第一篇：第1课 美国《独立宣言》 教学设计 教案
教学准备
1.教学目标
知识与能力:《独立宣言》的主要内容；《独立宣言》的民主思想；《独立宣言》的意义、作用和局限性。
理解与运用：比较分析《独立宣言》的思想渊源以及所体现的民主思想和独具的历史价值。
情感价值观：《独立宣言》在人类历史上第一次以政治纲领的形式宣布了民主共和国的原则，是“第一个人权宣言”。它体现的民主思想成为一代又一代美国人不断追求的理想。
2.教学重点/难点
重点：《独立宣言》体现的民主思想 难点：《独立宣言》产生的历史背景
3.教学用具
幻灯片。图片。
4.标签
美国《独立宣言》
教学过程 【讲授新课】
一、《独立宣言》发表的背景
【问题探讨】《独立宣言》是在怎样的情景下颁布的？ 学生思考回答，教师归纳总结：
1、欧洲启蒙思想的深刻影响（理论基础）
2、北美启蒙思想家富兰克林和杰斐逊的推动
3、潘恩发表《常识》，激励人民为独立而战
4、独立战争爆发
5、杰斐逊等五人委员会草拟《独立宣言》（1776年7月4日通过）【探究延伸】学生阅读教材26页上面小字，了解杰斐逊的生平及贡献。
二、《独立宣言》体现的民主思想
【学习探究】《独立宣言》的主要内容由哪些部分组成？学生阅读教材归纳：
1、主要内容
第一部分为前言，阐述了宣言的目的。
第二部分高度概括了当时资产阶级最激进的政治思想——自然权利学说和主权在民思想。
第三部分历数英国压迫北美殖民地人民的条条罪状，说明殖民地人民是在忍无可忍的情况下被迫拿起武器的。第四部分庄严宣告独立。
【学习探究】阅读下列材料，回答问题：
材料一
我们认为下面这些真理是不不言而喻的；一切人生来就是平等的，他们被造物主赋予他们固有的，不可转让的权利，其中有生命，自由以及追求幸福的权利；„„如果遇有任何形式的政府损害这些目的，人民就有权利改变或废除它„„
------《独立宣言》
材料二
各州选举人应具该州众议员之选举人所需之资格„„（众议院议员人数及直接税额应按合众国所辖各州人口之多寡，分配于各州、此项人口数目包括所有公民及五分之三非公民。并包括须服役数年之人，但未被课税之印第安人不算。）
---《美利坚合国宪法（1787年）》
请回答：（1）材料一发表于何时？由何机构发布？体现了启蒙思想家的什么学说？
（2）针对材料
一、材料二保守性表现在哪？
答案提示：
⑴发表于1776年7月4日；由第二届大陆会议发表；体现了天赋人权学说，自由平等原则，人民主权学说。（2）保守性表现在：材料一宣称一切人生来都是自由平等的，而材料二则以纳税的多少，把人区分炎公民或非公民，来限制选举权，也材料一的精神相悖。
2、民主思想：平等与自然权利、主权在民、人民革命的权利。
3、发表的历史意义
引导学生从对美国的影响和对世界的贡献两个层次来认识：
（1）对美国：《独立宣言》表达了北美殖民地追求独立自由的愿望，在动员革命力量、鼓舞人民斗志、赢得战争胜利等方面发挥了巨大作用，它不仅宣告了美利坚合众国这一崭新国家的诞生，而且深深地影响到的它的未来
⑵对世界：在人类历史上第一次以政治纲领的形式宣告了民主共和国的原则，彻底摧毁了封建专制主义的理论根基。推动了欧洲反封建的资产阶级革命，直接影响了法国大革命，对亚洲、拉丁美洲的民族独立运动也具有一定的推动作用。
3、《独立宣言》的局限性：它提出的民权只是拥有一定财产的白人男性的民权，穷苦人白人、妇女、契约奴工和黑人没有民权。
【探究延伸】请同学们联系近代中国的社会状况，思考为什么美国独立战争和《独立宣言》会在中国引起如此强烈的反响？
答：（1）1901年《辛丑条约》签订，中国完全沦为半殖民地半封建社会，要求推翻清王朝的专制统治，获得民族独立，争取民主权利成为全国人民的共同呼声。（2）北美独立战争的胜利，《独立宣言》体现出的民主思想给中国人民极大鼓舞。【巩固总结】
材料一
我们认为下面这些真理是不言而喻的：一切人生来都是平等的，他们被造物主赋予他们固有的，不可转让的权利，其中有生命、自由以及追求幸福的权利„„
---美国《独立宣言》（1776年）
材料二 合众国公民的选举权，不得因种族、肤色或以前是奴隶而被合众国或任何一州加以拒绝或限制。
---《美利坚合众国宪法》第十五条修正案（1870年）
材料三
合众国公民的选举权，不得因性别而被合众国任何一州加以拒绝或限制。
---《美利坚合众国宪法》第十九条修正案（1920年）
材料四（此年前满二十一岁的公民才拥有选举权，现规定）年满十八岁和十八岁以上的合众国公民的选举权，不得因为年龄而被合众国或任何一州加以拒绝或限制。
---《美利坚合众国宪法》第二十六条修正案（1971年）
（1）材料一确认了什么原则？结合所学知识，指出申明这一原则在当时起到了什么作用？
（2）结合所学知识，说明材料二的规定是在什么历史背景下产生的？
（3）概括材料二、三、四，指出美国公民的选举权是如何变化的。
（4）根据材料并结合所学知识，简述从美国近两百年选举权的变化中得到的启示。
（5）运用所学哲学知识对材料一所确认的原则作简要分析。
答：（1）天赋人权（或自由平等）。鼓舞了美国人民为争取独立而战争。（2）美国独立后南北经济以不同方式发展；南北矛盾的焦点是奴隶制的存废问题；内战中，林肯政府顺应民意，颁布了《解放黑人奴隶宣言》；北方取得内战胜利，废除了奴隶制度。（3）取消了选举权在种族、肤色和奴隶身份上的限制；取消了选举权在性别上的限制；放宽了选举权在年龄上限制。（4）（评分说明：依据材料，符合史实的看法，）如美国公民选举权在历史上长期受到限制，选举制度的改变是人民争取和斗争的结果等，（即可满分。）（5）天赋人权的原则虽然在历史上起过积极的作用，但在哲学上是以抽象人性论为基础，马克思从“社会关系的总和”来论证人的本质，是对抽象人性论的深刻批判。
课堂小结
（1）《独立宣言》标志着美国的诞生，在人类历史上第一次以政治纲领形式宣布了民主共和国的原则。宣称人的权利是神圣不可侵犯的，反映了北美人民独立的愿望和要求，成为殖民地人民反英斗争的旗帜。
（2）它体现的民主思想，成为一代又一代美国人不断追求的理想（3）推动了欧洲资产阶级革命和亚洲、拉丁美洲的民族独立运动的发展
课后习题
亚伯拉罕·林肯对杰斐逊在《独立宣言》的发布上所作的伟大贡献作出高度评价：“一切光荣属于杰斐逊，属于这样的一个人：在单独一个民族为其独立而进行的艰苦斗争中，他具有足够的冷静、远见和聪睿，把一条可以适用于任何民族和任何时代的抽象真理纳入一个纯粹革命的文献，并使这条真理在那里永垂不朽，以致无论是在今天或永远的未来，它对于死灰复燃的暴政和压迫的先兆，都必定是一种谴责和阻碍。”
有人说，杰斐逊起草的《独立宣言》强化了美国人民的法治观念，使美国人受到了充分的法律熏陶，奠定了美国人民主的思想和传统。你同意这种观点吗？说说你的理由。
板书 美国《独立宣言》
第二篇：美国独立宣言
有感于《独立宣言》
姓名：黄荣威
学号：13311011
“哪里有压迫，哪里就有反抗”像是一个亘古不变的真理。回到历史，由于封建专制严重阻碍资本主义的发展，英国爆发了资产阶级革命，人民反对专制王权，最后取得了胜利。而那时的美国还是英国的殖民地，当新兴的美利坚民族更渴望得到自由和平等，英国残酷的殖民统治激发了北美人民心中的怒火，一场争取独立的战争又将打响……
1776年7月4日，《独立宣言》发表，大大鼓舞了北美人民的斗志，成为北美人民争取独立的旗帜，对争取独立战争的胜利起了巨大推动作用。《独立宣言》也是一篇著名的资产阶级革命文献，它提倡资产阶级的自由、平等和主权在民思想，否定了封建等级制和专制统治，否定英国对殖民地统治的合法性，宣言凝集了北美先进分子的思想，它所体现的革命精神，对独立战争进程具有巨大的鼓舞和指导作用。《独立宣言》正式向全世界宣告美国脱离英国而独立。这标志着北美独立战争进入一个新的阶段，即把反抗英国殖民统治的武装斗争同争取民族独立的伟大的正义事业联系起来。7月4日这一天，被定为美国独立日。不难看出，《独立宣言》在美国的历史上有着不言而喻的重要性和人人信仰的魅力。
在中国，在我们的历史书上，专制、斗争、独立、自由是我们所熟悉的名词。《独立宣言》的大名相信大部分学生也不会感到陌生。但可惜的是，课文上并没有完整的《独立宣言》。直到今天，起码我身边的人，没几个是能将《独立宣言》从头看了一遍的，虽然这只有几千字。所以，我后悔早期没有机会阅读，这或许会带给我更深刻的影响。但我也很惊讶，这个已影响了世界的文档，并没有出现在我们高中或者是大学的教材上。或许专家们认为这不是一个必要的文本。但是，正在我看来，这不能不说是我们的教育系统上一个巨大的错误。
且看看，《独立宣言》作为美国立国精神的最重要的文献之一，深深地影响了美国未来的发展。自1776年以来，“人人生而平等”作为美国立国的基本原则，作为人们的信念和理想，一直为后人所传颂。
可以毫不犹豫的说，《独立宣言》推动了世界历史的发展。《独立宣言》最重要的作用是将欧洲启蒙运动时期产生的天赋人权和社会契约思想转化为现实政治的原则，它标志着美洲和人类历史上一种新的政治生态环境的开端。《独立宣言》是一个伟大的历史文件，它在人类历史上，第一次以国家的名义宣布人民的权利为神圣不可侵犯的。它比法国的《人权宣言》早13年，由于它是最单的阐明了天赋人权的政治纲领，因此马克思称它是“第一个人权宣言”。《独立宣言》充满着革命精神，在人类历史上第一次以政治纲领的形式宣告了民主共和国的原则，彻底摧毁了封建专制主义的理论根基，将人民主权首次贯彻到了新兴资产阶级的建国实践中。它直接影响了1789年的法国大革命，推动了整个欧洲的反封建斗争，也给拉丁美洲和亚洲民族独立运动以巨大推动力。宣言所体现的民主共和思想，也使中国资产阶级思想家受到启迪和鼓舞，为辛亥革命爆发奠定了思想基础，推动了中华民族解放运动的发展。
我一直很欣赏《独立宣言》中“人人生而平等”的主张，在《人权宣言》中它又被进一步被阐发为“人生来是而且始终是自由的，在权利方面是平等的。”这也是人类最纯真，最朴实的一个共同愿望，即使是现在，人们还力求建设公平社会。而佛教中也倡导“众生平等”，但是他宣传的是极乐世界的“平等”，产生了麻醉民众的消极作用，面对残暴的专制统治，信徒们就不会予以反抗。可是《独立宣言》是建立在现实的基础之上的。是殖民地人民反英斗争的旗帜，大大鼓舞了北美人民的革命斗志，激励美国人民为实现独立的崇高目标而英勇战斗。
托马斯·杰斐逊起草的《独立宣言》,是政府的基本语句,是它获取权力的源头。它开始于那些属于每个人的不可剥夺的权利。所有的来保护的这些权利的力量只能由人民掌控，由政府练习。
《独立宣言》中有一句话给我留下了深刻的印象。“我们认为这些真理是不言而喻的,人人生而平等,他们被造物主赋予某些不可剥夺的权利,其中包括生命权、自由权和追求幸福的权利。”它告诉世界,每个人都想拥有，也应该值得拥有他们的独立性。我认为这是一个非常重要的句子。
“我有一个梦想,有一天,这个国家将站起来,并活出它的信条的真正含义:我们认为这些真理是不言而喻的：人人生而平等。”你能认出这个句子吗?是的,这个句子援引马丁·路德·金在他著名的《我有一个梦想”的演讲。是的，读了《独立宣言》后，伟大的金领略了其深藏的内涵。作为普通学生的我们是否也应该从中学习一下呢？这个只能留给我们自己思考了。
最后，我认为“独立宣言”意味着我们生活在一个自由的国家，仍然是要保护我们的权利，天赋人权。我们任何人都应该相互欣赏。愿我们生活在一个和平、自由的世界。
第三篇：美国独立宣言 英文版
美国《独立宣言》（英文稿）
The Declaration of Independence
Action of Second Continental Congress, July 4, 1776 The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen United States of America
WHEN in the Course of human Events, it becomes necessary for one People to dissolve the Political Bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the Powers of the Earth, the separate and equal Station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent Respect to the Opinions of Mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the Separation.WE hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness--That to secure these Rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just Powers from the Consent of the Governed, that whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these Ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its Foundation on such Principles, and organizing its Powers in such Form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient Causes;and accordingly all Experience hath shewn, that Mankind are more disposed to suffer, while Evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the Forms to which they are accustomed.But when a long Train of Abuses and Usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object, evinces a Design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their Right, it is their Duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future Security.Such has been the patient Sufferance of these Colonies;and such is now the Necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government.The History of the present King of Great-Britain is a History of repeated Injuries and Usurpations, all having in direct Object the Establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States.To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid World.HE has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public Good.HE has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing Importance, unless suspended in their Operation till his Assent should be obtained;and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.HE has refused to pass other Laws for the Accommodation of large Districts of People, unless those People would relinquish the Right of Representation in the Legislature, a Right inestimable to them, and formidable to Tyrants only.HE has called together Legislative Bodies at Places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the Depository of their public Records, for the sole Purpose of fatiguing them into Compliance with his Measures.HE has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly Firmness his Invasions on the Rights of the People.HE has refused for a long Time, after such Dissolutions, to cause others to be elected;whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of the Annihilation, have returned to the People
at large for their exercise;the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the Dangers of Invasion from without, and the Convulsions within.HE has endeavoured to prevent the Population of these States;for that Purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners;refusing to pass others to encourage their Migrations hither, and raising the Conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.HE has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.HE has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the Tenure of their Offices, and the Amount and Payment of their Salaries.HE has erected a Multitude of new Offices, and sent hither Swarms of Officers to harrass our People, and eat out their Substance.HE has kept among us, in Times of Peace, Standing Armies, without the consent of our Legislatures.HE has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.HE has combined with others to subject us to a Jurisdiction foreign to our Constitution, and unacknowledged by our Laws;giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation: FOR quartering large Bodies of Armed Troops among us;FOR protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: FOR cutting off our Trade with all Parts of the World: FOR imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: FOR depriving us, in many Cases, of the Benefits of Trial by Jury: FOR transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended Offences: FOR abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an arbitrary Government, and enlarging its Boundaries, so as to render it at once an Example and fit Instrument for introducing the same absolute Rules into these Colonies: FOR taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: FOR suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with Power to legislate for us in all Cases whatsoever.HE has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.HE has plundered our Seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our Towns, and destroyed the Lives of our People.HE is, at this Time, transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the Works of Death, Desolation, and Tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty and Perfidy, scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous Ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized Nation.HE has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the Executioners of their Friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.HE has excited domestic Insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the Inhabitants of our Frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known Rule of Warfare, is an undistinguished Destruction, of all Ages, Sexes and Conditions.IN every stage of these Oppressions we have Petitioned for Redress in the most
humble Terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated Injury.A Prince, whose Character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the Ruler of a free People.NOR have we been wanting in Attentions to our British Brethren.We have warned them from Time to Time of Attempts by their Legislature to extend an
unwarrantable Jurisdiction over us.We have reminded them of the Circumstances of our Emigration and Settlement here.We have appealed to their native Justice
and Magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the Ties of our common Kindred to disavow these Usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our Connections and Correspondence.They too have been deaf to the Voice of Justice and of
Consanguinity.We must, therefore, acquiesce in the Necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of Mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace, Friends.WE, therefore, the Representatives of the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, in GENERAL CONGRESS, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the World for the Rectitude of our Intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly Publish and Declare, That these United
Colonies are, and of Right ought to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES;that they are absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political Connection between them and the State of Great-Britain, is and ought to be
totally dissolved;and that as FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do
all other Acts and Things which INDEPENDENT STATES may of right do.And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm Reliance on the Protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.John Hancock.GEORGIA, Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, Geo.Walton.NORTH-CAROLINA, Wm.Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn.SOUTH-CAROLINA, Edward Rutledge, Thos Heyward, junr., Thomas Lynch, junr., Arthur Middleton.MARYLAND, Samuel Chase, Wm.Paca, Thos.Stone, Charles Carroll, of Carrollton.VIRGINIA, George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Ths.Jefferson, Benja.Harrison, Thos.Nelson, jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton.PENNSYLVANIA, Robt.Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benja.Franklin, John Morton, Geo.Clymer, Jas.Smith, Geo.Taylor, James Wilson, Geo.Ross.DELAWARE, Caesar Rodney, Geo.Read.NEW-YORK, Wm.Floyd, Phil.Livingston, Frank Lewis, Lewis Morris.NEW-JERSEY, Richd.Stockton, Jno.Witherspoon, Fras.Hopkinson, John Hart, Abra.Clark.NEW-HAMPSHIRE, Josiah Bartlett, Wm.Whipple, Matthew Thornton.MASSACHUSETTS-BAY, Saml.Adams, John Adams, Robt.Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry.RHODE-ISLAND AND PROVIDENCE, C.Step.Hopkins, William Ellery.CONNECTICUT, Roger Sherman, Saml.Huntington, Wm.Williams, Oliver Wolcott.IN CONGRESS, JANUARY 18, 1777.在有关人类事务的发展过程中，当一个民族必须解除其和另一个民族之间的政治联系，并在世界各国之间依照自然法则和上帝的意旨，接受独立和平等的地位时，出于人类舆论的尊重，必须把他们不得不独立的原因予以宣布。
我们认为下面这些真理是不言而喻的：人人生而平等，造物者赋予他们若干不可剥夺的权利，其中包括生命权、自由权和追求幸福的权利。为了保障这些权利，人类才在他们之间建立政府，而政府之正当权力，是经被治理者的同意而产生的。当任何形式的政府对这些目标具破坏作用时，人民便有权力改变或废除它，以建立一个新的政府；其赖以奠基的原则，其组织权力的方式，务使人民认为唯有这样才最可能获得他们的安全和幸福。为了慎重起见，成立多年的政府，是不应当由于轻微和短暂的原因而予以变更的。过去的一切经验也都说明，任何苦难，只要是尚能忍受，人类都宁愿容忍，而无
意为了本身的权益便废除他们久已习惯了的政府。但是，当追逐同一目标的一连串滥用职权和强取豪夺发生，证明政府企图把人民置于专制统治之下时，那么人民就有权利，也有义务推翻这个政府，并为他们未来的安全建立新的保障－－这就是这些殖民地过去逆来顺受的情况，也是它们现在不得不改变以前政府制度的原因。当今大不列颠国王的历史，是接连不断的伤天害理和强取豪夺的历史，这些暴行的唯一目标，就是想在这些州建立专制的暴政。为了证明所言属实，现把下列事实向公正的世界宣布：
他拒绝批准对公众利益最有益、最必要的法律。
他禁止他的总督们批准迫切而极为必要的法律，要不就把这些法律搁置起来暂不生效，等待他的同意；而一旦这些法律被搁置起来，他对它们就完全置之不理。
他拒绝批准便利广大地区人民的其它法律，除非那些人民情愿放弃自己在立法机关中的代表权；但这种权利对他们有无法估量的价值，而且只有暴君才畏惧这种权利。
他把各州立法团体召集到异乎寻常的、极为不便的、远离它们档案库的地方去开会，唯一的目的是使他们疲于奔命，不得不顺从他的意旨。
他一再解散各州的议会，因为它们以无畏的坚毅态度反对他侵犯人民的权利。
他在解散各州议会之后，又长期拒绝另选新议会；但立法权是无法取消的，因此这项权力仍由一般人民来行使。其实各州仍然处于危险的境地，既有外来侵略之患，又有发生内乱之忧。
他竭力抑制我们各州增加人口；为此目的，他阻挠外国人入籍法的通过，拒绝批准其它鼓励外国人移居各州的法律，并提高分配新土地的条件。
他拒绝批准建立司法权力的法律，藉以阻挠司法工作的推行。
他把法官的任期、薪金数额和支付，完全置于他个人意志的支配之下。
他建立新官署，派遣大批官员，骚扰我们人民，并耗尽人民必要的生活物质。
他在和平时期，未经我们的立法机关同意，就在我们中间维持常备军。
他力图使军队独立于民政之外，并凌驾于民政之上。
他同某些人勾结起来把我们置于一种不适合我们的体制且不为我们的法律所承认的管辖之下；他还批准那些人炮制的各种伪法案来达到以下目的：
在我们中间驻扎大批武装部队；
用假审讯来包庇他们，使他们杀害我们各州居民而仍然逍遥法外；
切断我们同世界各地的贸易；
未经我们同意便向我们强行征税；
在许多案件中剥夺我们享有陪审制的权益；
罗织罪名押送我们到海外去受审；
在一个邻省废除英国的自由法制，在那裹建立专制政府，并扩大该省的疆界，企图把该省变成既是一个样板又是一个得心应手的工具，以便进而向这里的各殖民地推行同样的极权统治；
取消我们的宪章，废除我们最宝贵的法律，并且根本上改变我们各州政府的形式；
中止我们自己的立法机关行使权力，宣称他们自己有权就一切事宜为我们制定法律。
他宣布我们已不属他保护之列，并对我们作战，从而放弃了在这里的政务。
他在我们的海域大肆掠夺，蹂躏我们沿海地区，焚烧我们的城镇，残害我们人民的生命。
他此时正在运送大批外国佣兵来完成屠杀、破坏和肆虐的勾当，这种勾当早就开始，其残酷卑劣甚至在最野蛮的时代都难以找到先例。他完全不配作为一个文明国家的元首。
他在公海上俘虏我们的同胞，强迫他们拿起武器来反对自己的国家，成为残杀自己亲人和朋友的刽子手，或是死于自己的亲人和朋友的手下。
他在我们中间煽动内乱，并且竭力挑唆那些残酷无情、没有开化的印第安人来杀掠我们边疆的居民；而众所周知，印第安人的作战规律是不分男女老幼，一律格杀勿论的。
在这些压迫的每一陷阶段中，我们都是用最谦卑的言辞请求改善；但屡次请求所得到的答复是屡次遭受损害。一个君主，当他的品格已打上了暴君行为的烙印时，是不配作自由人民的统治者的。
我们不是没有顾念我们英国的弟兄。我们时常提醒他们，他们的立法机关企图把无理的管辖权横加到我们的头上。我们也曾把我们移民来这里和在这里定居的情形告诉他们。我们曾经向他们天生的正义善感和雅量呼吁，我们恳求他们念在同种同宗的份上，弃绝这些掠夺行为，以免影响彼此的关系和往来。但是他们对于这种正义和血缘的呼声，也同样充耳不闻。因此，我们实在不得不宣布和他们脱离，并且以对待世界上其它民族一样的态度对待他们：和我们作战，就是敌人；和我们和好，就是朋友。
因此，我们，在大陆会议下集会的美利坚联盟代表，以各殖民地善良人民的名义，并经他们授权，向全世界最崇高的正义呼吁，说明我们的严正意向，同时郑重宣布；这些联合一致的殖民地从此是自由和独立的国家，并且按其权利也必须是自由和独立的国家，它们取消一切对英国王室效忠的义务，它们和大不列颠国家之间的一切政治关系从此全部断绝，而且必须断绝；作为自由独立的国家，它们完全有权宣战、缔和、结盟、通商和采取独立国家有权采取的一切行动。
为了支持这篇宣言，我们坚决信赖上帝的庇佑，以我们的生命、我们的财产和我们神圣的名誉，相互保证，共同宣誓。
第四篇：《独立宣言》教学设计
《独立宣言》教学设计
初二学生对于美国（如自由女神像、民主制度、美国总统奥巴马）有一定的了解，对于《独立宣言》的内容却所知甚少，对其与美国历史的联系也缺乏认识。在教学中，可将学生已有的经验作为教学资源，结合相关史料进行分析，探讨《独立宣言》的核心理念，揭示《独立宣言》与美国社会发展的联系。
《独立宣言》是美国历史上一份重要的文献，它揭示了天赋人权、反抗暴政的基本原则。对于这样一份历史文献，如果单纯从文字角度进行解读，对于初二的学生显得过于枯燥，以简单“三段论”为工具将《独立宣言》文本背后隐含的逻辑显性化，可以加深学生的理解。
《独立宣言》道出了北美人民的共同心声，激励美国人民赢得独立战争的最终胜利，它的基本理念成为美国社会发展的不朽基石，为此本设计将《独立宣言》置于美国历史发展的进程之中，辅以生动的故事细节与形象的材料，帮助学生理解《独立宣言》的作用及其深远影响。
本设计旨在通过对《独立宣言》文本的分析，使学生了解其主要内容，知道《独立宣言》的发表标志着美国的诞生;从观察历史图片的形式，尝试运用按照一定的顺序提取有效信息进而提炼主题的读图方法，并培养学生基于史实进行合理想象的意识;运用多种史料，理解《独
【收稿日期】2014-12-01
立宣言》对北美独立战争的重大作用和对美国历史发展的深远影响，也是本课要掌握的。根据以上分析，大致形式如下教学思路：
第一，多维度看历史。从《独立宣言》的核心理念，及其对于美国民众、独立战争和美国社会发展的影响等多个方面分析《独立宣言》，将一个立体和丰满的《独立宣言》呈现在学生面前，引导学生历史、客观地评价《独立宣言》。
第二，注重学法指导。主要体现在三个方面：其一，对于《独立宣言》的文本，教师提供一个三段论的分析示例，然后让学生模仿示例去分析;其二，对于历史图片，指导学生按照一定的顺序和视角（由近及远、从上往下）观察图片，提取有效信息进而提炼出图片主题;其三，指导学生基于相关史实，对历史展开合理的想象，加深对所学历史内容的深刻理解。
二、教学过程
这就是《独立宣言》，1776年7月4日，56
位来自北美13块殖民地的代表一一在上面签字，他们中有律师、法官、医生、商人，还有音乐家和诗人。他们共同见证了一个伟大时刻的到来――美利坚合众国的诞生。他们签署的是一份怎样的文件呢。让我们来共同分析《独立宣言》的内容。
我们来看一句英文（All men are created equal）译成中文就是“人生而平等”。但是，大家有没有注意到，“出生”这个词的英文是Bear，而《独立宣言》用的是Create，创造。二者有区别吗？Bear是妈妈把孩子生下来。Create是上帝造人。也就是说，人从娘胎里出来的时候，是不平等的，有的人健壮，有的人瘦弱;有的人长得好看，有的人相貌一般。但是，当上帝造人时，人是没有差别的，都被赋予了平等的权利。
这句话的上下文是什么呢？
我们认为，下面这些真理是不言而喻的：人人生而平等，造物者赋予他们若干不可剥夺的权利，其中包括生命权、自由权和追求幸福的权利。
请用自己的话概括这段文字的主要内容。同学们都注意到这段话的一些关键词，人人、权利，等等。概括起来，这句话的意思就是，生命权、自由权和追求幸福的权利是每个人都应享有的神圣权利。
《独立宣言》为什么要在开篇阐释这个道理呢？顾名思义，《独立宣言》就是要向世人说明北美独立的理由。所以，《独立宣言》非常讲究论证的逻辑。这个逻辑就是西方人非常熟悉的三段论――大前提、小前提、结论。大前提讲的是普遍条件，小前提讲的是具体条件。大前提正确，小前提正确，则结论正确。生命权、自由权和追求幸福的权利是每个人都应享有的神圣权利，这就是大前提。小前提是什么呢？北美殖民地人民是人，同人生而平等一样，这也是不言而喻的。根据大前提和小前提，大家能得出什么结论？北美人也有生命权、自由权和追求幸福的权利。下面我们就用这种方法来分析《独立宣言》中的其他内容。
大家先概括这两段材料的意思。
材料1：当任何形式的政府对这些权利（生命、自由、追求幸福）具破坏作用时，人民便有权力改变或废除它，以建立一个新的政府。
材料2：他（英王）拒绝批准对公众利益最有益、最必要的法律。未经我们同意便向我们强行征税。他在我们的海域大肆掠夺，蹂躏我们沿海地区，焚烧我们的城镇，残害我们人民的生命。
第一则材料讲的是政府、人民的关系。概括起来就是，若政府损害人民的权利，则人民有权更换政府。
第二则材料讲的是以英王为代表的政府与北美人民的关系。概括起来就是，以英王为代表的政府损害北美人的权利。
现在请大家仿照刚才的范例，将对应的语句放置在正确的位置，哪个是大前提，哪个是小前提？“若政府损害人民的权利，则人民有权更换政府”是大前提，“以英王为代表的政府损害北美人的权利”是小前提。
根据这两个前提，大家能得出什么结论？北美人有权脱离英王的统治，建立自己的政府。
《独立宣言》就是用这样铿锵有力的语言，严密规整的逻辑，向全世界宣告了北美人民独立的正当性。我们刚才引用的几段材料，也是《独立宣言》所要表达的核心意思，即自由平等、反抗暴政。《独立宣言》是人类历史上第一次对人权的郑重宣示。
了解《独立宣言》的主要内容后，回过头再看这幅油画，我们对画中人物的神情就有了更深刻的理解。在签字现场，罗德岛代表威廉?艾勒里特意观察了与会者在签名时的面部表情。从所有人的脸上，他都看到了“坚不可摧的信念”。
大陆会议主席约翰?汉考克特意用大大的黑体字签名，他说这样英王就是不用眼镜也能看清他的名字。本杰明?富兰克林则幽默地说：要是能一起被吊死就好了，否则单独去见死神未免太孤单。
他们绝非危言耸听，当时战争局势不明，敌人又如此强大，一旦他们失败了，所有在《独立宣言》上签字的人都会被绞死。
他们后来的命运如何呢？56位代表中有4位在战争期间牺牲，5位被俘，有几位妻离子散，还有9位倾家荡产。由此可见，这些会议代表，真的是用“生命、财产和神圣的名誉”来签署这份宣言。
当然，他们也不是在孤军奋战。
《独立宣言》刚刚印好，还带着热气，就被迅速送往十三个殖民地。7月19日，《独立宣言》到达波士顿，发生了一件事情，地点就在波士顿的马萨诸塞议会大厦。当时没有摄影摄像设备，人们用画笔记录下了珍贵的历史瞬间（见图1）。
请同学们跟着老师，由近及远地来观察这张图片。在近处，同学们观察到了什么？在广场上，有矜持的绅士、女士，有往前奔跑的小孩。人们三五成群，在议论着什么。在人们的前方，是一栋房子，这就是马萨诸塞议会大厦。在二楼的阳台上，有几个人。其中一个人穿着白衣服，他在当众大声朗读《独立宣言》。他是谁呢？是议长吗？是议员吗？还是一位行政长官或地方乡绅？都不是，他叫汤姆?克拉夫，只是一个普通的工匠。由此可见，《独立宣言》道出了像他这样的普通人的心声，激发了他作为一个美国人的主人翁的意识。
再往上看，在大厦的屋顶站着个人，他正在用斧头砍砸英国王权的象征――狮子像，这一举动有何寓意？对，意味着北美人民对英王统治的反抗。
通过这幅画作，我们能形象感受到《独立宣言》体现了北美人民的共同心声，在美国社会各个阶层中引起了层层波澜。
图片里也有和同学们年龄相似的孩子，他们也能理解大人们所做的事情吗？
图2是独立战争期间一个来自北卡罗来纳的小姑娘亲手绘制的笔记本封面。按照我们刚刚学习的读图方法，从上往下看，同学们能读到哪些信息？首先，Martha Ryan’s book，玛塔?赖安笔记本。左侧有一面旗帜，有同学说这旗子不是美国国旗，其实在1777年确定13颗星的星条旗（图片）前，曾经出现过几种不同的国旗方案，玛塔画的就是其中一种。往下看，看到这些帆船和房屋，大家会想到什么呢？这个同学说：画的是赖安自己的祖先漂洋过海来到北美，在北美安家了。有同学不同意，认为这些船也许代表着一百多年间陆续乘船来到北美的人们，这些房子可能就是他们到达美洲后建立的家园。老师认为，同学们的推测非常有道理。此外，老师注意到你们用了“也许”和“可能”两个词，看来你已经意识到我们只是基于史实的合理想象。最下方，大家认识这两个英文单词吧？自由和死亡。中间的or，可译为“或者”，连在一起就是“要么自由，要么死亡”。“不自由，毋宁死”，这是当时在北美殖民地流传最广泛的口号。我们不知道赖安是在什么情形下对自己的笔记本做这样装饰的。也许英国的军队攻打到北卡罗来纳，在家中或者学校的书桌旁学习的赖安能清晰地听到两方交战的枪炮声;也许由于战事正紧，她的父亲正作为民兵抵抗英军的进攻;也许她已经见过不少人为了保卫家园失去了生命……
当我们再凝视这幅图片，200多年前一个同龄人用自己的笔记录了她眼中的世界。也许战事正酣，她却用了许多的花朵来装饰她的笔记
本。我们是不是可以想象，玛塔，这样一个非常爱美的小女孩，也许还有许多美好的希望寄托在这些美丽的花中呢。
美好的希望是需要通过艰苦的斗争去争取的。据统计，独立战争参战人数最多时有25万人，这意味着北美殖民地每2～3个白人男子中就有一个要走上战场。这是一份士兵名单，从中我们不难发现，他们中年龄最大的42岁，最小的仅有11岁。他们的职业五花八门，有农民、有木匠、有皮匠、有理发匠还有作家。他们为什么能走到一起呢？美国当时实行的志愿兵制，他们不是被抓过来当兵的。虽然他们具体的动机存在差异，许多人是因为生活所迫才参兵入伍，但是他们的根本目标是一致的，那就是为了《独立宣言》所揭示的自由平等的原则。为了这个目标，不同年龄、不同职业、不同地域的人民走到了一起。因此，是《独立宣言》吹响了北美独立战争的胜利号角。
二百年多后，一位混血黑人当上了美国总统，他就是奥巴马。他在写给女儿的信中写道：
那时的我和你们差不多大，当你们的祖母指着《独立宣言》一字一句读给我听时，她告诉我，我们的战士之所以勇敢地踏上追求自由平等的征程，是因为他们相信，我们的祖先在200年前写在纸上的这些文字，一定有着深刻的内涵。
《独立宣言》不是完美的，在它颁布之初，只有白人男子获得自由平等权。但是，随着历史的发展，美国社会不同肤色、不同性别、不同阶层的人都从“人人生而平等”中获得了启示，进而去争取自己的权利。美国社会也在这个过程中逐渐得到发展。奥巴马当上总统就是美国社会进步历程的一个缩影。因此，可以讲，《独立宣言》是美国社会不断往前发展的一块重要基石。
《独立宣言》第一次在世人面前高举人权的旗帜，是第一份人权宣言;《独立宣言》道出了北美人民的心声，鼓舞着他们为自由而战，吹响了胜利的号角;为美国社会的不断发展奠定了不朽的基石。它早已超越了一个国家的界限，对世界产生了深远影响。今天，当人们站在哈德逊河口仰望自由女神像的时候，一定会注意到自由女神手中牢牢握住的《独立宣言》。在学完这节课之后，我们对《独立宣言》又怀有何种感想呢？
【作者简介】梁爽，女，中学一级教师，北京市第七中学历史教师，主要从事历史教学研究。
【责任编辑：王雅贞】
第五篇：英文分析美国独立宣言
Commentary on Declaration of Independence
I.Preamble The Declaration of Independence is important because it inspired many revolutionary efforts throughout the world and contributed to Americans' understanding of their values as a new nation.The introduction, called the preamble, to the Declaration of Independence is especially important because it builds connections between philosophical theory and practical politics, expresses the fundamental values of the new American government, and also appeals to other nations to accept the new nation.The introduction relies heavily on the philosophical and political ideas of the Enlightenment period of 18th century Europe, including the ideas of Thomas Hobbes, Jean Jacques Rousseau, and, most particularly, John Locke.Locke believed that humans, by nature, had the right to protection of life, health, liberty and possessions.Jefferson altered this slightly when he claims the unalienable rights include “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” Locke also strongly opposed the divine right of kings--which held that kings held absolute power because they were placed on their throne by God--and insisted that the people had the right to consent to their government and that the power of law making resides with the people.Jefferson included this theory when he writes “to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.” Jefferson's declaration helped to put Locke's philosophies into the realm of real-world politics.Many revolutions that occurred after the American Revolution cited Jefferson's Declaration of Independence as justification in overthrowing a corrupt and dictatorial power.The introduction to the Declaration of Independence also is important for the ways it contributed to Americans' understanding of their rights as citizens.Americans continue to believe that the phrase “all men are created equal” is a fundamental “law” in the country.While this phrase was included in the introduction to the declaration, it appears nowhere else in official documents defining rights granted under the U.S.Government.The Declaration of Independence holds no legal authority in our country, yet it continues to be cited as the foundation for American equality.Various groups throughout history have criticized American “equality”, referring to the introduction of the declaration for support.Critics point to Jefferson's contradictory message regarding equality in reference to slavery.Although Jefferson stated that all men are created equal and have the right to liberty, he ran a large plantation and was a slaveholder.Other critics point to the use of the word “men” as excluding women citizens.The 1848 Seneca Falls Convention used Jefferson's format and style to draft The Declaration of Sentiments, a document declaring women's unfair treatment by the U.S.government and by society.Both as a source for debate about equality and as a definition of the ideological foundation of the new nation, the introduction to the Declaration played a crucial role in defining American values and laws.The introduction is also significant because Jefferson insisted on the importance of explaining the rebellious actions of the 13 colonies to the nations and statesmen of the world.The most powerful nations of the world in the 18th century were monarchies.The ideas of Jefferson could serve not only to threaten Great Britain's colonial empire, but the colonial empires of other nations in Europe.Recognizing the importance of maintaining good diplomatic relations with European nations, Jefferson sought to explain the actions of the 13 colonies in rational terms.Anticipating that this document would influence rebellions elsewhere, Jefferson clarified that governments should not be overthrown for trivial causes.Instead, Jefferson explained that only “despotic” or totalitarian governments should be overthrown.II.The list of abuses reflects the colonists' belief that their rights as British Citizens had been slowly eroded ever since the French and Indian War ended in 1763.Although the Declaration does not name the specific legislation passed by Parliament, its listing of the abuses and usurpation effectively covers the history of the King and Parliament's attempts to gain more power and control over the colonies.The list crescendos with the most offensive actions, aimed at total suppression of the colonies, that were put into effect just prior to the signing of the Declaration.Many of the acts that the Declaration criticizes were intended to tighten royal control over the colonies.The history of Parliament's acts unfolded over a period of 13 years during which royal attempts to squash the civil liberties of colonists met with heightened colonial resistance.Beginning with The Proclamation of 1763, Parliament stripped colonists of the right to settle in the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River.This meant that although many colonists had given their lives to defend that land from the French, they would not be permitted to reap the benefits.Shortly after the proclamation, Parliament decided that the colonies would help repay the war debts, and enacted laws such as the Sugar Act(1764), the Stamp Tax(1765), the Townshend Acts(1767)and the Tea Act(1773).When the colonists protested against these acts, the King and Parliament responded by further suppressing the rights of colonists.Legislation in 1774 referred to by colonists as the “Intolerable Acts” struck especially hard at the civil rights of the colony of Massachusetts.The Intolerable Acts differed from previous legislation.These acts struck not only at the economic freedom of the colonies, but at their political rights and legislative independence as well.Not only was the port of Boston closed to all trade, but a military governor was also appointed and the people of Massachusetts no longer had the right to elect their representatives, select jurors, or hold town meetings.Additionally, British soldiers accused of crimes would be tried in England, not in the colony, and a new Quartering Act forced colonists in Massachusetts to feed and house British soldiers.The passage of the Intolerable Acts indicated to many colonists, even those not living in Massachusetts, that the King and Parliament were more interested in asserting unconditional control than in preserving the civil liberties of the colonists.The basic principle upon which the Declaration rests is that colonists, as British citizens, believed they were entitled to the rights and privileges granted by the Magna Carta, and the British Bill of Rights of 1689.Among other things, these documents established that the King was not above the law, that the people, represented in parliament, had a right to endorse or reject taxation, and that citizens were entitled to a trial by jury of their peers.Additionally, the Declaration relied on precedent: most British colonies had enjoyed self-rule and had been governed through their own legislative bodies since their founding.By 1774, most of the colonists that had once protested “no taxation without representation” found themselves without any representation whatsoever, neither in Parliament nor in any colonial house of representation.Towards the end of the list of abuses, the Declaration focuses attention on a few specific incidents that demonstrate the King's disregard for colonial life and liberty, the danger of colonists remaining divided on the issue of independence, and the preparations being made by Great Britain for an all-out war.These statements served, in many cases, to convince moderates in the Second Continental Congress to see that reconciliation was not a possibility and to cast their vote in favor of independence.The British attack on colonists and the loss of American lives at the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April of 1775 and the Battle of Bunker Hill in June of 1775 demonstrated the King's “waging war against us” and his disregard for American lives.In December of 1775, Parliament withdrew British military protection from the colonies and enacted a policy of seizure and confiscation of American ships and sailors(“...[King George] has plundered our seas...he has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas...”).This action also left colonists living on the frontier, especially those in Georgia, with no military protection from Native American attacks(“...he has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages...”).Furthermore, the heightened tension between colonists and the King began to overflow into hostile relations between those colonists loyal to the king(Tories)and those seeking independence(Whigs).This tension actually erupted into an armed battle between colonists in early 1776 in the Battle at Moore's Creek Bridge(“He has excited domestic insurrections among us...”).It is interesting to note that the Declaration reserved his most scathing language to describe the King's use of mercenaries.Accusing George III's mercenaries of cruelty “scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation, ”the Declaration aims to evoke support from moderates within the colonies by revealing that the British civilization in which they took pride was no more than a cruel and tyrannical monarchy.Interestingly, Jefferson devoted approximately one-fourth of the abuses in his original draft of the Declaration of Independence to the topic of slavery.Jefferson held the King accountable for maintaining and protecting slavery as an institution in the colonies.Not surprisingly, the moderate congress, already fearful of being too radical, removed all references to slavery from the document.It remains a source of historical debate why a slave-owning man like Jefferson would have devoted so much intellectual energy to criticizing slavery and to attempting to remove it from the colonies.III.Between 1763 and 1776, American colonists made many attempts to organize in protest against the acts of Parliament.The Declaration of Independence represents the last in a long chain of declarations that began with the declaration of the Stamp Act Congress of 1765, which stated colonists were entitled to the same rights as Englishmen.This document also affirmed that taxing the colonists without their consent was a violation of their rights as British Citizens and that Parliament had no right to tax colonists.In 1774, after the passage of the Intolerable Acts, these themes would surface again in a document written by the First Continental Congress called the Declaration of Rights and Grievances.This document clarified the Stampt Act Congress declaration by stating only colonial legislatures had the right to tax the colonists.Additionally, this document declared the Intolerable Acts unconstitutional and criticized the King and Parliament for dissolving colonial assemblies, maintaining a standing army in peacetime, and for enforcing heavy taxation.Meeting again as the Second Continental Congress in May of 1775, the delegates understood that things had only worsened between the colonists and the British government.Although fighting had already broken out between minutemen and British troops, many delegates still pressed for a peaceful reconciliation.This congress issued a Declaration of Causes of Taking-up Arms and sent an Olive-Branch Petition to the King to humbly request that he negotiate a peaceful reconciliation.Once again, the King ignored the requests of the colonists and responded instead by sending an additional 20,000 troops to the colonies.Throughout the struggle to assert their rights, colonial leaders understood the importance of maintaining unity between the 13 colonies.Samuel Adams knew that the people would have to be persuaded to view an attack on one colony as an attack on all colonies.To help maintain a unified protest, Samuel Adams organized Committees of Correspondence in 1772 to ensure that colonies could stay informed about new developments regarding the British King and Parliament.This information network proved crucial when the First Continental Congress agreed to boycott trade with Great Britain and to refuse to use British goods until a resolution was reached.During the Second Continental Congress, patriot leaders carefully waited to declare independence until all delegations unanimously supported it.Although the colonies were technically at war with Great Britain for most of the time the congress met, it took them 14 months to write the formal declaration of war.After the rejection of the Olive Branch Petition, the publication of Thomas Paine's Common Sense, and the hiring of German mercenaries, all of which took place in early 1776, the themes stated in earlier declarations were finally put to use to justify separation rather than reconciliation.The Declaration of Independence relied on the content and claims of earlier declarations, but firmly stated that ten years of peaceful political and economic actions had failed to reach the desired effect.Therefore, as concluded in this section, the King and Parliament left the colonists no other choice but to seek separation through military means.IV.The conclusion is important in clarifying the identity of the new nation, as well as defining the powers granted to the new government.Many of the delegates to the Second Continental Convention saw the Declaration of Independence as important because of the message it would send to foreign nations.They were especially concerned with enlisting the military help of the French in their war against Great Britain.They therefore thought it necessary to assert clearly that they had no allegiance or connection to Great Britain.The new nation is not only named in this conclusion as the United States of America, but its authority is defined as well.The conclusion serves to establish the authority of the Second Continental Congress over issues of international affairs, war and peace, and trade.With these powers in hand, the Congress is empowered to run the affairs of government related to the declared war.However, the conclusion is unclear regarding the individual states' responsibilities to each other.The Declaration describes itself as a union of colonies, each of which is a free and independent state.This is problematic because the statement indicates that the colonies are one united whole, while simultaneously stating that each state is free and independent.A few sentences later, the Declaration states that the former colonies, “ as free and independent states,...have full power to levy war,” thereby indicating that each state, individually, has the right to levy war, make peace, etc.This inconsistency would later turn into a debate about the nature of the government of the United States.Was the United States a loose confederation of independent states, each of which could act on behalf of its own interest? Or, was the United States a strong centralized nation in which the powers of the whole were stronger than the powers of each individual state? The Declaration states that the colonists have pledged mutual allegiance, but does that mean the pledge will continue beyond the war effort?
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