土木工程专业英语unit8-unit13词汇 机械工业出版社

第一篇：土木工程专业英语unit8-unit13词汇 机械工业出版社

unit 8

discontinuity 突变，断层，不连续 anomaly 不规则，异常 groundwater 地下水

excavation 开挖，挖掘，开采 waterbearing 含水的 joint 节理

seam 层理，层面 soak 浸，泡，浸透 muck 垃圾，矸石，碴 spoil 弃土，矸石，碴土 fault 断层

lining 支护，衬砌 expendable 消耗品

sequence 次序，顺序，工序 round 循环 chisel 凿，砍 overbreak 超挖

unproductive 无效的，徒劳的 massive 结实的，坚固的 ancillary 辅助的，附属的opening开口，隧道空间，隧道 bit 齿，截齿

invert 反拱，仰拱 curvature 弯曲，曲率 negotiate 通过，越过 boom 臂杆

pick 凿，铁锹，铁镐，镐 figure 轮廓，形状

advance 前进，推进，进尺 be subjected to 经受，易受······的 support capacity 支撑能力，自承能力 soft ground 软土，软土层

surrounding ground 周围地层，围岩 geotechnical investigation 岩土勘察，岩土调查

rock mass 岩体

tunneling operating 隧道施工作业

tunnel heading 隧道工作面，隧道推进 smooth wall blasting=smooth blasting 光面爆破

Full-Face Tunnel-Boring Machine 全断面隧道掘进机

Part-Face Tunneling Machine 部分断面隧道掘进机，摇臂式隧道掘进机 drill jumbo 凿岩台车

cycle operation/cyclic operation 循环作业 cutting head 截割头 gouge cutter 量规刀齿

crawler frame（台车的）车架 unit 9

pioneer 做······先锋，提倡 propose 建议，提倡

mobilization 调动，应用，动员 time 安排······的时间，定时 reinforcement 加强筋，钢筋 spiling 桩，板桩

settlement 下沉，沉降 dictate 规定，指示，命令 modify 修正，修改

grout 浆体，砂浆，注浆

oval 卵形的，椭圆的；卵形，椭圆形 irregularity 不规则，无规律，不整齐 prudent 谨慎的，小心的 calibrate 校准

remedial 补救的，治疗的terminology 专门名词，术语，名词学，术语学

lagging 绝缘层材料，绝热层材料 with reference to 关于，就······而言，针对······

with respect to 关于，就······而言 for that matter=for the matter of that 关于那一点，就那件事而言 surrounding rock 围岩

support structure=supporting structure 支护结构

initial ground support 初期岩层支护 soil nail 土钉

permanent support 永久支护

stand-up time 稳定时间，自稳时间

shield tunnelling method 盾构隧道掘进方法

constituent model 本构模型 numerical modeling 数值模拟

rule of thumb 经验法则，经验方法，计算中的近似法

threshold limit 阀值，门槛值 unit 10

crossing 横跨，跨越，穿过 gravel 砂砾，砂砾层 inject 注射，注入

subsoil 底土，下层土，天然地基；掘起······的底土

immerse 沉浸，使侵入 prefabricate 预制

drydock 干坞，干船坞；驶入干船坞 basin 盆地，水池 cast 浇筑，浇注

buoyant 有浮力的，轻快的pontoon 浮桥，浮筒，浮码头；架浮桥于 segment（管段的）管节，部分

ballast 压舱物，沙囊，道碴；使稳定，为（铁路等）铺道碴，在······上装压舱物

park 停放

bollard 护桩，船桩

bulkhead（管段的）端封墙，隔壁，防水墙

let-in 插口

moor 停泊，固定，系住

tackle 固定，处理；滑车，用具，装备 screed 刮板，样板，泥水匠用的均泥尺 gasket 垫圈，衬垫 backfill 回填，装填

dredge 挖泥，挖泥船，挖泥机；清理 dredger 挖泥船，挖泥机 bring up with 提出，发展

immersed tunnel 沉管隧道，沉埋隧道 injected sand foundation 注砂基础 dynamic loading 动态载荷，动力载荷 earthquake loading 地震载荷 pile foundation 桩基础

roadway and railroad tunnel 公路与铁路隧道

tunnel element（沉管的）管段 wave loading 水波载荷 temporary support 临时支护

construction organization 施工组织 hydrostatic water pressure 静水压力 tunnel trench（沉管）隧道基槽 unit 11

facility 设施，设备，工具 alluvial 冲积的，淤积的 boost 推进

hone 磨练，提炼 shipworm 船蛆 segment 管片

conceive 构思，以为 stride 大步，阔步，进步 plateau 状态，停滞时期

bentonite 斑脱土，膨润土，膨润岩 cast-in-situ 现浇的diaphragm 隔墙，横隔墙 clearance 间隙，余隙，净空 agitator 搅拌器

mainstay 支柱，主要方法 urethane 尿烷，氨基甲酸乙酯 thatch 茅草屋顶，茅草 cut-off 阻断的，隔断的 thixotropic 触变的，摇溶的 articulation 结合，连接 hull 船壳，船体

harsh 苛刻的，粗糙的，荒芜的 derivative 派生词，衍生，衍生物 subterranean 地下的hit upon 发现，想到，碰见 pressure gap 压力差

earth pressure shield 土压（平衡）盾构 slurry shield 泥水盾构 foam shield 泡沫盾构 lip-type seal 唇缘密封

segment assembly 管片组装 gravel layer 砂砾层 unit 12

conduit 管道，导管，沟渠，泉水，喷泉 ditch 沟，沟渠，壕沟 cantilever 悬臂

abutment 邻接，桥墩

bedrock 岩床，根底，基础 pier 码头，（桥）墩 truss 捆绑；（干草的）一捆，一束，构架，桁架

caisson 弹药箱（车），沉箱 bascule 活动结构

drawbridge 可开闭的吊桥 mantle 覆盖物；覆盖 suspender 悬挂物，吊杆 beam bridge 简支梁桥 cantilever bridge 悬臂梁桥 arch bridge 拱桥

suspension bridge 悬吊桥，悬索桥 movable bridge 活动桥 unit 13

girder 粱，钢桁的支架

depression 洼地，凹地，凹陷处 massive 厚重的，大块的slab 厚平板，混凝土路面，板层 pier 码头，（桥）墩 treatise 论文，论述 pozzalana 火山灰 cutaway 剖面的 freeway 高速公路 deck 甲板，舰板，覆盖物，一副（纸牌）；装饰，打扮，装甲板 trunk 树干，躯干，（汽车后部）行李箱，象鼻

cement 水泥，接合剂；接合，用水泥吐，巩固；粘牢 crane 起重机

topography 地形学

cutaway 下摆圆角的，一部分切掉的 cofferdam 围堰 shaft 轴，杆状物 auger 螺钉钻 clay 粘土，泥土 slurry 泥浆，浆 work-horse 耕马，驮马，结实耐用的结构，踏实干重活的人 steel rebar 钢筋

Portland cement 波特兰水泥，普通水泥，硅酸盐水泥

cast-in-place concrete 现浇混凝土unit 8

discontinuity 突变，断层，不连续 anomaly 不规则，异常 groundwater 地下水

excavation 开挖，挖掘，开采 waterbearing 含水的 joint 节理

seam 层理，层面 soak 浸，泡，浸透 muck 垃圾，矸石，碴 spoil 弃土，矸石，碴土 fault 断层

lining 支护，衬砌 expendable 消耗品

sequence 次序，顺序，工序 round 循环 chisel 凿，砍 overbreak 超挖

unproductive 无效的，徒劳的 massive 结实的，坚固的 ancillary 辅助的，附属的opening开口，隧道空间，隧道 bit 齿，截齿

invert 反拱，仰拱 curvature 弯曲，曲率 negotiate 通过，越过 boom 臂杆

pick 凿，铁锹，铁镐，镐 figure 轮廓，形状

advance 前进，推进，进尺 be subjected to 经受，易受······的 support capacity 支撑能力，自承能力 soft ground 软土，软土层

surrounding ground 周围地层，围岩 geotechnical investigation 岩土勘察，岩土调查

rock mass 岩体

tunneling operating 隧道施工作业

tunnel heading 隧道工作面，隧道推进 smooth wall blasting=smooth blasting 光面爆破

Full-Face Tunnel-Boring Machine 全断面隧道掘进机

Part-Face Tunneling Machine 部分断面隧道掘进机，摇臂式隧道掘进机 drill jumbo 凿岩台车

cycle operation/cyclic operation 循环作业 cutting head 截割头 gouge cutter 量规刀齿

crawler frame（台车的）车架 unit 9

pioneer 做······先锋，提倡 propose 建议，提倡

mobilization 调动，应用，动员 time 安排······的时间，定时 reinforcement 加强筋，钢筋 spiling 桩，板桩

settlement 下沉，沉降 dictate 规定，指示，命令 modify 修正，修改

grout 浆体，砂浆，注浆

oval 卵形的，椭圆的；卵形，椭圆形 irregularity 不规则，无规律，不整齐 prudent 谨慎的，小心的 calibrate 校准

remedial 补救的，治疗的terminology 专门名词，术语，名词学，术语学

lagging 绝缘层材料，绝热层材料 with reference to 关于，就······而言，针对······

with respect to 关于，就······而言 for that matter=for the matter of that 关于那一点，就那件事而言 surrounding rock 围岩

support structure=supporting structure 支护结构

initial ground support 初期岩层支护 soil nail 土钉

permanent support 永久支护

stand-up time 稳定时间，自稳时间

shield tunnelling method 盾构隧道掘进方法

constituent model 本构模型 numerical modeling 数值模拟

rule of thumb 经验法则，经验方法，计算中的近似法

threshold limit 阀值，门槛值 unit 10

crossing 横跨，跨越，穿过 gravel 砂砾，砂砾层 inject 注射，注入

subsoil 底土，下层土，天然地基；掘起······的底土

immerse 沉浸，使侵入 prefabricate 预制

drydock 干坞，干船坞；驶入干船坞 basin 盆地，水池 cast 浇筑，浇注

buoyant 有浮力的，轻快的pontoon 浮桥，浮筒，浮码头；架浮桥于segment（管段的）管节，部分

ballast 压舱物，沙囊，道碴；使稳定，为（铁路等）铺道碴，在······上装压舱物

park 停放

bollard 护桩，船桩

bulkhead（管段的）端封墙，隔壁，防水墙

let-in 插口

moor 停泊，固定，系住

tackle 固定，处理；滑车，用具，装备 screed 刮板，样板，泥水匠用的均泥尺 gasket 垫圈，衬垫 backfill 回填，装填

dredge 挖泥，挖泥船，挖泥机；清理

dredger 挖泥船，挖泥机 bring up with 提出，发展

immersed tunnel 沉管隧道，沉埋隧道 injected sand foundation 注砂基础 dynamic loading 动态载荷，动力载荷 earthquake loading 地震载荷 pile foundation 桩基础

roadway and railroad tunnel 公路与铁路隧道

tunnel element（沉管的）管段 wave loading 水波载荷 temporary support 临时支护

construction organization 施工组织 hydrostatic water pressure 静水压力 tunnel trench（沉管）隧道基槽 unit 11

facility 设施，设备，工具 alluvial 冲积的，淤积的 boost 推进

hone 磨练，提炼 shipworm 船蛆 segment 管片

conceive 构思，以为 stride 大步，阔步，进步 plateau 状态，停滞时期

bentonite 斑脱土，膨润土，膨润岩 cast-in-situ 现浇的diaphragm 隔墙，横隔墙 clearance 间隙，余隙，净空 agitator 搅拌器

mainstay 支柱，主要方法 urethane 尿烷，氨基甲酸乙酯 thatch 茅草屋顶，茅草 cut-off 阻断的，隔断的 thixotropic 触变的，摇溶的 articulation 结合，连接 hull 船壳，船体

harsh 苛刻的，粗糙的，荒芜的 derivative 派生词，衍生，衍生物 subterranean 地下的hit upon 发现，想到，碰见 pressure gap 压力差

earth pressure shield 土压（平衡）盾构 slurry shield 泥水盾构 foam shield 泡沫盾构 lip-type seal 唇缘密封

segment assembly 管片组装 gravel layer 砂砾层 unit 12

conduit 管道，导管，沟渠，泉水，喷泉 ditch 沟，沟渠，壕沟 cantilever 悬臂

abutment 邻接，桥墩

bedrock 岩床，根底，基础 pier 码头，（桥）墩 truss 捆绑；（干草的）一捆，一束，构架，桁架

caisson 弹药箱（车），沉箱 bascule 活动结构

drawbridge 可开闭的吊桥 mantle 覆盖物；覆盖 suspender 悬挂物，吊杆 beam bridge 简支梁桥 cantilever bridge 悬臂梁桥 arch bridge 拱桥

suspension bridge 悬吊桥，悬索桥 movable bridge 活动桥 unit 13

girder 粱，钢桁的支架

depression 洼地，凹地，凹陷处 massive 厚重的，大块的slab 厚平板，混凝土路面，板层 pier 码头，（桥）墩 treatise 论文，论述 pozzalana 火山灰 cutaway 剖面的 freeway 高速公路 deck 甲板，舰板，覆盖物，一副（纸牌）；装饰，打扮，装甲板 trunk 树干，躯干，（汽车后部）行李箱，象鼻

cement 水泥，接合剂；接合，用水泥吐，巩固；粘牢 crane 起重机

topography 地形学

cutaway 下摆圆角的，一部分切掉的 cofferdam 围堰 shaft 轴，杆状物 auger 螺钉钻 clay 粘土，泥土 slurry 泥浆，浆 work-horse 耕马，驮马，结实耐用的结构，踏实干重活的人 steel rebar 钢筋

Portland cement 波特兰水泥，普通水泥，硅酸盐水泥

cast-in-place concrete 现浇混凝土

第二篇：土木工程专业英语

水力学 hydraulics水泥 cement桁架 truss 沥青 bitumen混凝土 concrete强度 strength 非线性 nonlinear桩 pile刚性 rigid隧道 tunnel砾石 gravel柱子 column力 force

位移 displacement线性的 linear砂浆 mortar弹性 elastic塑性 plastic沉降 settlement 弯矩 moment扭矩 torque剪力 shear

正应力 normal stress路面 pavement

钢筋混凝土 reinforced concrete抗拉强度 tensile strength抗压强度 compressive strength 土木工程 civil engineering岩体力学 rock mass mechanics粒径 grain diameter 容许应力 allowable stress土力学 soil mechanics斜拉桥 cable stayed bridge 悬索桥 suspension bridge中性面 neutral plane水灰比 water-cement ratio 民用建筑 civil architecture地质成因 geologic origin临界截面 choking section

岩土工程 geotechnical engineering屈服点 yield point

横截面(transverse)cross section 安全系数 safety factor抗剪强度 shear strength反复试验 trial and error

预应力混凝土 priestessed concrete先张法 pretensioning concrete 后张法 post-tensioning concrete 土质勘测 soil investiagation

在这两种应力中，前者是压应力，后者是拉应力。These two kinds of stress, the former is a compressive stress, which is the tensile stress.许多情况下可能会指派土木工程师参与其他项目的工作。In many cases, civil

engineers may be assigned to engaged in the work of other projects.需要强调数学、力学、计算机技术在土木工程应用中的重要性。It should be stressed that mathematics, mechanics and computer applications in civil engineering is importance.钢材和混凝土是桥梁建筑的基本材料，混凝土的主要缺点是抗拉强度很低。Basic

materials are steel and concrete bridge construction, the main disadvantage is the low tensile strength of concrete.混凝土的抗压强度是水泥、骨料、水及混合料中所含的各种添加剂的用量所控制。它们主要用于大型水坝，在大坝中它们能减少水泥硬化时释放出的热量。They are mainly used for large dams;dams in the heat they can reduce cement hardening release.They are mainly used for large dams, the dam in which they can reduce hardening of the cement when the heat release.水力学 hydraulics水泥 cement桁架 truss 沥青 bitumen混凝土 concrete强度 strength 非线性 nonlinear桩 pile刚性 rigid隧道 tunnel砾石 gravel柱子 column力 force

位移 displacement线性的 linear砂浆 mortar弹性 elastic塑性 plastic沉降 settlement 弯矩 moment扭矩 torque剪力 shear

正应力 normal stress路面 pavement

钢筋混凝土 reinforced concrete抗拉强度 tensile strength抗压强度 compressive strength 土木工程 civil engineering岩体力学 rock mass mechanics粒径 grain diameter 容许应力 allowable stress土力学 soil mechanics斜拉桥 cable stayed bridge 悬索桥 suspension bridge中性面 neutral plane水灰比 water-cement ratio 民用建筑 civil architecture地质成因 geologic origin临界截面 choking section

岩土工程 geotechnical engineering屈服点 yield point

横截面(transverse)cross section 安全系数 safety factor抗剪强度 shear strength反复试验 trial and error

预应力混凝土 priestessed concrete先张法 pretensioning concrete 后张法 post-tensioning concrete 土质勘测 soil investiagation

在这两种应力中，前者是压应力，后者是拉应力。These two kinds of stress, the former is a compressive stress, which is the tensile stress.许多情况下可能会指派土木工程师参与其他项目的工作。In many cases, civil

engineers may be assigned to engaged in the work of other projects.需要强调数学、力学、计算机技术在土木工程应用中的重要性。It should be stressed that mathematics, mechanics and computer applications in civil engineering is importance.钢材和混凝土是桥梁建筑的基本材料，混凝土的主要缺点是抗拉强度很低。Basic

materials are steel and concrete bridge construction, the main disadvantage is the low tensile strength of concrete.混凝土的抗压强度是水泥、骨料、水及混合料中所含的各种添加剂的用量所控制。它们主要用于大型水坝，在大坝中它们能减少水泥硬化时释放出的热量。They are mainly used for large dams;dams in the heat they can reduce cement hardening release.They are mainly used for large dams, the dam in which they can reduce hardening of the cement when the heat release.水力学 hydraulics水泥 cement桁架 truss 沥青 bitumen混凝土 concrete强度 strength 非线性 nonlinear桩 pile刚性 rigid隧道 tunnel砾石 gravel柱子 column力 force

位移 displacement线性的 linear砂浆 mortar弹性 elastic塑性 plastic沉降 settlement 弯矩 moment扭矩 torque剪力 shear

正应力 normal stress路面 pavement

钢筋混凝土 reinforced concrete抗拉强度 tensile strength抗压强度 compressive strength 土木工程 civil engineering岩体力学 rock mass mechanics粒径 grain diameter 容许应力 allowable stress土力学 soil mechanics斜拉桥 cable stayed bridge 悬索桥 suspension bridge中性面 neutral plane水灰比 water-cement ratio 民用建筑 civil architecture地质成因 geologic origin临界截面 choking section

岩土工程 geotechnical engineering屈服点 yield point

横截面(transverse)cross section 安全系数 safety factor抗剪强度 shear strength反复试验 trial and error

预应力混凝土 priestessed concrete先张法 pretensioning concrete 后张法 post-tensioning concrete 土质勘测 soil investiagation

在这两种应力中，前者是压应力，后者是拉应力。These two kinds of stress, the former is a compressive stress, which is the tensile stress.许多情况下可能会指派土木工程师参与其他项目的工作。In many cases, civil

engineers may be assigned to engaged in the work of other projects.需要强调数学、力学、计算机技术在土木工程应用中的重要性。It should be stressed that mathematics, mechanics and computer applications in civil engineering is importance.钢材和混凝土是桥梁建筑的基本材料，混凝土的主要缺点是抗拉强度很低。Basic

materials are steel and concrete bridge construction, the main disadvantage is the low tensile strength of concrete.混凝土的抗压强度是水泥、骨料、水及混合料中所含的各种添加剂的用量所控制。它们主要用于大型水坝，在大坝中它们能减少水泥硬化时释放出的热量。They are mainly used for large dams;dams in the heat they can reduce cement hardening release.They are mainly used for large dams, the dam in which they can reduce hardening of the cement when the heat release.

第三篇：土木工程专业英语

土木工程专业英语

土木工程civil engineering

钢结构steel struture

钢筋混凝土结构 reinforced concrete structure

钢结构设计规范Code for design of steel structure reinforced concrete beds钢筋混凝土地基 reinforced concrete footing 钢筋混凝土基脚 reinforced concrete canopy 钢筋混凝土顶盖 reinforced concrete foundation 钢筋混凝土基础 reinforced concrete pile钢筋混凝土桩 reinforced concrete plate钢筋混凝土板

reinforced concrete T beam 钢筋混凝土T形梁 reinforcement加强 加固

reinforcing rib 加紧肋

reinforcing mesh 钢筋网

reinforcing rod钢筋, 钢筋条

reinforcing agent 增强剂

reinforcing bars 配筋

梁beam/girder

柱column

吊杆post

框架frame

初步设计preliminary design

强度strength

承载能力load-carrying capacity

脆断brittle fracture

强度标准值characteristic value of strength 强度设计值design value of strength

一阶弹性分析 first order elastic analysis

二阶弹性分析 second order elastic analysis 屈曲buckling

腹板屈曲后强度 post-buckling strength of web plate

第四篇：土木工程专业英语学习心得

土木工程专业英语学习心得

专业英语是在大学基础英语之后结合专业知识进一步提高学生英语水平而设置的一门主干课程，是大学英语和研究生英语教学中一个重要的环节。当前，科学技术发展迅速，科技信息发达，能够直接及时地获取专业信息、掌握专业发展动态是工程技术人员和科研人员需要具备的基本能力，进行各种涉外合作和学术交流都要求专业人员熟练掌握专业英语。因此，培养阅读理解和翻译英文专业文献的能力，培养专业英语的写作能力和一定的语言交际能力都是非常重要的。1 专业词汇的学习

1.1 通过构词法学习专业词汇

从构词法的角度来解析土木工程专业词汇的来龙去脉，便于记忆单词，扩大词汇量。1.2 通过具体语言环境学习专业词汇

简单重复记忆某个专业词汇是一种方法，但显得枯燥，记忆效果往往不佳，容易忘记。如果把专业词汇融入具体的语言环境中，词汇的记忆一般长久牢固，不容易忘记。实现这种方法的途径就是大量阅读专业英语材料。1.3 通过写作学习词汇

在拥有一定的词汇量以后，写作表达或口语表达都能促进词汇的学习。2 翻译技能的学习

翻译是运用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。

2.1 掌握翻译的基本理论知识

翻译是一门学科，经过千百年来翻译家的共同努力，已经在语言学、文学、文化、心理学、人类学、哲学和教育学等学科的基础上初步建立了一套理论体系，并在具体实践中总结出了一套行之有效的跨文化和语言转换模式。2.2 掌握专业英语的常用句式结构

科技文章的特点是严谨周密，概念准确，逻辑性强，行文简练，重点突出，它有常用的句式结构。

2.3 进行翻译实践练习

翻译是一项创造性的语言活动，具有很强的实践性。2.4 通过阅读提高翻译能力

阅读和翻译能力的提高是互相促进的，读得越多掌握的专业词汇与专业知识就越多，有助于翻译能力的提高。口语表达能力的提高

专业英语口语表达与日常英语口语表达不同的地方就是其具有专业性，可以通过以下方法循序渐进练习。

3.1 大声朗读专业英语材料

大声反复地朗读专业英语材料，锻炼英语的发音，语调与节奏，培养语感，使口腔各发音部位灵活，提高口语表达能力，并增加对专业词汇的熟悉程度。3.2 设立场景进行实际训练

3~5 人组成一组，设立实际场景扮演不同的角色进行练习。3.3 多参加以英语为媒介的专题讲座

在学校或涉外工作中，经常有以英语为媒介的幻灯片讲座，多参加并积极询问，增加和外国人面对面交流的机会，也就是多增加应用专业英语的机会，这样可以促进专业英语的口语表达能力的提高。

第五篇：土木工程专业英语1

Plumbing

In general,plumbing refers to the system of pipes,fixtures,and other apparatus used inside a building for supplying water and removing liquid and waterborne wasters.In pratice,the term includes storm water or roof drainage and exterior system components connecting to a source such as a public water system or a point of disposal such as public sewer system or a domestic septic tank or cesspool.The purpose of plumbing systems is,basically,ti bring into,and distribute within,a building a suplly of safe water to be used for drinking purposes and to collect and dispose of polluted and contaminated wastewater from the various receptacles on the premises without hazard to the health of occupants.Codes, regulations,and trade pratices are designed to keep the water system separated from drainage systems;to prevent the introduction of harmful material such as chemicals, micro-organisms, and dirt;and to the keep the water system safe under all operating conditions.These protective codes also are designed to prevent flooding of drainage lines,provide venting of dangerous gases, and eliminate opportunities for backflow of dangerous waste water into the water system.It is essential that disease-producing organisms and harmful chemicals be confined to the drainage system.Since the time of Moses man has been cautioned to dispose of his wastes safely, and cleanliness has been related to the availability ot water and associated with social coustom.Early man often lived near a water source that served as his water supply and drainage system in one.It was also his bath.Latrine-like receptacles with crude drains have been found in excavations in the Orkney Islands of Neolithic stone huts at least 10,000 years old.Both a water system and piping used as drainage fashioned of terra-cotta pipe were part of the royal palace of Minos in Crete, about 2000BC.The palace also had a latrine with water-flushing reservoir and drainage.Nothing comparable to it was developed in Europe until the 18th century.Even the equipment of the modern bathroom, though much improved with hot and cold water under pressure and less crude provisions for drainage, is in concept little different from the Minoan version.It was out until the end of the 19th century that advance in plumbing practice were given serious attention as an integral part of housing.A building plumbing system includes two components, the piping that brings potable water into the building and distributes it to all fixtures and water outlets and the piping that collects the water after use and drains it to a point of safe disposal.Water systems.When a building is served by a public water system, the plumbing begins at the service connections required to make water available at outlets serving the fixtures or equipment within the building.Many premises in rural areas are not served by public water supply.These may include private dwellings, apartment houses, hotels, commercial centres, hospitals, institutions, factories, roadside stands, and restaurants.Public water supplies have surface water or groundwater as their sources.Large water system are almost entirely supplied with surface water.In smaller communities and in certain areas groundwater is obtained from wells or springs.Independent semipublic, industrial, and private-premise water systems frequently take water from wells on the premise but may, under certain condtions draw water from a spring, lake, or stream.Public water systems supply treated water meeting public water-supply drinking-water

standards.Private-premise systems are expected to provide water of equal quality, and to do so the private system requires a water-treatment plant including chlorination as a minimun and possibly sedimentation(settling out of solid particles)chemical treatment, primarily for softening, and filtration.Water is supplied to fixtures and outlets under pressure provided by pumps or elevated storage tanks or both.In some installations a pump controlled by a pressure-activated switch on a pressurized storage tank takes water from a well and pumps until the upper limit ot pressure for the system has been reached.If water is being used at the rate it is being pumped., the pump operates continuously.Elevated storage tanks are usually equipped with high-and low-level-float control switches to activate the pump.When the tank gets loe the pump starts and continues pumping until the tank is full.A storage tank may be constructed as illustrated in Fig.1, or it may be located on the roof of a high building.Water from the tank feeds the distribution system by gravity.Water flowing through pipes causes a loss of head due to friction.Since building piping systems are designed to deliver water at the required outlet pressure, pipe size is a critical variable.Plumbing codes have tables and graphs to show typical water demandsof fixtures and outlets in a building.If the required water demand is not met because of undersized piping or underpowered pumping, the pressure dops and some outlets may have little or no water flow.Pumping codes usually specify pressure and rates of flow for the fixtures in a building.The total amount of water that may be needed to supply the demand can be calculated from tables of fixture water demand.Minimum pipe sizes for different fixture in a building are specified in plumbing codes.Since it is uneconomical to design a water piping system that would provide flow with all outlets open simultaneously, judgment and experience are used to determine the probable maximum simultaneous demand.Average daily water requirements vary according to the type of premises being served.A single-family dwelling unit averages from 20 to 100 gallons(80 to 400 litres)per day.Apartment house occupants use less.Special users such as hospitals and industries usually require far greater allowances.Drainage Systems.Drainage of residential building includes the collection of sanitary wastes and roof drainage.The sanitary wastes are collected in soil pipes and stacks usually made of cast iron, although certain portions of connecting pipe may be galvanized iron.When corrosive liquids are collected, as in laboratories and industrial plants, the system may include plastic or glass pipes or coated piping.The joints, bends, tees, elbows, wyes, and many other special fittings are designed to carry away wastes without having obstructions in the pipe or creating condtions that will cause clogging if some large object is dropped into a fixture or a receptacle.Cleanouts and receptacle outlets are provided with screens or gratings to prevent the entry of clogging materials.The entire piping system is sized so that the smallest size is at the fixture outlet.Plumbing codes specify the minimum sizes for drainage connections and the standards applicable to all pipe and fitting materials.Normally all building drainage is constructed so that waste water flows by gravity to the main house drain.The house drain is usually connected outside the building to a gravity-flow house sewer that leads to a public sewer on a point of treatment.In large buildings such as apartment house, commercial buildings, hospitals, and industrial plants, the house drain may be lower than the point of discharge.Wastes are then discharged to a sump, or storage pit, and all of

the building drainage is lifted by pumps or pneumatic ejectors to a point of discharge to the exterior sewer system.These lifting devices empty water from the storage sump on a cycling basis activated by float controls that prevent flooding of the storage area.Such units are usually installed in duplicate and often have alternate sources of power such as a diesel-or gasoline-power generator for emergency pumping.Roof drainage is collected in gutters and leaders and taken by appropriate piping to a point of discharge permitted by law.Isolated dwellings may drain to surrounding ground, while larger buildings have a drainage system similar to the sanitary system that connects into a public storm-water sewer system.Home disposal systems are used in rural areas.The house drain is connected to a septic tank with a tile drainage field or to a cesspool.The septic tank removes heavy solid materials from the waste, and the effluent or treated water is allowed to percolate into the soil through buried, specially constructed, rock-filled trenches over which tiles with open joints are laid.Enough trench must be constructed to allow percolation without flooding the surface of the ground.The effluent from septic tanks contains disease-causing bacteria and cannot be allowed to flow directly into streams or underground waters.Health codes and regulations specify the sizes of home disposal units and control the discharge of effluent.Premises often have other water uses including swimming pools(both outdoor and indoor), ornamental pools, fish pools, and fountains, These require water and are part of the plumbing system.Since swimming-pool water is easily contaminated by bathers, it must either be replaced frequently or filtered, chlorinated, and recirculated.