中国四大发明英文介绍

第一篇：中国四大发明英文介绍

Hello everyone.Today I’m going to talk about the Four Great Inventions of the Ancient China.Do you know their name in English? If you don’t, let me introduce to you.Papermaking technology During the Eastern Han Dynasty, Cai Lun summed up the experience of forefathers, began to improve papermaking technology.He used a lot of simple things and produced the ‘Cai Hou’ paper.This kind of paper is thin and can write easily.He made enormous contribution for China.It was produced to other countries after about 500 years.Typography Typography is a kind of printing.Before printing was invented, people had to record information by writing or other ways.But it always took a lot of time.Then Bi Sheng invented typography and improved the printing technology.It began to take less time and become easy to record information.It’s a great achievement in the history.Compass

It was invented in the Warring States.After people found that a magnet could give directions, the compass was invented.It was a magnet made into a shape of spoon.When it stops, the spoon can point to the south.Then, it was produced to Europe in the 13th century.Not everywhere has a lighthouse, so a compass is very useful for sailing.Even at a new place people will not lose their way with a compass.Gunpowder Gunpowder is also called black powder.It was invented in Tang Dynasty, about 9th century.It began to be used in military affairs and made great contribution for China.Guns, aircrafts could be invented afterwards.Papermaking technology, typography, compass and gunpowder are Four Great Inventions of the Ancient China.They have made great contributions for people all over the world.As a Chinese person, we should remember and be proud of them.That’s all for my duty.Thank you for listening.1.sum

sum up 总结 2.forefather

['fɔ:,fɑ:ðə] 前人 3.be produced to

传入

4.typography [tai'pɔgrəfi] 活字印刷术 5.compass ['kʌmpəs] 指南针 6.the Warring States 战国 7.magnet ['mægnit] 磁铁,磁石 8.Gunpowder ['gʌn,paudə] 火药 9.military affairs 军事

第二篇：四大发明英文介绍

Four Great Inventions of Ancient China--printing Block Printing

With the inventions of paper and ink, stamper gradually became popular during the Jin Dynasty(265-420), which was the early form of Carved Type Printing.Block Printing first appeared in the Tang Dynasty(618-907).The text was first written on a piece of thin paper, then glued face down onto a wooden plate.The characters were carved out to make a wood-block printing plate, which was used to print the text.Wood-block printing took a long time as a new block had to be carved for every page in a book.It took a lot of time and energy as well as materials to prepare for printing a book, but it worked more effectively afterwards.This technology was gradually introduced to Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and the Philippines.Yet, Block Printing had its drawbacks--all the boards became useless after the printing was done and a single mistake in carving could ruin the whole block.The frontispiece of the world's oldest surviving book, the Diamond Sutra printed in the year 868, was discovered at Dunhuang Cave, along the Silk Road.The book, in the form of a roll, is the earliest woodcut illustration in a printed book.Movable Type Printing

Block Printing was a costly and time-consuming process, for each carved block could only be used for a specific page of a particular book, besides, a single mistake in carving could ruin the whole block.However movable type changed all of that.In the Song Dynasty(960-1279), a man named Bi Sheng carved individual characters on identical pieces of fine clay.Each piece of movable type had on it one Chinese character which was carved in relief on a small block of moistened clay.After the block had been hardened by fire, the type became hard and durable and could be used wherever required.The pieces of movable type could be glued to an iron plate and easily detached from the plate.Each piece of character could be assembled to print a page and then broken up and redistributed as needed.When the printing was finished, the pieces were put away for future use.By the year1000, paged books in the modern style had replaced scrolls.Two color printing(black and red)was seen as early as 1340.This technology then spread to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and Europe.Later, German Johann Gutenberg invented movable type made of metal in the 1440s.Movable Type Printing developed very fast.Based on clay type, type made of wood, lead, tin and copper gradually appeared.Four Great Inventions of Ancient China--Gunpowder

The invention of gunpowder had a close relationship with the advanced ancient workmanship of smelting industry.People began to know a lot of chemistry knowledge about the nature of different mineral materials during the process of smelting operation.With the knowledge, ancient necromancers tried to seek the elixir of immortality from certain kinds of ores and fuel.Although they failed to get what they were looking for, they discovered that an explosive mixture could be produced by combining sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter(potassium nitrate).This mixture finally led to the invention of gunpowder although its exact date of invention still remains unknow

Many historical materials indicate that gunpowder first appeared before the Tang Dynasty(618-907).From 300 to 650AD several recipes were written about inflammable mixtures.Some historians date the invention of gunpowder at 850AD when a Taoist book warned of three specific elixir formulas as too dangerous to experiment.The military applications of gunpowder began in the Tang Dynasty.Explosive bombs filled with gunpowder and fired from catapults were used in wars.During the Song and Yuan dynasties(960-1368), the military applications of gunpowder became common and some other weapons like “fire cannon”, “rocket”, “missile” and “fireball” were introduced.In the Yuan Dynasty(1279-1368), the method of powder-making was introduced to the Arab world and Europe, bringing a series of revolutions to weapon manufacturing, as well as to stratagem and tactics on the battlefield.From Italy the making of gunpowder soon spread to other European countries, and by the 1350s it had become an effective weapon on the battlefield.Four Great Inventions of Ancient China--Paper

(来源：英语麦当劳www.xiexiebang.com)

China was the first nation who invented paper.The earliest form of paper first appeared in the Western Han Dynasty(206BC-23AD), but the paper was generally very thick, coarse and uneven in their texture, made from pounded and disintegrated hemp fibers.The paper unearthed in a Han tomb in Gansu Province is by far the earliest existing ancient paper, tracing back to the early Western Han Dynasty.In the Eastern Han Dynasty(25-220), a court official named Cai Lun made a new kind of paper from bark, hemp, rags, fishnet, wheat stalks and other materials.It was relatively cheap, light, thin, durable and more suitable for brush writing.The art of paper-making spread east to Korea and Japan at the beginning of the seventh century(the end of the Sui Dynasty and the beginning of the Tang Dynasty).In the eighth century, along with the Silk Road, the Arab countries began to learn how to make paper.It took about 400 years for paper to traverse the Arab world to Europe.In the 14th century many paper mills were established in Italy, from where the workmanship of paper-making spread to the European countries such as Germany.The Italians vigorously produced the material and exported large amounts of it, dominating the European market for many years.In the 16th century, the art of paper-making appeared in Russia and Holland, and it spread to Britain in the 17th century.(来源：英语麦当劳http://www.xiexiebang.com)

Before paper was invented, Qin Shihuang, the first emperor in Chinese history, had to go over 120 kilos of official documents written on bamboo or wooden strips.With the invention of paper, the popularization of knowledge has turned into reality.The invention of paper is an epoch-making event in human history.Four Great Inventions of Ancient China--Compass

Early in the Spring and Autumn Period(770-476BC), while mining ores and melting copper and iron, Chinese people chanced upon a natural magnetite that attracted iron and pointed fixedly north.In the Warring States Period(206BC-23AD), after constant improvement the round compass came into being.Referred to as a “South-pointer”, the spoon-or ladle-shaped compass is of magnetic lodestone, and the plate is of Bronze.The circular center represents Heaven, and the square plate represents Earth.The handle of the spoon points south.The spoon is a symbolic representation of the Great Bear.The plate bears Chinese characters which denote the eight main directions of north, north-east, east, etc.This type of compass has been scientifically tested and found to work tolerably well.By the time of the Tang dynasty(618-907)and the beginning of the Northern Song Dynasty(960-1127), Chinese scholars had devised a way to magnetize iron needles, by rubbing them with magnetite, and then suspending them in water.They also observed that needles cooled from red heat and held in the north-south orientation(the earth's axis)would become magnetic.These more refined needle compasses could then be floated in water(wet compass), placed upon a pointed shaft(dry compass)or suspended from a silk thread, etc.Consequently, they were much more useful for navigation purposes since they were much more portable.During the Song Dynasty(960-1279)many trading ships were then able to sail as far as Saudi Arabia without getting lost.The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty.The spread of the compass to Europe opened the oceans of the world to travel and led to the discovery of the New World.

第三篇：中国矿业大学英文介绍

China University of Mining and Technology(CUMT)is one of the key national universities under the direct administration of the China’s Ministry of Education.It is also one of the universities which host a graduate school with the approval of the Ministry of Education, and one of that in the national “211 project”, a government program designed to support and improve top-level institutions of higher learning in China.CUMT grew out of Jiaozuo School of Railroad and Mines, which was

established in 1909 and was later expanded and renamed Jiaozuo Institute of Technology.In 1950, Jiaozuo Institute of Technology moved to Tianjin and was renamed the China Institute of Mining and Technology(CIMT).It became the first higher learning institution in the field of mining in China.In 1952, during a national readjustment of higher learning institutions, the

mining engineering departments of Tsinghua University and the now-defunct Beiyang and Tangshan Railroad Universities were merged into CIMT.In 1953, the Institute moved to Beijing and was renamed Beijing Institute of Mining and Technology(BIMT), where it became one of the eight most renowned institutes in Beijing.In 1960, BIMT was rated a key university in the nation.During the period of the Cultural Revolution, it moved to Sichuan Province and was renamed the Sichuan

Institute of Mining and Technology.In 1978, with the approval of the State Council, a new campus was established in Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, with the school name restored to CIMT, and was rated by the government as one of China’s 88 key state universities.In 1988, the institution was formally renamed the China University of Mining and Technology(CUMT), and in 1997, a second campus in Beijing was established with the approval of the Ministry of Education.As the oldest higher learning institution with a focus on mining engineering in the country, CUMT has been and continues to receive much attention and support from leaders of the central government.On May 11, 1988, Deng Xiaoping inscribed in his own handwriting the name of CUMT(it appears on the cover of this brochure)which is a mark of great distinction in Chinese culture.On January 19, 1996, then President Jiang Zemin and vice-premier Wu Bangguo personally inspected the facilities for coal water mixture preparation technology on the Beijing campus.On May 18, 1999, Jiang Zemin wrote the inscription for CUMT’s 90th anniversary as “Be enterprising and innovative in exploration, be rigorous and meticulous in academic pursuits, and build the China University of Mining and Technology into a first-class university of science and technology in the field of energy resources.” On June 16, 1999, former premier Li Peng wrote a second inscription entitled “Develop the cause of energy resource science and education.Train outstanding talents for the new century.” Former vice-premier Li Lanqing visited the school on October 8, 1999, followed by Mrs.Chen Zhili, the State Councilor and former Minister of Education, who paid a visit in May 2002.After over 90 years’ growth, a multidisciplinary system has emerged at CUMT.The system focuses on mining engineering and gives priority to engineering

disciplines.At present, on the main campus in Xuzhou, there are 19 schools with 60 undergraduate programs.CUMT offers 50 additional doctoral programs and 100 master’s programs.CUMT now has 8 key disciplines rated by the Chinese government as national priorities in education, and 13 recognized as key on the

ministerial or provincial level.Schools hosting the 8 key disciplines are able to invite special professors both in China and from abroad to help with discipline development under the “Specially Engaged Professorship under the Yangtze River Scholar Award Project”.Post-doctoral research opportunities are also available in 11 fields.During the ninth “Five-year Plan” period in 1996-2000, the “211 Project” was implemented, and during that period, CUMT achieved remarkable success in 12 research projects highlighted by three theoretical and five technical achievements of international standing.The university continues to operate under the “211 Project” today.CUMT boasts a large and well-qualified staff.The main campus in Xuzhou hosts more than 3,000 staff with over 1,400 full-time academics, 230 professors and 333 associate professors.The university’s current academic staff includes 6 academicians of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, and 172 supervisors for doctoral candidates.Among all the academic staff, one has received the first “China Young Scientist Award”, one has been nominated the prize of the “China Young Scientist Award”, 2 have won the first “Famous Teacher Award” for universities and colleges nationwide, one has received the “National Model Teacher Award”, 9 have obtained the “China Youth Award for Excellence in Science and Technology”, one has received the title of “National Excellent Worker for Scientific and Technological Advancement”, 10 have possessed state-level titles as the “Outstanding Young and Middle Aged Experts”, 7 have been listed among the first and second level candidates for the “Millions of Talents Projects”, 9 have been listed among the “New Century Outstanding Talent Training Program”, 9 have obtained awards from the China Outstanding Youth Science Fund, 3 have been listed among candidates for the Eighth China Youth

Award for Excellence in Science and Technology.Additionally, 200 academics have received various state or ministerial-level honorary academic titles.CUMT, with a history of nearly 100 years, has always focused on

student-centered education, and the quality of student education has continued to improve.Since its inception, CUMT has produced more than 100,000 graduates, among which 10 are top-level academicians in the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Engineering, and 20 are ministers and provincial governors.Among CUMT’s

graduates are a large number of successful entrepreneurs, technicians and engineers who have excelled in their fields.Since China’s reform and opening up policy was adopted in 1978, CUMT has received 13 state-level awards for excellence in teaching quality, 9 state-level prizes for excellence in textbook publication, 52 ministerial and provincial-level awards for excellence in teaching achievements, 45 ministerial and provincial-level awards for excellence in textbooks or monographs.Three courses have won state-level awards for excellence, and seven have won provincial-level

awards.Seven papers have received prizes in the State Competition of One Hundred Excellent Doctoral Graduation Papers.Two post-doctoral fellows have won the title of “China Ten Excellent Post-doctoral Fellows” in 2000 and 2001 respectively.In the first State Competition of MBA Student Article Solicitation, CUMT students won the exclusive first prize.In university students’ academic and science competitions, CUMT students have won a series of titles, including the grand prize in the “Challenge Cup” University Student Extracurricular Scientific Achievements

Competition, the Zhou Peiyuan First Place Prize for the State Mechanics Competition, and honorable mentions in the First State Computer Science Competition and the State University Student Robot TV Competition.CUMT students have also won first prizes in both Chinese and international mathematical modeling competitions.At present, the total student population on the main campus in Xuzhou exceeds 40,000 people, of which over 25,000 are undergraduate students, 5,000 are candidates for master and doctoral degrees.There are also over 170 international students.Since its inception, CUMT has formed an excellent school spirit summarized in the motto “Diligence, Earnestness, Enterprise and Dedication,” and has also cultivated a glorious tradition emphasizing physical education.CUMT has developed a further “campus spirit” of studiousness, adherence to facts and creativity, hard work and efforts to improve.CUMT has produced numerous nationally competitive athletes.Since 1978, CUMT has broken over 80 records in many of China’s national collegiate games and won the “President Cup” three times, which is the greatest honor in

national collegiate competition.CUMT was also elected as the “Excellent University in Completing University Physical Education Requirements” many times over.CUMT is designated as a “Base of National Collegiate Track and Field Training” by the National Physical Education and Sports Committee, and has won many honorable titles such as “National Advanced Collective in Mass Physical Education”, “Excellent School in the National Physical Education and Sports Appraisal” and “National Advanced School in Extracurricular Training among Higher Learning Institutions”.CUMT has been committed to quality scientific research, and has achieved

abundant of high-level results, among which 31 have received three state-level awards and 431 have won provincial-level awards.The various indexes reflecting the overall academic level of CUMT are among the first rank in the entire country.Since the ninth “Five-Year Plan” period(1996-2000), CUMT has undertaken 7,115 research projects, of which 382 are national projects.In recent years, CUMT has strengthened international exchanges and

cooperation with partners throughout the world.Now it has established academic links with nearly 50 universities and research institutions, such as, the University of Nottingham of UK, the University of Duisburg-Essen of Germany, the Swinburne University of Technology of Australia, the Kentucky University of the United States and the Hanoi University of Mining and Geology of Vietnam, etc.Concurrently, the University has sponsored a number of international symposiums, resulting in vigorous academic exchanges with the outside world.CUMT features good facilities for teaching and research.The main library has holdings of over 1,950,000 volumes.The University has 2 national key laboratories, 1 national engineering research center, 1 state-level university science and technology park, 2 state-level and 9 ministerial-level key laboratories as well as 5

ministerial-level engineering research centers.In addition, it has a testing and analysis center, a rock mechanics and strata control center, a center for coal water mixture manufacturing and a long-wall coal caving center.Furthermore, CUMT has complete facilities for culture, sports and living.CUMT covers an area of 297 hectares with a floor space of 1,130,000 square meters(The Wenchang campus covers an area of 107 hectares with a floor space of 530,000 square meters.The newly-built Nanhu campus covers an area of 190 hectares with a floor space of 600,000 square meters.).Now, a modern university campus has emerged, with characteristics of efficient layout, complete infrastructure, stylish architecture, a state-of-the-art information network, picturesque settings and pleasant environs.For the new century, CUMT has set down an overall development strategy.In the next ten years, the university will give priority to science and engineering, while also endeavoring to ensure harmonious development with other disciplines such as liberal arts, management, law and economics.The university will also emphasize discipline development, student education, scientific research, and social service as well as school management.This will ensure that CUMT takes the lead in these aspects, so that the university will become a world leader in the field of mining engineering, with a clear advantage in and unique focus on energy sciences and technology.The university recognizes the need to make strides in a number of

interdisciplinary areas as well.Therefore, the mission of the University is to develop into a high-level multidisciplinary institution of both national and international standing, with a strong commitment to research.

第四篇：2016中国清明节英文介绍

2016中国清明节英文介绍

中国清明节英文怎么介绍？请往下阅读：（更多相关信息请关注聘才网）Qingming Festival The Qingming(Pure Brightness)Festival is one of the 24 seasonal division points in China, falling on April 4-6 each year.After the festival, the temperature will rise up and rainfall increases.It is the high time for spring plowing and sowing.But the Qingming Festival is not only a seasonal point to guide farm work, it is more a festival of commemoration.The Qingming Festival sees a combination of sadness and happiness.This is the most important day of sacrifice.Both the Han and minority ethnic groups at this time offer sacrifices to their ancestors and sweep the tombs of the diseased.Also, they will not cook on this day and only cold food is served.The Hanshi(Cold Food)Festival was usually one day before the Qingming Festival.As our ancestors often extended the day to the Qingming, they were later combined.On each Qingming Festival, all cemeteries are crowded with people who came to sweep tombs and offer sacrifices.Traffic on the way to the cemeteries becomes extremely jammed.The customs have been greatly simplified today.After slightly sweeping the tombs, people offer food, flowers and favorites of the dead, then burn incense and paper money and bow before the memorial tablet.In contrast to the sadness of the tomb sweepers, people also enjoy hope of Spring on this day.The Qingming Festival is a time when the sun shines brightly, the trees and grass become green and nature is again lively.Since ancient times, people have followed the custom of Spring outings.At this time tourists are everywhere.People love to fly kites during the Qingming Festival.Kite flying is actually not limited to the Qingming Festival.Its uniqueness lies in that people fly kites not during the day, but also at night.A string of little lanterns tied onto the kite or the thread look like shining stars, and therefore, are called “god's lanterns.” The Qingming Festival is also a time to plant trees, for the survival rate of saplings is high and trees grow fast later.In the past, the Qingming Festival was called “Arbor Day”.But since 1979, “Arbor Day” was settled as March 12 according to the Gregorian calendar.清明是我国的二十四节气之一。由于二十四节气比较客观地反映了一年四季气温、降雨、物候等方面的变化，所以古代劳动人民用它安排农事活动。但是，清明作为节日，与纯粹的节气又有所不同。节气是我国物候变化、时令顺序的标志，而节日则包含着一定的风俗活动和某种纪念意义。因此，这个节日中既有祭扫新坟生别死离的悲酸泪，又有踏青游玩的欢笑声，是一个富有特色的节日。清明节是我国传统节日，也是最重要的祭祀节日，是祭祖和扫墓的日子。扫墓俗称上坟，祭祀死者的一种活动。汉族和一些少数民族大多都是在清明节扫墓。由于清明与寒食的日子接近，而寒食是民间禁火扫墓的日子，渐渐的，寒食与清明就合二为一了，而寒食既成为清明的别称，也变成为清明时节的一个习俗，清明之日不动烟火，只吃凉的食品。按照旧的习俗，扫墓时，人们要携带酒食果品、纸钱等物品到墓地，将食物供祭在亲人墓前，再将纸钱焚化，为坟墓培上新土，折几枝嫩绿的新枝插在坟上，然后叩头行礼祭拜，最后吃掉酒食回家。

与清明节扫墓的悲哀相反，人们在这个春光明媚的日子里，也一样是可以享受生活的。放风筝也是清明时节人们所喜爱的活动。每逢清明时节，人们不仅白天放，夜间也放。夜里在风筝下或风稳拉线上挂上一串串彩色的小灯笼，象闪烁的明星，被称为“神灯”。清明前后，春阳照临，春阳照临，春雨飞洒，种植树苗成活率高，成长快。因此，自古以来，我国就有清明植树的习惯。有人还把清明节叫作“植树节”。植树风俗一直流传至今。1979年，人大常委会规定，每年三月十二日为我国植树节。这对动员全国各族人民积极开展绿化祖国活动，有着十分重要的意义。

第五篇：中国四大发明学前班教案

活动目标：

1、了解我国古代的四大发明，知道它们对人类生活的影响。

2、加深对祖国文化的认识，知道中国人是聪明勤劳的，激发民族自豪感。

重难点：体验创造的乐趣，激发对科学的兴趣和探索精神。

活动准备：

1、教学挂图。

2、请幼儿收集各种各样的纸，举办“纸的展览会”。

3、印刷厂印刷的录像。

4、指南针。

活动过程：

一、谈话引入，激发学习兴趣。

教师：中国的四大发明是什么？它们分别发明于哪个朝代？是谁发明的？

二、感受四大发明对人类社会的贡献，激发科学探索愿望。

1、造纸术真有趣。

（1）参观“纸类展览会”。

（2）感知纸的特征，帮助幼儿回忆和扩展自身的经验。

启发讨论：你们带来了什么样的纸？它们有什么不一样？（让幼儿感知纸有厚薄，有光滑和粗糙，有颜色和光亮度不一样等多种特征）。纸可以做什么用？（如：书写、印刷、包装、做纸盒等）。

（3）引导思考：你知道纸是怎么来的吗？

2、神奇的火药。

（1）教师：你看过烟花吗，是怎么样的？你知道美丽的烟花用什么做成的吗？

（2）我国在哪个朝代就发明了火药？

（3）火药在生活中有哪些用处呢？

3、指南针作用大

（1）你们坐过船吗？为什么船能在大海上航行而不会迷失方向呢？

（2）出示指南针并提问：我国在哪个朝代就发明了指南针？（战国时期）

（3）你知道指南针最先是什么样子吗？现在又是什么样呢？（指南针最先用的材料是用天然磁石磨成的，现在我们是用人工磁铁，把磁针和分方位的盘装在一起，也叫罗盘针。）

（4）请你谈谈我们生活中的哪些地方需要用到指南针？

4、印刷术真方便

（1）怎样才能让大家都有一本书看？许多相同的图书是怎么来的？

（2）我国古代印刷方法是怎么样的？现在的印刷有哪些主要步骤呢？（排版一校对一上色（印刷）一装钉。）

（3）播放印刷厂印刷的录像，体验印刷过程。

（4）印刷术为我们的生活带来了哪些变化？

小结：小朋友要从小学好本领，长大发明比现在还方便的印刷方法。

三、激发幼儿的爱国心。

小结：四大发明是我国在世界上最先发明的，现在，中国还有很多发明，有很多科学家。我们长大后也要为中国人争光，好吗？ 妈.咪.爱.婴.网.幼儿园教案频道

活动延伸：请小朋友和爸爸妈妈一起尝试做一件小发明。

资源库：

指南针：指南针是利用磁铁在地球磁场中的南北指极性而制成的一种指向仪器，有多种形体。早在战国时期，中国先民已用天然磁石制成指示方向的司南之勺。三国魏时，马钧利用磁铁和差速齿轮制造了能指示方向的机械装置——指南车。宋代科学家沈括在其《梦溪笔谈》中记载了制作指向用的磁针的方法。后来，又发展成磁针和方位盘联成一体的罗盘。

造纸术：中国商代用甲骨，西周用青铜器，春秋时则用竹简、木牍、缣帛等作为记事材料。东汉蔡伦发明造纸术。他用树皮、麻头及敝布、鱼网等植物原料，经挫、捣、抄、烘等工艺制成的纸，人称蔡侯纸。

火药：起源于中国古代的炼丹术。在唐宪宗元和三年（808）以前便已发明了火药，并在五代末北宋初用以造出纵火用的火药兵器。

印刷术：宋代，毕升发明了活字印刷术。它是用胶泥刻字，每字一印，烧后制成字印。将一颗颗字印排列、镶嵌于铁板之上，经烧烤、压平等工艺制成印版后，便可印刷。印版上的字印可取下反复使用。继泥活字后，中国人又相继发明了磁活字、木活字、锡活字、铜活字等印刷方法。