phonetics deals with the identification and classification of individual sounds.It attempts to provide a framework of the nature of speech sounds and how they are produced.Acoustic phonetics focuses on the analysis and measurement of sound waves.It studies the physical characteristics of speech sounds as they are determined and measured by machines, and attempts to deduce the acoustic basis of speech production and perception.2.The speech chain consists of three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message and the reception of the message.According to Ball and Rahilly, there are a series of activities in the speech chain.First, there is physiological activity in the brain of the speaker.Then the brain sends instructions to a variety of muscles of vocal organs.The result is a range of muscle contractions and physical movement of structures such as the rib cage, the larynx, the tongue and so on.In turn, these movements give rise to an aerodynamic phase of the speech chain, whereby air flows through the vocal tract.This airflow interacts with continued movement of structures such as the vocal folds, tongue, lips and soft palate to produce the different features of speech.This modified airflow through the vocal tract impinges on the air surrounding the speaker.3.Spelling is not the same as pronunciation in English.For example, in pronunciation, the “h” in the word “hour” is silent.“ph” in the word “elephant” is pronounced as [f], which seems to have nothing to do with its spelling.Another example might be a pair of words like “meet” and “meat”, who have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings.2.1.2 1.In the production of speech, the vocal tract sets a column of air into motion, and then modifies this moving air-stream in a number of ways to produce the sounds of speech.2.When describing individual sound segments, phoneticians and linguists often employ two parameters to examine how sounds are articulated: manner of articulation and place of articulation.In terms of manner, sounds are classified into plosives, nasals, fricatives, affricates, approximants, trills and taps.When examined from view of place of articulation, sounds are divided into groups like bilabials, dentals, post-alveolar, retroflex, uvular, glottal, labiodentals, alveolar, palatal, velar and pharyngeal sounds.3.Bilabial, dental and labiodental sounds are different from one another in terms of place of articulation.Bilabials are articulations made with the upper and lower lips brought together.In bilabial stops they form an air-tight seal producing the plosives [p, b] or, if the velum is lowered, the nasal [m].Dentals are produced by the front of the tongue touching the back of the upper front teeth.Dental sounds are generally apical.Dental fricatives occur in English as pronunciations of the 'th' spellings.The voiceless dental fricative of 'th' in 'thin', whereas its voiced counterpart

is the sound

is the sound of 'th' in 'then'.Labiodentals are articulations produced with the lower lip approximating to the underside of the upper front teeth.For example, in English the [f] in fat and the [v] in vat are labiodental fricatives.2.1.3

3.First of all, vowels and consonants appear in different places in English words.Secondly, vowels and consonants are produced differently.Vowels are made by egressive pulmonic airflow through vibrating or constricted vocal folds and through the vocal tract, and the sound is modified in the oral cavity.Consonants are made by constricting the vocal tract at some point thereby diverting, impeding, or completely shutting off the flow of air in the oral cavity.2.1.4 1.Narrow transcription captures the exact articulatory details of each sound.It records as many features of an utterance as can be ascertained by the person doing the recording.On the contrary, broad transcription is a less subtle transcription.It omits many of the irrelevant and predictable details of pronunciation and is perfectly suitable for many users.2.Omitted.2.2.1 1.Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence.In other words, a phoneme is a block that cannot be broken down into smaller parts;it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis.Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.2.Omitted.3.[p] and [b] are different phonemes because they represent distinctive sounds.In addition, if we substitute one sound for the other, it results in a change of meaning.2.2.2 1.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs.For instance, “deed” and “seed” are minimal pairs, but “deed” and “dog” are not because the vowel and final consonant in these two sounds are different.2.a)/p/-/b/: pig-big;gap-gab;b)/k/-/g/: coat-goat;back-bag;c)/f/-/v/: life-live;fife-five;

d)/m/-/n/: meat-neat;time-tine;e)/r/-/l/: right-light;sear-seal 3.2.2.3 1.Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group.Thus, “distinctive” means serving to identify, distinguishing.2.The distinctive features for each group of sounds are: a)[p, t, b, d]: [-high,-back] b)[j, w, i, u]: [+voiced, +high] 3.a)life, lives: similarities: [-high,-back], differences: life [f]: [-voiced];lives[v]: [+voiced] b)choice, choose: similarities: [-high,-back];differences: choice[s]: [-voiced], choose [z]: [+voiced] c)deduce, deduction: similarities: [+back];differences: deduce: [-high,-round], deduction: [+high, +round] 2.3.1 1.Edinburgh, Wednesday, Thames are words in which pronunciation does not match the spelling.2.These words are not permissible in English.All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes.*tpray, *btry, *tgharg do not sound like an English word because it does not conform to the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.When three consonants occur, the first must be [s].2.3.2 1.When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.That is to say, complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e.in a context in which the other sound(s)never occur(s).2.For the speaker, the Chinese consonants [sh] and [x] are the same.So, to him, there is no need to distinguish these two sounds, and he pronounces the two consonants in the same way..2.4.1 1.Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak, and the coda.The onset of a syllable consists of all the segments that precede the peak and are tautosyllabic with it.The peak is realized by a vowel.The coda consists of all the tautosyllabic segments that follow the peak.A syllable that has no coda is called an unchecked or open syllable;one with a coda is called a checked or closed syllable.2.The word “yesterday” has three syllables.ye-ster-day.“extra” has two syllables.ex-tra “secretarial” has four syllables.se-cre-ta-rial “camera” has three syllables.ca-me-ra “appreciation” has five syllables.a-pre-ci-a-tion 3.English has syllables that begin with vowels and onsets of from one to three consonants.In English, three-consonant onsets are highly restricted in their composition.The first consonants in such onsets must be an s, the second a voiceless stop, and the third a liquid.Moreover, if the second consonant is t, the third must be r.2.4.2 1.2.Stress in English is very important.English is a stress language.The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words.Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units.Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable.In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yield a regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm are commonly called 'feet'.This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English.2.4.3 1.Pitch is a suprasegmental quality which extends over individual segments and longer stretches of speech.Pitch is the perceived frequency of a sound wave.Perceived pitch is largely determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and to some extent by the intensity of the sound.2.Pitch is very important in Chinese.Different pitches on Chinese characters can lead to meaning differences.For example, “fei”, when given different pitches, may mean “飞(fly)”, “肥(fat)”, “匪(bandit)” or “沸(boil)”.2.4.4 1.The intonation patterns of the following English questions are: a)It begins with a mid pitch, rises to a higher pitch and then falls.b)Falling.c)Rising.d)It begins with a mid pitch, falls to a lower pitch and then rises.2.Intonations refer to the pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than the syllable.Intonation serves several functions in verbal communication such as grouping words, emphasizing words and differentiating meanings.3.Intonation plays a very important role in daily conversations.In some languages, such as English and Chinese, the same sequence of segments may have different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches.Keys to Linguistics of Xiamen University Charpter 3 3.1.1 1.A word is characterized with the following four features:(1)A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal organs.(2)A word is symbolic, i.e.it stands for something else, such as objects, happenings or ideas.(3)A word is part of the large communication system we call language.(4)Words help human beings to interact culturally with one another.2.The relation between the sound or sound combination of a word and its meaning is almost always arbitrary.There is no logical relationship between the sound or the combination of sounds which stands for an entity(including a thing, a happening or an idea)and the entity itself.On the one hand, the same sound may stand for different entities in different languages.On the other hand, the same meaning can be represented by different sound of combination of sounds.3.Apart from the conceptual meaning(also called “denotative”, “logical” or “cognitive” meaning), a word normally has various associated meanings, including the connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning.We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning.As for its various associated meanings, however, we have to relate the word with its context, including the linguistic context as well as the context of situation and the context of culture.3.1.2 1.In(prep.)practice(n.), writers(n.)on(prep.)style(n.)have(primary v.)differed(full v.)a(det.)great(adj.)deal(n.)in(prep.)their(pron.)understanding(n.)of(prep.)the(det.)subject(n.), and(conj.)one(num.)source(n.)of(prep.)disagreement(n.)has(primary v.)been(full v.)the(det.)question(n.)“To(prep.)what(pron.)or whom(pron.)do(primary v.)we(pron.)attribute(full v.)style(n.)? In(prep.)the(det.)broadest(adj.)sense(n.), STYLE(n.)can(modal v.)be(primary v.)applied(full v.)to(prep.)both(adv.)spoken(adj.)and(conj.)written(adj.), both(adv.)literary(adj.)and(conj.)non-literary(adj.)varieties(n.)of(prep.)language(n.);but(conj.)by(prep.)tradition(n.), it(pron.)is(full v.)particularly(adv.)associated(full v.)with(prep.)written(adj.)literary(adj.)texts(n.), and(conj.)this(pron.)is(full v.)the(det.)sense(n.)of(prep.)the(det.)term(n.)which(pron.)will(modal v.)concern(full v.)us(pron.).2.No.These two categories of words have different distribution in speech and writing.Lexical words denote objects, happenings, ideas and their attributes, features, and/or manners, thus relating the words with entities existing outside the text.Grammatical words, instead, denote certain grammatical meanings, thus relating one element within the text with another.In speech there are more grammatical words, while in writing there are more lexical words.Moreover, the more formal the style is, the more lexical words there are.3.Open-class words refer to those classes of words to which we can add new words.In English, nouns, notional verbs, adjectives and adverbs belong to this category.Such words normally convey certain semantic contents and thus are also called ”content words“.Closed-class words refer to those classes to which new words can hardly be added.In English, closed-class words include pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, relatives, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs and the linking verb ”to be“.Their roles in the linguistic system are partly or wholly grammatical and thus are also called ”grammatical words“.3.2.1 1.1)un-+ bear +-able 2)watch +-ful 3)person+-ify(i)+-cation

4)un-+ exception +-al +-ly 5)un-+educate +-(e)d 6)inspir(e)+-ing

7)soft + heart +-ed 8)horse + man +-ship 2.1)3: geo-+-graph +-y 2)4: inter-+nation +-al +-ly 3)2: forget +-(t)en 4)1: Washington 5)2: inform +-ation 6)4: industry(i)+-al +-iz(e)+-ation 7)3: pre-+ dominat(e)+-ant 8)2: pre-+ conscious 3.The plural s has 5 morphologically-conditioned allomorphs:(1)-(e)s, as in ”cats“, ”matches“;(2)-(r)en: as in ”oxen“, ”children“;(3)-e-: as in ”men“, ”women“;(4)-ee-, as in ”feet“, ”teeth“;and(5)zero, as in ”sheep“, ”deer“.3.2.2 1.1)inspire: into 2)intransigent: not 3)insufficient: not 4)insert: into 5)insoluble: not 6)intact: not 7)impenetrable: not 8)immutable: not 9)illicit: not 10)irretrievable: not 2.1)princeempress 3)waiterfiancée 6)heroqueen 8)oxshe-wolf 10)doctor-woman doctor 3.1)operationresponsibilities 3)proposalmodernization 5)beautifyactivates 7)funnyfriendlier 3.3.1 1.Inflection refers to the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way according to the grammatical rules of the language.English inflections are used to express certain grammatical meanings: the plural morpheme {s} to change the noun into the plural-number form, the generative-case morpheme {'s} to indicate the relation of possession, the feminine-gender morpheme {ess} to change the masculine noun into its corresponding feminine-gender form, the third-person singular {s} to change the verb into the third-person singular form, the-ing participle {ing} to change the verb into the-ing participle, the past-form morpheme {ed} to change the verb into the past-tense form, the past-participle morpheme {ed} to change the verb into the-ing participle, the comparative {er} to change an adjective into the comparative-degree form, and the superlative {est} to change an adjective into the superlative-degree form.2.No, inflection is not universal.Different languages have different morphology.There are languages, like Latin and Sanskrit, which abound in inflectional morphemes.There are also languages, like Chinese, which have no inflectional morphemes.Between these two extremes are some intermediate languages, like English, which have comparatively few inflectional morphemes than languages of the first category.3.Omitted.3.3.2 1.1)password: word to be passed 2)housewife: wife in charge of a household 3)sunshine: shine of the sun 4)milkman: man who sells or delivers milk 5)sunflower: plant whose flower faces the sun 6)apple pie: pie consisting of a filling of apples 7)mosquito net: net to prevent mosquitoes 8)daydream: dream in the daytime 9)freezing-point: point at which a liquid freezes 10)flashlight: light of a flash 2.Abbreviation refers to the way in which a longer word or expression is abbreviated or shortened.In both English and Chinese, longer words can be abbreviated via clipping, blending, and initials and acronyms.However, differences exist.While English words are made up of letters which can be pronounced into syllables, Chinese words are made up of characters each of which is normally pronounced as a separate syllable.While the English language differentiates blending, initials and acronyms, the Chinese language makes no such differentiation.In Chinese, the major approach to abbreviating a longer expression is usually to combine the first character of each of the constituent words into a shortened expression, in which the constituent characters are pronounced individually.Another commonly-used way of abbreviation in Chinese is to combine a numeral and the head word of a series of parallel constructions, as in ”四化“.3.The English language normally adds new words to its vocabulary through coinage, compounding, derivation, abbreviation, imitation, and borrowing.3.4.1 1.1)11：他/在/学校/表现/很/好/，是/个/优秀/学生/干部/。

2)12：这里/的/水果/真/多/，到处/是/荔枝/、香蕉/、芒果/、樱桃/、西瓜/。

3)24：Had/ the/ construction/ worker/ not/ seen/ the/ attack/ as/ he/ was/ driving/ to/ work/ early/ and/ jumped/ in/ to/ try/ and/ help/, she/ might/ have/ died/, police/ said/.（The following lexemes occur twice in the sentence: the primary verb ”have“(had/have), the determiner ”the“, the infinitive marker ”to“.）

4)12：Astronomers/ are/ elated/ by/ the/ discovery/ of/ an/ object/ that/ rivals/ the/ size/ of/ Pluto's/ moon/.(The determiner ”the“ occurs twice in the sentence.)2.A lexeme refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units whereas a word refers to the smallest form of a language that can occur by itself.A lexeme may be or may not be identical with a word.For example, the definite article ”the“ is both a lexeme and a word.However, the lexeme ”put up with“ has three different words.3.Collocation refers to the habitual co-occurrence of individual lexical items.In a word, collocation is the linguistic reflection of certain conventional relations conceived by the native speakers of a language between the lexical items and/or between the realities represented by these lexical items.Collocated lexical items fall into four categories:(1)Logical collocations: Some lexical items are allowable to co-occur because the objects, happenings, ideas and/or their properties they denote normally co-occur in the context of situation or culture.(2)Semantic collocations: Some lexical items are collocations because the contents they denote are normally related with each other.(3)Lexical collocations: Such collocations involve the habitual co-occurrence of lexical items of different categories because of certain expressional conventions.(4)Grammatical collocations: Some lexical items co-occur because of certain grammatical restrictions.3.4.2 1.Idioms refer to phrasal lexemes which have relatively regular lexical meaning and restricted grammatical variation.By definition, idioms are relatively fixed in structure.We cannot alter or substitute its component words of our own will.For example, we cannot alter the idiomatic greeting ”How do you do?“ into ”How did you do?“, nor can we substitute the adjective ”green“ in the idiomatic expression ”green with envy“ with ”red“.2.Language is the reflection of human knowledge of the world.With the constant economic, technological, social and cultural development and the expansion of human beings' knowledge of nature, the society and themselves, they have to create new words and expressions to denote the new natural and/or social phenomena, their new discoveries, new inventions and new perceptions.As a result, the lexicon of a language is constantly expanding.3.Proverbs refer to a brief epigram or maxim.They are always succinct in language and pregnant in meaning.In other words, they are the condensed summary of the experiences and wisdom of a culture.They not only help the members of a culture to express themselves wittily and tersely but also enable the community to pass their experiences and wisdom from one generation to another.Some proverbs are instructive.Charpter 4 4.1.1 1.No.Immediate constituent analysis is solely concerned with the surface structures of language, which only shows the physical manifestation of the language, for example, linear order of a sentence.One approach to explain sentences with discontinuous constituents is to represent them by two phrase markers, which will be structurally related.One phrase marker is derived from another.By transformational grammar, the discontinuous constituents can be accounted for effectively.Transformational rules are responsible for the generation of infinitely many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrase-structure rules.2.1)

2)

3.(a)a)The door was shut down.b)The store was not open for business.(b)a)I don't like the painting of Jack.b)I don't like the painting owned by Jack.(c)a)I chalked a picture of the woman on the blackboard.b)I drew a picture of the woman who had a piece of chalk in her hand.4.1.2 1.(b)2.(a)

(b)

(c)

3.(a)complex;(b)coordinate;(c)simple 4.2.1(a)One clause.Main clause.Declarative.S ——→ NP VP Subject + Predicate

b)One clause.Main clause.Declarative.S ——→ NP VP NP

Subject + Predicate + Complement

(c)Two clauses.Main clause, and relative clause.Declarative.S ——→ NP VP VP ——→ V NP S'

Subject + Predicate + Complement Subject + Predicate + Adjunct

(d)Three clauses.Main clause, complement clause, and relative clause.Interrogative.S ——→(Q)NP VP NP S' S ——→ NP S'' VP NP

Subject + Predicate + Complement Subject + Predicate

4.2.2 1.1)(a)

(b)

2)

3)

2.(1)O,(2)O,(3)N,(4)O

4.3.1 1.Surface structure can be derived from deep structure.A surface structure may be represented by more than one phrase marker, which in sense is the same to a single phrase marker.This one single phrase marker is said to be the deep structure.In the operation from deep structure to surface structure, phrase structure rules and modifications are needed to add, delete, or permute constituents.The relations between deep and surface structures are to be revealed through transformational rules.In this process, the order or hierarchic relationship of the constituents is to be changed.The actual pronunciation is based on the surface structure.2.The above two sentences have different deep structures.They appear to be similar in surface structure, but speakers of English know that in(a), the subject ”He“ is the doer of the action, and it is different from the object complement ”a good wife“ in reference.In(b), the subject ”He“ and the object complement ”a good husband“ are identical in reference.4.3.2 1.(a)The relevant parts for the passive transformational rule of the above sentence are the subject NP(here the public), the object NP(here the boss, which will change positions with the public), the V(criticize)and AUX, and then a be + en auxiliary will be inserted.The deep structure should be its corresponding active variant, which is The public criticized the boss of the bus company severely.(b)In the derivation of The woman threw the rake away in the yard., the underlying structure, The woman threw away the rake in the yard.is also the deep structure.It is generated by the phrase-structure rules, including the rule which states that a V(verb)consists of a Vprt(verbs that can combine with verbal particles)and a Prt(verbal particles).In the surface structure, a new phrase marker is produced in which the particle is moved to the right of the NP.(c)The question rule formulates that in order to form a yes-no question from the declarative sentence, move the first auxiliary verb of the main sentence(in this case, will)immediately before the first NP of that sentence(here, the new school master).So, the deep structure of the question should be its declarative variant, which is The new school master will hire her.2.(a)A wh interrogative sentence is derived by a movement rule from a deep structure similar to that of the declarative counterpart.So, the sentence like What can the computer program do for us? would derive from a deep structure in the form of The computer program can do ”what“ for us?.The wh-element occurs initially and is followed by tense and an auxiliary.In this sentence, the object is fronted.First, the interrogative transformation which switches round the auxiliary verb can and the subject the computer programknown as 'wh' movementthey all presuppose that the dog barked at the shadow.In other words, the truth value of the three utterances is dependent on the truth value of the presupposition.If the presupposition is true, then the three utterances are true.If the presupposition is false, then the three utterances are false.In contrast, in 1)and 5), the truth value of the statement ”The dog barked at the shadow“ is uncertain.In other words, we do not know for sure from the two utterances whether the dog barked at the shadow or not.2.1)This utterance presupposes that ”You have been eaten raw oysters“.The presupposition trigger is the verb ”stop“.2)This utterance presupposes that ”Little Franz had not studied French better before“.The presupposition trigger is the verb ”regretted“.3)This utterance presupposes that ”Catherine does not know anything about this event“.The presupposition trigger is the verb ”pretends“.4)This utterance presupposes that ”Mark Twain found the best setting for most of his best novels in the Mississippi valley“.The presupposition trigger is the emphatic construction ”It was … that …“.5)This utterance presupposes that ”You have helped us in the experiment“.The presupposition trigger is the verb ”appreciate“.6.3.2 1)Here(b)is the preferred response while(a)is the dispreferred.When A invites B to come and join them in the picnic, he or she normally expects the addressee to accept the invitation rather than decline it.2)Here(a)is the preferred response while(b)is the dispreferred.When A asks B to comment on a certain lady's performance, the positive response is more preferable than the negative(though modulated for the sake of politeness)one.3)Here(a)is the preferred response while(b)is the dispreferred.When A requests B to do him or her a favor, he or she normally expects a positive response rather than a negative(though indirect for the sake of politeness)one.6.4.1 1)In this utterance, 6 reference items are used in the second sentence to contribute to the coherence of the text.Firstly, the possessive determiner their and the possessive pronoun theirs, and the personal pronouns them and they are used to refer anaphorically to ”the children next door“.Secondly, the definite article the is used together with the noun toy to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase ”a toy“.Thirdly, the personal pronoun it is used to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase ”a toy“ and ”the toy“.2)In this utterance, 1 reference item is used in the first clause to contribute to the coherence of the text.Namely, the personal pronoun he is used to refer cataphorically to the proper name ”Alex“.3)In this utterance, the personal pronoun it is used in the fourth clause to refer anaphorically to the previous sentence ”If it rained day and night for two weeks, the basement flooded and everything was under water“.This clausal reference contributes to the coherence of the text by connecting the second sentence with the first one.4)In this utterance, the pronoun one is used in the second clause to refer anaphorically to the noun phrase ”a stamp“ in the first clause.This helps to connect the second clause with the first and thus contributes to the coherence of the text.5)In this utterance, the comparative Adjunct otherwise is used to make a contrast between Daddy's having a bit of cold and other aspects of his health.This helps to connect the two clauses into a coherent text.6.4.2 1.1)In this utterance, the pronoun one is used in the second sentence to substitute the noun ”book“.This establishes a comparison between the two sentences and connect them into a cohesive text.2)In this dialogue, B uses the pro-verb ”(have)done“ to substitute the verb phrase ”(have)succeeded in his ambitions“.This helps to connect B's utterances with A's into a cohesive text.3)In this dialogue, B uses the pronoun so to substitute the previous clause ”The Chicago Bulls will win the game“.This(together the ellipsis in the next clause, i.e.they will [win the game])helps to connect the two utterances into a cohesive text.4)In this dialogue, B uses the clausal substitute not to replace the previous clause(i.e.We will probably join in your excursion this weekend)to avoid unnecessary repetition.This helps to connect the two utterances into a cohesive text.2.1)In this dialogue, two clausal ellipses can be identified in B's utterance(i.e.I don't know how long I will be in here.You could ask matron how long I will be in here.).They help to connect B's utterance with A's into a cohesive text.2)In this dialogue, a verbal ellipsis can be identified in B's utterance(i.e.but Bob didn't care to take the course).This, together with the verbal substitution of did for the verb phrase ”take the course“, connects B's utterance with A's into a cohesive text.6.4.3 1)In this passage, there is one conjunctive expression, namely, moreover at the beginning of the second sentence.This conjunctive expression contributes to the cohesion of the passage by adding more information to the first sentence concerning the role of the media in shaping the social and moral norms in the American society.2)Three sequences of conjunctive expressions are used in this passage.The first sequence is the conjunctive expressions of listing, i.e.to begin in sentence 2finally in sentence(12).The second sequence is the repetition of some of the questions in sentence 6some of them in sentence 10.The third sequence includes two expressions of exemplification, i.e.for example in sentence 7 and for instance in sentence 11.Together they contribute to make the passage a cohesive text.6.4.4 1)In this passage, the author uses many expressions to describe his miserable life as a member of the working class.Such expressions include beneath the point at which I had started in sentence 1, down in the cellar of society and down in the subterranean depths of misery in sentence 3, the pit, the abyss, the human cesspool, the shambles and charnel-house of our civilization in sentence 3, the part of the edifice of society in sentence 4.Besides, the author also repeats the infinitive phrase ”to ignore“ in sentences 4 and 5.With these lexical cohesive ties, the author makes the passage a cohesive text.2)In this passage, the author uses the following lexical cohesive ties:(a)the repetition of the adjectives ”clean“, ”noble“ and ”clean“ and their derivatives, including ”(men who were)clean, noble, and alive“ and ”(whose ideas were)clean, noble, and alive in sentence 2, “(many that were)clean and noble” and “not alive” in sentence 4, “(they were)not alive”, “unclean(life)”, “clean and noble” and “not alive” in sentence 6.(b)the use of a series of parallel constructions ate with them, drank wine with them, automobiled with them, and studied them in sentence 4.(c)the repetition of the adjective passionless in sentence 7.The author uses these expressions to describe the sharp contrast between his expectation of the “masters” and the reality.6.5.1 1)He owed the tailor twenty dollars.→ It was the tailor whom he owed twenty dollars.2)“there” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.3)“Trees, forced by the damp heat” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.4)“Whether they come or not” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.5)“Getting the car on the boat” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.6)“It …getting the car on the boat” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.7)“Is” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.8)“Only once” is the theme, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme.6.5.2 1)He owed the tailor twenty dollars.→ It was the tailor whom he owed twenty dollars.2)The impossible has often proved possible.→ It is the impossible that has often proved possible.Or: What has often proved possible is the impossible.3)We have oral practice every other day.→ It is every other day that we have oral practice.4)We didn't leave the flat until we could smell the smoke in the corridor.→ It was not until we could smell the smoke in the corridor that we left the flat.5)The football match was cancelled because of the rain.→ It was because of the rain that the football match was cancelled.

第二篇：杨忠--语言学概论 课后综合测试题及中文版答案

综合测试题

（一）I.Indicate the following statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points)：

()1.General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.()2.The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology.()3.The sentence “The woman can’t bear children” is structurally ambiguous.()4.Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.()5.Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain.()6.According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.()7.Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.()8.Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.()9.Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research.()10.Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor.II.Multiple choice:(10 points)1.____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A.creativity

B.arbitrariness

C.displacement

D.interchangeability 2.Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.A.analytic

B.isolating

C.synthetic

D.agglutinating 3.The general roles language plays are termed

A.metalanguages

B.metafunctions

C.metadiscourses

D.metagrammar 4.____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.A.Blending

B.Eponyms

C.Backformation

D.Clipping 5.The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.A.suffix

B.prefix

C.morpheme

D.morph 6.__________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.A.Environmentalist

B.functionalist

C.nativist

D.both a and b 7.Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC.are called __________.A.person deixis

B.time deixis

C.place deixis

D.discourse deixis 8.Every syllable has a(n)__________, which is usually a vowel.A.nucleus

B.onset

C.code

D.rhyme 9.___________ is defined as the study of meaning.A.linguistics

B.semantics

C.morphology

D.pragmatics 10.A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community.A.pidgin

B.creole

C.Esperanto

D.natural language

III.Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a, b…j into brackets:(10 points)A()1.Socialinguistics()2.Applied Linguistics()3.Morphology()4.Phonetics()5.Linguistics()6.Syntax()7.Psycholinguistics()8.Pragmatics()9.Phonology()10 Semantics B a.the analysis of sentence structure b.the analysis of meaning in context c.the analysis of meaning

d.the study of sound systems and patterns

e.the application of linguistic theories to other spheres f.the study of speech sounds

g.the study of the relationship between language and society h.the study of word structure i.the scientific study of language

j.the study of the relationship between language and mind

IV.For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s)they all share:(10 points)1.[t∫][dз]

2.[m] [n] [ɡ]

3.[f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h]

4.[d] [n] [z] [l] [r]

5.[i:] [i] [u:] [u]

V.Consider the following words and fill in the form:(10 points)Words analyzed number of morphemes troublesome free morphemes

stepmother psycholinguistics understatement antidisestablishmentarianism

VI.Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences:(10 points)1.The duck is too hot to eat.(1)______________________________________(2)______________________________________ 2.Visiting friends can be boring.(1)______________________________________(2)______________________________________

VII.Explain the following terms:(10 points)1.derivation

2.learner factors

VIII.Answer the following questions?(30 points)

1.What is the difference between “a red and a redcoat”? 2.What are the features of modern linguistics?

3.According to Austin, what does a speech act consist of?

综合测试题

（二）I.Indicate the following statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets:(10 points)()1.According to M.A.K.Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and logical metafunction.()2.Duality is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.()3.Modality can be categorized into modalization and modulation according to Halliday.()4.Morphology is the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.()5.Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning.()6.Second language acquisition is a complex process which involves social factors and learner factors.()7.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialets, sociodialects and registers.()8.Functional linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.()9.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.()10.Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.II.Multiple choice:(10 points)1.The language used to talk about language is called __________.A.language

B.metalanguage

C.natural language

D.artificial language 2.[+continuant] specifies ________________.A.all the fricatives

B.all the fricatives and glides C.all the fricatives and liquids

D.all the fricatives, liquids and glides 3._________ is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words.A.Coinage

B.Blending

C.Acronmyms

D.Clipping 4.A __________ is a minimal distinctive linguistic unit.A.morpheme

B.word

C.phoneme

D.allophones 5.The word ―multinationality has ___________ morphemes.A.2

B.3

C.4

D.5 6._________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to ―varieties according to use‖, in contrast with regional dialects and sociolects, both of which are ―varieties according to user‖.A.field

B.mode

C.tenor

D.register 7.__________ are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.A.back-channel signals

B.adjacency pairs C.pre-sequences

D.insertion sequences 8.The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalized by Grice(1975)as ____________.A.the principle of relevance

B.cooperative principle C.the politeness principle

D.the theory of prototypes 9.Beauty and siren both refer to a good-looking woman, but they differ in __________.A.affective meaning

B.style

C.collocation

D.register 10.―John explained the theory‖ is a ___________ process according to Halliday.A.material

B.mental

C.verbal

D.behavioral

III.Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given:(10 points)1.Specially, there are four m__________ under cooperative principle generalized by Grice.2.M__________ is unanimously acknowledged by researchers and language teachers as an important factor in second language acquisition.3.A speech act consists of three dimensions.The act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression is called l_____________ act.The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed i_____________ act.The act of bringing about an effect is known as p____________ act.4.The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguists as m____________.5.C__________ is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.6.A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called a___________，7.The term language a___________ refers to the natural process of children’ language development.8.A d___________ is a variety of a language that is distinctive from other regional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.IV.Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B.And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence:(10 points)A()1.This vet is very famous in the town.()2.This classroom is large and bright..()3.He is watering flowers.()4.Orlon is a kind of cloth material.()5.Watt is the measurement unit of electricity.()6.EEC is an important organization in the world.()7.An editor is a person who edits a newspaper.()8.The road was enlarged last year.()9.Some young people have brunch quite often.B a.Conversion b.Derivation c.Blending d.Backformation e.Acronym

f.Compounding g.Coinage h.Eponym i.Clipping

V.Pick out the sound that does not belong to the group of the sounds according to the natural class of sounds.And then name the feature(s)that define the one picked out and the group of sounds:(10 points)For example: 1.[ 2.[ 3.[ 4.[ 5.[ [z] voiced/voiceless ____ ____ ____ ___________ [f] [θ] [z] [s] [m] [?] [l] [n] [p] [b] [m] [v] [w] [s] [z] [∫] [dз] [з] [i:] [i] [?] [u] [e] [i:] [?:] [e] [?] ] ____________ ] ____________ ] ____________ ] ____________] __________________________

VI.Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, ―He found his book on Wall Street‖:(10 points)

VII.Explain the following terms:(10 points)1.language and linguistics 2.semantics and pragmatics

VII.Answer the following questions:(40%)

1.How do you understand creativity, one of the features of human language? 2.What do Taboo and Euphemism mean? What is the relationship between them? 3.What are the general roles language plays according to Halliday?

综合测试题

（三）I.Indicate the statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets.(10 points)()1.A morpheme is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.()2.The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.()3.The word ―went‖ contains two morphemes.()4.The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features is called componential analysis(CA).()5.Euphemism refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of, or association with particular objects, action, or persons.()6.The distinction between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.()7.In English, the two liquids [l] and [r] are phonemes, but in Korean, they are allophones.()8.Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the Predicate.()9.Compounding is one type of word formation by combining both free morphemes and bound morphemes.()10.The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.II.Multiple choice:(10 points)1.The followings are all features of language except __________.A.duality

B.productivity

C.changeability

D.displacement 2.The lexical sense relation between flour and flower is __________.A.synonymy

B.antonym

C.polysemy

D.homonymy 3.______ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A.Conversion

B.Abbreviation

C.Eponyms

D.Blending 4.Children all undergo ________ stages of language development.A.babbling, two-word, holophrastic and the telegraphic speech B.babbling, two-word, telegraphic speech and the holophrastic C.babbling, holophrastic, two-word, and the telegraphic speech D.babbling, holophrastic, telegraphic speech and the two-word

5.The followings are acknowledged as important factors in second language acquisition except _________.A.motivation

B.nationality

C.age

D.learning strategy 6.Speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others.Based on this observation, Leech(1983)proposes _____________.A.the cooperative principle

B.the principle of relevance C.the politeness principle

D.speech acts 7.Minimal pairs can be exemplified by ____________.A.moon/noon

B.foot/food

C.she/sheet

D.sea/sea 8.The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called ___________.A.distinctive features

B.non-distinctive features C.suprasegmental features

D.free variation 9.The ____________ function(sometimes also referred to as experiential function)is realized by the transitivity system of language.A.ideational

B.interpersonal

C.textual

D.logical 10.Free morphemes were traditionally called roots, and bound morphemes _________.A.prefixes

B.suffixes

C.affixes

D.inflectional morphemes

III.Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B.And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence:(10 points)A()1.Most children like drinking Coca-cola.()2.UNESCO is a branch United Nations.()3.The police machineguned the gang.()4.I like sandwiches very much.()5.There are a lot of fruits in the fridge.()6.Infotech is popular nowadays.()7.An editor is a person who edits a newspaper.()8.His stepmother is very kind to him.()9.The street was widened last year.B a.Conversion

b.Derivation

c.Blending

d.Backformation

e.Acronym

f.Compounding g.Coinage

h.Eponym

i.Clipping

IV.Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description.(10 points)1.labiodentals 2.interdentals 3.back vowels 4.high vowels

5.palatal affricates

V.Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B.And put the letter you choose in the bracket.(10 points)A()1.The noise annoyed him.()2.The police caught him

()3.There are two books on the table.()4.John explained the theory to me.()5.He watches TV every day.()6.The conference is on Monday B a.Material process

b.Relational process

c.Mental process d.Verbal process

e.Behavioral process

f.Existential process

VI.Explain the following terms:(10 points)1.arbitrariness 2.voicing

VII.Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, ―They can fish‖.(10 points)VIII.Answer the following questions?(30 points)1.2.What is the difference between a greenhouse and a greenhouse? What is conversion in terms of word formation? Illustrate it with examples.3.What are the components of metaphors?

综合测试题

（四）I.Indicate the statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets:(10 points)()1.English is a tone language.()2.Bound morphemes are always attached to free morphemes to form new words.()3.Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meanings.()4.Metaphor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and our thinking process.()5.Overgeneralization is found universal in second language acquisition.()6.According to M.A.K.Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are experiential metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and discourse metafunction.()7.The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.()8.There are two types of language in the world: natural language and artificial language.()9.Coinage is a process of inventing words based on existing morphemes.()10 Environmentalist theories hold that experience is of more importance than innate contributions in learning a second language.II.Multiple choice:(10 points)1.The word ―antidisestablishmentariaism‖ is composed of ______ morphemes.A.six

B.seven

C.eight

D.nine 2.__________ refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.A.Voicing

B.Voiced

C.Nasalization

D.Aspiration 3.Smog is a ___________ word.A.derived

B.clipped

C.blended

D.compound 4.The idea that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importance.This kind of motivation may be termed ____ motivation.A.instrumental

B.integrative

C.cognitive

D.none of them 5.[u:] possesses the features _____________.A.[+high][+back][+round][-tense]

B.[+high][-back][+round][+tense] C.[+high][+back][+round][+tense]

D.[-high][+back][+round][+tense] 6.English is an example of _________ languages.A.VSO

B.SVO

C.SOV

D.SVO 7.A ________ is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.A.phoneme

B.phone

C.morpheme

D.morph 8.Free morphemes were traditionally called _________.A.affixes

B.prefix

C.suffix

D.root 9.The lexical sense relation between elephant and animal is __________.A.hyponymy

B.synonymy

C.antonymy

D.homonymy 10.Words like male and female, pass and fail, etc.are ________ antonyms.A.gradable

B.complementary

C.reversal

D.relative

III.Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B.And put the letter you choose in the bracketbefore the sentence.(10 points)A()1.John is talking to Jane.()2.Tom is the leader

()3.There is a cat on the bed.()4.The bad news astonished her.()5.Edward broke the window.()6.He waved his hands.B a.Material process

b.Relational process

c.Mental process d.Verbal process

e.Behavioral process

f.Existential process

IV.State what semantic property or properties are shared by the group of words.(10 points)For example: typewriter, ruler, notebook 1.king, bachelor, son 2.bull, rooster, stallion 3.pine, rose, elm 4.bravery, charity, devotion 5.car, bike, plane [ +stationary] ________________________ ________________________

V.Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s)in the words and the describe it.(10 points)

Example: far [a:] back low vowel

1.thread

2.beat

3.important

4.live

5.stop [ [ [ [ [ ] ] ] ] ]

VI.Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences.(10 points)1.She can not bear children.(1)(2)(3)______________________________________________ 2.He hates old men and women.(1)(2)______________________________________________

VII.Explain the following terms with examples.(10 points)1.2.Compounding Free variation

VII.Answer the following questions?(30 points)1.2.What is the distinction between semantics and pragmatics? What are the four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative competence according to Hymes(1972)? 3.What are the three types of antonyms(lexical opposition)in English?

综合测试题

（五）I.Indicate the statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets:(10 points)()1.Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.()2.Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meaning.()3.The Swiss linguist Chomsky regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.()4.Language can be used to refer to things real or false, past, present or future.()5.Language is merely genetically transmitted from generation to generation.()6.We use language as symbolic code to represent the world around us.()7.The ideatonal function of language binds individuals together.()8.When we speak or write we usually confine ourselves to single phrases or sentences.()9.Language is mostly a natural phenomenon.()10.Applied linguistic is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields.Ⅱ.Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it.(5 points)1.2.3.4.5.Geographic Red Song Clock Psychopathy

Ⅲ.The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions.(5 points)Initial pit/bit

Medial rapid/rabid

Final cap/cab

Find similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given: 1.2.3.4.5./k/-/g/ /m/-/n/ /l/-/r/ /b/-/v/ /b/-/m/

Ⅳ.Each of the following columns illustrates a different morphological process.(10 points)Column Ⅰ A.chairs B.wider C.looked D.Tom’s

Column Ⅱ A.reality B.movement C.malcontent D.stepmother Column Ⅲ A.blackboard B.greenhouse C.makeshift D.paintwork

(1)What morphological process is shown by Column Ⅰ, Ⅱand Ⅲ.(2)What is the morphological difference between a),b)and c),d)in Column Ⅱ.Ⅴ.Tell whether polarity or modality is expressed in the following sentences if modality, then identify the type(modalization or modulation).(10 points)1.I have not finished the task.2.He often comes to my office.3.I will show you how to make up the bed.4.He hardly came back to see his mother.5.The company ought to cut the price of the products.Ⅵ.Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/-WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/-PAN], [+/-POT], [+/-OVEN], [+/-SIEVE], etc.(10 points)boil: fry: steam: stew: bake:

Ⅶ.Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved:(15 points)a).The professor’s appointment was shocking.b).The design has big squares and circles.c).The governor is a dirty street fighter.Ⅷ.What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B? What is the implicature?(5 points)a).The dress is lovely, isn’t it? b).The material is nice.Ⅸ.Draw two phrase structure trees representing the two meanings of the sentence the magician touched the child with the wand.Be sure you indicate which meaning goes with which tree.(10 points)

Ⅹ.Answer the following question:(20 points)1.What is the functioning of stress and intonation in English?

2.How do you account for the relation between phonetics and phonology?

综合测试题

（六）I.Indicate the statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets:(20 points)()1.In the study of the first step is the task of auditory phonetics.()2.The sound source is the larynx.()3.The oral cavity contains most of the articulators, namely, the uvula, the velum the hard palate.()4.Sounds which are produced with the upper teeth touching the lower lip are labialdentals.()5.Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.()6.Abbreviations are formed by putting together the final letters of some or all words in a phrase or title.()7.Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places.()8.All members.of a speech community can send and take messages.()9.Traditional grammar was initially based on European language, particularly on Latin and German.()10.One of the important concepts of structural grammar is the concept of immediate constituent.()11.Pragmatics is the analysis of meaning in context.()12.The meanings communicated through language are or two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings

()13.An expression used by a speaker/writer to identify something is called deictic expression.()14.Chomsky theory of conversational implicature is regarded as a breakthrough in pragmatic study of language use.()15.Relevance is a relative notion.It is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort.()16.Modality can be categorized into modalization and intention.()17.Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the object and the finite.()18.Relational processes are linguistic processes that represent a relation being set up between two separate.()19.Mental processes are processes of sensing.()20.A TG grammar must account for all or only grammatical sentences.Ⅱ.Divide the following words by placing a + between their separate morphemes.(5 points)1.Retroactive 2.Befriended 3.Televise 4.Margin 5.Endearment

Ⅲ.Write the one proper description from the list under B for the italicized part of each word in A.(5 points)A

a.terrorized

b.uncivilized

c.terrorize

d.lukewarm

e.impossible B

(1)free root

(2)bound root

(3)inflectional suffix

(4)derivational suffix(5)inflectional prefix

(6)derivational prefix

(7)inflectional infix

(8)derivational infix

Ⅳ.Write out at least ten structure rules that each of the following rules abbreviate.(5 points)VP→V(NP)(PP)(Adv)NP→(Det)(Adj)N(PP)

Ⅴ.Draw phrase structure trees for the following sentences:(10 points)a)The man found the letter.b)The students put the books in the classroom.Ⅵ.Write the semantic feature shared by the given words.(5 points)1.2.3.4.5.Bull, rooster, bachelor, boy Milk, water, alcohol, oil Squash, tennis, cricket, fencing, boxing Idea, concept, love, clarity, democracy Pine, elm, willow, birch, poplar

Ⅶ.Each of the following words is a basic level term.Write its superordinate in the left blank and one of its subordinate in the right blank.(10 points)1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.table willow cat blue dictionary painting driver verb chemistry juice

Ⅷ.The opposite of analytic is contradictory.A sentence that is false due to the meaning of its words alone is contradictory.Kings are female is an example.Write a C by the contradictory sentences and S for situational by sentences that are not contradictory.(10 points)1.My sister is a man.2.Witches are wicked.3.My sister is an only child.4.The evening star isn’t the morning star.5.The evening star isn’t the evening star.6.Babies are adults.7.Babies can lift one ton.8.Puppies are human.9.My bachelor friends are all married.10.My bachelor friends are all lonely.Ⅸ.Pig Latin is a common language game of English;but even Pig Latin has dialects, forms of the ―language game‖ with different rules.(10 points)

Consider the following data from three dialects of Pig Latin, each with its own rule applied to words beginning with vowels: Dialect 1 ―eat‖ ―arc‖ [itme] [arkme] Dialect 2 [ithe] [arkhe] Dialect 3 [ite] [arke]

⑴ State the rule that accounts for the Pig Latin forms in each dialect.Dialect 1: Dialect 2: Dialect 3: ⑵ How would you say honest, admire, and illegal in each dialect? Give the phonetic transcription of the Pig Latin forms.honest admire 1.1.2.2.3.3.Illegal 1.2.3.Ⅹ.Answer the following questions:(20 points)1.What is the function of phonological knowledge?

2.Exemplify the differences between anaphoric and cataphoric reference.综合测试题

（七）Ⅰ.Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given:(10 points)1.2.The term l a refers to the natural process of children’s language development.It is found that children all undergo certain stages of language development, namely the b 3.4.5.6.7.stage, holophrastic stage, , the two-word stage, and the telegraphic speech stage.The practice of error analysis is divided into i describing and explaining.S refers to the analysis of meaning.In the aspect of affective meaning, statesman is commending in sense while politician is d D synonyms are words which are similar in meaning but used in different dialects of the language.In order to avoid repetition the writer needs to use a s to replace a word used in the previous co-text when he/she wants to continue to address that idea.8.9.The sentence ―The bachelor is unmarried‖ is it t The domain to be conceptualized is called t domain.10.P event.Ⅱ.Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions:(5 points)1.2.tense front mid vowel lateral liquid.domain, while the conceptualizing domain is termed the source deixis specifies the locations relative to the speech

3.4.5.lax high back vowel voiced bilabial oral stop mid central lax vowel

Ⅲ.A phonetic symbol is actually a ―cover term‖ for a composite of distinct phonetic properties or features.Define each of the symbols below by marking a ―+‖or a ―-‖ for each given feature: a ―+‖, if the property is present, a ―-‖,if it is absent:(10 points)sou phone featu segme u ? Ou I u:

High Low Back Tense Round

Ⅳ.Try to explain the following terms as clearly as you can:(10 points)(1)Minimal pair

(2)phoneme

Ⅴ.Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it.(5 points)1.2.3.4.5.Weight Orange Veil Hair Team

Ⅵ.The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions.(5 points)Initial pit/bit Medial rapid/rabid Final cap/cab

Find similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given: 1.2.3.4.5./p/-/f/ /s/-/?/ /?/-/?/ /s/-/z/ /t/-/k/

Ⅶ.For each of the following sentences, draw a deep structure diagram to show how the surface structure can be derived by transformational rules:(10 points)1.2.She speaks good Japanese.The problem would be solved by them.Ⅷ.Interprete the grammatical relations in the following sentences and then paraphrase them:(10 points)1.2.Girls are eager to please.Girls are easy to please.Ⅸ.Pick out from the following pairs the homonyms and the homophones:(5 points)style/stile ear/ear hear/here tale/tail bank/bank know/no hare/hair bear/bear soul/sole one/won

Ⅹ.Here are some Japanese words in phonetic transcription.[? ] is the voiceless palatal affricate that occurs in the English word church.[ts] is an alveolar affricate and should be taken as a single symbol.It is pronounced as the final sound(s)in cats.Japanese words(except for certain loan words)never contain the phonetic sequences.*[ti] or *[tu]:(20 points)1.Based on these data.Are [t], [ ? ],and [ts]in complementary distribution? 2.State the distribution---first in words, then using features---of these phones.3.Give a phonemic analysis of these data insofar as [t],[ ?],and[ts] are concerned.That is, identify the phonemes, and the allophones.4.Give the phonemic representation of the phonetically transcribed Japanese words given below.Assume phonemic and phonetic representations are the same except for [t],[ ?] ], and [ts].tatami_____ tsukue______ tsutsumu_______ ?izu

Tomoda?i_______ tetsudau______

Ⅺ.Exemplify The differences between derivational and inflectional morphemes:(10 points)

综合测试题

（八）Ⅰ.Multiple Choice：(10 points)：

1.Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their A.synchronic solidarity

B.systemic agreement C.finite sentences

D.instinctive method in length and 2.Language is a set(infinite)of sentences, each constructed out of a finite set of elements.A.infinite

B.finite

C.fixed

D.definite 3.The Swiss Linguist regarded the linguistic sign as composed of signifier(sound image)and signified(referent).A.Chomsky

B.de Saussure

C.Bloomfield

D.Halliday 4.Human languages can be used to describe themselves.The language used to talk about language is called

A.special language.B.local language C.metalanguage

D.human language 5.refers to the fact that language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages.A.Arbitrariness

B.Duality

C.Creativity

D.Displacement 6.A community language is one that is the mother tongue of an ethnic A.artificial

B.natural

C.family

D.western 7.The fundamental difference between a religious belief and a scientific theory is whether it is A.disciple

B.observable.C.verifiable

D.functional 8.may be defined as the scientific study of language.A.Morphology

B.Linguistics

C.Phonology

D.Phonetics 9.Linguistics is seen as a discipline closest, among humanities to________sciences.A.physical

B.natural

C.absolute

D.universal 10.The study of language in general is often termed general linguistics.It is based on the view that language is composed of three aspects: sound, and meaning.A.regularity

B.construct

C.structure

D.discipline

Ⅱ.True or False：(10 points)：

()1.Psycholinguistics studies language in relation to society.Language varies from region to region, from class to class.()2.The whole process of our talking is a chain of events: production of speech sounds → perception of speech sounds → speech sounds traveling in the air.()3.Out of the glottis, the air stream goes through the pharynx, the area of the throat between the larynx and the uvula.()4.Consonants can be described in terms of places of articulation, manners of articulation, and vibrating.()5.Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called hierarchical classes.()6.Phonology and phonetics are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but the two differ in perspectives.()7.Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in allophones.()8.The voiceless bilabial stop in pin and the one in spin are in complementary distribution.()9.Distinctive features in one language must be distinctive in another.()10.Nasalization of English vowels is also rule-governed.Ⅲ.Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given:(10 points)1.Every syllable has a n , which is usually a vowel.2.Native speakers of any language intuitively know what s put together.can be 3.Some sequences are not possible in English.The impossible sequences are systematic g.4.Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called s f.5.Some morphemes like water, desire constitute words by themselves.They are f m_ when they are components of words.6.D forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.7.The ideational function(sometimes also referred to as experiential function)is realized by the t system of language.term.It is based on the 8.Associative meaning is actually an u associationist theory of psychology.9.Synonyms of different r in different spheres.are words similar in meaning but used 10.The deixis that replaces the initial expression is called a initial expression called antecedent.and the Ⅳ.Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it.(5 points)1.2.3.4.5.Hit Met Car Tool Football

Ⅴ.Divide the following words by placing a + between their separate morphemes.(5 points)1.2.Psychology Unpalatable 3.4.5.Holiday Grandmother Morphemic

Ⅵ.Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions:(5 points)1.2.3.4.5.voiceless labiodental fricative low front vowel palatal glide voiced interdental fricative voiceless alveolar fricative

Ⅶ.Write the semantic feature shared by the given words.(5 points)1.2.3.4.5.Spanner, hammer, saw, pliers, jack Rose, lotus, lilac, orchid, chrysanthemum Walk, run, jump, hop, skip Pencil, pen, chalk, rubber, ruler Cheerful, excited, drunk, sober, dizzy

Ⅷ.Try to explain the following terms as clearly as you can：(15 ： points)(1)segmental phonemes

(2)free variations

(3)assimilation rule

Ⅸ.Draw a deep structure diagram to show how the surface structure can be derived by transformational rules：(10 ： points)Behave yourself!

Ⅹ.What are the main types of utterances suggested by Searle?(15 points)

Ⅺ.What are the main components of the Standard Theory? How does each of them work in the whole process of generating and transforming sentences?(10 points)

综合测试题

（九）I.Indicate the following statements true or false.Put T for true and F for false in the brackets.(30 points)

()1.Arbitrariness is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.()2.Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings.()3.If the relationship between speech sounds and meanings were motivated, the words in different languages that stand for the same thing would sound the same or similar.()4.According to Halliday, the ideational function is the function of language that people use as medium to get along in a community.()5.In modern linguistics, focus is on diachronic study of language, rather than on synchronic study of language.()6.All vowels are voiced.()7.The initial vowel in economics can be either [i:] or [e].The two vowels are in free variation.()8.Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.()9.In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain only one morpheme.()10.The meaning of compounds is always the sum of meaning of the compounds.()11.The Swiss linguist de Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.()12.Chinese is an agglutinating language.()13.Not all vowels are voiced.()14.If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.()15.The voiceless bilabial stop in pin and the one in spin are in complementary distribution.()16.Pragmatics is concerned with conventional meaning.()17.The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.()18.Words which have the same spelling but different meanings are called polysemes.()19.A syllabus is an official document that authoritatively determines the content and principles of teaching and learning.()20.Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language.II.For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s)they share:(5 points)

Example: [s] [f] [p] [h] voiceless

1.[g] [z] [d]

2.[v] [h] [s]

3.[m] [p] [b] [f] [v]

4.[t] [d] [n] [l] [s] [z]

5.[i:] [i] [u] [u:]

III.Identify the difference between a greenhouse and a green house, and the difference between a sleeping car and a sleeping baby.(10 points)

IV.What is deixis? Please give examples to show the different types of deixis.V.Explain the ambiguity in the following two sentences:(10 points)a)

Those who went there quickly made a fortune.b)c)d)e)Flying planes can be dangerous.They can fish.The design is full of big squares and circles.I saw the couple in the cafeteria.VI.What maxim of the cooperative principle is violated by B? And what is the implicature?(5 points)

A: Don’t you think the hostess was abnormal? B: What another cup of coffee?

VII.What’s wrong with the following two sentences: 1)Bring this here.2)Take that there.Please give an explanation in English.(10 points)VIII.Answer the following questions:(30 points)

a)What are the advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis?

b)c)Give an example to show the components of metaphors.How do you distinguish homonyms from polysemes?

综合测试题

（十）I.Multiple Choice(30 points)1.________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A.Duality

B.Arbitrariness

C.Creativity

D.Displacement 2.Which of the following does not belong to the language metafunctions illustrated by M.A.K.Halliday?

A.Ideational function

B.Interpersonal function C.Textual function.D.Logical function 3.The study of speech sounds is called ________.A.Phonetics

B.Articulatory phonetics

C.Phonology

D.Acoustic Phonetics 4.Every syllable has a(n)_______, which is usually a vowel.A.onset

B.nucleus

C.coda

D.rhyme 5.Which of the following does not belong to suprasegmental features? A.Stress

B.Intonation

C.Tone

D.Syllable 6.________ is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.A.Morphology

B.Syntax

C.Lexicon

D.Morpheme 7.Both pretty and handsome mean good-looking but they differ in ________ meaning.A.collocative

B.social

C.affective

D.reflected 8.______ refers to having the right to speak by turns.A.Adjacency pairs

B.Turn-talking C.Preferred second parts

D.Insertion sequences

9.British English and American English are ______ varieties of the English language.A.functional

B.social

C.regional

D.Standard 10.______ is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language.A.Metalanguage

B.Interlanguage

C.Sign

D.Esperanto 11.In _____ stage, children use single words to represent various meanings.A.telegraphic

B.two-word

C.holophrastic

D.babbling 12.______ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to ―varieties according to use.‖ A.Register

B.Field

C.Mode

D.Tenor 13._____ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A.Clipping

B.Blending

C.Eponym

D.Conversion 14.In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain _____ morphemes.A.one

B.two

C.three

D.four 15.Sip and zip, tip and dip, map and nap, etc, are all ______.A.minimal pairs

B.minimal sets

C.allophones

D.phomes 16.Pragmatics analysis is concerned with ______.A.sentence meaning

B.utterance meaning C.listener meaning

D.speaker meaning 17.Analysis of ______ necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context.A.intentional meaning

B.conventional meaning C.syntactic meaning

D.semantic meaning 18.______ is, fundamentally speaking, logic-oriented.A.Sperber and Wilson’s principle of Relevance B.Leech’s theory of Politeness Principle C.Grice’s theory of Cooperative Principle D.Horn’s Q-principle and R-principle

19.Krashen’s Monitor Theory belongs to ______.A.teaching theories

B.environmentalist theories C.functionalist theories

D.nativist theories 20.The sentence ―My father has deceased to join the heavenly choir.‖ is of ____ A.the formal style

B.the frozen style C.the casual style

D.the intimate style

II.Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description.(5 points)Example: vowel front high [i:] 1.bilabial nasal 2.voiced labiovelar glide 3.back high lax 4.literal liquid 5.voiced bilabial stop

III.Explain the ambiguity in the following two sentences:(10 points)1.This is a beautiful girl’s dress.2.Tom hates his boss and so do I.3.They finally decided on the boat.4.Can you see the man with a pair of binoculars?

IV.Give the words in American English equivalent in meaning to the ones given from British English:(10 points)

a.lorry

b.lift

c.pavement

d.tin

e.sweets

V.What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B? What is the implicature?(5 points)

A: The dress is lovely, isn’t it? B: The material is nice.VI.Draw tree diagrams for the following sentence:(5 points)The tower on the hill collapsed in the wind.VII.How would you read the phrases in the two columns? What does each of them mean?(10 points)

Column I

a.The White House b.a redcoat c.a bluebird

d.a lighthouse keeper Column II a white house

b.a red coat

c.a blue bird

d.a light housekeeper VIII.Explain the relation between bank1(the side of a river)and bank2(the financial institute).(5 points)

IX.Answer the following questions(30 points): 1.What are the features of metaphors?

2.How do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?

3.What is reference and what is sense? How are they related?

各章习题答案 第一章习题答案

I.II.III.1.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.3.Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Arbitrariness is one of the features of human language.Language contains two subsystems: sounds and meanings.Arbitrariness refers to the relationship between these two subsystems is arbitrary.4.The general roles language plays are termed metafunctions.According to Halliday, language plays three metafunctions simultaneously.They are the ideational metafunction, the Interpersonal metafunction and the textual metafunction.IV.1.Many philosophers and linguists believe that language is unique to man.Language is a human trait that sets us apart from other living creatures because it have the following features, which are not found in animal communication system such as creativity or productivity, duality, arbitrariness, displacement, cultural transmission, interchangeability and reflexivity.2.Spoken language is given prior to written language in modern linguistics for a number of reasons:(1)Speech is historically prior to writing in any culture where writing exists;1-5 T F F T T 1-5 a c a a b 6-10 6-10 FTTTF cbdac(2)Spoken language is used for a much wider range of purposes in communication;(3)Spoken language is structurally more complex than written language;(4)Spoken language is acquired earlier than written language.3.Modern linguistics has the following features, which is distinguished from the linguistics of previous:(1)Priority is given to spoken language;(2)Focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language;(3)Modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature;(4)Modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.Modern linguistics strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general.第二章习题答案

I.II.1—5 TFTTF 1—5 b d a c a bilabial voiced stop alveolar nasal stop III.1.[ b ] 2.[ n ] 3.[ w ] bilabial glide 4.[ v ] voiced labiodental fricative 5.[ t ] voiceless alveolar stop 6.[ i:] high front tense vowel 7.[? ] voiceless interdental 8.[u:] high back tense vowel 9.[? ] low front vowel 10 [?:] central tense vowel

IV.1.[b p m] 2.[d n] 3.[?] 4.[m] 5.[ ?: ?] 6.[s z] 7.[u: u] 8.[θ] 9.[j] 10 [ ]

V.1.voiceless alveolar 2.voiced stop 3.voiced fricatives 4.palatals 5.voiced bilabial 6.voiced velar 7.back tense vowels 8.back round vowels 9.front high vowels 10.sibilants VI.1.Phonetics is the study of speech sounds.2.Voicing refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.3.The unite of representation used to transcribe the speech sounds is called segment.4.Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes.VII.Manners of articulation refer to how the air stream is modified, whether it is completely blocked or partially obstructed.According to manners of articulation, consonants are classified into stops, nasals, fricatives, affricates, liquids, and gildes

第三章习题答案

I.1-5 T F F T T

II.1-5 b b c c d 6-10 c b d b d

III.1.Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.2.Two words that differ by only one sound in the same position are called minimal pairs.3.If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.4.The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.The most widely found suprasegmental features are stress, intonation and tone.IV.1.Devoice a voiced consonant when it occurs after a voiceless consonant.2.A voiceless consonant becomes voiced when it occurs between two vowels.3.Voiceless stops are aspirated when they occur initially in a stressed syllable 4.vowels become nasalized when they occur before nasals.V.―hotdog‖ is a compound word and the stress is on the ―hot‖.A hotdog is a long cooked sausage.―hot dog‖ is a noun phrase and the stress is on ―dog‖.A hot dog refers to a dog that is hot.VI Phonetics is the study of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.Phonetics and phonology are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but they two differ in perspectives.Phonetics, particularly articulatory phonetics, focuses on how speech sounds are produced, what phonetic features they have, and how to transcribe them.In phonetics, sound segments are assumed to be invariable;variations are overlooked.Phonology focuses on the following three fundamental question: What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds make up the list of ways in what context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?

第四章习题答案

Ⅰ.1.lexicon 2.orthography 3.morphology 4.morpheme 5.suppletives 6.free morphemes 7.bound morphemes 8.allomorphs 9.derivation 10.Clipping Ⅱ.1.b 2.c 3.b 4.c 5.d 6.b 7.a 8.c 9.c 10.c

Ⅲ.1.Compounding Compounding, the combination of free morphemes, is another common way to form words.The over-whelming majority of English combination of words from two of the three classes—nouns, verb, and adjective, and adjectives, and they fall into the three classes, as shown below: Noun Verb Adjective Noun Verb Adjective bookshelf pickpocket greenhouse brainwash sleepwalk whitewash headstrong catchall bittersweet In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.Thus, greenhouse is a noun, whitewash is a verb.The leftmost morpheme takes the primary stress is on the word.Thus, a greenhouse is distinguished from a green house, in which the stress is on the house.The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.A greenbottle is not a type of bottle;it is a kind of fly.And a sugar-daddy is not a sugar-coated father, but a woman’s lover who is both generous and too old for her.2.Conversion Conversion is one of word-formation process in English.It is done when a word changes its class without any change of its form.Typical cases of conversion include noun→verb, adjective→verb, verb→noun and adjective →noun.Sometimes, conversion can also be observed when an auxiliary verb, an adverb or a conjunction is used as a noun or a verb.e.g.Besides the usual household routine, she oversees the garden and beehives, bakes bread, cans and freezes, drives the kids to their music lessons, practices with them, takes organ lessons on her own, dose research and typing for me, writes an article herself now and then, tends the flower beds, stacks a little wood and delivers the eggs.His palms were sweating.He needed a towel to dry his grip.Their livelihood is involved, and the motor, for all its unpleasant smell, has helped increase the fisherman’s catch so that he can now afford to do away with the far worse outdoor toilet.Just before Christmas last year, my work took me to the office of a woman executive o This book is a must for student of history.The word is full of excuses, so don’t but me so many buts.They downed a few beers and began to sing loudly.第五章习题答案

Ⅰ.1.immediate constituent analysis.2.Syntax 3.syntactic category 4.subcategorization 5.circumstance 6.modalization modulaton

Ⅱ.NP Pro They(a)S VP V can NP N fish.NP Pro They(b)S VP Aux can V fish.Ⅲ.1.Cigars that people smoke can be nauseating it is nauseating to smoke cigars.2.It was on the plane that they made the decision.Ⅳ.1.modality(modalization)2.molarity 3.modality(modulation)4.polarity Ⅴ.1.material 2.relational 3.mental 4.behavioral 5.verbal 6.existential

第六章习题答案

Ⅰ.1.Semantics 2.Affective meaning 3.Synonyms 4.registers 5.antonyms 6.Gradable antonyms 7.Homonyms 8.polyseme 9.Hyponymy, superordinates 10.componential analysis

Ⅱ.1.b 2.a 3.c 4.d 5.b 6.c 7.a 8.b 9.c 10.d

Ⅲ.1.The two differ in register.2.The two are different in formality, the latter informal.3.The two are different in formality, the latter informal.4.The two are dialectal synonyms.5.The two are different in formality, the latter informal.6.The two differ in affective meaning, the former commendatory, the latter derogatory.7.The two differ in collocation Ⅳ.1.G 2.C 3.C 4.R 5.R 6.R Ⅴ.1.F 2.T 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F

第七章习题答案 I.1.a)Pre-invitation b)Pre-request c)Pre-announcement 2.a)(Quality)The speaker is absolutely incorrect.b)c)d)(Quantity)The addressee does not know or finds it impossible to answer this question, since the question is too general.(Relation)The addressee does not think the hero acts well in the film.(Manner)The addressee thinks Regan is not the president people like very much, though he is not a feudist.3.a)I ,mine(person deixis);last Sunday(time deixis)b)c)in 1968(time deixis)d)e)These(discourse/text deixis)f)in the following chapter(discourse/text deixis)

4.Then is a distal expression which applies to both past and future time relative to the time of speaking.Then in Sentence a)refers to the past time;then in Sentence b)the future time.5.John said, ―I am planning to be here this evening.‖ Indirect speech: John said that he was planning to be there in that evening.From the direct speech to the indirect speech, the deictic elements have to be shifted from the proximal to the distal with the shifting of the context.II.1.Exclusive use of we:(Students to the teacher)Shall we go now? Here we refers to the speakers(students), not including the hearer(teacher).Inclusive use of we:(Student A to Student B)Shall we go now? Here we refers both the speaker and the hearer(Student A and Student B.2.Let us may be exclusive or inclusive, while let’s is inclusive.They should correspond to different types of tag question: Exclusive: Let us go to school, will you? Inclusive: Let us go to school, shall we? Let’s go to school, shall we?

3.Anaphoric reference: Mr.Smith sent me the book.I like it.Cataphoric reference: I could not believe it.My wallet was stolen by one of my close friends.4.A speech act consists of three dimensions: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.If your teacher says, ―I have run out of chalk‖ in the process of lecturing, the act of saying is locutionary, the act of demanding for chalk is illocutionary, and the effect the utterance brings about is perlocutionary(one of the students will go and get some chalk).5.Direct speech act: Close the door, please.(An imperative performs the function of command.)Indirect speech act: It’s cold here.(A declarative performs the function of request of closing the door.)6.A: Can I go out now, daddy?(Q1)B: Have you finished your assignment?(Q2)A: Yes.(A2)B: Yes.(A1)The middle pair(Q2-A2)is an insertion sequence.7.Dialogue with preferred second part: A: Can you help me? B: Sure.Dialogue with dis-preferred second part.A: Come over for some coffee later.B: Oh---eh---I’d love to---but you see---I---I’m supposed to get this finished---you know.Dis-preferred second parts are marked by more time and more language.III.Relevance is a relative notion.It is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort.The greater the contextual effect, the greater the relevance.Processing effort is a negative factor: the greater the processing effort, the lower the relevance.IV.1.Indirect illocutions tend to be more polite,(a)because they increase the degree of optimality, and(b)because the more indirect an illocution is, the more diminished and tentative its force tends to be.2.The sentence is wrong.The right one might be either ―I am here.‖ Or ―I was there.‖ ―Am‖ is a proximal deictic element, while ―there‖ is a distal place deixis.They contradict with each other.第八章习题答案

I.1-5 A C B B D

II.6-10 A A D C D 11-16 A C D C B B 1.Linguistic competence accounts for a speaker's knowledge of his language.Communicative competence accounts for both the tacit knowledge of language and the ability to use it.According to Hymes, there are four parameters that underlie a speaker's communicative competence, namely the ability to judge: 2)Whether(and to what degree)something is formally possible;3)Whether(and to what degree)something is feasible;4)Whether(and to what degree)something is appropriate;5)Whether(and to what degree)something is in fact done.2.The hypothesis has been interpreted in two ways.One is known as determinism.In this view our language determines our thinking.This strong version has been rejected as it runs counter to the fact that peoples of different cultural backgrounds can understand each other.The other interpretation, known as relativism, holds that culture affects the way we think through language, especially in our classification of the experienced world.3.The term pidgin is the label for the code used by people who speak different languages.A pidgin is not the native language of any group.It is confined to very limited communicative purposes, such as trade.Pidgins are mixed languages that are simplified syntactically and lexically.A creole is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community.Creloes are not confined to certain functions of language nor reduced in syntax and lexis.4.The term dialect denotes a wider notion than the term accent.A dialect is a variety of a language that is distinctive from varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.The term accent is used for less drastic differences which are restricted to variation in pronunciation.第九章习题答案

I.1)2)3)4)interference overgeneralization simplification cross-association II.1.The practice of error analysis is divided into identifying, describing and explaining.Identifying errors is the first step of error analysis.To identify errors we have to compare the sentences produced by the learner with the corresponding sentences native speakers are likely to produce to express the same meanings.Describing errors, the second step of error analysis, is categorizing errors grammatically.Once errors are identified, they can be classified into categories.Explaining errors, the final step, is the task of tracing the source of errors.This task is more psychological than linguistic in essence.In terms of sources, errors are divided into interlingual errors and intralingual errors, based on whether they are caused by L1.2.Krashen’s Monitor Model consists of five hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning Distinction, Natural Order, Monitor, Input, and Affective Filter.3.The Acquisition-Learning Distinction is the cornerstone of Krashen’s theory.―Acquisition‖ occurs subconsciously as a result of participation in natural L2 communication.―Learning‖ is the result of conscious study of the formal system of the language.It is assumed that the two kinds of knowledge are stored in different areas of the LAD and thus play different roles in linguistic performance.― Acquired‖ knowledge serves as the source for automatic production of speech, whereas ―learnt‖ knowledge is available for use only in monitoring linguistic production.4.According to Krashen, the only way for people to acquire a language is by understanding messages or receiving comprehensible input.They move from i, their current level, to i+1, the next level along the natural order.That is to say, language is acquired by people’s comprehension of input that is slightly beyond their current level.People understand input containing i+1 because the situation, context, facial expressions, gestures, etC.will provide clues for comprehension.5.The acculturation theory originated in the late 1970s and was put forward by J.Schumann and R.Anderson.By acculturation they meant that individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge, and behaviour in order to function well in another culture.It involves not only the social adaptation but also psychological adaptation.Schumann thinks that second language acquisition is one of the aspects of acculturation and the relation between acculturation and the second language acquisition is that the degree of the former will control the degree of the latter.Normally successful acculturation will bring about successful second language acquisition while poor second language acculturation will produce poor second language acquisition.第十章习题答案

I.1-5 C D A B C II.1.The contribution in terms of applications to language teaching is easier to understand.The products of linguistic descriptions provide the input to syllabus design and material construction.It is hard to imagine that languages can ever be taught and learned as a component of education without reference to the out come of linguistic descriptions.The metalanguage, created by linguists in their analysis of the sound system, the lexicogrammar and the meaning of a language, makes it possible to talk about what to teach in language teaching.Pedagogic grammars and dictionaries are used by teachers and students as reference books.Indeed, it is hardly possible to define the content of teaching without linguistic descriptions.2.The implications of linguistics to foreign language teaching are less obvious but not less important.The insights gained by linguists into the nature of language and language learning may enlighten language-teaching professionals in thinking about what to teach and how to teach.Language teaching decisions have to be made at several levels---designing the content, determining the approach, selecting techniques and procedures, and assessing the effectiveness of teaching and learning.At the preparatory level the decisions are made by specialists.To make wise decisions, they need to draw information from linguistics and other relevant disciplines.They need to evaluate linguistic theories and see what implication a certain theory has for language teaching.At the operation level, the language teacher is faced with an abundance of variables.The teacher’s understanding of the nature of language and the process of language learning influences his/her thinking about what to teach and how to teach.Whether one is aware of it or not, a view pf language and language learning underlies one’s decisions about teaching.3.Syllabus is designed with reference to: 1)the social aim for teaching the language;2)information about the group of learners(their purpose, age, etC.);3)the amount of time allocated in the curriculum;4)theories of language and language acquisition.Linguistically, there are two fundamental questions in constructing a syllabus: What elements should be included? On what principle should they be sequenced?

4.The structural syllabus assumed that the elements should be defined with reference to certain formal items of linguistic description and that the sentence should be the basic teaching unit.It was supposed that if learners could accumulate knowledge of the underlying system of the language, they would be able to use the language in communication when occasions arise.The core component of a syllabus based on such theoretical assumptions is naturally sentence patterns, which are sequenced according to structural complexity.5.The structural syllabus has its advantage and defect.Its advantage is that it is, to some extent, economical.Learning a limited set of rules can lead to production of a very large number of sentences.Its serious defect lies in the fact that sentences are units of linguistic analysis but not of natural language use.Although learners may be able to construct grammatical sentences, they are often at a loss in real situations, wondering what is appropriate to say.6.In the early 1970s, the theory of communicative competence was proposed by Dll Hymes.Functional linguists and pragmatists began to exert a stronger influence in the study of language.Since then communicative views of language teaching have been the foundation of syllabus design.The central question for proponents of a communicative syllabus was: ―What does the learner need / want to do with the target language?‖ Syllabi began to appear in which content was specified, not only in terms of the grammatical element, but also in terms of the functional items students would need to master in order to communicate successfully.The starting point in designing a communicative syllabus is the analysis of learner’s needs.7.In communicative language teaching, the teacher needs to fulfill at least the roles of communicator, a model, a designer, an organizer, and a counselor.The teacher communicates with the students in the target language.His / her proficiency in the language is absolutely a pre-requisite in fulfilling the role of communicator.At the same time, he /she sets the students a model in using the target language.The teacher is also a designer of the tasks and activities that engage the students, and he / she is an organizer of there.Finally, h / she diagnoses students’ errors and problems in the process of learning and gives advice accordingly.8.The value of linguistics in the professional development of language teachers lies in these aspects: to increase the teacher’s understanding of the nature of language;to develop the teacher’s awareness of the complexity of language and language learning;to sensitize the teacher in identifying errors and diagnosing their sources;to help the teacher to monitor his / her own use of the target language.9.The grammar-translation method, the direct method, the reading method, the audiolingual method, the audiovisional method, total physical response, the silent way, the communicative approach and so on.综合测试题答案

综合测试题（综合测试题

（一）答案

I.1-5 TFFTT 6-10 TTFFT II.1-5 a d b c c III.1-5 g e h j i

IV.1.affricates 4.voiced alveolars

V.6-10 c b a b b 6-10 a f b d c 2.nasals 3.voiceless fricatives 5.high vowels

Words analyzed troublesome stepmother psycholinguistics understatement

antidisestablishmentarianism

the number morphemes 2 2 4 3 7

of

free morphemes trouble mother lingui state establish

VI.1.(1)The duck is so hot that it can not be eaten.(2)The duck is so hot that it can not eat something.2.(1)The friends who are visiting can be boring.(2)To visit friends can be boring.VII.1.Derivation is one type of word formation.It forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.The majority of English suffixes change the part of speech when added to a free morpheme or a word, and most prefixes don not.2.Learner factors are the factors that are involved in second language acquisition.They generally include learners’ motivation, age and learning strategy.VII.1.―Redcoat is a compound word, while ―red coad‖ is a noun phrase.The stress of the word, redcoat, is on red, but the stress of the noun phrase, red coat, is on coat.Redcoat refers to British soldiers and a red coat means a coat whose color is red.2.Modern linguistics has the following features, which is distinguished from the linguistics of previous:(1)Priority is given to spoken language.(2)Focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language.(3)Modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature.Linguists endeavour to state objectively the regularities of a language.They aim at finding out how a language is spoken;they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken.(4)Modern linguistics is theoretically than pedagogically oriented.Modern linguistics strive to construct theories of language that can

account for language in general.3.Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts by Austin.A speech act consists of three dimensions:(1)The act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression is called locutionary act.(2)The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed illocutionary act.(3)The act of bringing about an effect is known as perlocutionary act.Of these dimensions, the most important is the illocutionary act.In linguistic communication people respond to an illocutionary act of an utterance, because it is the meaning intended

by the speaker.综合测试题（综合测试题

（二）答案

I.1-5 F F T T T 6-10 T T F T T II.1-5 b d b c c 6-10 d b b a c III.1.maxims 2.Motivation 3.locutionary illocutionary perlocutionary 4.mapping 5.clipping 6.allomorphs 7.acquisition 8.dialect IV.1-5 i f a g h 6-10 e d b c V 1.[l] liquid/nasals 2.[v] labiodental/bilabials 3.[dз] affricate/fricatives 4.[u] back/front 5.[?:] middle/low V.(a)(b)S S NP VP NP VP Pro V NP Pro VP NP NP PP V NP P N Past

participle Pro N P N Pro N

Past participle

He found his book on Wall Street.He found his book on Wall Street.VI.1.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Linguistics is the scientific study of language.2.Semantics is defined as the study of meaning, and pragmatics is defined as the study of meaning in context.VII.1.Creativity is one of the features of human language.It refers to the fact that language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages.The grammatical rules and the words of a language are finite, but the sentences are infinite.Every speaker uses langue creatively.2.In sociolinguistics, taboo refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of or association with particular objects, actions, or persons.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.Taboo and euphemism are actually two sides of the same coin.Taboos are usually expressed by their euphemistic expressions in our daily life.3.The general roles language plays are called metafunctions by Hallidy.There are three metafunctions:(1)Ideational function----we use language to talk about our experience of the world, including our inner world, to describe events, states and the entities involved;(2)Interpersonal function----we use language to interact with others, to establish and maintain relations with them, to please them, to anger them, and influence their behavior, to get their help or sympathy.(3)Textual function----language as a system organizes messages in a unified manner so that chunks of messages fit logically with others around them and with the wider context in which the talking or writing takes place.综合测试题（综合测试题

（三）答案

I.1-5 F T T T F 6-10 T T F F T II.1-5 c d a c b 6-10 c a c a c

III.1-5 g e a h i 6-10 cdfb IV.1[f v] 2[θ ?] 3 [u: u ɑ:] 4[i: i u: u] 5[ dз]

V.1-6 cafdeb VI.1.Arbitrariness is one of the features of human language.Language contains two subsystems: sounds and meanings.Arbitrariness refers to the relationship between these two subsystems is arbitrary.2.Voicing refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.It is one of phonetic distinctive features that can distinguish meaning.According to voicing, consonants are classified into voiced consonants and voiceless consonants.VII.(a)(b)S S NP VP NP VP Pro V NP Pro Aux V N They can fish.They can fish.VIII.1.A greenhouse is a compound word and the stress is on the green, while a here house is a noun phrase and its stress is on house.A greenhouse refers to a building with sides and roof of glass, used for growing plants that need protection from the weather.A green house refers to a house whose color is green.2.Conversion is one types of English word formation.It is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.This happens more frequently between nouns and verbs.For example, to butter the bread, butter is converted from a noun into a verb.Look in take a look is a noun converted from a verb.3.Target domain and source domain are the components of metaphors.That is to say all metaphors are composed of two domains.They allow us to understand one domain of experiences in terms of another.The domain to be conceptualized is called target domain while the conceptualizing domain is termed the source domain.The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguistics as mapping.The source domain s concrete and familiar.The target domain is abstract and novel.综合测试题（综合测试题

（四）答案

1-5 FTTTT 6-10 FT T F T 1-5 d a c c c 6-10 d a d a b 1-6 d b f c a e 1.[+Human] [+Male] 2.[+Animal] [+Male] 3.[+Plant] 4.[+Abstract] 5.[Instrument] [+Traffic] V.1.[θ] voiceless interdental prictive 2.[i:] front high tense vowel 3.[m] bilabial nasal 4.[v] voiced labioldental fricative 5.[p] pvoiceless bilabial stop V.1.(1)She can not tolerate/endure/stand /put up with a child.(2)She is not able to give birth to a baby.(3)She can not carry/take a child.2.(1)He hates old men and all the women.(2)He hates both old men and old women.VII.I.II.III.IV.1.Compounding is one type of word formation.It combines free morphemes to form new words.The over-whelming majority of English compounds are the combination words from two of the three classes---nouns, verbs, and adjectives.In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.For examples, greenhouse is a noun, and whitewash is a verb.2.If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.Free variations of pronunciation of the same word usually occur in different dialects, which is quite common in most of the languages in the world.For example, British people usually pronounce the word economics as [ˊik?n miks] and American people say [ˊ ek?namiks].VIII.1.Semantics and pragmatics both are concerned with the study of meaning, but they study meanings from different perspectives.Generally peaking, semantics is defined as the study of meaning, and pragmatics is defined as the study of meaning in context.The meanings communicated through language are of two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings.The former is studied in semantics and the latter in pragmatics.So semantics concentrates on meanings that come from linguistic knowledge, while pragmatics concentrates on meanings that people mean by their utterances rather that what they words, phrases and sentences mean by themselves.In other words, semantics is concerned with linguistic meaning, while pragmatic analysis is concerned with speaker meaning.2.Communicative competence is the most general term to account for both the tacit knowledge of langage and the ability to use it.According to Hymes(1972), there are four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative competence:(1)Whether(and to what degree)something is formally possible;(2)Whether(and to what degree)something is feasible;(3)Whether(and to what degree)something is appropriate;(4)Whether(and to what degree)something is in fact done.3.The three types of antonyms in English are gradable antonyms, complementary antonyms and reversal antonyms.Gradable antonyms are pairs of words opposite to each other, but the positive of one word does not necessarily imply the negative of the other, or vice versa.For example, a person who is not rich is not necessary poor.Complementary antonyms are words opposite to each other and the positive of one implies the negative of the other.For examples, dead and alive, male and female.Reversal antonyms are words that denote the same relation or process from one or the other direction.For examples, push and pull, come and go.综合测试题（综合测试题

（五）答案

Ⅰ.1-5 T T F F F Ⅱ.1.2.3.4.5.6-10 TFFFT [f] voiceless labiodental fricative [r] alveolar retroflex liquid [η] velar nasal [k] voiceless velar stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative Ⅲ.1.Could good 2.Might night 3.Led red 4.Best vest 5.Boss moss

Ⅳ.⑴.ColumnⅠ: inflection ColumnⅡ: derivation ColumnⅢ: compounding ⑵.In a)and b)the words are formed by suffixation;in c)and d), by prefixation

Ⅴ.1.Polarity 2.Modality(modalization)3.Modality(modulation)4.Polarity 5.Modality(modulation)

Ⅵ.boil: +FAT, +WATER, +POT fry: +FAT, +POT, +SIEVE steam: +WATER, +POT stew: +POT, +WATER, +FAT bake: +OVEV, +FAT

Ⅶ.a).The professor’s appointment was shocking.i.It was shocking that the professor was appointed.ii.The appointment made by the professor was shocking.b).The design has big squares and circles.i.The squares and circles in the design are big.ii.There are circles and big squares in the design.c).The governor is a dirty street fighter.i.The governor fights against dirty streets.ii.The governor fights unfairly in the streets.iii.The governor is a dirty individual who fights in the streets.Ⅷ.The maxim of agreement is observed.The implicature is that B doesn’t think the dress is lovely but B doesn’t want to contradict A.Ⅸ.a).The magician used the wand to touch the child

a).NP Det N V S VP NP PP

Det N

P NP Det N

The magician touched the child with the wand.b).The magician touched the child who was carrying the wand.b).NP Det N V S VP NP Det N P PP NP Det N

The magician touched the child with the wand.Ⅹ.1.Intonation and stress generally occur simultaneously in utterance.When intonation contour falls on a syllable, the nucleus is stressed and the vowel is naturally lengthened a bit.In the meantime, there is a little pause after the syllable.This simultaneous functioning of the features serves to highlight the information focus, or to eliminate ambiguity(double interpretations of the same phrase or sentence).Every component of a sentence contains some information.It may or may not be highlighted in speech, depending on the speaker’s intention and the situation.Intonation contour can indicate the information focus of the sentence.2.The study of speech sounds is called Phonetics.It includes articulatory phonetics, which focuses on the production of sounds;acoustic phonetics, which analyses the physical properties of speech sounds and auditory phonetics, which focuses on perceptive mechanism of speech sounds.Phonology and phonetics are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but the two differ in perspectives.Phonetics is a part of phonology and provides the means for describing speech sounds;phonology is concerned with the ways in which these speech sounds form systems and patterns in human language.Phonetics is static, phonology is dynamic.综合测试题（综合测试题

（六）答案

Ⅰ.1-5 FTTTT 11-15 T T T F T Ⅱ.6-10 F T F F T 16-20 F F T T F 1.retro + act + ive 2.be + friend + ed 3.tele + vise 4.margin 5.en + dear + ment Ⅲ.Identify morphological elements a)3 b)1 c)4 d)2 e)6 Ⅳ.a)S → NP VP b)NP → Art Adj N PP c)NP → Art Adj N d)NP → Art N PP e)NP → Art N f)VP → V NP PP g)VP → V PP h)VP → V i)VP → V S’ j)PP → P NP Ⅴ.a).The man found the letter.S NP Art The N’ N men V found VP NP Art the N’ N letter

b).The students put the books in the classroom.S NP VP Art The

N’ N students

V put

NP Art the N’ N books

PP P in Art the NP N’ N

classroom

Ⅵ.1.2.3.4.5.Ⅶ 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.Ⅷ..1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.Ⅸ ⑴ MALE LIQUID SPORT ABSTRACT TREE Furniture ………… dining table tree ……………… weeping willow pet…………………Persian cat color……………… navy blue book ………………thesaurus fine art …………… oil painting worker …………… bus driver word ……………… link verb science …………… organic chemistry beverage……………orange juice C S C S C C C C C S

Dialect 1: Suffix [me] to any vowel-initial word.Dialect 2: Suffix [he] to any vowel-initial word.Dialect 3: Suffix [e] to any vowel-initial word.⑵ phonetic transcriptions honest 1.[an?stme] 2.[an?sthe] 3.[an?ste] admire 1.[?dmajrme] 2.[?dmajrhe] 3.[?dmajre]

illegal Ⅹ.1.1.[ilig?lme]

2.[ilig?lhe]

3.[ilig?le]

Function of phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds that form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign ―accent‖, to made up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to produce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate context, to know what is or is not a sound in one’s language, and to know that different phonetic strings may represent the same morpheme.In discourse or text, deixis is used to keep track of who or what is being talked about more than once.The speaker /writer will use deixis to maintain reference, as in the following sentence: In the picture, a boy and a girl are planting a tree.She is holding it, and he is shoveling earth around it.She, he, it refer to already introduced referents, a girl, a boy, a tree.The reference of a deixis to a preceding expression is technically termed anaphoric reference.The deixis that replaces the initial expression is called anaphor, and the initial expression called antecedent.The reversal of the antecedent-anaphor pattern is known as cataphora, Next sentence is an example of cataphoric reference.: I could hardly believe it.The student didn’t pass the exam.2.综合测试题（综合测试题

（七）答案

Ⅰ.1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.Ⅱ.⑴ [ei](2)[l](3)[u](4)[b](5)[?] Ⅲ.u + +

Ⅳ..(1)When two different words are identical in every way except for one phoneme which occurs in the same place, they are said to form a minimal pair.Pill and bill form a minimal pair in English.(2)The difference between pill and bill is signaled or shown by the fact that the initial sound of the first world is and the initial sound of the second word is.The sounds of the two words are identical except for the initial consonants.and are ,therefore, able to distinguish or contrast words in and are, therefore, able to distinguish or contrast words in sound and meaning.They are distinctive sounds in English.Any such speech sound segments that can ? + ou + + i + u: + + + language acquision babbling identifying Semantics derogatoy Dialectal synonym tautology target Place distinguish or contrast words in sound and meaning are called phonemes.Ⅴ.1.2.3.4.5.Ⅵ.1.2.3.4.5.Ⅶ.1.She speaks good Japanese Pit Sake Chunk Chunk Take fit shake junk junk cake [w] labiovelar glide [d3 ] voiced palatal affricate [j] palatal glide [h] voiceless glottal fricative [i:] tense high front vowel

S NP Pron Aux T She Pres VP V NP Adj N

speak good Japanese

2.The problem would be solved by them.S NP2 Det N T Aux M VP V PP P NP1 Pron

Past Pref(be-en)The

Ⅷ.The surface structures of the two sentences seem to be the same, but the grammatical relationships in the deep structures of the two sentences are quite different.In the first sentence Girls want very much to please others.whereas in the second sentence, Someone finds it easy to please girls.Ⅸ.homonyms: ear/ear bank/bank homophones: the rest of the others

Ⅹ 1.[?]and [ ts ] are in complementary distribution.2.[t] occurs before back vowel [ a ],[ o ] and front vowel [ e] [?] is before front vowel [i] [ts] occurs before back vowel [u] 3../t/ is the phoneme.[t] [?] and [ts] are allophones.4../tatami/ /tukue/ /tutumu/ /tomodati/ /tetudau/ /tizu/ /uti/ /tita/ /kata/ /tegami/ /ato/ /tatemono/ /otoko/ /deguti/ /te/ /hiti/ /natu/ /turi/ Ⅺ Affixes in many language like English, may be classified into derivational and inflectional morphemes according to their linguistic nature.A derivational morpheme is an affix which is used to form a derivative, as re-in reread.It may change the class specification of the words to which they are added.For example, read +-able → readable(verb → adjective).There are also some derivational morphemes that do not cause a change in class status.For instance, the prefixes in-in im-+ possible → impossible(adjective → adjective).All derivational morphemes are bound and they must be attached to bases.An inflectional morpheme usually refers to an affix which is suffixed to stem rather than to a base.It dose not help to form a new word or change the class status of the word to which it is suffixed.It only serves as a grammatical marker showing grammatical meaning(or meanings)in sentences.All inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes indicating grammatical categories, such as tense, number, person, gender, case, aspect, mood, voice, and so on.Look at the following sentence, in which person, number, tense and aspect are marked by different inflectional morphemes, respectively.(a)I learn English.(b)She learns English.(c)He learned English.(d)They are learning English.In sentence(b)the –s at the end of the verb is an ―agreement‖ marker, indicating that the subject of the verb is the ―third-person‖, ―singular‖, ―present tense‖.The –ed in(c)and the –ing in(d)are inflectional morphemes required by the syntactic rules of English to show ―tense‖ and ―aspect‖, respectively.bear/bear problem solve by them

综合测试题（综合测试题

（八）答案

Ⅰ.1-5 A B B C C 6-10 B C B B C Ⅱ.1-5 F F T F F 6-10 T F T F T

Ⅲ.1.nucleus 2.sounds 3.gaps 4.suprasegmental features 5.free morphemes 6.Derivation 7.transitivity 8.umbrella 9.registers 10.anaphora

Ⅳ.1.[i] lax high front vowel 2.[e] mid front vowel 3.[a:] low back vowel 4.[u:] tense high back vowel 5.[u] lax back high vowel Ⅴ.1.2.3.4.5.Ⅵ..1.2.3.4.5.Ⅶ.1.2.3.4.5.Ⅷ..1)Vowels and consonants are thought of as the segmental phonemes, of which utterances are composed.They may go one after another in sequences of speech sounds.Segmental phonemes are used to form syllables, morphemes, words and utterances.INSTRUMENT FLOWER MOTION STATIONERY STATE [f] [?] [j] [?] [s] psycho + logy un + palat + able holi + day grand + mother morph + em + ic 2)Two different forms, though different in pronunciation, may be identical in meaning.Some speakers in a dialect of English pronounce the word economics in one way and some speakers in another dialect in another way.The different pronunciation of economics is free variations.3)Assimilation in language is a common phonetic process in which two phonemes, usually adjacent to each other, become identical or similar, or acquire common characteristic, due to the influence of one upon the other when they occur in the sequential speech sounds.If the change affects the adjacent sounds the process is called contiguous or juxtapositional assimilation, e.g./z/ in news become [s] in newspaper.It is also composed of regressive assimilation, total, partial, assimilation, etc.Ⅸ.Apply the reflexive transformation rule and imperative transformation rule to form the following tree: S NP Φ V VP NP pron behave yourself

Ⅹ.Illocutionary acts may be various in form and function.Based on the nature of the illocutionary force or effect, Searle suggested the following five types of utterances: 1)Representative, which commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition, such as asserting, concluding e.g.―I think it is raining.‖ 2)Directives, which are attempts by the speaker to get the addressee to do something, such as requesting, questioning, e.g.― I beg you to give me some advice.‖ 3)Commissives, which commit the speaker to some future action of undertaking some future promise, such as promising, offering, threatening, e.g.―I’ll beat you if you don’t behave yourself.‖ 4)Expressives, which express a psychological state, such as thanking, apologizing, welcoming, congratulating, e.g.―I apologize to you for my late reply to you last letter.‖ 5)Declarations, which effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate extra-linguistic institutions, such as declaring war, christening, firing from employment, e.g.As soon as the employer says to the employee ―you’re friend!‖, the latter immediately loses his job.Ⅺ..Some sentences may be just grammatically well-formed, but semantically they may be not acceptable or anomalous.For example, The colorless green ideas sleep furiously.By the Standard Theory the semantic component contains the rules that specify the semantic features of lexical items, which are necessary for the choice of appropriate lexical items from lexicon.Lexical items or words must be chosen and fitted in according to the selectional restriction rules.Chomsky and his followers have made quite a few revisions and amendments of their original theories and of the Standard Theory.Extended Standard Theory, Revised Extended Standard Theory, Governing and Binding Theory are

all the revised theories.综合测试题（综合测试题

（九）答案

I.1－5 F T T F F 6－10 T T T F F 11－15 T F F T T 16－20 F T F T T II.1.voiced 2.fricative 3.labial 4.alveolar 5.high, vowel

III.1)The stress of greenhouse is on green while that of green house is on house.Greenhouse is a compound word;green house is a noun phrase.A greenhouse refers to a building with sides and roof of glass, used for growing plants that need protection from the weather, while a green house refers to a house whose color is green.2)The stress of sleeping car is on sleeping while that of sleeping boy is on boy.A sleeping car means a car in which one can sleep.A sleeping boy means a boy who is sleeping.IV.Deixis means ―pointing‖ via language.Person Deixis: we, I, him, it… Place Deixis: here, there… Time Deixis: now, then, today, yesterday, tomorrow, next week, last year, in three days… Discourse Deixis: in the previous section, in the next chapter, in the rest of this paper, in conclusion, this, that…

V.a)Those who quickly went there made a fortune.Those who went there made a fortune quickly.a)The planes which are flying can be dangerous.It’s dangerous to fly planes.b)They put fish into cans.They are able to fish.c)The design is full of big squares and big circles.The design is full of circles and big squares.d)I saw the couple who were in the cafeteria.In the cafeteria I saw the couple.VI.The maxim of relation is violated.The implicature is that B doesn’t want to gossip about the hostess.VII.The two sentences are both wrong.―This,‖ ―here,‖ ―that,‖ and ―there‖ are all deixis.―This‖ and ―here‖ are proximal deixis, while ―that‖ and ―there‖ are distal deixis.―Bring‖ means to carry something to the speaker;―take‖ means to carry something away from the speaker.The deixis in both sentences contradict with the two verbs.The correct sentences should be: 1)Bring that here.2)Take this there.VIII.a)The advantages of this approach to meaning analysis are obvious.Firstly, it is a breakthrough in the formal representation of meaning.Once formally represented, meaning components can be seen.Secondly, it reveals the impreciseness of the terminology in the traditional approach to meaning analysis.The limitations of componential analysis are also apparent.It cannot be applied to the analysis of all lexicons, but merely to words within the same semantic field.It is controversial whether semantic features are universal primes of word meanings in all languages.b)Metaphor is the mapping from the source domain to the target domain.The domain to be conceptualized is called target domain, while the conceptualizing domain is termed the source domain.The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguists as mapping.For example, neck is a part of human body, while the neck in the compound bottleneck is metaphorically used.The properties of human neck(source domain)have been transferred to the neck of the bottle(target domain).c)Homonyms are words which have the same form, but different meanings.Words which have the same spelling but different meanings are called homographs, such as bow(v.)and bow(n., a weapon).Words which have the same pronunciation but different meanings are called homophones.Flour/flower, pale/pail, whole/hole are all homophones.Homonyms are listed as separate entries in a dictionary, because lexicographers see them as unrelated in sense.A polyseme is a word which has several related senses.Lexicographers make the distinction between homonyms and polysemes based on the intuition of native speakers as well as the etymology or history of words.综合测试

（十）I.1－5 C D A B D 6－10 A A B C B 11－15 C A D B B 16－20 D A C D B II.a)[m] b)[w] c)[u] d)[l] e)[b] III.1.This is a dress for beautiful girls.This is a beautiful dress for girls.2.Tom hates his boss and I hate his boss too.Tom hates his boss and I hate my boss too.3.They finally made a decision on the boat.They finally chose the boat.4.Can you see the man who is carrying a pair of binoculars? Can you see the man through a pair of binoculars? IV.a.truck b.elevator C.sidewalk d.can e.candy V.(Relation)The addressee does not think the dress is beautiful.VI.S NP Det N PP Prep NP Det N V Prep VP PP NP Det N VII.a)The Whit House is a proper noun, which is the estate of the American government.A white house refers to a house which is painted white.b)A redcoat refers to a British soldier who is in red coat.A red coat means a coat whose color is red.c)A bluebird refers to a kind of bird.A blue bird means a bird whose feathers are blue.d)A lighthouse keeper refers a keeper who keeps lighthouse.A light housekeeper means a housekeeper who is light.VIII.The relation between bank1 and bank2 is homonymy.IX.1.Metaphors have three main features: systematicity, creation of similarities, and imaginative rationality.Metaphors are systematic precisely because they are conceptual in nature.Metaphor can create similarities between the two domains involved.This runs counter to the traditional view which holds that similarities are inherent in the entities themselves.But cognitive linguists hold that the similarities relevant to metaphors are experiential rather than objective.Metaphors are characterized by imaginative rationality.They unite reasoning and imagination.Metaphors as a form of reasoning by analogy involve categorization, entailment and inference.By metaphors we understand one kind of thing in terms of another kind of thing.2.The term variety is the label given to the form of a language used by any group of speakers or used in a particular field.A variety is characterized by the basic lexicon, phonology, syntax shared by members of the group.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional(geographical)dialects, sociolects(social dialects)and registers(functional varieties).The standard variety is the form of a language used by the government and communication media, taught in schools and universities and is the main or only written form.A regional dialect is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area.Sociolects are forms of a language that characterize the speech of different social classes.Register is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to ―varieties according to use.‖ 3.Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world.London refers to or denotes the capital of Great Britain.The word dog denotes a kind of domestic animal.The referential theory, the simplest theory of meaning, claims that meaning is reference.Words stand not only in relation to the world but also to human mind.So in addition to reference, there is another dimension of word meaning called sense.For example, when you hear the expression dog, you will naturally reflect on its features in addition to the kind of animal as the referent of the expression.Sense is mental representation, the association with something in the speaker/hearer's mind.Words like dragon, but, of and phrases like a round triangle have sense, but no referent.Words like dog, horse, car and gun have both referent and sense.

第三篇：语言学概论答案

电大汉本语言学概论作业形考答案1导言、第一章、第二章

一、名词解释

1、历时语言学——就各种语言的历史事实用比较的方法去研究它的“亲属”关系和历史发展的，叫历时语言学。

2、语言——语言是一种社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具和进行思维的工具。就语言本身的结构来说，语言是由词汇和语法构成的系统。

3、符号——符号是用来代表事物的一种形式，词这样的符号是声音和意义相结合的统一体。任何符号都是由声音和意义两方面构成的。

4、语言的二层性——语言是一种分层装置，其底层是一套音位；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，这一层又分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是由语素构成的词，第三级是由词构成的句子。

5、社会现象——语言是一种社会现象和人类社会有紧密的联系。所谓“社会”，就是指生活在一个共同的地域中，说同一种语言，有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。语言对于社会全体成员来说是统一的、共同的；另一方面，语言在人们的使用中可以有不同的变异、不同的风格。

二、填空

1、结构主义语言学包括布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学三个学派。

2、历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。

3、人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。

4、一个符号，如果没有意义，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有声音，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。

5、用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义，完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。

6、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。

7、语言的底层是一套音位，上层是符号和符号的序列，可以分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是词，第三级是句子。

8、语言系统中的所有符号，既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换，符号之间的这两种关系是组合和聚合。

9、组合是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系，聚合是指符号在性质上的归类。

三、判断正误（正确的打钩，错误的打叉）

1、文字是人类最重要的交际工具。（×）

2、地主阶级和农民阶级之间没有共同语言，这说明语言是有阶级性的。（×）

3、在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。（×）

4、现代社会，沟通的方式很多，语言的重要性日渐削弱。（×）

5、语言是思维的工具，没有语言，人类就无法思维。

（√）

6、语言和思维互相依存，共同发展。

（√）

7、任何一种符号，都是由内容和意义两个方面构成的。

（×）

8、从本质上看，语言其实是一种符号系统。

（√）

9、人类选择语音而不是色彩、手势作为语言符号的形式，是因为语音比较好（×）

10、语言符号的约定俗成是指语音形式和意义内容的结合是社会成员共同约定认同的。（√）

四、问答题

1、语言的作用是什么？同社会有什么样的联系？

语言是表达思想、进行交际的工具，是人类最重要的交际工具。语言是一种社会现象和人类社会有紧密的联系。所谓“社会”，就是指生活一个共同的地域中，说同一种语言，有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体，即一般所说的部落、部旅和民族。每一个社会都必须有自己的语言，因为，语言是组成社会的一个不可缺少的因素。人与人之间的联系得靠语言来维持。有了语言，生活在社会中的人才能共同生产、共同生活、共同斗争，协调在同自然力的斗争中，在生产物质资料的斗争中的共同行动。没有语言，人与人之间的联系就会中断，社会就会解体。语言对于社会全体成员来说是统一的，共同的，但在人们的使用中可以有不同的变异、不同的风格。

2、怎样理解语言是一种特殊的社会现象？语言有没有阶级性？为什么？

答：语言是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具。这首先可以从语音与语义的结合关系以及世界语言的多样性来加以说明。语言都是由语音和语义结合而成的，但相同的意义，在不同的语言中就能用不同的声音来表达；在同一语言中也有用相同的声音来表达不同的意义的情形；可见，语音与语义怎样结合成特定的语言成分决定于一定社会集体的意志，决定于“约定俗成”的社会习惯。

其次，从语言与社会相互依存的关系中也可以说明语言是社会现象。一方面，语言依存于社会，语言是随着人类社会的产生而产生的，只有人类才有语言。另一方面，社会不能没有语言，语言是人类区别于其它动物的一个重要标志。作为交际工具的语言是全民的，没有阶级性。第一，从语言的创造者和语言的服务对象来看，语言是在许多时代中为全民所创造出来和丰富起来的。人类出现时语言就同时产生了，那时的人类社会不分阶级，语言只能是全民所创造并为全民服务的。第二，从语言本身的情况来看，不同阶级可能创造并运用一些自己的专门的词和语，形成所谓阶级习惯语，但是阶级习惯语并不就是语言，它没有自己的语法结构和基本词汇。

3、什么是语言符号的任意性？从哪些地方看出来语言具有任意性？

答：语言符号的任意性是指语言符号的音与义的结合是任意的，由社会约定俗成。不同语言可以用不同的音来表示相同的事物（如汉语的“shū”和英语的“book”），也可以用相同的、类似的音来表示不同的事物（如：汉语的“哀”和英语的“I”）。这些都是符号任意性的表现。

4、语言是自然现象还是社会现象？为什么？

答：语言是社会现象，它不是自然现象，也不是个人现象。①语言是社会现象和人类社会有着十分紧密的联系，语言随社会的产生而产生，随社会的发展而发展，随社会的分化统一而分化统一，可见，语言绝不是自然现象。②从语言的音义关系可以看出语言不是自然现象，而是由一定的社会集团约定俗成的；如果语言是自然现象，是天生的，世界上的语言就应该是一样的，如果没有区别，而实际上世界上不但有各种各样的语言，还有众多的方言。

5、什么是组合关系？什么是聚合关系？它们对于语言运用有什么样的意义？ 答：语言符号中每个符号都处在既可以和别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换这样两种关系中。符号和符号组合起来的关系称为符号的组合关系。语言符号的组合方式处于一个前后相续的链条状，在链条的某一环节上能够互相替换的符号具有某种相同的作用，它的自然地聚集成群，它的彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。

组合关系和聚合关系是语言系统中的两种根本关系。不但语言符号（词、语素）处在这两种关系之中，而且构造符号的音位和意义也都处在这两种关系之中。

组合关系和聚合关系是组成语言系统的一个纲，是我们观察、分析、归纳错综复杂的语言现象的一把总钥匙。

6、语言符号的系统性体现在哪些方面？

答：语言符号不是互不相干的一盘散沙，而是有组织、有条理的系统。语言符号的系统性体现在语言是一种分层装置，这种装置靠组合和替换来运转。语言的底层是一套音位，上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，这一层又分若干级。第一级是语素，第二级是由语素构成的词，第三级是由词构成的句子。词和句子都是符号的序列。语言这个分层装置的运转是组合和替换，即符号的组合关系和聚合关系。作业形考答案2 第三章 语音

一、名词解释

1、音素：是人类语言从音质角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。

2、元音：发音时气流不受阻的音叫元音，如汉语拼音方案中的字母a、e、o、i、u、ü。

3、辅音：发音时气流受阻的音叫辅音，汉语拼音方案字母中除a、e、o、i、u、ü之外的其它字母代表的音属于辅音。

4、自由变体：音位的自由变体就是能出现在同样的语言环境之中而不能区别意义的两个或两个以上的音。

5、发音部位：指发辅音时气流受阻的部位。

二、填空

1、语音的发音、传递、感知三个环节，分别对应于语音的生理、物理、心理三个方面的属性。

2、语音同其它声音一样，也具有音高、音重、音长和音质四个要素。

3、人类的发音器官可分为动力（肺）、发音体（声带）、共鸣腔（口、鼻、咽腔）三大部分。

4、在发音器官中，唇、舌头、软腭、小舌、声带等是能够活动的，叫做主动发音器官。

5、根据发音特点，音素可以分为元音和辅音两类，例如汉语音节中的声母，主要就是由辅音充当的。

6、每个元音的音质是由舌位的高低、前后、嘴唇的圆展三个方面的因素决定的。

三、单项选择题

1、从自然属性角度划分出来的最小语音单位是（C）。A、元音

B、辅音

C、音素

D、音位

2、汉语拼音方案是以（C）字母为基础制订的。A、英语

B、法语

C、拉丁

D、希腊

3、汉语拼音中的ü、c、h，国际音标分别写作（B）。A、u c h

B、y ts‘ x

C、u ch h

D、x y k

4、下列说法，（A）是正确的。

A、音高具有区别意义的作用B、妇女的声带比男子要厚 C、汉语中音长具有区别意义的作用D、汉语“天”、“空”两个音节的音高不同

5、下列说法，只有（D）正确。

A、振幅越大，声音就越弱

B、振幅越大，声音就越长 C、频率越多，声音就越低

D、频率越多，声音就越高

6、对发音器官功能的描述，（B）是正确的。

A、声带在发音中的作用是次要的B、舌头的活动，起了调节共鸣器形状的作用 C、口腔中最为灵活的部位是上腭D、声带、舌头等是被动发音器官

7、关于元音和辅音的区别的描述，（C）是正确的。

A、元音发音时间短暂，辅音发音时间较长B、辅音发音响亮，元音发音不响亮

C、发辅音气流受阻，发元音气流不受阻D、发元音和辅音发音器官的各个部位均衡紧张

8、下列汉语拼音和国际音标对应正确的一组是（C）。

A、ē—[e]

B、j—[y]

C、h—[x]

D、b—[b]

9、下列发音方法完全相同的一组辅音是（D）。A、[t]—[d]

B、[b]—[p]

C、[s]—[z]

D、[t]—[k]

10、下列各组元音区别的描述，（A）是错误的。

A、i和y的区别是舌位前后不同B、u和o的区别是舌位高低不同 C、a和ā的区别是舌位前后不同D、i和a的区别是舌位高低不同

11、下列各组辅音，区别特征为清浊对立的一组是（D）。A、[x]—[h]

B、[t]—[k]

C、[s]—[f]

D、[z]—[s]

12、下列说法，（A）是正确的。

A、音位具有区别意义的作用

B、音素具有区别意义的作用 C、声母具有区别意义的作用

D、韵母具有区别意义的作用

13、我们在念“老虎”时，通常要把“老”念成阳平，这种变化叫做（B）。A、同化

B、异化

C、弱化

D、脱落

四、分析题

1、根据发音特点描述，在下图中用相应的国际音标标出来（书P60）（1）舌面后半低不圆唇元音；a（2）舌面前半高不圆唇元音；e（3）舌面前低不圆唇元音；a（4）舌面后高圆唇元音；u（5）舌面前高圆唇元音；y（6）舌面后半高不圆唇元音。R

2、分析下列辅音的发音特点

①[k]舌面后，清，不送气，塞音②[x]舌面后，清擦音 ③[b]双唇，浊，塞音④[ts‘]舌尖后，清，送气，塞擦音

3、说明下面各组音素的区别特征

①[p]—[p‘]不送气—送气②[s]—[z]清—浊

③[tc]—[tc‘]不送气—送气④[y]—[i]圆唇—不圆唇

4、用严式国际音标给下面的汉字注音（声调不作要求）。①我们的生活充满阳光

[wo][men][te][seh][xuo][tson][man][jah][kuh] ②积极参加网上学习

[tGi][tGi][ts’an][tGia][wah][sah][Güe][Gi]

六、问答题

1、听别人说话，在没有看见人的情况下，为什么我们能听出是男子说话还是妇女说话？是大人说话还是小孩说话来呢？请结合语音知识加以说明。

答：这是由于男子和妇女、大人和儿童的音高不同造成的。音高就是声音的高低，它取决于音波的频率。频率大声音就高，频率小声音就低。语音的高低和人的声带的长短、厚薄松紧有关。一般说来，妇女和儿童的声带短而薄，所以说话时声音高一些，男子的声带长而厚，所以说话的声音低一些。这样，我们就根据声音的高低可以在没有看见人的情况下，听出是男子还是女子，是大人还是小孩说话了。

2、音高在汉语中具有区别意义的作用，请举例说明。答：汉语的声调有区别词的语音形式的作用。它是由音的高低变化表现出来的。同一个音节，声调不同，词或语素的语音形式就不同，因而意义也不同。例如：“妈、麻、马、骂”的音音、辅音和它的组合的顺序是一样的，都是/ma/，只是由于音高变化不同才使它们成为语音形式不同，意义迥异的四个语音单位。可见音高变化产生了调位的不同，有区别意义的作用。

3、举例说明什么是对立？什么是互补？ 答：音素如果有区别词的语音形式的作用，在汉语中是对立的，人们会把它们认为是完全不同的两个语音单位，叫音素的对立。例如：不送气的[p]和送气的[p‘]，在汉语里有区别词的语音形式的作用，比方“标”[piau]和[p‘iau]“飘”在语音上的不同仅仅在于前者是不送气的[p]，后者是送气的[p‘]，但却构成了完全不同的两个语素。

音素如果仅仅是在出现的位置和环境互相补充，彼此处于互补的关系，而不是对立的关系，即它们没有区别词的语音形式的作用，叫音素的互补。如汉语中“哀”、“安”、“啊”、“熬”、“昂”五个词的语音形式用汉语拼音方案写为：ai、an、a、ao、ang，如果仔细比较，“哀”、“安”中的a是前[a]，“啊”中的a是中[a]，“熬”、“昂”中的a是后[a]，这三个音位的a由于没有区别词的语音形式的作用，只是在音节中的位置不同，构成音素的互补关系。

4、汉语音节ban、da、guang中的a，是三个不同的音素，但却是一个音位，为什么？ 答：这是因为bau、da、guang中的三个[a]、[A]、[a]是处于互补关系中的相似音素，它们彼此不对立，即不起区别词的语音形式的作用，我们可以把它们归并为一个音位。这种处于互补关系中的各个音素被看成同一个音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，语音学上称为音位变体。这里的[a]、[A]、[a]三个音位变体的出现条件是前后有无无音、辅音这种语言环境的制约，叫做音位的条件变体。作业形考答案3 第四章

一、概念解释

1、词类——词类是按照词在结构中所能起的作用，即词的句法功能分出的类。

2、直接成分——构成句子的每一层中直接组合起来构成一个更大的语法单位的两个组成成分叫做直接成分。

3、语法形式——是相对于语法意义而言的，是表达语法意义的外部形式标志。

4、复合词——由词根语素按一定的规则组合起来构成的合成词，称为复合词。

5、语法范畴——就是语法意义的类，是由词的变化形式所表示的意义方面的聚合。

二、填空

1、语法规则是大家说话的时候必须遵守的习惯，不是语言学家规定的。

2、语法的组合规则和聚合规则构成一种语言的语法规则。

3、句子按其语气可以分为陈述、疑问、祈使、感叹等不同的类型，例如“什么书他都喜欢看”是陈述句。

4、从意义和作用看，词可以分为实词和虚词两大类。

5、语法研究通常以词为界，词以上的规则叫句法，词以下的规则叫词法。

6、根据在词中的不同作用，一般把语素分成词根、词缀、词尾三类，例如“学习”中的两个语素是词根，“being”中的ing是词尾，“reader”中的er是词缀。

7、词尾的主要作用是改变一个词的形式，但不能构成新词。

8、根据语素在词中的不同作用，把词根和词缀叫作构词语素，把词尾叫作变词语素。

9、由词根语素按一定的规则组合起来构成的词，称为复合词。由词根语素和词缀组合起来构成的词称为派生词，其构词规则又叫作派生构词法，或叫附加法。

10、主谓结构、述宾结构、述补结构、偏正结构、联合结构是语言里最基本的结构格式。

11、直接组合起来构成一个更大的语法单位的两个组成成分叫做直接组成成分。

12、从语法结构角度分类，一般把世界上的语言分为孤立语、粘着语、屈折语、复综语四种类型，汉语属于孤立语。

13、孤立语的主要特点是缺乏词形变化；屈折语的主要特点是有丰富的词形变化。

三、单项选择

1、下列说法正确的是（B）。A、语法的组合规则是潜在的B、语法的聚合规则是潜在的

C、语法的组合规则存在于书面语言中D、语法的聚合规则存在于书面语言中

2、下列说法不正确的一项是（B）。

A、组合规则为句子的生成提供了无数的可能B、聚合规则为句子的生成提供了无数的可能 C、我们日常使用语言离不开语法规则D、语法规则是人人都必须遵守的

3、（C）在语言中处于枢纽地位，一般把它作为分析语法结构的最重要的语法单位。A、句子

B、词组

C、词

D、语素

4、对英语单词“workers”的分析，（A）是正确的。

A、work是词干B、er是词尾C、s是词缀，严格说是后缀 D、语素Work和er都是构词语素

5、下列各组词中全都属于复合词的一组是（B）。

A、领导

大街

reader

B、国家

月球

railway C、老师

刷子

unlike

D、考虑

作家

classmate

6、下列说法（C）是正确的。A、“离开、环境、比拟、协议”都是派生词B、“study、look、think、door”都是派生词 C、“变化、广义、扒手、左手”都是复合词D、“留心、伤心、老鼠、impossible”都是合成词

7、下列语言单位中全都属于述宾结构的一组是（C）。

A、太阳红

月儿明

I read the bookB、吃干净

放在一边

the sun rises C、看电影

种庄稼

to play footballD、金色的年华

红五月

to leave a good memory

8、下列语言单位（B）的结构与“我的故乡”相同。A、休息几天

太可笑

B、the red sun a red flag C、to waken me to tell her

D、祖国富强 人民幸福

9、下列词组只有（D）没有歧义。

A、两个朋友送的花瓶

B、发现了敌人的哨兵 C、看打球的小女孩

D、折断了猎人的枪

10、英语动词“be”有多种变化形式，下列句子中，只有（B）使用正确。A、He be good child.B、I am a teacher.C、They is peasant.D、You was workers.11、俄语、汉语、日语三种语言所属的语法结构类型按次序是（D）。A、粘着语—屈折语—孤立语

B、屈折语—粘着语—孤立语 C、孤立语—屈折语—粘着语

D、屈折语—孤立语—粘着语

12、下列句子符合英语法规则的是（D）。

A、He am a studentes.B、She is a students.C、I were a student.D、You are a student.13、英语名词后面加上词尾s或es，这种变化属于语法范畴中的（B）变化。A、性

B、数

C、格

D、体

14、与“春光明媚”结构相同的组合是（C）。A、阳光的温暖

B、马上开始

C、The sun rise.D、Worker and peasant.15、英语动词的词形变化一般有5种，但动词be的变化形式有（A）。A、8种

B、4种

C、7种

D、6种

16、“John is reading the newspaper”变成被动语态是（D）。A、The newspaper is reading by John.B、The newspaper is by John reading.C、The newspaper is being read by John.D、The newspaper is being readed by John.17、下列句子没有多义的是（B）。

A、他在甲板上写字

B、他在黑板上写字 C、他在屋顶上写字

D、他在地上写字

18、下列句子有歧义的一句是（B）。

A、那里的茶花很多

B、那里的杜鹃很多C、那里的月季很多

D、那里的玫瑰很多

19、英语“He writes a letter”中动词writes中的s表示的语法意义是（C）。A、性

B、数

C、人称

D、格 20、下列说法正确的一项是（A）。

A、一般把词尾叫做变词语素B、语法意义是反映语法形式的 C、语法范畴中的“格”即语法格式D、汉语属于屈折语

四、分析题

1、列表分析下列语素 例

词

词根

词

缀

词尾

前缀

中缀

后缀

莲

子

莲 ,子

轮

子

轮

子

科学性

科子

性

Dislike Like dis

unhappinesses happy un

ness es

2、用层次分析法分析下列句法结构

（2）a.非 常 热 爱 祖 国 和 人 民 的英 雄

|___________||_______________________|

述

宾

|___||_______||________________||______|

偏

正

偏

正

|_______||________|

联

合

b.非 常 热 爱 祖 国 和 人 民 的 英 雄

|_____________________________||_____|

偏

正

|___________||_________________|

述

宾

|_____||_____||_______||________|

偏

正

联

合3、用变换方法区分下列句法多义的句子

（1）发现了敌人的哨兵

变换1：他发现了敌人的哨兵。揭示“敌人的哨兵”是“发现”的宾语。变换2：敌人的哨兵发现了他。揭示“他”是“发现”的宾语。这说明谓语“发现”可以兼两种结构意义，所以有歧义。（2）关心的是广大群众。

变换1：他关心的是广大群众。揭示“广大群众”是“关心”的受事。变换2：关心他的是广大群众。揭示“他”是“关心”的受事。这说述宾结构“关心”可以兼两种结构意义，所以有歧义。

4、指出下列合成词的具体的构造方式 中肯

自卫

表态

金黄 联合偏正

述宾

偏正

5、指出下列句子中划线部分的词形变化所表示的语法范畴和语法意义（1）He has many things to do.has：人称、数、时。第三人称，单数，一般现在时。things：复数，名词前面用“many”，此处要用复数，加“s”。（2）Laowang gives me a book.give：人称数、时数；me：宾格。

“give”表示的语法范畴是由于人称的变化，“Lao wang”是第三人称，动词“give”表示一般现在时的第三人称单数，在“give”后加“s”表示。“me”表示名词用作宾语时用宾格。

五、问答题

1、举例说明什么是词缀、词尾，并简要说明词缀和词尾的区别。

答：根据语素在词中的不同作用可把它分成词根、词缀、词尾三类。词缀是只能粘附在词根上构成新词的语素，它本身不能单独构成词。如汉语“第一”、“第二”中的“第”，“作者”、“编者”中的者，“小王”、“小李”中的“小”。词尾是加在词的末尾，只改变一个词的形式，而不能构成新词的成分。如英语的“book”加上“s”以后成为“books”，walk加-s、-ing、-ed之后而成为walks、walking、walked，这些都只是同一个词的不同形式，而不是不同的词。词缀和词尾的主要区别在于能否构成新词。

2、形态变化有那几种情况？举例说明。

答：形态变化名词有数的词形变化，如英语的单数、复数，“report”指这个报告，“reports”指这些报告。动词有时态的变化，在人称、数上也要与主语一致，如动词“give”有“give”（原形），gives（第三人称单数），gave（过去时），given（过去分词），giving（现在分词）的变化；大部分形容词和副词有级的变化。这些都是一般所说的划分词类的形态原则。

3、举例说明什么是级，以及级的构成方式。

答：语言是一种层级结构，每一层分为若干级。第一级是语素，第二级是由语素构成的词，第三级是由词构成的句子。从语素到句子的各类语法单位构成一个像阶梯般的层级系统，上一级单位由下一级单位按一定的规划组合而成。例如“火”这个词由“火”一个语素构成。“朋友”这个词由“朋”和“友”两个语素构成。“我看书”这句话由“我”、“看”、“书”三个词构成。

4、“红太阳”和“太阳红”的语法意义有什么差别？形成这些差别的语法手段是什么？ 答：“红太阳”是偏正结构，语法意义是“红的太阳”；“太阳红”是主谓结构，语法意义是陈述“太阳”是“红”色的。形成这两种语法意义的差别的语法手段是“词序”的不同，从而形成了不同的结构关系。作业形考答案4 第五章~第九章

一、填空

1、一般性、模糊性 和 全民性是词义概括性的三个重要表现形式。

2、同义词的“同”主要指 理性意义 相同或相似，不同之处主要有词的搭配习惯、词义的附加色彩 和 风格色彩 等方面。

3、绝对反义词的意义所概括反映的都是同类现象中的两个对立的方面。

4、词语的组合一方面受到 语法规则 的支配，另一方面要受到语义条件的限制。

5、文字的作用主要是突破了有声语言的 时间 和 空间局限，使出口即逝的语言能够传于异地，留于异时。

6、文字的发展经历了 表意、表意兼表音 和 表音 三个阶段。

7、从语言谱系来分类，汉语属于 汉藏 语系，英语属于 印欧语系。

8、词汇的变化主要体现在 新词的产生和旧词的消亡、词语的替换和词义的演变 三个方面。

二、判断正误

1、基本词具有很强的构词能力，而像“我、他、啊、吗、从”这类词都没有能产性特点，所以不是基本词。（×）

2、词义不是对客观现实现象的反映，例如像“天堂、地狱、玉皇大帝、夜叉”这类词的意义，并不是客观现实现象。（×）

3、“天、地、水、人”这些词只有一个音节，都是单义词。（√）

4、“小鞋”本义指“号码较小的鞋子”，派生义指“故意给别人的刁难”，这是隐喻。（√）

5、“铁窗”本义指“安有铁栅栏”的窗户，派生义指“监狱”，这是隐喻。（√）

6、所有的汉字都与语素相对应，都有一定的意义。

（√）

7、从我国的社会政治经济和文化的发展水平看，汉字必须立即改成拼音文字，才能适应社会发展变化的需要。（×）

8、口语是在书面语的基础上产生的，促进了书面语的发展。（×）

9、语言发展的根本原因是语言中的各种因素相互影响。（√）

10、语言的发展变化是逐渐发生的，没有突变。

（√）

11、行业用语不能被全民语言吸收而发展成为日常交际用语。（√）

12、借词不同于意译词。

（√）

13、一种语言与另一种语言融合，主要取决于操这种语言的民族是否居于统治地位。（×）

14、任何规则都是有例外的，如英语名词的复数形式是在后面加上s，但man、knife的复数却不能加s，而是内部元音或辅音发生变化。（√）

三、单项选择题

1、下列每组词全都属于基本词汇的是（C）。

A、丈夫、妻子、兄弟、令堂

B、若干、屹立、篇章、父母 C、make，look，do，get

D、电视、开发、能力、学派

2、“上帝”“天堂”“妖怪”“神仙”等词的词义是（D）。A、不反映现实现象

B、反映现实现象

C、没有现实根据

D、对现实现象的歪曲反映

3、“兵”的最初意义是（B）。

A、士兵

B、武器

C、战争

D、军事

4、下列各组词中，属于等义词的一组是（C）。

A、成果—后果

B、many—muchC、替代—代替

D、头颅—脑瓜子

5、下列反义词之间属于非此即彼的一组是（D）。

A、白—黑

B、大—小

C、高—低

D、生—死

6、就下列词语来看，只有（B）组中的汉字全都能独立地表示语素。A、山峰

音乐

事理

委员B、沙发

吉它

卡片

罗马 C、葡萄

玻璃

枇杷

纱门D、蜘蛛

窃窕

逍遥

逃遁

7、下列文字中属于音节文字的是（A）。

A、日文字母

B、英文字母

C、俄文字母

D、法文字母

8、下列文字中属于音位字母的是（B）。

A、日文字母

B、英文字母

C、汉字

D、阿拉伯字母

9、从造字方法考察，文字的发展经历了（D）三个阶段。A、表意—表音—表意兼表音

B、表音—表意兼表音—表意 C、表义兼表音—表意—表音

D、表意—表意兼表音—表音

10、汉字是现行文字中的一种典型的（C）文字。A、表音

B、表意

C、意音

D、音节

11、从偏旁和字音字义的联系情况看，下列各组汉字只有（A）是形声字。A、赶

妈

想

视

B、赵

看

部

路 C、汉

地

使

爨

D、庙

春

鸡

叹

12、语言发展变化的基本条件是（C）。

A、自然的发展变化

B、语言内部的因素 C、社会的发展变化

D、个人生活经历的变化

13、在一种语言内部划分地域方言时的依据主要是（D）。A、语法

B、词汇

C、词义

D、语音

14、同一语系中的语言可根据它们亲属关系的亲疏远近依次分为（A）。A、语族

语支

语群

B、语族

语群

语支 C、语群

语族

语支

D、语支

语族

语群

15、下列都属于汉语中借词的是（C）。

A、雷达

足球

沙发椅

B、卡车

电话

哈巴狗 C、纳粹

吉他

吉普车

D、沙龙

朝廷

艾滋病

16、下列各组词只有（C）是意译词。

A、雷达

马达

咖啡

B、啤酒

苜蓿

哈密 C、西装

篮球

胡瓜

D、槟榔

浪漫

坦克

17、柴门霍夫所创造的世界语是（C）。

A、世界共同语

B、洋泾浜C、国际辅助语

D、克里奥耳语

18、古汉语声母中有[b][d][g][p][t][k]，现已合流了，这条语音规律叫做（C）。A、腭化规律

B、清音浊化规律 C、浊音清化规律

D、浊音送气化规律

19、英语名词的复数形式一般是加上词尾s或es表示，但（A）组词不能这样类推。A、knife man leaf woman

B、chair pen book friend C、pound bag sort weekday D、hero pig room source 20、在社会变动较大或政治斗争激烈的时期，语言中变化最大的是（C）。A、语音

B、词义

C、词汇

D、语法

四、综合分析题

1、分析下列同义词的主要差别 A、批评—批判

词义轻重不同 B、发挥—发扬

搭配对象不同

C、牺牲—死亡—完蛋

语体色彩不同 D、成果—结果—后果

语体色彩不同

A、批评：①指出优点和缺点，评论好坏；②专指对错误和缺点提出意见 批判：①对错误的思想、言论或行为做系统的分析，加以否定；②批评“批判”的词义比“批评”大，“批判”程度较重，“批评”较轻。

B、发挥：①把内在的性质或能力表现出来，~积极性，~技术水平；②把意思或道理充分表达出来，“借题~”。

发扬：①发展和提倡：~光大，~民主，~精神；②发挥：~火力，“发扬”的词义比“发挥”大。

C、风格色新不同，“牺牲”多用于书面语和比较庄严的场合； “死亡”用于书面语，一般场合；“完蛋”多用于口语，含有贬义。D、词的附加色新不同。“成果”多用于褒义，“结果”是中性词，“后果”多用于贬义。

2、分析下列词语意义的演变情况

A、墨水：原意是指书写用的黑色液体，今指各种颜色的这种液体。B、牺牲：原意指祭祀用的牲畜，今指为正义事业献身。C、deer：原意指动物，今指鹿。

D、事故：原意泛指事情，今指意外的损失或灾祸，即不幸的事情。E、泰斗：原意指泰山北斗，今指德高望重或卓有成就受到尊重的人。A、词义扩大了。

B、词义的转移。由表示某类现实现象改变为另一类现实现象。C、词义的缩小。演变后的词义比原来的词义狭窄了。D、词义的缩小。E、词义的转移。

五、问答题

1、基本词有哪些特点？这些特点之间有什么样的影响？

答：基本词具有全民带用、稳固、具有构词能力三个特点。基本词是人民日常都离不开的，时刻都要使用的，无论男女老少都要使用，而且基本词从古到今十分稳固，很少变化，很多基本词都具有很强的构词能力。例如：“电”就是一个基本词，它已经使用数千年，还能构成“电灯、电视、电话、电流、电力、电线、电解、放电、变电”等词。

基本词记的三个特点是互相联系，互相影响，互为因果的。由于基本词汇具有全民常用性特点，在使用上涉及到方方面面，涉及到不同阶层，不同地域的人们运用语言，牵一发而动全身，所以客观上就要求基本词汇保持相对稳定性，不能经常变动，以利用适用；当新的事物现象出现，需要新词记录时，人们又首选现成的基本词汇作为构词材料，使得基本词汇又具有了很强的构词能力，这又反过来强化了基本词汇的全民常用性特点和稳固性特点。

2、什么是词义的概括性？有哪些表现形式？简要说明这些表现形式的内涵。

答：词义的概括性是指词义对现实现象的反映是概括的反映，概括是对现实现象的分类，把有共同特点的现象归在一起，给予一个名称，使它和其他现象区别开来。把特殊的、复杂的东西归成一般的、简单的东西，是概括所完成的工作。

一般性、模糊性和全民性是词义的概括性的三个重要表现形式。

一般性是指词义概括事物时都是把特殊、复杂的东西变为一般、简单的东西。

模糊性是指经过概括而形成的一般的、简单的东西，本身往往带有一定的模糊性，它只有一个大致的范围，没有明确的界限。

全民性是指某些词义反映阶级社会中的有些事物和现象，这些事物和现象有强烈的阶级性，但是反映这些现象的词义却是全民的，没有阶级性。

3、举例说明什么是拼音文字、音位文字、意音文字。

答：拼音文字是用字母记录语言中的音节或音位的文字，文字体系比较简明，一个字的拼写反映出语言中的一个符号的读音，如英文包括了字母、字母顺序、拼写规则（大写字母用法、移行规则、自左而右的书写顺序）、标点等，用字母记录音节和音位。音位文字是记录语言中音位的文字，表示意位的文字，只需要几十个字母就可以拼写语言中的全部音节，进而书写全部的词和句子。如世界语就是一种记录音位的字母文字。意音文字是同时兼采表意、表音两种方法记录语言的文字。如汉字就是意音文字，有表意字，或借表意字充当表音字，以及兼用表意、表音两种方法的文字。我国传统的文字学把第二种称为假借字，第三种称为形声字。

4、语言发展有哪些特点？为什么会有这些特点？ 答：渐变性和不平衡性是语言发展的两大特点。语言发展的渐变性特点是由语言的社会功能所决定的。一方面，交际要求语言保持稳定的状态；另一方面，随着社会的发展，日益增长的需要又不断地促使语言发生变化。稳固和变化这两个对立的要求促使语言的演变只能采取渐变的方式，不允许突变。

而不平衡性也是由于语言系统的各个组成部分与社会发展的联系有很大不同造成的。语言中词汇对社会发展的反应最灵敏，变化比较快；而语音和语法的变化相对缓慢而稳定。它们的变化速度是不平衡，语言发展的不平衡性又是产生地域方言或亲属语言的语言内部的原因。

5、哪些因素促进了语言的发展？主要因素是什么？简要说明。答：①社会的发展是语言发展的基本条件和强大动力。②语言随着社会的发展而发展，但是语言如何发展，是由语言系统内部的各种因素的相互关系决定的。

语言是社会的交际工具。社会的交际是语言发展的最基本的条件，语言内部各要素的相互影响是在这一条件的基础上起作用的，它决定着每一语言发展的特殊的方向。

6、词汇的发展体现在哪些方面？ 答：词汇的发展体现在下列三个方面：新词的产生和旧词的消亡，词语的替换，词义的演变。

1、新词的产生和旧词的消亡。新词的产生与现实中出现的新的事物有联系。随着工农业生产和科学技术的发展，新事物层出不穷，语言为表达这些新事物的需要而产生新词；旧词的消亡一方面是由于旧事物的消失；另一方面由词汇系统的变动，认识的变化也可以引起旧词的消亡。

2、词语的替换指改变某类现实现象的名称，而现实现象本身并没有发生变化。

3、词义的演变是指词的形式不变，而意义发生了变化。词义的演变包括旧义的扩大、缩小和转移三种情况。

第四篇：概论课后答案

1．如何认识改革开放是决定当代中国命运的关键抉择?

改革开放是一场新的伟大革命。中国共产党在20世纪70年代末做出实行改革开放的重大决策，是有其深刻的国内和国际两方面的背景。从国内的情况看，“文化大革命”十年内乱，使党、国家和人民遭到严重挫折和损失，面对严重的困难，我们的出路只能是通过改革开放。从国际环境看，我国经济实力、科技实力与国际先进水平的差距明显拉大，面临着巨大的国际竞争压力，我们的出路也只能是通过改革开放。邓小平正是在科学分析国内国际发展的大势，准确把握时代主题和人民愿望的基础上，做出把党和国家工作中心转移到经济建设上来、实行改革开放的历史性抉择。

第一，改革开放是党在新的时代条件下带领人民进行的新的伟大革命，它不是对原有经济体制的细枝末节的修补，而是对原有经济体制的根本性变革。它要从根本上改变束缚我国生产力发展的经济体制，建立充满生机和活力的社会主义新经济体制，同时相应地改革政治体制和其他方面的体制。改革开放的旧的，就是要解放和发展社会生产力，实现国家现代化，让中国人民富裕起来，振兴伟大的中华民族；就是要推动我国社会主义制度自我完善和发展，赋予社会主义新的生机活力，建设和发展中国特色社会主义；就是要在引领当代中国发展进步中加强和改进党的建设，保持和发展党的先进性，确保党始终走在时代前列。

第二，改革开放是一场革命，但它不是一个阶级推翻另一个阶级意义上的革命，不是也不允许否定和抛弃我们已经建立起来的社会主义基本制度。因此，改革开放既是我们党领导的一场新的伟大革命，又是社会主义制度的自我完善和发展。社会主义的基本制度不能改变，具体制度必须创新。改革是要巩固社会主义制度，在社会主义制度下发展生产力。邓小平多次指出，历史反复告诉我们，只有社会主义才能救中国、只有社会主义才能发展中国，改革必须坚持社会主义方向。

第三，改革开放是建设中国特色社会主义的全新探索，没有现成的模式可以照搬。因此，改革开放的进程不可能一帆风顺，也不可能一蹴而就，在改革开放中出现的各种问题是前进中的问题，只能通过深化改革开放来解决。

事实雄辩地证明，改革开放是决定当代中国命运的关键抉择，是发展中国特色社会主义、实现中华民族伟大复兴的必由之路；只有社会主义才能救中国，只有改革开放才能发展中国、发展社会主义、发展马克思主义。

4．如何正确处理改革、发展、稳定之间的关系?

发展是硬道理，中国解决所有问题的关键要靠自己的发展。改革是经济和社会发展的强大动力，是社会主义制度的自我完善和发展，它的决定性作用不仅在于解决当前经济和社会发展中的一些重大问题，推进社会生产力的解放和发展，还要为我国经济的持续发展和国家的长治久安打下坚实的基础。稳定是发展和改革的前提，发展和改革必须要有稳定的政治和社会环境。没有稳定的政治和社会环境，一切无从谈起。

中国目前正处于从总体小康向全面小康过渡的阶段，这是发展的关键时期，也是改革的攻坚阶段。在这一时期处理改革、发展、稳定关系构任务极其艰巨。因此，要以科学发展观为指导，遵循改革开放以来党在处理改革、发展、稳定关系方面积累起来的经验和主要原则。

第一，保持改革、发展和稳定在动态中的相互协调和相互促进。稳定是前提，做到在政治和社会稳定中推进改革和发展，在改革和发展的推进中实现政治和社会的长期稳定。

第二，把改革的力度、发展的速度和社会可以承受的程度统一起来。改革和发展要始终注意适应国情和社会的承受能力，要统筹安排改革和发展的举措，以保持稳定，促进改革和发展。

第三，把不断改善人民生活作为处理改革发展稳定关系的重要结合点。人民群众是改革发展的主体和动力，是稳定的力量源泉和深厚基础。改善人民生活，让人民共享改革和发展的成果，是我们致力于发展、积极推进改革、坚持维护稳定的共同目的。所以，要做到把不断改善人民生活，让人民共享改革和发展的成果，作为处理改革发展稳定关系的重要结合点。

第八章思考习题与参考答案

1．邓小平关于社会主义市场经济理论的主要内涵是什么?

早在改革开放初期，邓小平就已经提出了市场经济与社会主义的关系问题。1992年他在视察南方的谈话中明确指出：“计划多一点还是市场多一点，不是社会主义与资本主义的本质区别。计划经济不等于社会主义，资本主义也有计划；市场经济不等于资本主义，社会主义也有市场。计划和市场都是经济手段。”邓小平的这一精辟论述，从根本上解除了传统的思想束缚。

邓小平是社会主义市场经济理论的创立者，他关于社会主义市场经济的理论具有丰富的内涵，概括如下：第一，突破了过去公认的计划经济和市场经济是代表社会主义和资本主义两种经济制度本质属性的观念，认为它们都是经济手段。这一新的认识，为社会主义市场经济理论的创立奠定了理论前提。第二，计划与市场作为调节经济的两种手段，它们对经济活动的调节各有自己的优势和长处，在社会化大生产和存在着复杂经济关系的条件下，市场经济对促进经济发展具有更强的适应性、更显著的优势和较高的效率。但两者都有自身的不足和缺陷，如计划经济不能有效解决效率和激励问题，市场经济的自发性、盲目性会引发恶性竞争、短期行为、道德缺失等。第三，市场经济作为资源配置的一种方式本身不具有制度属性，但是，它与社会主义相结合而形成的经济体制则必须体现社会主义基本制度的特征。把发展市场经济与坚持社会主义基本制度有机结合起来，既可以充分发挥社会主义制度的优越性，又可以充分利用市场经济对发展生产力的作用。

5．结合现阶段个人收入分配制度和按劳分配的理论，对现实经济生活中个人收入出现差距的现象进行分析。

社会主义初级阶段的基本经济制度决定了与此相联系的个人收入分配实行的是按劳分配为主体、多种分配方式并存的制度。社会主义初级阶段个人收入分配制度，必须坚持按劳分配的主体地位。按劳分配以外的多种分配方式，其实质就是按对生产要素的占有状况进行分配。

一是要正确看待收入分配差距。一方面正确认识收入分配差距，我们不能脱离对生产的影响来孤立地看待和评价收入分配格局是否公平。由于社会上个人的生产要素和能力的不同，所起的作用和所做的贡献大小也不同，把贡献大小与收入分配联系起来。除了按劳分配以外，应该鼓励按生产要素进行分配，在效率优先，兼顾公平的分配原则下，按贡献大小进行分配。如果不讲贡献大小，而是只讲平均分配，那就不可能达到共同富裕的目标，而只会仍然是共同贫穷。今天我们收入差距一定程度上的拉大从某种意义上说是一种社会的进步，因为从一部分人先富起来并最终达到共同富裕必须经过一个过程。保证收入公平的原则应该是保证人人有平等竞争的机会，因而解决当前中国收入差距拉大问题决不能采取劫富济贫的办法，而是要在加快经济发展，积极地从事“财富创造”的同时，给低收入者更多的能力和机会，给他们以平等竞争的机会。

另一方面要警惕社会分配领域中收入差距的过分扩大，甚至两极分化的现象，避免可能引发的社会问题。总的来说，当前中国收入分配差距拉大的原因是多方面的，并非都是合理的制度安排的结果，其中也存在许多不合理和非法的因素。其一，初次分配过程中存在许多不平等的竞争，如最为突出的各种形式的行业垄断的存在；其二，收入分配再分配的手段和功能严重不足，例如对高收入调节不力，对低收入阶层缺乏有效保护；其三，灰色收入、黑色收入以及腐败等非法收入问题突出，打击力度远远不够；其四，由于地域差别的存在，东部地区比西部地区收入高，地区收入差距拉大。应该说，中国收入分配差距的出现是国民经济整体发展和提高的结果，是构建现代市场经济体制的结果，是社会主义初级阶段的必然结果，同时也是社会不公正现象的结果。从整体上看，中国的收入分配差距是社会范畴问题，其本质是劳动者先富和后富的关系，不是阶级对立的结果，经济因素即生产力发展水平起决定的作用。

二是合理调节收入分配差距。形成现在收入分配不合理的格局，原因是多方面的，因此，利用税收、财政等手段，调节地区、行业、部门的收入差距，缩小东、中、西部的收入差别，也必须综合治理。

第一，要深化收入分配制度的改革，从源头上解决好初次分配问题；第二，坚持效率优先、兼顾公平的原则，强化国家对收入分配的宏观调控功能；第三，要关注社会弱势群体，千方百计扩大就业，解决由失业导致的贫困问题；第四，要严厉打击贪污腐败、权钱交易等各种非法攫取社会财富的行为；第五，要以共同富裕为目标，扩大中等收入者的比重，提高低收入者的收入水平。

总之，合理调节收入分配差距，发展经济是根本途径，“三个有利于”体现得越充分，消除贫富差距过大的社会条件就越具备，就越能增强利用税收、财政等手段调节收入分配的功能。我们既不能搞平均主义，也要防止出现两极分化，既要让一部分人先富起来，又要最终实现共同富裕。

6．为什么要强调促进国民经济又好又快发展?如何理解提高自主创新能力、建设创新型国家，是国家发展战略的核心?

改革开放以来，我们实施现代化建设“三步走”战略，推动我国以世界上少有的速度持续快速发展起来，经济总量大幅跃升，人民生活从温饱不足发展到总体小康。在经济快速发展的实践过程中，对经济发展质量和效益的认识也不断深化，越来越感到国民经济发展要速度“快”，而且还要质量和效益“好”。

提出国民经济又好又快发展，是以改革开放以来我国经济发展取得的举世瞩目的重大成就为前提的。正是这些成就和变化，为我们走向“又好又快”发展这一新的历史起点提供了坚实的物质基础、必要的市场供求格局和重要的体制性基础，使我们有条件提出又好又快发展的理念。提出国民经济又好又快发展，也是进一步发展的迫切要求。我国国民经济的进一步发展对提高质量和效益、节约资源和保护环境、实现经济和社会协调的要求，相对说来比经济增长的数量和速度更加突出。因此，无论是从现实出发还是从未来着眼，都要求我们必须“好”字当前，坚持“好”中求“快”，努力实现“又好又快发展”。

提出国民经济又好又快发展，并不意味着发展速度问题无足轻重。改革开放以来我国的面貌虽然得到了很大的变化，但是，社会主义初级阶段的基本国情没有变，人民日益增长的物质文化需要同落后的社会生产之间的主要矛盾没有变。我国现在仍然是一个发展中国家，人均水平还很低，完成现代化的任务依然十分艰巨。因此速度问题仍然十分重要。问题在于进一步发展所要求的经济增长速度应当是在结构优化、效益提高、节约资源、保护环境基础上的速度，是增长的质量和竞争力不断提升、能够稳定持续发展的速度，是重大关系比较协调、人民得到实惠比较多的速度。

创新是一个民族进步的灵魂，是一个国家兴旺发达的不竭动力。当今世界，新科技革命迅猛发展，不断引发新的创新浪潮，科技成果转化和产业更新换代的周期越来越短，科技作为第一生产力的地位和作用越来越突出。科学技术特别是战略高技术正日益成为经济社会发展的决定性力量，成为综合国力竞争的焦点面对世界科技发展的大势，面对日趋激烈的国际竞争，我们必须把科学技术真正置于优先发展的战略地位，加快自主创新步伐，增强国家核心竞争力，带动我国社会生产力实现质的飞跃，努力在激烈的国际竞争中赢得和保持发展的主动权。

提高自主创新能力，建设创新型国家，不仅是提高我国国际竞争力的客观需要，而且也是贯彻落实科学发展观、全面建设小康社会的重大举措，是解决我国当前发展面临的突出矛盾和问题的紧迫要求。只有通过大力推进科技进步和创新，增强自主创新能力，推动我国经济增长从资源

依赖型转向创新驱动型，才能继续保持经济平稳较快和可持续增长，实现又好又快发展。

第九章思考习题与参考答案

1．如何正确理解坚持党的领导、人民当家作主和依法治国的有机统一?

(1)发展社会主义民主政治，建设社会主义政治文明，是全面建设小康社会的重要目标，也是构建社会主义和谐社会的根本保证。发展社会主义民主政治，最根本的是要把坚持党的领导、人民当家作主和依法治国有机统一起来。党的十七大报告进一步强调：“要坚持中国特色社会主义政治发展道路，坚持党的领导、人民当家作主、依法治国有机统一，坚持和完善人民代表大会制度、中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度、民族区域自治制度以及基层群众自治制度，不断推进社会主义政治制度自我完善和发展。”这是我们党以邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想为指导，总结执政经验，对于社会主义政治建设所做出的规律性认识，是推进政治文明建设必须遵循的基本方针。

(2)第一，中国共产党的领导是人民当家作主和依法治国的根本保证。在我国这样一个发展中大国，离开了共产党的领导，就不可能把全国人民的力量和意志凝聚起来，发展社会主义民主也就无从谈起。发展社会主义民主政治，建设社会主义政治文明，核心在于坚持党的领导。第二，人民当家作主是社会主义民主政治的本质和核心要求，是社会主义政治文明建设的根本出发点和归宿。社会主义民主政治的本质是人民当家作主。共产党执政就是领导和支持人民当家作主。健全民主和法制，全面落实依法治国基本方略，切实尊重和保障人民的政治、经济和文化权益，是社会主义民主政治建设的根本要求，也是我们党执政的根本目的和可靠基础。发扬人民民主，又是加强和改善党的领导的有效途径。党的领导方式和执政方式集中反映在党与国家以及人民群众关系的具体形式上。党只有领导人民创造各种有效的当家作主的民主形式，坚持依法治国，才能充分实现人民当家作主的权利，巩固和发展党的执政地位。第三，依法治国是党领导人民治理国家的基本方略。依法治国与人民民主、党的领导是紧密联系、相辅相成、相互促进的。依法治国不仅从制度上、法律上保证人民当家作主，而且也从制度上、法律上保证党的执政地位。我国的宪法和法律是党的主张和人民意志相统一的体现。人民在党的领导下，依照宪法和法律治理国家，管理社会事务和经济文化事业，保障自己当家作主的各项民主权利，这是依法治国的实质。依法治国的过程，实际上就是在党的领导下，维护人民主人翁地位的过程，保证人民实现当家作主的过程。党领导人民通过国家权力机关制定宪法和各项法律，又在宪法和法律范围内活动，严格依法办事，保证法律的实施，从而使党的领导、人民当家作主和依法治国有机统一起来。

(3)总之，党的领导、人民当家作主和依法治国统一于建设中国特色社会主义民主政治的伟大实践之中，决不能把它们分割开来或对立起来。

6．依法治国的含义是什么?实行依法治国的重要意义何在?

(1)依法治国就是广大人民群众在党的领导下，依照宪法和法律规定：通过各种途径和形式管理国家事务，管理经济文化事业，管理社会事务，保证国家各项工作都依法进行，逐步实现社会主义民主的制度化：法律化，使这种制度和法律不因领导人的改变而改变，不因领导人看法和注意力的改变而改变。

(2)深刻理解依法治国的科学内涵，应注意把握：依法治国的主体是党领导下的人民群众，也就是党领导人民实行依法治国。依法治国的客体是国家事务、经济文化事业和社会事务。依法治国就是要保证对所有这些事业、事务的管理工作都要依法进行。依法治国所依的法，最重要的是宪法和法律。我国宪法和法律体现了党的主张和人民利益、人民意志的统一。

(3)依法治国是社会文明进步的显著标志，是国家长治久安的重要保障，是建设中国特色社会主义经济、政治、文化，构建和谐社会的必然要求。第一，依法治国是中国共产党执政方式的重大转变，有利于加强和改善党的领导。依法治国同坚持和改善党的领导是完全一致的。第二，依法治国是发展社会主义民主、实现人民当家作主的根本保证。民主与法治相互依赖，相互促进，密不可分。社会主义民主是社会主义法治的基础，社会主义法治是社会主义民主的保障。第三，依法治国是发展社会主义市场经济和扩大对外开放的客观需要。第四，依法治国是国家长治久安的重要保障。

第十章思考习题与参考答案

5.怎样理解中国特色社会主义文化建设的根本任务和主要内容?

(1)中国特色社会主义文化建设的根本任务，就是以马克思列宁主义、毛泽东思想、邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想为指导，全面贯彻科学发展观，着力培育有理想、有道德、有文化、有纪律的公民，切实提高全民族的思想道德素质和科学文化素质。

(2)中国特色社会主义文化建设的主要内容包括思想道德建设和教育科学文化建设两方面。

(3)思想道德建设，解决的是整个中华民族的精神支柱和精神动力问题。加强思想道德建设，是建设社会主义核心价值体系的必然要求，是中国特色社会主义文化建设的重要内容和中心环节。加强思想道德建设，就是要加快建立和完善社会主义思想道德体系、着力培育文明道德风尚、把先进性要求同广泛性要求结合起来、进一步加强和改进思想政治工作。

(4)教育和科学是中国特色社会主义文化建设的重要内容，对于提高民族素质、提高社会文明程度、促进经济发展和社会全面进步具有重要作用。要坚持科学技术是第一生产力，加强科学普及，提高全社会的科学素质，尤其要繁荣哲学社会科学。要把教育摆在优先发展的位置，办好让人民群众满意的教育。同时，要深化文化体制改革，解放和发展文化生产力，大力发展文化事业和文化产业，坚持经济效益和社会效益的统一。、

第五篇：语言学概论练习题(有答案)

语言学概论练习题（有答案），很棒哦~~

今天最新增加了北语历年真题2000-2009，还有语言学、文字学专业复试完整版（04-07年），还有北大的真题，也可以作为练习和参考。但是我要声明：里面的北语真题很全，但是电子版的资料是我在网上四处找到的，不是北语的资料，不能代替北语的笔记，只作为参考。

我这里有夏大的语概的练习题，宝贵之处是他有答案，而且题目出的也不错。可以作为复习的参考资料（但是不否认里面有一小部分题目和北语的笔记有点点出入，大家遇到这样的地方还要以北语笔记为准）,有些题目的设置和答案做的是很不错的，特别是思考题部分和北语的试题比较接近。这里先把第一、二章的内容给大家。

第1-2章：思考题部分

1、汉人说的就是汉语，英国人说的就是英语，对吗？为什么？ 注意！!

不正确。语言不是说话，不管中国人还是英国人，他们说出来的话属于言语的一部分内容，是具体的、个别的言语活动；而他们在说话时所遵循的确定的规则才是语言。人们所说的话是使用语言的产物，即运用语言才产生的言语活动。因此，我们不能把人们所说的话与他们所使用的语言等同起来。

2、语言与言语的区别和联系是什么？为什么要把语言和言语区分开来？

语言是词汇系统和语法系统的总和，是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的、有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分；说话就是对规则系统的运用，相同的规则生成不同的句子。语言和言语的主要区别：

（1）从运用角度来说：言语是自由的；而语言是有规则的，不自由的。

（2）从语言学角度分析：言语包括张口说话的动作（言语动作）、说话代码（语言）以及说、写、想的话（言语作品）；而语言是言语中较为确定的部分。

（3）从表现形式看：言语是个人的，有个人特点；而语言是社会的。（4）从哲学角度看：言语是具体的、个别的；而语言是抽象的、一般的。语言和言语的联系：

（1）语言存在于言语之中。

（2）语言存在以说话的需要为前提。（3）言语是对语言的具体运用，是行为和结果。

正确区分语言和言语具有重大的理论意义和实践意义。它有助于我们从理论上认清语言的客观存在，从而正确地理解语言，对待语言，精确地规定语言学研究的对象。此外，区分二者，认清它们之间的关系，对于语言教学特别是外语教学，对于研究作家运用语言的特色，研究作品的言语风格，提高人们运用语言的能力等都具有重要的意义。

3、为什么说语言也是一种符号？

语言能代表或指称现实现象，它具有所有符号的一般特点，也有形式和意义两个方面。

语言符号本身是由音、义的结合构成的。“音”是语言符号的物质表现形式，“义”是语言符号的内容，只有音和义相结合才能指称现实现象，构成语言的符号。语言符号的形式和意义也是密不可分的统一体，一定的语音形式代表一定的意义内容，一定的意义内容一定要用一定的语音形式表达，二者是相辅相成的，互相依赖的。

4、语言符号和一般符号有什么不同？二章 为什么使用语言符号为人们最重要的交际工具？ 语言是认知现实的听觉符号系统，它是所有符号中是最重要、最复杂的一种，不同于其它符号。首先，语言符号是声音和意义的结合体，是说的和听的，声音是语言符号的形式；义是语言符号的内容，只有音和义结合才能指称现实现象，构成语言符号。

其次，一般符号的构成比较简单；而语言符号却是非常复杂的，它是有组织、有条理的，是由不同结构单位组成的一种层级体系，可分不同的层级。

再次，一般符号只能表达有限的内容，而且这种内容是简单而固定的；语言符号则可以表达丰富多彩的意义。

最后，一般符号表达的意义是固定的，不能生成新的意义；而语言符号具有以少驭多的生成机制，具有生成新的结构的能力，语言符号能重复使用，人们根据交际需要将有限的语言符号排列组合，造出无限的句子。

5、语言符号的基本特征是什么？（1）任意性和二重性

语言符号是声音和意义的结合体，声音是语言符号的形式；意义是语言符号的内容，二者不可分割。这就是语言符号的二重性。

语言符号的任意性又叫做约定性，也就是说，语言中的语音和语义的关系并不是按照一定的逻辑或者某种规范建立起来的，用什么样的声音去表达什么样的意义，什么样的意义由什么样的声音表达，这完全是由社会约定俗成的，音义之间没有必然的、本质的联系。（2）线条性与层次性

语言符号在交际使用过程中，其声音形式只能一个一个一次出现，形成线条，随着时间的推移而延伸，在时间的线条上绵延，不能同时在空间范围内展开；另一方面，语言符号又不在同一平面上，而是从大到小、由高到低分属不同的层或级，语言这种分层的装置，使音、义以及由音义相结合而组成的符号“各就各位”，各得其所，充分体现了语言符号的层级性特点。这种灵活的弹性装置使得人们能够通过组合关系和聚合关系创造出无限的句子。

（3）稳定性与发展性

语言符号是社会约定俗成的，无所谓好坏，为了保证交际的顺利进行，不轻易发生变化；但从历时角度看，稳定性只是相对的，发展才是绝对的。语言符号音义结合的任意性决同时也决定了语言的可变性和不变性，因此语言发展的过程只能是渐变的，不能突变。

6、语言符号的任意性具体体现在哪些方面？既然语言符号有任意性的特点，为什么对于使用语言的人又具有强制性？

第一，语言符号的音义的结合是任意性的，由社会约定俗成的，即什么样的语音形式表达什么样的意义内容，什么样的意义内容用什么样的语音形式表现是任意的。第二，不同语言有不同的音义联系，音义结合具有不同的特点。

第三，同样的语音形式，在不同的语言中表示不同的意义，不同语言音义联系不对。第四，同一语言的音义关系也有任意性，如方言。

语言符号的任意性原则是不可动摇的。但是任意性并不意味着语音形式完全取决于说话者的自由选择，也不是指人们对语义内容可以随意理解。它只是表明，语音形式和语义内容之间并没有必然的联系。而且，一个符号在语言体系中确立以后，个人是不能随意更改的，它对使用者来说是强制接受的。如果不经过重新约定而擅自更改，就会使符号失效。更何况符号本来就是约定的，只要大家认可，就无所谓好坏，因而也就没有故意变更的必要。我们不能借口任意性而随意改变音义之间的结合关系。

7、谈谈你对语言符号组合的线条性和层次性的认识。

语言符号在交际使用过程中，其声音形式只能一个一个一次出现，一个音素或一个音节发出来才能紧接着发出另一个音素或音节，形成线条，随着时间的推移而延伸，在时间的线条上绵延，不能同时在空间范围内展开。这就是语言符号的线条性特点。

语言符号的线条性特点说明符号和符号的组合不是任意的，而是有条件的（受组合的结构规则的制约）。这个组合过程体现了语言符号的层级性，如汉语中的“语素→词→短语→句子”的层级关系。“红”是一个语素，也是符号，它可以和其他的符号结合，还可以组合成更大的语言单位。当然这种组合必须遵循既定的语言规则。正由于符号在交际中可以重复使用，人们才能根据交际的需要将有限的符号排列组合，说出无限的话来。

语言系统的组成规则主要表现为结构的层次性，就是说，语言是一种分层的装置，可以从低到高、或者从下到上分出若干个层次，使音、义以及由音义相结合而组成的符号“各就各位”，各得其所，但每一种现象又不是孤立的，相互之间处于一种互相依存、彼此制约的关系之中，形成一个严密的系统。语言可以分为不同的层级单位，如语素、词、词组、句子，语言系统就是由音位、语素、词、词组、句子等结构单位组成的一种层级体系。低一级的层级单位组成高一级的层级单位，最后组成语言这个复杂的系统。语言就是各个单位在不同的层和级上构成的一个层级装置。在这个层级装置中，各个层级呈现出这样的特点，那就是层次的单位数量逐层增多，从有限到无穷。最底层的音位系统，一般只有几十个，它们为语言符号准备了形式的部分，音位组合与意义联系构成数千个语素，语素组合构成数万个词，数万个词再组成无数的句子。

8、促使语言变化的因素主要有哪些？为什么说语言符号既是难变的又是可变的？ 促使语言变化的因素主要有：

（1）社会发展，语言发展，交际需要，音义之间相互适应；

（2）语言在流传过程中可能会产生误差；

（3）语言在使用过程中经常出现积非成是的特殊情况；（4）人们的好奇心理促使不断地创造语言。

处在一定阶段上的语言具有稳定性的特点。稳定性为处在某一时点上的语言状态进行静态描写提供了可能。但是历史地看，语言符号乃至整个体系又是可变的。语言根本无法抵抗那些随时促使语音形式和语义内容之间关系发生转移的因素。这是符号任意性的必然结果之一。语言符号的任意性在理论上又使人们在语音和语义之间有建立任何关系的自由。既然是自由的，就当然允许变化。语音形式和语义内容之间存在的既相互适应又可能不适应的矛盾，必然导致变化。语言的稳定性和发展性是辨证统一的，为语言的共时、历时研究提供了可能。

9、怎样理解语言没有阶级性？

（1）首先是看语言工具的服务对象，是为特定的阶级服务还是为大众服务。

语言是人类社会统一使用的交际工具，一视同仁地为社会全体成员服务，不是为特定的阶级或阶层服务的，这可以是是语言的本质特征。

（2）其次是结合语言自身的结构考察，观察语言在那一方面体现了阶级性特征没有。

语言的结构本身也是没有阶级性可言的。构成语言的语音、词汇、语法系统，也是没有阶级性的。（3）再次是看语言产生的社会环境，语言产生于没有阶级的社会，社会上连阶级都没有，语言作为社会的产物更谈不上有阶级性了。

10、为什么说语言是一种社会现象？

（1）语言是社会的产物。社会的变化也给语言以极大的影响，而离开了人类社会，就无所谓语言可言了。语言同社会的关系非常密切，其产生、发展等都要受到社会的影响。从语言的起源来看，语言一开始就是社会的；从语言的发展来看，语言随着社会的发展而发展。（2）语言不是自然现象，它与自然现象有根本的区别。

语言有其自然属性的一面，但语言不是自然现象。语言的产生与发展都是同社会密切地联系在一起的。社会的发展变化直接影响着语言的发展变化，也就是说，语言的发展变化是受制于社会的；语言是完全依赖于社会的，离不开社会的，它的发展变化也是服从社会的需要的。另一方面，从语言的音义联系看语言不是自然现象，而是社会约定俗成的，没有必然的本质的联系。（3）语言不是个人现象，与个人现象有区别。

个人现象是个人的自言自语，说听由个人承担，不是语言最本质的内容。而语言则受社会全体成员约定俗成的制约。

11、怎样理解语言的全民性特点？

语言不但是社会现象，而且是一种特殊的社会现象。它既不属于经济基础又不属于上层建筑，不是为特定 3 的阶级服务的，而是一视同仁地为全社会服务的。可以这样说，一个社会的集体就是依赖统一的语言把全体成员密切地联系在一起的，语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带，是社会成员统一使用的交际工具。

12、为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？（1）首先，语言是人类特有的交际工具

语言是适应人类需要而产生的；语言是信息载体，传递信息的代码；交际职能是语言最基本的社会职能，其他功能只是它的派生物。

（2）其次，语言是人类最重要的交际工具

人类传递信息，进行交际和交流思想，除了使用语言外，还可以使用文字、体态语等副语言，在一定场合使用，这些辅助语言进行交际的手段可以弥补语言的一些不足，但是这些交际工具使用范围有限，有的仅用于特定的范围，最重要的是，这些交际工具，都离不开语言，都是在语言的基础上产生的，是辅助语言进行交际的，没有语言，这些手段的存在没有任何意义。

因此，语言虽然不是唯一的（文字、音乐、图画、电报、数学符号）交际工具，但却是最重要的交际工具。

13、任何一种语言所包含的句子的数量都是无限的，人类为什么能在有限的时间学会掌握语言呢？（1）语言是一种层级结构，最底层的音位（几十个）是很少的；

（2）用语素（几千个）组成的词（几万个）的数量也是有限的，而且可以重复使用，这样就通过词的不同组合创造出数量庞大的句子（无数个）来；

（3）更加重要的是词和词组合成为句子的规则也是有限的。

所以人们能够在很短的时间内利用语言这种层级结构和语法规则，以少驭多，掌握语言，创造出无限的句子来。语言系统的这种灵活的层级装置，为人们以少数驾驭多数奠定了结构的基础。

14、为什么说组合关系和类聚关系是语言体系中两种最基本的关系？

在语言体系中一切成分都以关系为基础，语言成分之间的关系都是在两个不同的范围内展开的，这就是组合关系和类聚关系。语言的二层关系是相对于语言系统的整体来说的，至于这一系统是如何运作，使语言具有丰富性和生动性，创造出无限多的句子来，所依靠的是组合关系和聚合关系。

组合关系就是两个或两个以上同一性质的结构单位（例如音位与音位、词与词等等），按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。组合关系直接体现了语言的结构规则要求。

在语言的组合结构的某一个位置上能够互相替换的几个具有相同作用（组合能力）的单位符号之间的关系就是聚合关系。聚合关系其实就是具有相同功能特点的一群符号之间的关系，由于它们的功能相同，所以在同一结构中可以互相替换，替换后虽然具体内容有所改变，但功能与结构关系没有变化。

组合关系所侧重的是符号和符号怎样组合成为一句完整的话，聚合关系所侧重的是如何替换现有的符号创造出更多的句子。组合关系和类聚关系是语言体系中两种最基本的关系。不但所有的语言符号（符号系列）处在两种关系中，构成符号的各级单位也处在该关系中。同样，语义的搭配、同义词的选择等也反映出语义方面的组合和类聚关系。

15、语言和思维相互联系的主要表现？

（1）思维离不开语言：没有语言，思维活动不能进行；思维成果无法表达 A、从认知学（认识论）角度看：语言是认知的伙伴→固定认识成果 B、思维的形成过程和成果都离不开语言

形成思维需要语言（词是思维的材料，语法是思维程序）——思维必须在语言材料的基础上进行，语言是思维的工具；思维成果需要通过语言表达记录下来

（2）语言离不开思维

A、语言是思维的工具，在运用中才有意义。如果没有思维，无所谓交际。

B、语言中词和句子的意义是思维赋予的，层级关系，组合、聚合与逻辑思维的活动模式相合。

总之，二者相互依存，各以对方的存在为前提。又相互适应，有思维就有语言

16、语言和思维是一回事吗？为什么？

语言和思维是不同的社会现象，不同科学研究的对象，其功能、范畴、规律都不相同。

4（1）概念不同：工具不等于其服务对象。思维是人脑的机能，语言是思维的工具。

（2）职能不同：思维用来认识世界，反映规律；语言的最重要职能和目的是来沟通思想、传递信息

（3）构成不同：思维由概念、判断和推理构成；语言由语音、词汇、语法和语义构成

（4）语言单位与思维形式不完全对应：一种概念可以用多个词语表达；判断多用单句，但单句并非都为判断

（5）思维是全人类共有的，而语言具有民族性。

17、地域方言和社会方言是怎样形成的？它们的主要区别是什么？

方言是全民语言的地方变体，各方言之间并未斩断一切联系，他们的基本词汇和语法构造基本上还是相同的。

社会的发展往往造成社会内部进一步的分工，这样，同一分工的人群在语言交际上就具有某一社团的特征，产生了语言分支或者语言变体，这就是社会方言。社会的发展往往还伴随着人群生活地域的扩展或者迁移，这样，原来是同一种语言的语言群落，由于地域的变更，某一地域的语言变体就会跟原来的语言逐渐有了差距，各地域之间的语言变体有了自己的稳定性，就产生了地域方言。方言差异是语言演变不平衡性的重要体现，这种不平衡是指在不同语言社团中进展速度快慢的不同。地域方言和社会方言都是随着社会分化而分化，是社会分化的伴随现象。二者的主要区别在于：（1）范围不同。

社会方言是适应社会分工需要而产生的全民语言的分支，是全民语言的社会变体。而地域方言则是全民语言在不同地域上所产生的全民语言的分支，是语言发展不平衡性在地域上的反映，虽然都叫方言，但划分的角度是不同的。（2）内部差异不同。

域方言之间的主要差别表现在语音上，同时也反映在词汇系统和语法系统方面，而社会方言的主要差别则在一般词汇方面，语音、语法方面没有差别。（3）发展趋势不同。

地域方言在一定条件下可以发展为独立的语言，或在社会高度统一融合情况下可能消失；社会方言没有自己的基本词汇、语音系统、语法结构，在任何条件下都不可能发展成为独立的语言。

18、地域方言和亲属语言的差异表现在哪些方面？

地域方言和亲属语言都与单一社会在地域上分化相关，都是单一语言分化而成的后代。但二者存在明显的差异：

（1）从社会分化看，地域方言是单一社会在地域上分化不完全的结果；而亲属语言则是单一社会在地域上分化进一步加剧而完全分化的结果。

（2）从语言分化看，地域方言是随着共同语分化发展，逐步形成了自身的特点，但地域方言的新词、语法格式等与共同语有相当大的共同点；而亲属语言中的词语、语法格式等不断扩大自身的特点，并向不同方向加速分化发展，最终形成了独立的语言系统。

一种语言分化的结果是形成不同的方言还是不同的亲属语言，主要取决于社会分化的程度以及共同语是否继续存在。