材料科学与工程专业英语- unit 3

第一篇：材料科学与工程专业英语- unit 3

材料专业外语翻译 unit

31。众所周知 所有的物质都是由原子组成的。在下面周期表中我们可以知道仅仅大约有100多种不同种类的原子存在于整个宇宙中，从我们呼吸的空气，到各种各样性质迥异的金属成千上万的物种均是由一百多种原子组成的。金属与陶瓷有不同表现行为，陶瓷又与聚合物有所差异。物质的性能取决于组成他们的原子类型以及原子的结合方式。

材料的结构可以根据我们所认为的各种特性的的数量级来分类，三种最常见的主要结构上的分类通常按尺寸的增大列出它们是：原子的结构是指不可见的结构例如原子间的结合方式以及原子的排布。微观结构是指不能同肉眼观察到而能用显微镜观察到的结构。宏观结构是指可以用肉眼直接观察到的结构。

2原子结构主要影响物质的化学性质、物理性质、耐热性、电性、磁性、光学性质。微观结构和宏观结构也能影响这些性质但它们通常在力学性质和化学反应速率方面的影响更大。材料的性能为材料的结构提供了一定的线索。金属的具有的强度就说明构成他的原子是通过很强的成健能力结合在一起的.然而，由于金属经常成型，这些结合力必须允许原子运动。为了了解材料的结构，我们必须知道原子所呈现的类型，原子是如何排布的、如何结合的。3从基础化学我们知道任何元素的原子结构都是有被电子围绕的带正电的原子核组成。一个元素的原子数目显示了原子核中带正电的质子数。一个原子的原子重量表明有多少质子和中子的原子核。为了确定在一个原子里有多少中子，只需要把原子的数目从原子的重量中减去。4原子具有平衡的电荷。因此，通常有和质子数目相同的带负电荷的电子围绕在原子核周围。我们都知道电子以不同的能量存在，那些围绕在原子核周围的电子可以方便的认为是一个能源层。例如。镁原子序数是12 最内层有两个电子，第二层有8个电子，最外层有两个电子。所有的化学键都包含电子。

5所有的化学键涉及电子。如果原子共用一个或多个电子时他们会保持很紧密。当原子没有部分填充的电子层时，它们会处于最稳定的状态。如果一个原子在电子层上仅有几个电子那么它就趋向于失去电子使电子层变空。这些即是金属元素。当金属原子结合，金属键就出现了。当一个原子几乎全电子壳层,它将试图找到另一个原子的电子,这样它就可以填充它的外壳。这些元素通常被描述为非金属元素。通常连接两个非金属原子是一个共价键。当金属和非金属原子在一起时形成离子键。此外,还有其他类型的键，比如金属,共价和离子键,等等。

第二篇：环境科学与工程专业英语

一、单词/词组（考试时要求：中译英/英译中）环境科学：environmental science

环境工程：environmental engineering

定量环境科学：quantitative environmental science 定性环境科学：qualitative environmental science 衰减再生：decay and recycling

新陈代谢率：metabolic rates

外来物质：foreign matter

研究和发展：Research and Development

一次大气污染物：primary air pollutant 二次大气污染物：secondary air pollutant

氧含量：Oxygen content

点源：point sources

沥青残留物：asphaltic residue

酸雨：acid rain

设备维护：facilities maintenance

废物最小化：waste minimization

正常浓度：normal concentration

胡乱收集：magpie collection

需氧量：oxygen demand/the amount of oxygen required 闭合回路：closed-loop

微生物：microbe/microorganisms

揭示大的差别;expose the considerable gaps

空气质量监测：air-quality monitoring

氧化剂：oxidizer

石油精炼:petroleum refining

活性炭：activated carbon

质量控制：quality control

海轮：ocean liner

挥发性化学物质：volatile chemicals

沙漠化：desertification

火山喷发：volcanic eruption

间歇源：intermittent sources

衡量浓度：trace concentrations

氯化物和硫化物：chlorides and sulphates

风化：wind erosion

不完全燃烧：incomplete combustion

化石燃料：fossil fuels

液滴：liquid droplets

SO3:sulfur trioxide

for managerial and administrative reasons行政管理上的原因stacks of generating stations许多发电站

Roman empire罗马皇帝

Cloaca maxima 古罗马的大排泄沟

Wate phosphorous 亚磷的（三价磷）

phosphorous acid亚磷酸

phosphoric磷的（五价）

carbonates，bicarbonates碳酸盐，碳酸氢盐

carbohydrates碳水化合物，主要含氢和碳

TOC(total organic carbon)总有机碳

COD(chemical oxygen demand)化学需氧量

BOD(biological oxygen demand)生化需氧量

Biodegradable organic可生物降解的有机物

BOD5BOD的测试标准化

rborne diseases 水传染的疾病

epilimnion 表层水hypolimnion深水层thermocline热变形层

become depleted of oxygen 缺氧

二、重点句子翻译

UNIT2

1.Environment is the physical and biotic habitat which surrounds us；that which we can see，hear，touch，smell，and taste.环境是围绕在我们周围物质生命的栖息地，在那里我们可以看到，听到，触到，闻到和品尝到。

2.System,according to Webster dictionary

is defined as “a set or arrangement of things so related or connected as to form a unit or organic whole；as，a solar system，irrigation system，supply system，the world or universe”

系统，依据韦伯斯特的字典，被定义为“一组或一系列能形成一个整体或者有机整体的相互关联的事物;比如，太阳系统，灌溉系统，供水系统，世界或宇宙”。

3.Pollution can be defined as an undesirable change in the physical，chemical，or biological characteristics of the air，water，or land that can harmfully affect the health，survival，or activities of humans or other living organisms.污染可以被定义为有害影响健康，生存，活动的人或其它生物体的空气，水，或土地的物理，化学或生物特性的不应该有的变化。

4.Source reduction: Any action that reduces the amount of waste exiting a process.资源减量化：减少在于一个过程中的大量废物的任何行为。

Waste minimization:The reduction to the extent feasible, of waste that is generated or subsequently treated, stored, or disposed of.废物最少化：产生的废物最大程度减少，然后处理，存储，或者处置。

5.Recycling :The use or reuse of a waste as a substitute for a commercial product or as a feedstock to an industrial process.回收：作为一个商业产品的代替品，或

作为一个工业过程的原料的利用或再利用。

6.Pollution prevention: Pollution may be generated during manufacturing, or when certain products are used commercially or by consumers.污染的防止：污染可能在生产过程之中产生，或者在当一个产品被用作商业用途或被消费者使用的时候产生。

7.Waste Reduction/Waste Minimization Techniques废物回收/废物最少化技术(包括以下几点)

●product changes产品改变 ●process changes过程改变

●equipment modifications设备改造 ●operating practices操作训练

●recycling and reuse回收和再利用

8.What is air pollution? Air pollution is normally defined as air thatcontains one or more chemicals in high enough concentration toharm humans, other animals, vegetation or materials.什么是空气污染 ？空气污染通常是指那种包含一种或多种化学物质富集到高浓度并足以伤害人类、其他动物、植物或材料的空气。

9.There are two major types of air pollution.主要有两种类型的空气污染。

10.A primary air pollution is a chemical added directly to the air that occursin a harmful concentration.初级空气污染是指有害的浓度直接进入到空气中的化学物质。

11.A secondary air pollution is a harmful chemical formed in the atmosphere through a chemical reaction among air components.次生空气污染是指在大气中由气体成分之间发生化学反应的有害化学物质。

12.Organic matter.Proteins and carbohydrates constitute 90 percent of the organic matter in domestic sewage.在生活污水中蛋白质和碳水化合物构成百分之90的有机质。）

三、课后的NOTES部分（UNIT1、2、3、8、12、13）

Unit1

1)Care and impartiality in gathering and recording date, as well as independent

verification, are the cornerstones of science.在数据收集与记录过程中仔细认真、无偏见和独立核实是科学的基石。

2)When the collection and organization of date reveal certain regularities, it may be

possible to formulate a generalization or hypothesis

当对数据收集和整理披露了某些规律时，可能归纳出概况或假设。

3）the two types of logic are qualitative and quantitative logic.两类逻辑学分别为定性和定量逻辑学。

4）theories,and in particular,mathematical theories,often enable us to bridge the gap between experimentally controlled observations and observations made in the field.理论，尤其是数学理论，通常使我们可以弥补（缩小）实验过程观察的结果与该领域理论推导的结果间的差距。

5）environmental engineering is manifest by sound engineering thought and practice in the solution of problems of environmental sanitation,notably in the provision of

safe,palatable,and ample public water supplies.环境工程是在解决环境卫生问题过程中，具有代表性的，提供安全、可口与充足的公共供水过程，用正确的工程思想与合理的实施显现出来。

1)APS materials,inc,generated two hazardous wastes,1-1-1 trichloroethane and methanol from cold solvent degreasing operations associated with their plasma spray deposition process.美国物理协会材料公司在其等离子体喷雾沉淀工艺的冷溶剂脱脂操作过程中会产生出两种危害性废物，即1,1,1-三氯乙烷和甲醇。

2)AT&T美国最大的电话电信公司

3)CFC=chlorofluoro carbon 含氯氟烃

4)Sloppy housekeeping practices such as leaking tanks，valves，or pumps may cause process chemicals to spill requiring cleanup and disposal.随意马虎的内部管理习惯，例如储罐、阀门或泵的泄漏，都会导致工艺过程中化学品的溅漏而需要采取净化和处理措施。

Unit8

1）the geographic location of some heavily populated cities，such as Los Angeles and Mexico city，makes them particularly susceptible tofrequent air stagnation and pollution buildup.一些人口非常稠密的城市的地理位置，例如洛杉矶和墨西哥城的地理位置，使得它们经常特别易受空气流动停滞和污积物增加的影响。

2）by themselves，measured concentrations tell us nothing about the danger caused by pollutants，because threshold levels，synergy，and biological magnification are also determining factors

测量的浓度自身并未告诉我们有关污染物造成的危害的信息，因为临界浓度，协同作用和生长放大效应都是决定因素。

1）most boating associations now urge their members never even to take anything disposable and plastic to sea and encourage ocean liners to follow suit.目前大多数船协会敦促他们的会员再也不要把废弃的物质和塑料扔到海里，并鼓励航海轮船也这样做。

四、课文填空：UNIT13的第一部分（1、Pollution of streams and rivers）PoHution of Streams and Rivers

When sewage is discharged into a freshwater stream，the stream becomes pollution。This does not mean that the oxygen content drop instantaneously。But the potential for oxygen depletion exists wherever there is sewage。The measure of this potential is the BOD, which rises as soon as the sewage goes in。Now follow the water downstream from “Polutionville.” There processes are going on, all at the same time.Process1.The bacteria are feasting on the sewage.because of this action，the amount of sewage in the water is decreasing，so the BOD is going down。

Process2.As the bacteria consume the sewage，they also use dissolved oxygen，so that concentration，too，start to decrease。

Process3.some of the lost oxygen is being replenished from the atmosphere and form photosynthesis by the vegetation in the stream。

For the first 50km or so downstream, the natural ability of the river to recover its oxygen（process3）simple cannot keep up with the feasting bacteria（process2），so the dissolved oxygen concentration goes down。The fish begin to die，but it is not the sewage that is killing them。（In fact，the sewage provides food.）Instead，the fish die from lack of oxygen，beginning when the dissolved oxygen concentration falls below about 4mg per liter，depending on the particular species。

The fish kills start about 15km downstream from the introduction of the raw sewage。In time，as the sewage is used up by bacteria，the BOD goes down(process1)，the consumption of oxygen also slows down，and the natural ability of the river to recover（process3）becomes predominant。The river then begins to repurify itself。About 90km downstream the fish begin to survive again，and at about 140km the oxygen content has increased to its former，unpolluted level。

Of course，if additional sewage is discharged before recovery is complete，as shown in the illustration at 160km，the river becomes pollution again。When sources of pollution are closely spaced，pollution becomes practically continuous。Rivers in such a condition，which unfortunately can be found near densely polluted areas all over the world，support no fish，are high in bacterial content（usually includingpathogenic organisms），appear muddily bluegreen from choking algae，and，in extreme cases，stink from putrefaction and fermentation。

第三篇：材料科学与工程 专业英语 Unit 5 Materials Reasearch

Unit 5 Materials Research: Today and Future

The future of the business in polymeric materials is influenced to a large extent by three factors：macro-trends in society, developments in science and technology and the outcome of the present turmoil in the chemical industry．

to a large extent 在很大程度上

译文：在聚合材料方面的市场的未来很大程度上受三个因素的影响：社会的宏观趋势，科学与技术的发展和目前化学工业中变动的成果。，it is expected that an increasing pressure will be exerted in the next decades by the society at large on the chemical industry，to come to a higher level of sustainability．The development of really sustainable products and processes will become more and more important.lookat……

it is expected that„..译文：纵观社会将来的需求，有人预料，由社会给化学工业带来的越来越多的压力将在随后几十年间将显露出来，将到达一个很高的水平并持续下去。真正的可持续的产品和工艺的发展将变得越来越重要。

On the other hand，the most striking development in material science and technology is an ever increasing control on the molecular and the supramolecular level，up to the nanolength scale．The interest of polymer scientists has shifted from new monomers and their(co)polymers towardsfunctional and smart materials，resulting from the mimicking of the perfect control of macromolecular structure and function as found in nature．It is expected that these developments will provide the solutions for more sustainable products and process.另一个方面，在材料科学与技术中最显著的发展是不断的增加对分子水平，超分子水平，一直到纳米尺度的操控的能力。聚合物科学家的兴趣已经从新的单体和它们的共聚物转移到功能材料和智能材料，结果就出现了熟练的调控大分子结构和功能的模拟手段，这些大分子是在自然界中发现的。有人预料，这些发展将带来更多为开发可持续的产品和工艺的解决办法。

The third factor is a thorough reshuffling of the activities in the chemical industry.The position of the “advanced materials” in this redistribution is not clear.It might even happen that a substantial part of this business disappears from the chemical industry toward for instance the electronic industry.第三个因素是在化学工业中的活动的一个彻底的改组。先进材料在这个再分布中的位置不明显。市场的实质部分从化学工业中消失，并转向电子工业的时候，它可能正好发生。

第四篇：制药工程专业英语 Unit 13 课文翻译

Unit 13Sterile Products

Sterile Products

Sterile products are dosage forms of therapeutic agents that are free of viable microorganisms.Principally，these include parenteral，ophthalmic，irrigating preparations.Of these, and parenteral products are unique among dosage forms of drugs because they are injected through the skin or mucous membranes into internal body compartment.Thus，because they have circumvented the highly efficient first line of body defense，the skin and mucous membranes，they must be free from microbial contamination and from toxic components as well as possess an exceptionally high level of purity.All components and processes involved in the preparation of these products must be selected and designed to eliminate，as much as possible，contamination of all types，whether of physical，chemical，or microbiologic origin.Preparations for the eye, though not introduced into internal body cavities，are placed in contact with tissues that are very sensitive to contamination.Therefore，similar standards are required for ophthalmic preparations).Irrigating solutions are now also required to meet the same standards as parenteral solutions because during an irrigation procedure，substantial amounts of these solutions can enter the bloodstream directly through open blood vessels of wounds or abraded mucous membranes.Therefore，the characteristics and standards presented in this chapter for the production of large-volume parenteral solutions apply equally to irrigating solutions.Sterile products are most frequently solutions or suspensions，but may even be solid pellets for tissue implantation.The control of a process to minimize contamination for a small quantity of such a product can be achieved with relative ease.As the quantity of product increases，the problems of controlling the process to prevent contamination multiply.Therefore，the preparation of sterile products has become a highly specialized area in pharmaceutical processing.The standards established，the attitude of personnel，and the process control must be of a第13 单元 无菌产品 无菌产品 无菌产品是不含微生物活体的治疗剂剂型，其主要包括非肠道用的、眼用的和冲洗用的制剂。这之中，非肠道用产品在药物剂型当中是（较为）特别的因为它们是通过皮肤和黏膜被注射到人体内部的。这样，由于它们进入了高效率的人体第一道免疫防线——皮肤和黏膜，（所以）它们必须没有微生物感染和有毒成分，同时又（必须）具有特别高的纯度。这些产品的制备过程中涉及到的所有组分和（工艺）流程都必须经过选择和设计以尽可能地消除各种类型的污染，无论是来自物理的、化学的，还是微生物的。眼用制剂尽管没有被引入到内部体腔，但它仍与对污染（物）敏感的组织有接触，因此，对眼用制剂也要求（与非肠道用制剂）类似的标准。冲洗液现在也要求满足和非肠道用溶液一样的标准，因为在冲洗过程中，大量的冲洗液都可以通过敞开的血管伤口或者擦伤的黏膜组织直接进入到血液。因此，本章中描述的有关非肠道用溶液大批量生产的特点和标准，对于冲洗液同样适用。无菌产品通常是溶液或者悬浮液，但甚至也可以是用于组织对端植入的固体药丸。对于少量的这种产品，使其污染降到最低的工艺控制可以相对容易地实现。（但）随着产品量的增加，控制工艺流程从而防止污染的困难也会增加。因而，无菌产品的制备已经成为药品加工里一个高度专业化的领域。制定的标准、人员的态度和工艺流程的控制都必须有着优秀的水平。

superior level.Vehicles

By far the most frequently employed vehicle for sterile

products is water，since it is the vehicle for all natural body

fluids.The superior quality required for such use is

described in the monograph on Water for Injection in the

USP.Requirements may be even more stringent for some

products，however.One of the most inclusive tests for the quality of water is

the total solids content，a gravimetric evaluation of the

dissociated and undissociated organic and inorganic

substances present in the water.However，a less

time-consuming test，the electrolytic measurement of

conductivity of the water，is the one most frequently used.Instantaneous measurements can be obtained by immersing

electrodes in the water and measuring the specific

conductance, a measurement that depends on the ionic

content of the water.The conductance may be expressed by

the meter scale as conductivity in micromhos，resistance in

megohms , or ionic content as parts per million(ppm)of

sodium chloride.The validity of this measurement as an

indication of the purity of the water is inferential in that

methods of producing high-purity water，such as distillation

and reverse osmosis，can be expected to remove

undissociated substances along with those that are

dissociated.Undissociated substances such as pyrogens，however，could be present in the absence of ions and not be

disclosed by the test.Therefore，for contaminants other than

ions，additional tests should be performed.Additional tests for quality of Water for Injection with

permitted limits are described in the USP monographs.When comparing the total solids permitted for Water for

Injection with that for Sterile Water for Injection，one will

note that considerably higher values are permitted for Sterile

Water for Injection.This is necessary because the latter

product has been sterilized，usually by a thermal method，in

a container that has dissolved to some extent in the water.Therefore，the solids content will be greater than for the

nonsterilized product.On the other hand，the 10 ppm total

solids officially permitted for Water for Injection may be

much too high when used as the vehicle for many products.In practice, Water for Injection normally should not have a

conductivity of more than 1 micromho(1 megohm，approximately 0.1 ppm NaCl).溶媒 到目前为止，最常被用于无菌产品的溶媒就是水，因为水（也）是所有自然体液的溶媒。该用途所要求的优良特性在《美国药典》的《注射用水》专题论文中有所描述。但对于某些产品来说，要求可能会更为苛刻。水质检验的一种最普遍的测试就是固体总含量，一种对水中解离的和不解离的有机物和无机物在重量上的评估。然而，一种用时较少的测试——水导电性的电解测量——则是最常用的（测试方法），它通过把电极浸入水中测出具体的电导率，就可以实现即刻测量，是一种基于水中离子含量的测量方法。电导率可以通过表头刻度盘以电导／微姆欧、电阻／兆欧姆或者离子含量／ppm NaCl的形式显示出来。作为水纯度的指示，这种测量方法的正确性只是推理性的，因为一些生产高纯度水的方法，比如蒸馏和反渗透，可以将不解离的物质同那些解离的物质一起除去。但是不解离的物质例如热原，可以不以离子的形式存在，因而不能被这种方法检测出来。因此，对于除离子之外的（其他）污染物，还需要进行另外的检测。具有特殊用途的注射用水的水质附加测试在美国药典中有专篇描述。当把注射用水和无菌注射用水所允许的固体总含量做比较时，你会发现无菌注射用水允许有相当高的值。这是必要的，因为后者是经过灭菌的，通常是通过一种热途径，在一个在一定程度上溶解于水的容器中。因而，其固体含量会比没有灭菌的产品要高得多。另一方面，官方对于注射用水所允许的10 ppm的固体总含量，对于许多产品来说，作为溶媒其值可能都太高了。事 实上，注射用水其电导一般不应 该超过1微姆欧（1兆欧，大约 0.1 ppm NaCl）。

Added Substances.添加剂

Substances added to a product to enhance its stability are 添加到产品当中用以提高产品稳essential for almost every product.Such substances include 定性的物质，对于几乎每种产品solubilizers，antioxidants，chelating agents，buffers，来说都是必不可少的。这样的物tonicity contributors，antibacterial agents，antifungal 质包括增溶剂、抗氧剂、螯合剂、agents，hydrolysis inhibitors，antifoaming agents，and 缓冲剂、tonicity contributor、抗numerous other substances for specialized purposes.At the 菌剂、杀菌剂、水解抑制剂、消same time，these agents must be prevented from adversely 沫剂和许多其他的有专门用途的affecting the product.In general，added substances must be 物质。同时，这些组分必须不能nontoxic in the quantity administered to the patient.They 对产品有不利影响。一般来说，should not interfere with the therapeutic efficacy nor with 添加剂必须在病人的给药量范围the assay of the active therapeutic compound.They must 内是无毒的。它们不应该干扰（产also be present and active when needed throughout the 品的）治疗效果，也不能干扰有useful life of the product.Therefore，these agents must be 效活性化合物的测定。在产品的selected with great care，and they must be evaluated as to 整个有效期内，需要它们时，它their effect upon the entire formulation.-An extensive 们必须存在并且有效。因此，对review of excipients used in parenteral products and the 这些物质必须非常小心地进行挑means for adjusting pH of these products has recently been 选，而且对它们对整个配方的影published and should be referred to for more detailed 响也必须进行评估。一篇关于用information.在非肠道用产品中的赋形剂和调节这些产品pH的方法的综述，最近已经出版，更多的详细信息 可参阅之。

Formulation配方

The formulation of a parenteral product involves the 非肠道用产品的配方涉及一个或combination of one or more ingredients with a medicinal 者更多组成部分间的结合，这些agent to enhance the convenience，acceptability，or 组成部分（各自）都含有一种用effectiveness of the product.Rarely is it preferable to 以提高产品方便性、可接受性或dispense a drug singly as a sterile dry powder unless the 者疗效的有效成分。（人们）很少formulation of a stable liquid preparation is not possible.愿意把药物仅仅以一种无菌的、On the other hand，a therapeutic agent is a chemical 干燥的粉末（的形式）配售，除compound subject to the physical and chemical reactions 非（把它做成）稳定的液体制剂characteristic of the class of compounds to which it belongs.的配方是行不通的。Therefore，a careful evaluation must be made of every 另一方面，治疗剂（药物的有效combination of two or more ingredients to ascertain whether or not adverse interactions occur，and if they do，of ways to 的物理和化学反应特性的一种化modify the formulation so that the reactions are eliminated 合物。因此对每一个两种或更多or minimized.The formulation of sterile products is 组成部分间的结合都必须有一个challenging，therefore，to the knowledge and ingenuity of 仔细的评估，弄清楚会不会有不the persons responsible.The amount of information 良反应发生。如果有，则须找到

available to the formulator concerning the physical and 改进配方的方法以使反应消除或chemical properties of a therapeutic agent，particularly if it is 者降低到最小。因此，无菌产品a new compound，is often quite meager.Information 的配方是对负责人员知识和独创concerning basic properties muse be obtained，including 性的一个挑战。配方设计师可得molecular weight，solubility，purity，colligative properties，到的关于治疗剂（药物的有效成and chemical reactivity，before an intelligent approach to 分）物理和化学性质的信息量通formulation can begin.Improvements in formulation are a 常是很少的，尤其当治疗剂是一continuing‘ process，since important properties of a drug or 种新的化合物时。关于（治疗剂）of the total formulation may not become evident until the 基本性质的信息，包括分子量、product has been stored or used for a prolonged time: 溶解度、纯度、依数性和化学反However，because of the extensive test documentation 应性，必须在一种好的组建配方required by the U.S.Food and Drug Administration(FDA)，的方法可以开始之前得到。配方only outstanding formulations can be justified for 的改善是一个连续不断的过程，continuance to the state of a maketed product.因为药物或整体配方的一些重要 性质只有在贮存或者使用了很长 时间之后才可能会变得明显。然 而，由于美国食品及药物管理局 大量的测试要求文件，（使得）只 有那些杰出的配方才能继续发展 成为上市产品。

生产

Production 生产过程包括从配方的各个组成 The production process includes all of the steps from the 部分的积聚和结合到产品封装入accumulation and combining of the ingredients of the 用于分售的单个包装内的所有步formula to the enclosing of the product in the individual 骤。和这些过程有紧密联系的是container for distribution.Intimately associated with these 搬运人员和执行这些步骤的设processes are the personnel who carry them out and the 备。计划出来的最理想的过程也facilities in which they are performed.The most ideally 会因为没有正确态度或没有接受planned processes can be rendered ineffective by personnel 正确培训的人员或者不能提供一who do not have the right attitude or training，or by facilities 个有效的控制环境的设备而变得that do not provide an efficiently controlled environment.无效。

To enhance the assurance of successful manufacturing 为了增加成功的生产操作的保operation，all process steps must be carefully reduced to 证，所有的过程步骤在证明是有writing after being shown to be effective.These written 效的之后都要仔细地归纳成书面process steps are often called standard.operating procedures 材料，这些书面的过程步骤经常(SOPs)⑥.No extemporaneous changes are permitted to be 被称为标准操作规程（SOPs）。made in these procedures;any change must go through the 这些规程是不允许进行临时改动same approval steps as the original written SOP.Further，的;任何改动都必须经过和原有extensive records must be kept to give assurance at the end 的书面规程一样的证明步骤的证of the production process that all steps have been performed 明。而且，还需要做大量的记录，as prescribed，an aspect emphasized in the FDA's Good 以便在生产过程的最后用来保Manufacturing Practices.Such in-process control is essential 证：所有的步骤都是按照规定执to assuring the quality of the product，since these assurances 行的。这是美国食品及药物管理are even more significant than those from product release 局药品生产质量管理规范中所强

testing.The production of.a quality product is a result of the 调的一个方面。这些中间控制对continuous，dedicated effort of the quality assurance，于保证产品的质量来说是必要

production，and quality control personnel within the plant in 的，因为这些保证甚至比产品发developing，performing，and confirming effective sops.行测试的控制还重要。一件优质Selected from Lachman Leon et al.The Theory and Practice 产品的生产，是车间里在开发、of Industrial Pharmacy, 3rd ed.，Lea and Febiger, 执行和确认有效标准操作规程中Philadelphia，1986.的那些品质保证、生产和质量控 制人员不懈而专注的努力的结 果。

第五篇：化学工程与工艺专业英语Unit 12

Unit 12 what do we mean by transport

phenomena ?

Transport phenomena is the collective name given to the systematic and integrated study of three classical areas of engineering science :(i)energy or heat transport ,(ii)mass transport or diffusion ,and(iii)momentum transport or fluid dynamics.传递现象是工程科学三个典型领域系统性和综合性研究的总称：能量或热量传递，质量传递或扩散，以及动量传递或流体力学。Ofcourse , heat and mass transport occur frequently in fluids , and for this reason some engineering educators prefer to includes these processes in their treatment of fluid mechanics.当然，热量和质量传递在流体中经常发生，正因如此一些工程教育家喜欢把这些过程包含在流体力学的范畴内。Since transport phenomena also includes heat conduction and diffusion in solids , however , the subjectis actually ofwider scope than fluid mechanics.由于传递现象也包括固体中的热传导和扩散，因此，传递现象实际上比流体力学的领域更广。It is also distinguished from fluid mechanics in that the study of transport phenomena make use of the similarities between the equations used to describe the processes of heat,mass,and momentum transport.传递现象的研究充分利用描述传热，传质，动量传递过程的方程间的相似性，这也区别于流体力学。These analogies,as they are usually called, can often be related to similarities in the physical mechanisms whereby the transport takes place.这些类推(通常被这么叫)常常可以与传递现象发生的物理机制间的相似性关联起来。As a consequence,an understanding of one transport process can readily lead to an understanding of other processes.因此，一个传递过程的理解能够容易促使其他过程的理解。Moreover,ifthe differential equations and boundary conditions are the same,a solution need be obtained for only one of the processes since by changing the nomenclature that solution can be used to obtain the solution for any other transport process.而且，如果微分方程和边界条件是一样的，只需获得一个传递过程的解决方案即可，因为通过改变名称就可以用来获得其他任何传递过程的解决方案。

It must be emphasized , however, that while there are similarities between the transport processes, there are also important differences , especially between the transport of momentum(a vector)and that of heat or mass(scalars).必须强调,虽然有相似之处,也有传递过程之间的差异,尤其重要的是运输动量(矢量)和热或质量(标量).Nevertheless , a systematic study of the similarities between the transport processes makes it easier to identify and understand the differences between them.然而,系统地研究了相似性传递过程之间的相似性,使它更容易识别和理解它们之间的差别。

1．How We Approach the Subject怎么研究传递过程？

In order to demonstrate the analogies between the transport processes , we will study each of the process in parallel-instead of studying momentum transport first , then energy transport , and finally mass transport.为了找出传递过程间的相似性，我们将同时研究每一种传递过程——取代先研究动量传递，再传热，最后传质的方法。Besides promoting understanding , there is another pedagogical reason for not using the serial approach that is used in other textbooks : of the three processes, the concepts and equations involved in the study of momentum transport are the most difficult for the beginner to understand and to use.除了促进理解之外，对于不使用在其他教科书里用到的顺序法还有另一个教学的原因：在三个过程中，包含在动量传递研究中的概念和方程对初学者来说是最难以理解并使用。Because it is impossible to cover heat and mass transport thoroughly without prior knowledge of momentum transport ,one is forced under the serial approach to take up the most difficult subject(momentum transport)first.因为在不具有有关动量传递的知识前提下一个人不可能完全理解传热和传质，在顺序法的情况下他就被迫先研究最难的课程即动量传递。On the other hand ,if the subjects are studied in parallel , momentum transport becomes more understandable by reference to the familiar subject of heat transport.另一方面，如果课程同时被研究，通过参照有关传热的熟悉课程动量传递就变得更好理解。Furthermore ,the parallel treatment makes it possible to study the simpler the physical processes that are occurring rather than the mathematical procedures and representations.而且，平行研究法可以先研究较为简单的概念，再深入到较难和较抽象的概念。我们可以先强调所发生的物理过程而不是数学性步骤和描述。For example，we will study one-dimensional transport phenomena first because equations instead of partial requiring vector notation and we can often use ordinary differential equations instead of partial differential equations ,which are harder to solve.例如，我们将先研究一维传递现象，因为它在不要求矢量标注下就可以被解决，并且我们常常可以使用普通的微分方程代替难以解决的偏微分方程。This procedure is also justified by the fact that many of the practical problems of transport phenomena can be solved by one-dimensional models.加上传递现象的许多实际问题可以通过一维模型解决的这样一个事实，这种处理做法也是合理的。

2.Why Should Engineers Study Transport Phenomena? 为什么工程师要研究传递现象？

Since the discipline of transport phenomena deals with certain laws of nature , some people classify it as a branch of engineering.因为传递现象这个学科牵扯到自然界定则，一些人就把它划分为工程的一个分支。For this reason the engineer , who is concerned with the economical design and operation of plants and equipment , quite properly should ask how transport phenomena will be of value in practice.正因如此，对于那些关心工厂和设备设计和操作经济性的工程师而言，十分应该探知在实际中传递现象如何起到价值作用。There are two general types of answers to those questions.对于那些问题有两种通用型答案。The first requires one to recognize that heat ,mass ,and momentum transport occur in many kinds of engineering , e.g., heat exchangers ,compressors ,nuclear and chemical reactors, humidifiers, air coolers ,driers , fractionaters , and absorbers.第一种要求大家认识到传热，传质和动量传递发生在许多工程设备中，如热交换器，压缩机，核化反应器，增湿器，空气冷却器，干燥器，分离器和吸收器。These transport processes are also involved in the human body as well as in the complex processes whereby pollutants react and diffuse in the atmosphere.这些传递过程也发生在人体内以及大气中污染物反应和扩散的一些复杂过程中。It is important that engineers have an understanding of the physical laws governing these transport processes if they are to understand what is taking place in engineering equipment and to make wise decisions with regard to its economical operation.如果工程师要知道工程设备中正在发生什么并要做出能达到经济性操作的决策，对主导这些传递过程的物理定律有一个认识很重要。

The second answer is that engineers need to be able to use their understanding of natural laws to design process equipment in which these processes are occurring.第二种答案是工程师需要能够运用自然定律的知识设计包含这些过程的工艺设备。To do so they must be able to predict rates of heat ,mass , or momentum transport.要做到这点，他们必须能够预测传热，传质，或动量传递速率。For example, consider a simple heat exchanger , i.e., a pipe used to heat a

fluid by maintaining its wall at a higher temperature than that of the fluid flowing through it.例如，考虑一个简单的热交换器，也就是一根管道——通过维持壁温高于流经管道的流体温度来加热流体。The rate at which heat passes from the wall of the pipe to the fluid depends upon a parameter , etc.热量从管壁传递到流体的速率取决于传热系数，传热系数反过来取决于管的大小，流体流速，流体性质等。Traditionally heat-transfer coefficients are obtained after expensive and time-consuming laboratory or pilot-plant measurements and are correlated through the use of dimensionless empirical equations.传统上传热系数是在耗费和耗时的实验室或模范工厂的测量之后获得并且通过使用一维经验方程关联起来。Empirical equations are equations that fit the data over a certain range;they are not based upon theory and cannot be used accurately outside the range for which the data have heen taken.经验方程是适合一定数据范围的方程，它们不是建立在理论基础上而且在应用数据的范围外不能被精确使用。

The less expensive and usually more reliable approach used in transport phenomena is to predict the heat-transfer coefficient from equations based on the laws of nature.使用在传递现象中比较不耗费和通常较为可靠的方法是从以自然定律为基础的方程中预测传热系数。The predicted result would be obtained by a research engineer by solving some equations(often on a computer).预测的结果将由一个研究工程师通过解一些方程获得（常常在电脑上）A design engineer would then use the equation for the heat-transfer coefficient obtained by the research engineer.设计工程师再使用由研究工程师获得的关于传热系数的方程。

Keep in mind that the job of designing the heat exchanger would be essentially the same no matter how the heat-transfer coefficients were originally obtained.要记住无论传热系数是怎么得来的设计热交换器的工作将基本上是一样的。For this reason ,some courses in transport phenomena emphasize only the determination of the heat-transfer coefficient and leave the actual design procedure to a course in unit operations.正因如此，传递现象的一些课程只强调传热系数的决定而把真正的设计步骤留给单元操作中的一个课程。It is of cource a “practical “ matter to be able to obtain the parameters , i.e., the heat-transfer coefficients that are used in design , and for that reason a transport phenomena course can be considered an engineering course as well as one in science.当然，能获得参数也就是设计中使用的传热系数是事实，并正因此，一个传递现象课程可被视为一个工程课程或一个科学课程。

In fact , there are some cases in which the design engineer might use the methods and equations of transport phenomena directly in the design of equipment.实际上，在设备设计中有一些情况下设计工程师可能直接使用传递现象的方法和方程。An example would be a tubular reactor ,which might be illustrated as a pipe ,e.g., the heat exchanger described earlier, with a homogeneous chemical reaction occurring in the fluid within.一种情况就是设计可以被称为管道的管式反应器，如，前面所提过的热交换器，在它里面的液相中发生着一个均相化学反应。The fluid enters with a certain concentration ofreactant and leaves the tube with a decreased concentration of reactant and an increased concentration of product.流体以一定浓度的反应物流进并以浓度降低的反应物和浓度增加的产物流出反应管。

If the reaction is exothermic , the reactor wall will usually be maintained at a low temperature in order to remove the heat generated by the chemical reaction.如果反应是放热的，为了移除化学反应生成的热量反应器壁通常维持在一个低的温度。Therefore the temperature will

decrease with radial position , i.e.,with the distance from the centerline of the pipe.因此沿径向方向也就是说随离管道中心线距离的增大，温度降低。Then , since the reaction rate increases with temperature , it will be higher at the center ,where the temperature is high , than at the wall , where the temperature is low.再者，因为反应速率随温度升高而增大，在温度高的中心处的反应速率高于温度低的管壁处的反应速率。Accordingly ,the products of the reaction will tend to accumulate at the centerline while the reactants accumulate near the wall of the reactor.结果，反应产物将倾向于在中心线处积累而反应物在靠近管壁处积累。Hence , concentration as well as temperature will vary both with radial position and with length.因此，沿径向和横向浓度和温度都将改变。To design the reactor we would need to know ,at any given length , the mean concentration of product.为了设计反应器我们需要知道在任意给定的管长下产物的平均浓度。Since this mean concentration is obtained from the point values averaged over the cross section , we actually need to obtain the concentration at every point in the reactor , i.e., at every radial position and at every length.由于这个平均浓度是将整个反应器内每个点的浓度平均起来得到的，实际上我们需要得到反应器内每个点的浓度，也就是说，在每个径向和横向位置。But to calculate the concentration at every point we need to know the reaction rate at every point , and to calculate the rate at every point we need to know both the temperature and the concentration at every point!但是为了计算每个点的浓度我们需要知道每个点处的反应速率，而为了计算每个点处的速率我们需要知道温度和浓度！Furthermore, to calculate the temperature we also need to know the rate and the velocity of the fluid at every point.而且，为了计算温度我们也要知道每个点处的反应速率和速度。We will not go into the equations involved ,but obviously we have a complicated set of partial differential equations that must be solved by sophisticated procedures, usually on a computer.我们将不得到所包含的方程，但显然有一组必须由精细繁琐的步骤解决的复杂偏微分方程（通常在电脑上）。It should be apparent that we could not handle such a problem by the empirical design procedures used in unit operations courses for a heat exchanger.我们不能通过用于单元操作课程中关于热交换器的经验设计步骤来解决这样一个问题，应该是明显的。Instead the theory and mathematical procedures of transport phenomena are essential ,unless one wishes to go go the expense and take the time to build pilot plants of increasing size and measure the conersion in each.然而传递现象的理论和数学步骤是必不可少的，除非一个人愿意花金钱和时间去建立规模不断扩大的模范工厂并测出每一个工厂的产率。Even then the final scale-up is precarious and uncertain.即便最后的扩大规模是靠不住和不确定的。

Of course ,not all problems today can be solved by the methods of transport phenomena.当然，并非今天所有的问题都能通过传递现象的方法解决。However, with the development of the computer ,more and more problems are being solved by these methods.然而，随着电脑科技的发展，越来越多的问题通过这些方法正被解决。If engineering students are to have an education that is not become obsolete , they must be prepared, through an understanding of the methods oftransport phenomena , to make use of the computations that will be made in the future.如果工程学学生要得到一个不过时的教育，他们必须通过理解传递现象的方法准备好去充分利用将在未来形成的计算机计算。Because of its great potential as well as its current usefulness , a course in transport phenomena may ultimately prove to be the most practical and useful course on a student’s undergraduate career.由于其极大的潜能及当前的实用性，在一个大学生的在校学习生涯中，传递现象这门课程或许最终证明是最实用和有用的课程。