合同英语特色介绍

第一篇：合同英语特色介绍

上海市建筑业劳动合同

（推荐文本2008版 —— 适用于无固定期限）

甲方（用人单位）名称：

法定代表人：

注册地址：

联系电话：

办公地址：

联系电话：

乙方（劳动者）姓名：

身份证号：

身份证住址：

联系电话：

在沪住址：

根据《中华人民共和国劳动合同法》和国家有关规定，甲乙双方遵循合法、公平、平等自愿、协商一致、诚实信用的原则，订立本劳动合同。

一．劳动合同的类别、期限和试用期

1.合同类别：无固定期限，自_____年____月____日起。

2.试用期：自_____年____月____日起，至_____年____月____日止。

二．工作岗位、职务、工作地点和工作时间

1.乙方工作岗位：____________，担任职务：____________。

2.工作地点：______________________________________________。

3.在符合规定的条件下，或经双方协商一致后，甲方可对乙方的工作岗位、职务及工作地点进行调整。双方应对调整情况进行书面确认，作为本合同附件。

4.甲方根据国家有关工时方面的规定，结合甲方的生产需要，合理安排乙方的工作时间，并确保乙方平均每周至少休息1天。

三．劳动报酬和支付方式

1.甲方根据本单位的工资分配制度，确定乙方正常工作时间的基本工资执行第___项：

①月工资：______元/月。

②日工资：____元/日，待工工资：____元/日。双方未约定待工工资的，待工日执行日工资标准。

其中试用期基本工资为：① _________元/月。② ____元/日，待工工资：____元/日。

2.甲方根据本单位的工资分配制度，可另行书面约定绩效工资的计算方法和支付方式，作为本合同附件。甲方应对乙方的工作进行考核，并按 1

时支付乙方的绩效工资。

3.甲方安排乙方加班的，按照国家有关规定向乙方支付加班费。

4.甲方按月结算乙方工资，并在下一个月___日前以货币形式支付，由乙方签字确认。工资发放清单由甲方存档保管。

5.甲方根据乙方的工作年限、工作表现、岗位变化、职务变化等情况，适时调整乙方的工资，调整情况应得到乙方的确认，并作为本合同的附件。

6.甲方确保乙方的劳动报酬不低于国家有关最低工资标准的规定和集体合同规定的标准。

四．甲方的权利和义务

1.甲方依法制定完善的规章制度，实施对乙方的管理。甲方应当将有关规章制度告知乙方。

2.甲方和工会组织或职工代表签订的集体合同，适用于乙方。

3.甲方为乙方提供符合规定的劳动防护用品和其他劳动条件，并按照国家建筑施工安全生产的规定，在施工现场采取必要的安全措施，为乙方创造安全工作的环境。

4.甲方按照国家有关规定对女职工和未成年工实行特殊劳动保护。

5.甲方按规定为乙方创造岗位培训的条件，对乙方进行安全生产、职业技能、遵纪守法、道德文明等方面的教育。乙方参加甲方安排的培训活动视同出勤，甲方不得克扣乙方的基本工资。

6.甲方为乙方缴纳法定的社会保险，甲方确保乙方在本合同有效期内不漏保。

7.甲方根据有关规定为乙方进入施工现场工作创造必要条件，办理好各项手续。

8.甲方对乙方的出勤、工作、违纪等情况做好记录，作为奖罚乙方的依据。

五．乙方的权利和义务

1.乙方应当自觉遵守有关法律、法规和甲方依法制定的规章制度，严格遵守安全操作规程，服从甲方的管理，按时完成规定的工作数量，达到规定的质量标准。

2.乙方应当积极参加甲方安排的岗位培训活动，不断提高各方面素质。

3.乙方对甲方管理人员违章指挥、强令冒险作业的，有权拒绝工作。乙方对危害生命安全和身体健康的劳动条件，有权对甲方提出批评、检举和控告。

六．劳动合同的解除和终止

1.终止本合同，应当符合法律、法规的相关规定。

2.双方协商一致，可以解除本合同。甲乙双方单方面解除本合同，应当符合法律、法规的相关规定。

3.解除、终止劳动合同时，甲方应当出具解除、终止劳动合同的证明书。

4.合同解除或终止时，甲方应当结清乙方的工资。符合经济补偿条件的，甲方应当按规定向乙方支付经济补偿金。

七．劳动争议处理

甲乙双方在履行本劳动合同时发生争议的，可先协商解决；不愿协商或者协商不成的，可在规定的时限内向当地（工作地点或者甲方工商注册地）劳动争议仲裁委员会申请仲裁。对仲裁裁决不服的，可以自收到仲裁裁决书之日起十五日内向当地人民法院提起诉讼。

八．其他约定

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

九．其它

1.本合同与国家法律法规及有关规定相违背的内容，依照国家法律法规及有关规定执行。

2.本合同及附件均一式2份，甲乙双方各执1份。自甲乙双方签字、盖章之日起生效。

甲方（盖章）：乙方（签字）：

法定代表人或者

委托代理人签字：

签约日期：年月日

第二篇：英语暑期课程特色介绍

暑期英语课程特色介绍

1.英语奥林匹克基础班（四至九年级尖子学生）

使用教材：新概念英语&下一年级的奥林匹克英语

新概念：为孩子拓宽词汇积累，训练听说技能，提高读写水平和听说读写能力 下一年级的奥林匹克英语：系统的语法教材，攻克语法难关。一方面巩固上一年学过的基础知识，提升能力;另一方面提前为下一学期的重难点知识作铺垫，降低新学期的难度，使整个知识系统更加完整。让他们在激烈的升学竞争中独占鳌头！

2.中学英语课程同步培优班（七年级至高中各年级学生）

使用教材：语法衔接教材&看图填词，写作和完形填空等难点题型的专项训练集 语法衔接教材：系统的语法教材，攻克语法难关。一方面巩固上一年学过的基础知识，提升能力;另一方面提前为下一学期的重难点知识作铺垫，降低新学期的难度，使整个知识系统更加完整。

看图填词和写作和完型填空等难点题型的专项训练：针对英语练习和考试中存在的难点题型，提供科学的方法指导和答题训练。3.英语小升初衔接班和六年级英语综合班（六年级学生）

使用教材：小升初英语衔接教材

以各重点中学历届考试真题为蓝本，针对小学与初中教材脱节、知识内容跳跃较大的现实，为学生提供知识过渡桥梁和阶梯，实现知识有效对接；查漏补缺，帮助学生轻松应对重点中学的选拔和分班考试，实现他们的名校梦。

4.英语九升高衔接班（九年级学生）

使用教材：新概念&九升高英语衔接教材

九升高衔接班对初中知识进行一个总复习的同时，根据高中英语学习的特点，重点针对语法、阅读、写作等三方面进行讲解与训练。同时辅以口语训练，探索高一课程的新深度，从而全面理解把握高中阶段学习技巧和精髓。以帮助学生尽早为高中的学习做好心理和学习方式上衔接的准备。

6.五年级综合班：（五年级学生）

使用教材：小升初英语衔接教材（六年级上册开始逐步补充《英语招生卷》）

提前有系统、有规划地整理小学的系统的英语知识点，接触六年级校内知识，帮助学生快速地进入到六年级的学习状态中；针对小学与初中教材脱节、知识内容跳跃较大的现实，为学生提供知识过渡桥梁和阶梯，实现知识有效对接。基础巩固后，以各重点中学历届考试真题为蓝本，查漏补缺帮助学生轻松应对重点中学的选拔和分班考试

第三篇：特色介绍

大家好，我是三（7）的刘凡楚，下面让我来介绍一下我们的数学特色作业吧。

这项作业是按单元进行归类整理的，里面有成长驿站，拓展园，智慧园地，科学家的故事，丰富的内容为书本知识和我们生活实际架起了一座桥梁，通过这样的作业设计，使我们体会到数学是从生活中来，又回到生活中去，让我们体验了数学知识就在身边，生活中充满了数学。

第四篇：九年级英语备课组特色及亮点介绍

厚积薄发 搏击长空

九年级英语备课组特色建设

一、我们的团队

我们九年级备课组共有6名教师，其中中学高级教师一人，中学一级教师5人；区学科带头人2人，武汉市优秀青年教师1人；每位教师的教学教研成果累累，这是一个锐意进取，团结奋发的团队。

二、我们的成长

输入：理论学习是我们不变的主题，教育名著教育经典是我们的精神食粮。

输出：勤上区级、校级公开课，共同分析问题，分享成果。

反思：学会做医生，在工作状态研究，在研究状态下工作，注意教学案例研究，提高反思

能力。

引进来：请市、区教研员走进课堂，指导教学，提高教师业务能力。

走出去：观摩省、市、区级的公开课，在听课中反思，在反思中成长。

三、我们的教学

1.专项突破：以中考为导向，进行专项技能的训练，让学生顺利渡过学习的高原期。

2.考法指导：中考在即，针对学生的考试中的非智力因素的失分现象和心理因素丢分的现象

定期对学生进行考法和心理指导。

3.答疑时间：每天让学生将自己的疑问写在问题本上，对于不同目标级别的学生安排不同的时间分块辅导，逐一答疑。

4.随即检查：学生每人身上备有一张词汇单，每天随机检查学生的词汇过关情况，让他们时

刻准备着单词的攻关。

四、我们的教研

1.三模课：开展以随堂课、公开课、研究课等相结合的课堂教研活动。同事之间相互听随

堂课，共同研讨常态教学的实效性。组内的研究课，教师之间共同探讨，共同

提高对教材的驾驭能力，在评课时，大家反对唱“赞美诗”，提出中肯的意见。

公开课中大家群策群力，发挥集体智慧，个人钻研和集体智慧得以充分地发挥。

2.集体备课：备课组长先预设，讨论内容为较难把握的知识点和中考中常考的知识点，另

外我们特别加强了巧记单词的研究，教师的教研能力都得到了不同程度的提

高。

第五篇：涉外合同的英语语言特色

摘要

实务中有不少涉外经济合同纠纷是因各方对合同文字的理解不一而引起的,究其原因,主要是起草者对合同语言的特殊性缺乏应有的了解,结果导致合同语言的模糊性和不确定性。本文从词法、句法及应用等三个层面对英文经贸合同语言的特殊性及其变化规律进行探讨,以期能有助于对此类合同的阅读和起草。

关键词：涉外合同；语言特征；阅读和起草

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ABSTRACT In practice, the occurrence of inconsistency in interpretation of the contract English has resulted in a good few cases of disputes.In essence, it is largely due to the draftsman's failure to have a deep-in understanding of the underlying features of the contract language, which might lead to the ambiguities and uncertainties of the contract wording.This paper tries to analyze the linguistic features of English business contracts at the morphological, syntactical and discourse levels respectively with a view to rendering a help in the reading and drafting the contracts.Keywords：contract English;language features;reading anddrafting

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Contents 1.Introduction......................................................................................................................1 2.Literature review..............................................................................................................2 2.1 Study of contract..............................................................................................................2 2.2 Study of legal English......................................................................................................3 2.3 Study of contract English.................................................................................................3 2.4 The study of the stylistic features of contract English in China......................................4 3.The language features of contract English.....................................................................6 3.1 The lexical features..........................................................................................................6 3.1.1 Formal words................................................................................................................6 3.1.2 Archaic Words...............................................................................................................7 3.1.3 Synonyms......................................................................................................................8 3.1.4 Abbreviations................................................................................................................8 3.2 The syntax features..........................................................................................................9 3.2.1 Active voice...................................................................................................................9 3.2.2 Present tense................................................................................................................10 3.2.3 Shall+verb...................................................................................................................10 3.3 The sentential features....................................................................................................11 3.3.1 Declarative sentences..................................................................................................11 3.3.2 Long sentences............................................................................................................12 3.3.3 Conditional clauses.....................................................................................................13 4.Implications....................................................................................................................15 4.1 Implication for reading contract English.......................................................................15 4.2 Implication for drafting contract....................................................................................16 5.Conclusion.......................................................................................................................17 Acknowledgements.............................................................................错误！未定义书签。References...........................................................................................................................18

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1.Introduction

Language is much more than merely a means of communication.It is also a way of signaling, consciously or unconsciously, that we come from a particular area, or belong to a certain social group.[1]51 Every field of expertise develops its own language features.[2]36 The language of English used in contracts, or contract English, is an important branch of legal English.Legal English means the language of the law of England, America, and some other countries whose official language is English.These common law system countries have a history about several hundred years to express law in English.Legal English is a type of legal language with overlap of linguistics and the science of law.[3]6

With China's carrying out the policy to promote reform and opening to the outside world, the establishment of market economy, the rapid development of our communication with foreign countries and China's entry to the WTO, there are more and more opportunities for us to communicate with those countries whose official language is English.When communicating with individuals, legal persons or other organizations from the English speaking countries, we often need to sign English contracts with them.Contract plays an important role in international economic and trade activities, as all achievements thereof will be finally embodied in it.How to correctly draft and understand contract language is of great importance to individuals and business organizations.There are a few books and papers dedicated to general principles of stylistic features of English for law, but none addresses questions of contract English in sufficient detail to be of significant practical use to the English contract learners in China.My dissertation attempts to present a comparatively detailed analysis of stylistic features of contract English with the expectation to better help contract learners or businessmen understand and draft English contract.中国最大的论文知识平台www.xiexiebang.com

2.Literature review 2.1 Study of contract

Contract English, like English as a whole, is not static.It has undergone and is still undergoing enormous changes.The definition of contracts given by Karla C.Shippey[4]155: A Commercial Contract, in simplest terms, is merely an agreement made by two or more parties for the purpose of transacting business.In the eye of scholars the word contract is used in common speech, which simply refers to a writing containing terms on which the parties have agreed.Contract is often used in a more technical sense to mean “a promise, or a set of promises for the breach of which the law gives a remedy, or the performance of which the law in some way recognizes a duty.” Put quite simply, a contract is an agreement which the courts will enforce.[5]5

A contract, in the simplest definition, is a promise enforceable by law.The promise may be to do something or to refrain from doing something.The making of a contract requires the mutual assent of two or more persons, one of them ordinarily making an offer and another accepting.If one of the parties fails to keep the promise, the other is entitled to legal recourse against him.The law of contracts has to do with such questions as whether a contract exists, what the meaning of it is, whether a contract has been broken, and what compensation is due the injured party.[6]6 Many contracts use the word agreement in the title.In some contexts the two words, contract and agreement, are synonyms and can be used interchangeably.While contract and agreement may both be used to mean a formal and legally enforceable arrangement, agreement may also refer to an informal arrangement not supported by consideration, such as an agreement between friends to play tennis on Saturday morning.So an agreement is really the main ingredient of a contract.But it is not every agreement that becomes a contract.To be a contract, that agreement must be enforceable in taw.中国最大的论文知识平台www.xiexiebang.com

2.2 Study of legal English

When we move into the domain of legal English, we must consider another continuum, the so-called general English.What precisely is general English is difficult to define.The concept is often left unspecified and regarded as an implicit norm, apparently based on intuitive knowledge of what is common use.[7]12 Special English, of which legal English is one example, is often understood as being in some significant respects deviant from general English.That's to say, legal English is based on the general English with its own stylistic features.More recently, some linguists have begun to analyze certain language varieties in terms of sublanguages.One definition of this term is a “language used in a body of texts dealing with a circumscribed subject area in which the authors of the documents share a common vocabulary and common habits of word usage，The term carries with it the idea that the sublanguage is a subset, or part, of the language as a whole.Some characteristics that have been attributed to sublanguages include: they have a limited subject matter;(2)they contain lexical, syntactic, and semantic restrictions;(3)they allow ”deviant“ rules of grammar that are not acceptable in the standard language;and(4)certain constructions are unusually frequent.[1]142-143 Most of these features seem to apply to legal English so we can also say that legal English is a sublanguage of English.2.3 Study of contract English

Generally speaking, contract English is an important branch of legal English, which is the language of the contract of England, America, and some other countries whose official language is English.Since English is universally accepted as a commercial language, it is a usual practice in our foreign trade to conclude contracts in both English and Chinese languages;that is first to draft a contract in one language and then to render it into the other.There are a number of worthwhile guides to forensic linguistics in general, given their broad scope they are of great help to the English contract learners.Lord Mansfield[8]3, one of the most famous English judges, once observed that ”most of the

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disputes in the world arise from words“.He told us the significance of language.If one can command contract English quite well, it may be easier for him to read the English contract.It is highly possible that he could study and understand English contracts better than those who know little about contract English.A contract refers to an agreement establishing, modifying and terminating the civil rights and obligations between subjects of equal footing.The language for contract is different from that for basic English or literature.In the Five Clocks, the American linguist Martin Joos[9]36 advances the five stylistic varieties in English: the Frozen Style, the Formal Style, the Consultative Style, the Casual Style and the Intimate Style.The style of Contract English can be considered as the first one, which is the Frozen Style because the language habits of the profession cause lawyers(contract drafters)to frequently choose one means of expression over other possibilities.There are a few books and papers dedicated to general principles of stylistic features of English for law, such as the field's main journal, Forensic Linguistics[8], books as Investigating English Style written by David Crystal[10] , The Elements of Legal Style written by Bryan, A.Garner[11], so on and so forth.2.4 The study of the stylistic features of contract English in China

For many years, the study of the stylistic features of contract English is limited.In our country, there are few books or articles talking about the language of contract.However,with China's carrying out the policy to promote reform and opening to the outside world and China's entry the WTO, there are more and more opportunities for us to communicate with those countries whose official language is English.When communicating with people or other organizations from the English speaking countries, we often need to sign English contracts with them.English contracts are becoming more and more important in our daily life.And people began to do more study on contract English.The language of contracts is not easy to understand.Wu Weiping [12] points out, “Most people know it difficult reading legal documents(in a narrow sense).In fact non-legal documents like contracts, trade brands are also difficult to read.” Due to the importance of contracts and difficulty of contractual language, more and more people have been turning their attention to them.Many school students, especially those majoring in business English are learning English of contracts and at the same time many scholars take profound interest in the study it.Many books and articles are

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published and provide assistance in students’ learning of the variety of English.Chen Jingying[13] describes the syntax features of the contract English.Hu Genshen[14] points out that many Latinate words are adopted in every possible case to replace synonyms of ordinary English to display formality and preciseness.Besides, Liao Yin[6] says that in business contracts, complicated prepositional phrases are often used insteadof ordinary ones.For example, the participants in the joint ventures shall commence discussion with regard to the extension of the period of existence of the venture and in the event of their agreeing upon such extension, they shall record such agreement in a written document signed by all of them not later than three years prior to the expiry of the current period.According to Fu Weiliang[15]，long sentences in English business contracts can define the rights and obligations of the concerned parties in an exact way, thus avoiding any possible misunderstanding and ambiguity.中国最大的论文知识平台www.xiexiebang.com

3.The language features of contract English English is now established as the leading international language.Legal English, as everybody knows, is playing a significant part in our Chinese people's life.With the development of the technology and economy and with the deepening of the policy of opening door to the outside world, frequent foreign exchanges and business transactions are increasing day by day between China and foreign countries.Inter-personal and inter-entity relations involved have to be defined and bound by contracts.In the business field, the staff concerned is required to execute the contract to cooperate with the foreign transactions.Thus, we can succeed in building our country into a prosperous one.One of the keys to the better command of contract is to acquire a deep and comprehensive realization of its stylistic features.Based on studies done by home and abroad researchers, the following part is trying to present a relatively comprehensive analyisis on the stylistic features of contract English.3.1 The lexical features

The goal of contract English is not the beautiful language, but the precise logic and professional statements, as well as clearly and rational thinking.The lexicon of contract English contracts is characterized by precision, formality and clarity.This part, based on the analysis of typical examples, attempts to explore English contracts from the aspects of formal words, archaic words, synonyms and abbreviations.3.1.1 Formal words

Formal words also called as literary words or learned words, mainly appearing in formal writings, such as theoretical works, formal addresses and legal documents.Compared with general English, contract English is very formal.There are a lot of formal words, which are rarely used in general English, but used in contract.Here we list just a small sampling:

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Formal Words

Informal Words Purchase

Buy Modify/alter

Change Terminate

End Proceed

Go Render

Make Commence

Start/begin Approximately

About Demonstrate

Show Notify

Tell

[16]322

In the following three sentences, commence, terminate, at the commence of, upon the completion of, with regard to, in the event of, prior to mean respectively: begin, end, at the beginning of, at the end of, about, in case of, before.The former words are more formal than the latter ones, which make the contract sound formal.(1)The Agreement shall commence on this day and automatically terminate upon the bankruptcy or insolvency of either of the parties hereto.(2)Party A shall pay to Party B forty per cent of the total price for work, i.e., two hundred and eighty thousand(280,000.00)U.S.dollars only at the commence of construction work of Party A's plant;and sixty per cent of the total price for work, i.e., four hundred and twenty thousand(420,000.00)U.S dollars only upon the completion of the work.(3)The participants in the Joint Venture shall commence discussion with regard to the extension of the period of existence of the Venture and in the event of their agreeing upon such extension, they shall record such agreement in written document signed by, all of them not later than three years prior to the expiry of the current Period.3.1.2 Archaic Words

Contract English has long been featured by a prominent archaic trait: words composed by ”here“, ”there“ and ”where“ followed by one or several propositions.In these words, ”here“ means ”this“, ”there“ equals ”that“, while ”where“ refers to ”what“ or ”which“.For example: Archaic words

Modern meaning

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Hereafter

After this Hereby

By means of this/By that means Hereof

Of this Hereinafter

Later in this contract Thereafter

After that Thereinafter

In that part of contract Whereof

Of which Whereby

By what;by which[16]365-366 Look at the following sentence: The parties to the contract shall, in accordance with the principle of good faith, execute the rights and perform the obligations hereof.[17]42.The contract is not defensible and is in danger of leaks without ”hereof “.The word ”hereof “leads to economy of expression since it replaces the longer phrase ”of the contract“ in the example to modify and limit ”rights and obligations“.3.1.3 Synonyms

Using synonyms in legal English occurs very often.The purpose of this kind of use is not only to respect the tradition, but also to seek exactitude and completion of meaning.As it has been mentioned by many linguists, legal English adheres much to tradition.There are many more such synonymous pairs: terms and conditions, settle claims and debts, import duty and tax, customs and usages, missing and disappeared person, willful and malicious injury, elderly and aged, able covenants, libel and slander, goods and chattels, etc.For examples:(1)They declared the contract null and void.(2)The packing and wrapping expenses shall be borne by the buyer.3.1.4 Abbreviations

When draftsmen draft contract, they use lots of abbreviations in order to make full use of simple, quick and efficient method to rush at the commerce opportunity.Therefore, the use of abbreviations is becoming wilder and wilder and the scope is

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larger and larger.We can find abbreviations in everywhere such as politics, economy, trade, law, transportation, insurance for the sake of expressing more conveniently.Generally speaking, abbreviations are capitalized.In drafting contract, abbreviations prove to be helpful for spelling but at the same time cause the trouble in understanding.Abbreviations are typical features of business contract.In our samples, we have many:(1)The price shall be based on CIF basis.(CIF= Cost, Insurance, Freight)(2)In case by M/T or T/T.(M/T=metric ton)(T/T= telegraphic transfer)(3)On FOB-basis.(FOB= free on board)(4)W.P.A.(WRA= with particular average)(5)L/C.(L/C= letter of credit)

3.2 The syntax features 3.2.1 Active voice We can easily find that active voice is the dominance in foreign contract.In foreign contract, active voice is a very striking feature.Because contract is an agreement, enforceable by law between two or more people or groups.Foreign contract also serves to concentrate the minds of the parties in deciding a number of important things, such as who bears a particular risk, who should insure against that risk, who should perform some tasks and who should do other tasks, and so on.[16]235 It is required that the language has logical clarity and precise reasoning so as to be understood by the public.In order to achieve the conciseness, the business contract is generally expressed in a straightful way with lots of active voice.Active voice involves the speakers as 'private person' with their own thoughts, feelings and experiences, and not as 'public persons'.Active voice denotes the sense of unaffectedness, unequivocality, directness and powerfulness.For examples:(1)The sellers shall send together with the shipment one copy each of the above-mentioned documents.(2)Sellers agree to sell the undenmentioned goods on terms and conditions stipulated Below.(3)Whereas Party A agrees to sell to Party B products.(4)The ”effective date“ as used herein shall mean the date determined under Article 10

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hereof.Compared with the active voice, passive voice is not used as frequently as active voice.Passive voice is primarily non-personal or factual, it doesn't involve the speakers as 'private persons'.The emphasis is on the facts and events and not on the speaker's involvement in them.3.2.2 Present tense

In English, there are only two tenses: simple past and simple present.We commonly assume that the tense of a verb tells us when the action it refers to takes, took, or will take place.Present-tense implies a lack of distance between the narrator and the events.It is not true that the English present tense exclusively, even refers to events which are actually happening at the time of speaking or writing.The simple present tense is the most predominant tense of the 12 traditional verb tenses in business contract.This tense is used frequently in contract drafting.It is noticeable that the simple present tense is mainly utilized to denote the concept of ”timeless“ and ”generalizations“.[18]56 General statements suit for any particular time frame.In business contract, the present tense indicates that the law is always speaking.Many examples can be found in the samples:(1)The sellers shall present the following documents to the paying bank for negotiation.(2)Party B guarantees that the machines and equipment are unused.(3)Party B desires to obtain such technical data.(4)The terms and conditions of this contract are breached by either party.3.2.3 Shall+verb

The word, shall, typically expresses the future.Traditionally, it is used only in the first person(I shall and we shall).A contract is a legal document that defines the rights and liabilities of the parties concerned.”Shall“ confers a duty to do an affirmative act.It implies a type of legal right or duty rather than the future tense or the modal meaning of volition.[19]22

Commonly, the modal ”shall+verb“ is used to express obligations, which serves to detail the obligations of one or more parties to a contract.In Chinese, 应该or 得is

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often used in defining the rights and liabilities,while in English ”shall+verb“ is often used.Of course there are other words such as should or will also have a similar meaning.However, shall is more compulsive and emphasized and means a legal liability.If one fails to fulfill something, it will result in a legal enforcement and remedy.Business contract tends to use the structure ”shall+verb“ more frequently.Like the following examples: 1)The persons employed Party A shall be responsible to the Manager of Party A.甲方雇佣的一切人员都必须向甲方的经理负责。

2)Party A shall, at most favorable prices, supply Party B with spare parts of the leased equipment.甲方应以最优惠的价格向乙方供应所租设备的备件。

3)This Contract shall become effective upon and from the date on which it is signed.本合同签字之日起开始生效。

4)The Seller shall have the right to increase the price of the goods specified in this contract at any time.卖方有权随时提高本合同的货物价格。

3.3 The sentential features 3.3.1 Declarative sentences

In terms of function, all sentences can be divided into four groups :(a)Declarative sentences: to make a statement, to state a factual event.(b)Interrogative sentences: to ask a question.(c)Imperative sentences: to give commands or instructions.(d)Exclamatory sentences: to show strong feelings towards something.[20]56

As we know, contract relates to agreements or promises it should be objective and show no personal emotions.Thus declarative sentences are used to make statements, give explanation and make judgments.They make up the most part of the total.In English contracts there is no necessity for inquiry, therefore interrogative and imperative sentences are seldom found.For examples:(1)This Agreement is made and entered into by and between ABC Co.and XYZ Co..(2)The L/C shall be valid until the 15th day after the shipment.中国最大的论文知识平台www.xiexiebang.com

(3)The Seller shall deliver the goods before July 31,1997.(4)The period of Lease is two years beginning from the date the Lessee accepts the

equipment on examination.3.3.2 Long sentences

Long sentences with complex structures can express complicated opinions.A mild variation in sentence length shows the writer's emotional state of mind and his objective way of narrating.[20] In contract, sentences trend to be extremely long.When people reading a contract, it's not easy for them to find many short sentences.There are two advantages to use long sentences in contract: First, the long sentences can make the contract more formal and logical.Second, long sentences with some adverbial or attributive clauses can be used to define the rights and obligations of the Parties.Therefore, a large number of information has been compressed into a single sentence, which accounts for its length and grammatical complexity.Look at the following sentence: In case that one or both parties are impossible to perform the duties provided herein on account of force majeure, the party(or Parties)in contingency shall inform the other party(or each other)of the case immediately and may, provided the case is duly verified by the competent-authorities, delay in performance of or not perform the relevant duties hereunder and may be partially or entirely exempted from the liability for breach of this agreement.[1]57

This sentence has 76 words, accounting for its length and grammatical complexity,it express a huge amount of information.At the very beginning, it is an adverbial clause introduced by in case that.The predicate of the principal clause is composed of three coordinate parts: shall inform...，and may...delay...or not perform…and may be...exempted from....In the adverbial clause, the past participle phrase provided herein is the attribute used to modify the duties.In the clause, the prepositional phrase on account of force majeure is used to express the cause.In addition, the second predicate followed by a conditional clause introduced by provided.All that is mentioned above proves that the long, complex sentence can express complicated meaning logically.[1]57-58

In contract, there are also short sentences which can express the idea precisely and clearly.So the combination of long and short sentences makes the language of

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contract vivid and full of change.3.3.3 Conditional clauses

Contracts are written documents indicating the agreement between the parties on their rights and obligations.Usually, there are various conditions when carry out these rights and obligations.Only these conditions are met can the rights and obligations be carried out.So many conditional clauses are used in contracts.There are usually four kinds of conditional clauses:(a)Condition of supposition: This type of clauses usually led by ”if“, ”should“, ”in case/in case of', “in the event of/that” to expressthe supposed conditions on which each party to the contract can enjoy the rights or should perform the obligations.The emphasis here for these kinds of sentences is on the main clause.If any products or any part of the products is not in compliance with the standards of quality as the result of the inspection, the Manufacturer shall supply the buyer free of charge with replacement for all parts not complying with the standards of quality.[16]394

经检验，发现产品的任何部分的质量不合格，制造商必须免费更换所有质货物。

(b)Condition of prerequisite: This type of conditional clauses is usually led by “provided(that)” to indicate a kind of possibility.When translating such clauses into Chinese version, “provided(that)” is usually translated into “如果.........”.They express the specific condition whose existence is a precondition on which each party to a contract may carry out some activity.Thus the emphasis for these kinds of sentences is on the subordinate clauses which are more important.Looking the following sentence:

The Seller, provided that Buyer so agrees, may retain the whole or part of the said incomplete equipment, fabricated or unfabricated parts, work in process, and other material referred to in paragraph(D)of this Article the amount to be paid by the Buyer shall be reduced by a sum equal to the value of the property so retained.[16]403

如果买方同意，卖方可以部分或全部地保留上述未完成的设备、已加工好或未加工好的零件以及正在进行的工作和本条(D)款所述的其他材料，这将因此使买方少支付这部分货物的费用。

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(c)Condition of exception: This type of conditional clauses are usually led by “except”, “with the exception that”, “in the absence of” and “unless”.They express that one party to a contract can be free from the restriction of some articles or clauses of the contract under some special conditions.From pragmatic viewpoint, such conditional clauses usually can complement the provisions and imply disjunctive meaning.Except for reason of force majure, the plant shall operate for more than 10 days in a month.[16]412

除因人力不可抗拒之原因外，工厂每月开工应多于10天。

(d)Condition of fact: clauses of this type are usually led by whereas, in consideration of and subject to to express some conditions that already exist.中国最大的论文知识平台www.xiexiebang.com

4.Implications

4.1 Implication for reading contract English

When reading the English contracts, many people feel that it is very difficult for them to understand completely.If they can know something about the language features of contract English, the following difficulties can be overcome.(1)Difficulty in reading the long English contract

Compared with Chinese contract, English contract is longer.English speaking countries are common law countries.In these countries the statutory laws are not as many as in China.In order to avoid the disputes or have the disputes satisfactorily solved in future, the rights and obligations of Parties are written in much greater detail in contract in common law countries than those in China, which makes the contract very long.The following two points can help people overcome the difficulty in reading long English contract:(i)To divide the contract into parts

When a long contract is divided into small parts, which will be comparatively easy to read and understand.As a complete and valid contract, in general, there are three components: the head, the body, and the tail.When we read a contract, it's very important for us to recognize the head and the tail because the body of the contract is located between the head and the tail, and the head and the tail of a contract, with their obvious characteristics, are very easy to find.(ii)To read the body of the contract clause by clause.The body of a contract is broken into sections, each of which may in turn consist of one or more subsection.Furthermore, one can subdivide the text of any section or

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subsection into “enumerated clauses.” Subdividing the body of a contract, taking the form of sentences as clause, makes it neat, much easier to read.In this way, we can read the contract step by step.(2)Difficulty in reading the long and complex sentences

The sentences in an English contract are very long and complex, some of which are written in several lines even several pages.To deal with this problem, there is no way out, just to analyze the components of the sentence patiently, to know the functions of different components, and to find where the principal clause is, where the subordinate clause is and what kind of subordinate clause it is, etc.(3)Difficulty in interpreting the archaic words

There are a great number of archaic words in contract.These archaic words, such as whereas, hereby, thereto, in witness whereof are very difficult to interpret even after we look them up in the dictionary.When we see this kind of words in contract, we should know that the use of these archaic words can avoid the repetition of something which has been mentioned above or before and makes the description more precisely.The detail information can refer to 3.1.2 of the thesis.4.2 Implication for drafting contract

In Davidson's book Precedents and Forms in Conveyancing, [21]70 he lists five principles in drafting contract.The forth one is “The ordinary and accustomed forms of documents and technical language should be used”.And “Legal language should be precise and accurate.Every phrase should have a clear meaning and all the phrases should be so connected as not to give rise to ambiguity.Aim at accuracy.Omit superfluous phrases.Give correct references and adhere strictly to the rules of grammar as by the use of apt words.” is the fifth one.[22]129-130

In Contract Law, Tay Swee Kian and Tang See Chim mentioned the two problems should be solved in drafting contract:

One is the use of long uncommon words or long sentences in contract.The other is the use of too many archaic words.They say, “Such archaic word or expressions as whereby，hereinafter that are not customarily used in everyday life should be replaced by words in current use.It is not wise to have too many of them.” [22]129-130

From my point of view, the long sentences, archaic words and technical terms are the features of contract English, without them the contract English is not different

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from the general English.Short sentences cannot always be used in legal documents because technical legal expressions may sometimes have to be used in preference to short sentences and the archaic words, if carefully but not superfluously used, can be an aid to exact expression.5.Conclusion

The language of legal English is generally complicated and technical, and, therefore, difficult for the people to understand.Contracts have no exception.The idea of making legal language easier to read and understand is not new.The lexicon features of business contracts can be summarized as adoption of formal words, usage of archaic words and synonyms.The syntax features of business contracts can be summarized as adoption of declarative sentences, long sentences, passive voice, and present tense.China, as a member country of the WTO, is playing an increasingly important role in international business.It is almost certain that the study of business contracts will become an important topic in China.In this thesis, apart from elaborating on the language features of English business contracts from the lexicon and syntax levels, the author proposes the criteria for understanding and drafting of English business contracts.中国最大的论文知识平台www.xiexiebang.com

References

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