供货合同翻译(中英文)（最终五篇）

第一篇：供货合同翻译(中英文)

Warranties: Seller warrants that at the time of delivery(1)product is free and clear of all liens, encumbrances and security interests;and(2)product complies with seller’s published specifications(or as otherwise referenced in the contract).Seller makes no other warranty or guarantee of any kind, express or implied, including without limitation implied warranties of fitness for a particular purpose or merchantability.担保：在交付时，卖方须担保（1）产品不涉及留置权，债权，和担保物权。（2）产品须与卖方公布的规格一致（或与合同中援引的其他规格一致）。卖方不做以任何其他形式，无任何明示或默示的其他担保或保证，包括无特定用途适应性或适销性的限制隐含的保证。

Buyer shall inspect the product supplies hereunder immediately after delivery.Except with respect to claims for shortages, buyer’s failure to give notice to seller of any claim within 30 days after the date of delivery shall constitute unqualified acceptance of the product and a waiver by buyer of all claims with respect thereto.在交付后，买方应就以下方面立即检验供应产品。除了关于货物短缺的索赔，在交付日期之后三十天内，买方如果没有给卖方任何关于索赔的通知，买方将被视为产品的无条件承兑和与就此相关所有条款的放弃。

Claims for shortages must be received by seller in writing within forty-eight(48)hours after delivery of products.Seller shall be given a reasonable opportunity to inspect any shipment claimed by buyer to contain a shortage.在交货后，卖方必须在四十八小时内收到关于货物短缺的索赔书。当买方提出索赔要求之后，卖方有合理权利检查任何出现货物短缺的运输系统。

Any technical advice furnished or recommendation made by seller or its representative concerning any use or application of any product is believed to be reliable but seller makes no warranty, either express or implied, as to its accuracy or completeness or of the results to be obtained.With regard to any handling of any product, buyer assumes full responsibility tor quality control, testing and determination of suitability of product for its intended application or use.卖方或卖方代表关于产品使用所提供的技术性的建议或意见被认为是可靠的，但是就其所得到的精度，完整性和任何其他结果，卖方不作任何，明示或默示的保证。关于任何机器的任何操作，买方承担其所有关于质量控制，测试和产品对其预期用途适用性的测定的全部责任。

7.Intellectual Property.Seller warrants that the process or processes of manufacture of the product and the product itself do not infringe any valid U.S.patents.Since seller has no control over buyer's(or others')processing, sale, use, or disposition of any Product(or any product containing Product), including, without limitation, the admixing, reacting or combining of any Product with other products, chemicals or materials, Buyer assumes the entire liability and responsibility therefor and agrees to defend, indemnify and hold harmless Seller from and against all claims arising out of or related to infringement of any third party’s intellectual property rights, patents on processes practiced by Buyer or patents on products made by Buyer.7.知识产权，卖方须担保产品的工艺，加工过程以及产品本身不违反美国的专利法律.由于卖方无权控制买方对任何产品（或者包含该产品的产品）的加工，销售，使用或处理，包括但不限于与其他产品，化学物品或材料进行的化学或物理反应，因此，买方在其产品加工或制作的过程中应避免违反任何第三方知识产权或专利权的条款，并就保护，赔偿和使卖方受损负有完全法律责任。

8.Limitation of Liability.Seller total liability and buyer’s exclusive remedy for any cause of action associated with the contract, whether based in tort, contract, strict liability or any other legal theory is expressly limited to replacement of nonconformance product or payment in an amount not to exceed the purchase price of the specific product for which damages are claimed, at seller’s opinion.In no event shall seller be liable for any other damages including, without limitation, incidental, special, punitive or consequential damages, such excluded incidental, consequential or special damages include loss of profits, loss of production, loss of use, or any other indirect damage or loss of any kind or character to buyer, its customers, or other persons or entities.Any attempt to remedy or correct a claimed defect by persons or entities not authorized to perform such work by seller or continued use of such product shall void the product warranty set forth in section 6(2)above and buyer is deemed to have accepted the product as is , with no further obligation of seller to buyer.If requested by seller, buyer shall return the nonconforming product to seller strictly in accordance with seller’s written instructions concerning shipping, handling, insurance and other matters as to which seller issues instructions failure to comply with these provisions shall invalidate any claim by buyer for breach of warranty.8.责任限制

对于与该合同相关的诉讼缘由，不管是基于侵权法，合同法，严格责任制还是其他法律条例，卖方的全权责任和买方的排他性赔偿都明确限于，由卖方决定的不一致产品的替换或付款金额低于所称造成损失产品的采购价格。其他损失，包括但不限于偶然性损失，特殊性损失，惩罚性损失和后果性损失，在任何情况下，卖方概不负责。该被排除的偶然性，连续性或者特殊性的损失是指对买方，客户或者其他个人或团体所遭受利润损失，产品损失，使用损失，或者其他间接性的任何类型的损失。未经卖方授权，个人或单位对不合格产品提出的赔偿或纠正性措施或持续使用该不合格品不在保修范围之类，参见在以上6（2）部分，并认为买方已经接受原产品，卖方对买方不负更多责任。如果卖方要求，买方应严格按照卖方关于运输、处理、保险和其他有关问题的书面说明，退回不一致产品。如果未遵循这些规定，买方则被视为违反担保协议，其任何条例无效。

第二篇：中英文合同翻译

英文合同翻译

2007年02月27日 星期二 12:05

引子:鉴于现在对外交流事例逐渐增多,英文合同特别是经济合同的翻译愈显重要,若译文不准确或不严谨,势必会引起不必要的经济纠纷.故今以一英文(经济)合同写作书籍为蓝本,录入一些有益文字,希望大家共同提高英文(经济)合同的翻译和写作。

合同文件是合同双方签订并必须遵守的法律文件,因此合同中的语言应体现其权威性.英文合同用语的特点之一就表现在用词上,即选择那些法律用词,以及正式用词,使合同表达的意思准确无误,达到双方对合同中使用的词无可争议的程度。一.hereby 英文释义:by means of , by reason of this 中文译词:特此,因此,兹

用法:常用于法律文件、合同、协议书等正式文件的开头语；在条款中需要强调时也可用。语法：一般置于主语后,紧邻主语.例1：

The Employer hereby covenants to pay the Contractor in consideration of the execution and completion of the Works and the remedying of defects therein the Contract Price or such other sum as may become payable under the provisions of the Contract at the time and in the manner prescribed by the Contract.参考译文: 业主特此立约保证在合同规定的期限内,按合同规定的方式向承包人支付合同价,或合同规定的其它应支付的款项,以作为本工程施工、竣工及修补工程中缺陷的报酬。注释:(1)hereby: by reason of this 特此

(2)covenant: v.make a formal agreement 立约,、条约;n.legal agreement具有法律约束的正式合同

(3)completion of the Works: 工程的竣工(4)therein: in the Works在本工程中

(5)the Contract Price: 合同总价,指工程的总造价(6)such...as: 关系代词,相当于that, which(7)under: in accordance with 根据,按照

(8)the provisions of the Contract: terms and conditions of the Contract合同条款 例2：

We hereby certify to the best of our knowledge that the foregoing statement is true and correct and all available information and data have been supplied herein, and that we agree to provide documentary proof upon your request.注释：

（1）hereby：特此

（2）to the best of our knowledge：as far as we know据我们所知（3）foregoing statement：above-mentioned statement上述声明（4）herein：in this, in the statement在声明中（5）documentary proof：证明文件 参考译文：

特此证明，据我们所知，上述声明内容真实，正确无误，并提供了全部现有的资料和数据，我们同意，应贵方要求出具证明文件。

例3：

This Contract is hereby made and concluded by and between Co.(hereinafter referred to as Party A)and Co.(hereinafter referred to as Party B)on(Date), in(Place), China, on the principle of equality and mutual benefit and through amicable consultation.注释：

（1）hereby：特此

（2）hereinafter referred to as Party A：以下称甲方

（3）on the principle of equality and mutual benefit：在平等互利基础上（4）through amicable consultation：通过友好协商 参考译文：

本合同双方，公司（以下称甲方）与 公司（以下称乙方），在平等互利基础上，通过友好协商，于 年 月 日在中国（地点），特签订本合同。例4：

This agreement is hereby made and entered into on(Date), by and between Co.China(hereinafter referred to as Party A)and Co.(hereinafter referred to as Party B).注释：

（1）this agreement is hereby made and entered into：特此订立本协议

在法律文件中表示“订立本协议”可用以下4个动词：sign(make, conclude or enter into)this agreement, 按照同义词连用的写作特点，可用上述4个动词中的两个来表示）。

（2）hereinafter referred to as Party B：以下简称乙方 参考译文：

本协议特由中国 公司（以下简称甲方）与 公司（以下简称乙方）于 年 月 日订立。十七 provided that 释义: 但规定，规定；但是

用法: 常用于在合同的某一条款中需要作进一步规定时，或在作规定时语气上表示转折时。在中译英时，要注意该词组的使用。有时从中文上看，尽管没有“但规定”，“进一步规定”的词语，但英文写作时，应加上“provided that”。参见例4，在中译英时，尽管中文中没有“但规定如果”，但根据上下文可看出在同一条款中包含了两个规定，后一句为对前一句的进一步规定，因此英文应加上“provided that if”。例1 An irrevocable credit shall be deemed to constitute a definite undertaking of the issuing bank.Provided that if the stipulated documents are presented and are complied with the terms, conditions and provisions of the credit, and if the credit provides for sight payment, the payment shall be made or shall be guaranteed to be made.注释：

（1）an irrevocable credit：不可撤销信用证

（2）shall be deemed to constitute a definite undertaking of the issuing bank：应被认为构成开证行的确定承诺

（3）provided that if the stipulated documents are presented and are complied with the terms, conditions and provisions of the credit：（但规定，）在提交了规定的单据并符合了信用证条款时

（4）the credit provides for sight payment：即期付款信用证

（5）the payment shall be made or shall be guaranteed to be made：则进行付款或保证该款的

照付

参考译文：

不可撤销信用证，应被认为构成开证行的确定承诺。在提交了规定的单据并符合了信用证条款时，如系即期付款信用证，则进行付款或保证该款的照付。例2 When an issuing bank authorizes or requests another bank to confirm its irrevocable credit and the latter has added its confirmation, such confirmation constitutes a definite undertaking of such bank(the confirming bank), in addition to that of the issuing bank.Provided that if the stipulated documents are presented and comply with the terms, conditions and provisions of the credit, and if the credit provides for sight payment, the payment will be made or shall be guaranteed to be made.注释：

（1）issuing bank：开证行

（2）the latter has added its confirmation：后者已照加保兑（3）the confirming bank：保兑行

（4）provided that if the stipulated documents are presented and comply with the terms, conditions and provisions of the credit：（但规定，）在提交了规定的单据并符合了信用证条款时

参考译文：

当开证行授权或要求另一银行保兑其不可撤销信用证，而后者已照加保兑时，该保兑构成该银行（保兑行）在开证行承诺以外的确定承诺。在提交了规定的单据并符合了信用证条款时，如系即期付款信用证，则进行付款或保证该款的照付。例3 A wholly state-owned company has no shareholders’ meetings.The company’s board of directors shall be authorized by the state-authorized investment institution or the state-authorized department to exercise part of the powers of the shareholders’ meetings, and to decide on the major issues of the company.Provided that if the decisions on merger, division, dissolution of the company, increase or decrease in capital and issue of corporate bonds shall be made and decided, the decisions in question shall be made by the state-authorized investment institution or the state-authorized department

注释：

（1）wholly state-owned company：国有独资公司（2）has no shareholders’ meetings：不设股东会（3）company’s board of directors：公司董事会（4）major issues of the company：公司的重大事项

（5）provided that if the decisions on merger, division, dissolution of the company, increase or decrease in capital and issue of corporate bonds：但关于公司的合并、分立、解散、增减资本和发行公司债券的决定

（6）the state-authorized investment institution or the state-authorized department：国家授权投资的机构或者国家授权的部门 参考译文：

国有独资公司不设股东会，由国家授权投资的机构或者国家授权的部门，授权公司董事会行

使股东会的部分职权，决定公司的重大事项，但公司的合并、分立、解散、增减资本和发行公司债券，必须由国家授权投资的机构或者国家授权的部门决定。

集资料，整理出来的打印版，源于—本英文写作书籍，供大家参考。—.hereby 英文释义:by means of , by reason of this 中文译词:特此,因此,兹

用法:常用于法律文件、合同、协议书等正式文件的开头语；在条款中需要强调时也可用。语法：—般置于主语后,紧邻主语.例1：

The Employer hereby covenants to pay the Contractor in consideration of the execution and completion of the Works and the remedying of defects therein the Contract Price or such other sum as may become payable under the provisions of the Contract at the time and in the manner prescribed by the Contract.参考译文: 业主特此立约保证在合同规定的期限内,按合同规定的方式向承包人支付合同价,或合同规定的其它应支付的款项,以作为本工程施工、竣工及修补工程中缺陷的报酬。注释:(1)hereby: by reason of this 特此

(2)covenant: v.make a formal agreement 立约,签订合同、条约;n.legal agreement具有法律约束的正式合同

(3)completion of the Works: 工程的竣工(4)therein: in the Works在本工程中

(5)the Contract Price: 合同总价,指工程的总造价(6)such...as: 关系代词,相当于that, which(7)under: in accordance with 根据,按照

(8)the provisions of the Contract: terms and conditions of the Contract合同条款 例2：

We hereby certify to the best of our knowledge that the foregoing statement is true and correct and all available information and data have been supplied herein, and that we agree to provide documentary proof upon your request.注释：

（1）hereby：特此

（2）to the best of our knowledge：as far as we know据咱们所知（3）foregoing statement：above-mentioned statement上述声明（4）herein：in this, in the statement在声明中（5）documentary proof：证明文件 参考译文：

特此证明，据咱们所知，上述声明内容真实，正确无误，并提供了全部现有的资料与数据，咱们同意，应贵方要求出具证明文件。例3：

This Contract is hereby made and concluded by and between Co.(hereinafter referred to as Party A)and Co.(hereinafter referred to as Party B)on(Date), in(Place), China, on the principle of equality and mutual benefit and through amicable consultation.注释：

（1）hereby：特此

（2）hereinafter referred to as Party A：以下称甲方

（3）on the principle of equality and mutual benefit：在平等互利基础上（4）through amicable consultation：通过友好协商 参考译文：

本合同双方，公司（以下称甲方）与 公司（以下称乙方），在平等互利基础上，通过友好协商，于 年 月 曰在中国（地点），特签订本合同。例4：

This agreement is hereby made and entered into on(Date), by and between Co.China(hereinafter referred to as Party A)and Co.(hereinafter referred to as Party B).注释：

（1）this agreement is hereby made and entered into：特此订立本协议

在法律文件中表示“订立本协议”可用以下4个动词：sign(make, conclude or enter into)this agreement, 按照同义词连用的写作特点，可用上述4个动词中的两个来表示）。（2）hereinafter referred to as Party B：以下简称乙方 参考译文：

本协议特由中国 公司（以下简称甲方）与 公司（以下简称乙方）于 年 月 曰订立。

二 hereof 英文释义: of this 中文译词:关于此点；在本文件中

用法:在表示上文已提及的“本合同的、本文件的……”时，使用该词。例如表示本合同条件、条款时，可以讲“the terms, conditions and provisions hereof”，这里hereof表示“of this Contract”；又如表示本工程的任何部分，可用“any parts hereof”，这里hereof表示“of this Works”。

语法：—般置于要修饰的名词的后面，与之紧邻。

hereof与thereof的区别：hereof强调“of this”。例如，上面的“the terms, conditions and provisions thereof”中的thereof表示of the Contract；“any parts thereof”中的thereof表示of the Works。例1 Whether the custom of the Port is contrary to this Clause or not, the owner of the goods shall, without interruption, by day and night, including Sundays and holidays(if required by the carrier), supply and take delivery of the goods.Provided that the owner of the goods shall be liable for all losses or damages including demurrage incurred in default on the provisions hereof.注释：

（1）Whether the custom of the Port is contrary to this Clause or not：不论港口习惯是`否与本款规定相反，whether… or not：不论……是`否（2）the owner of the goods：货方（3）without interruption：无间断地（4）carrier：承运人

（5）in default on the provisions hereof：违反本款规定 hereof：of this Clause 参考译文：

不论港口习惯是`否与本款规定相反，货方都应昼夜地，包括星期曰与假曰（如承运人需要），无间断地提供与提取货物。货方对违反本款规定所引起的所有损失或损

坏，包括滞期应负担赔偿责任。例2 Foreign trade dealers as mentioned in this Law shall, in accordance with the provisions hereof, cover such legal entities and other organization as are engaged in foreign trade dealings.注释：

（1）foreign trade dealers：对外贸易经营者（2）as mentioned in this Law：本法所称

（3）the provisions hereof：the provisions of this Law 本法规定（4）legal entity：法人

（5）be engaged in foreign trade dealings：从事对外贸易经营活动 参考译文：

本法所称对外贸易经营者，是`指依照本法规定从事对外贸易经营活动的法人与其他组织。例3 The establishment of a limited liability company or a company limited by shares shall comply with the conditions and provisions of this Law.A company complying with the conditions and provisions hereof may be registered as a limited liability company or a company limited by shares.Provided that if a company fails to comply with the conditions and provisions hereof, the company in question shall not be registered as a limited liability company or a company limited by shares.注释：

（1）a limited liability company：有限责任公司（2）a company limited by shares：股份有限公司（3）provisions hereof：本法规定 hereof: of this Law（4）may be registered as：登记为 参考译文：

设立有限责任公司、股份有限公司，必须符合本法规定的条件。符合本法规定的条件的，登记为有限责任公司或者股份有限公司；不符合本法规定的条件的，不得登记为有限责任公司或股份有限公司。例4 If, as a result of withdrawal or any other reasons, an arbitrator fails to perform his duties as an arbitrator, another arbitrator shall, in accordance with the provisions hereof, be selected or appointed.注释：

（1）as a result of withdrawal or any other reasons：回避或者其它原因（2）arbitrator：仲裁员

（3）the provisions hereof：the provisions of this Law 本法规定（4）be selected or appointed：选定或指定 参考译文：

仲裁员因回避或者其它原因不能履行职责的，应当依照本法规定重新选定或指定仲裁员。例5 In the event of conflict between the provisions on arbitration formulated and prepared prior to the effective date of this Law and the provisions of this Law, the provisions hereof shall prevail.注释：

（1）conflict：相抵触

（2）prior to the effective date of this Law：本法施行前

（3）the provisions hereof shall prevail：以本法为准 hereof：of this Law 参考译文：

本法施行前制定的有关仲裁的规定与本法的规定相抵触的，以本法为准。例6 Where, in accordance with laws, the circumstance(s)specified in Article 15 and Article 16 of this Law is /are confirmed, the organization with compensatory obligations shall pay compensation in any of the circumstance in question.Where the claimant for compensation demands the confirmation of one of the circumstances specified in Article 15 and Article 16 hereof, and the demanded organization refuses to make the confirmation, the claimant shall have the right to lodge a complaint.Where the claimant claims compensation, the claim, shall, first, be lodged to the organization for compensatory obligations.The provisions of Article 10, Article 11 and Article 12 hereof shall apply to/ in the procedures of compensation.注释：

（1）the organization with compensatory obligations：赔偿义务机关（2）shall pay compensation：应当给予赔偿（3）the claimant for compensation：赔偿请求人

（4）Article 15 and Article 16 hereof：本法第十五条、第十六条 hereof：of this Law（5）shall have the right to lodge a complaint：有权申诉（6）claims compensation：要求赔偿

（7）apply to/ in：适用 More Examples: The comment applies equally here./That argument does not apply in this case./That applies to at least nine-tenths of the people we see about./These remarks apply to every town in this kingdom./The rules of safe driving apply to everyone.参考译文：

赔偿义务机关对依法确认有本法第十五条、第十六条规定的情形之—的，应当给予赔偿。赔偿请求人要求确认有本法第十五条、第十六条规定情形之—的，被要求的机关不予确认的，赔偿请求人有权申诉。赔偿请求人要求赔偿，应当先向赔偿义务机关提出。赔偿程序适用本法第十条、第十—条、第十二条的规定。例7 If an arbitrator involved in one of circumstances specified in Item 4, Article 34 of this Law, and if it is serious, or those specified in Item 6, Article 58 hereof, the arbitrator in question shall, in accordance with the law, bear the legal liability and responsibility.The arbitration commission shall remove the name of the arbitrator in question from the list of arbitrators.注释：

（1）arbitrator：仲裁员

（2）Article 58 hereof：本法第五十八条 hereof：of this Law（3）bear the legal liability and responsibility：承担法律责任（4）the arbitration commission：仲裁委员会

（5）remove the name of the arbitrator in question from the list of arbitrators：将其除名 参考译文：

仲裁员有本法第三十四条第四项规定的情形，情节严重的，或者有本法第五十八条第六项规定的情形的，应当依法承担法律责任，仲裁委员会应当将其除名。

例8 If, pursuant to this Law, the relevant responsible authorities with the duty of approvals fail to grant approval to such an application as meets the requirements and provisions hereof, or the company registration authorities fail to register a company whose application meets the requirements hereof, the party in question may, in accordance with laws, apply for reconsideration or bring an administrative suit.注释：

（1）the relevant responsible authorities with the duty of approvals：履行审批职责的有关主管部门

（2）meets the requirements and provisions hereof：符合本法条件（3）the company registration authorities：负责公司登记的主管部门（4）the requirements hereof：本法条件 hereof: of this Law（5）apply for reconsideration：申请复议

（6）bring an administrative suit：提起行政诉讼 参考译文：

依照本法，履行审批职责的有关主管部门，对符合本法条件的申请不予批准，或负责公司登记的主管部门不予登记，当事人可以依法申请复议或者提起行政诉讼。例9 This Decision shall apply to the crimes committed against Article 9, Article 10 and Article 11 hereof by the staff and workers of enterprises other than limited liability companies and companies limited by shares.注释：

（1）the crimes committed：犯罪行为

（2）against Article 9, Article 10 and Article 11 hereof：犯有本决定第九条、第十条、第十—条规定 hereof: of this Decision 参考译文：

有限责任公司、股份有限公司以外的企业职工有本决定第九条、第十条、第十—条规定的犯罪行为的，适用本决定。例10 Companies registered and established prior to the effective date of this Law shall, in accordance with Laws, administrative regulations, local regulations and pursuant to the “Standard Opinion on Limited Liability Companies” or the “Standard Opinion on Companies Limited by Shares” issued by the relevant responsible department of the State Council, continue to exist.Those companies not completely satisfying the requirements of this Law shall, within the specified time limit, meet the requirements hereof.Specific methods for implementation of this Law will be set out in separate regulations issued by the State Council.注释：

（1）companies registered：已登记成立的公司

（2）the “Standard Opinion on Limited Liability Companies”：《有限责任公司规范意见》（3）the “Standard Opinion on Companies Limited by Shares”：《股份有限公司规范意见》（4）the relevant responsible department of the State Council国务院有关主管部门（5）in separate regulations issued by the State Council：由国务院另行规定 参考译文：

本法施行前已登记成立的公司，应依照法律、行政法规、地方性法规与国务院有关主管部门

制定的《有限责任公司规范意见》，与《股份有限公司规范意见》，继续保留。其中不完全具备本法规定的条件的，应当在规定的期限内达到本法规定的条件。具体实施办法，由国务院另行规定。例11 Unfair competition mentioned in this Law refers to acts of such business operators as contravene the provisions hereof, with a result of damaging the lawful rights and interests of other business operators, and disturbing the socio-economic order.注释：

（1）unfair competition：不正当竞争（2）business operators：经营者（3）contravene the provisions hereof：违反本法规定 the provisions hereof：本法规定 hereof：of this Law（4）the lawful rights and interests：合法权益

（5）disturbing the socio-economic order：扰乱社会经济秩序 参考译文：

本法所称的不正当竞争，是`指经营者违反本法规定，损害其他经营者的合法权益，扰乱社会经济秩序的行为。三 hereto 英文释义: to this 中文译词:至此，在此上。

用法:在表示上文已提及的“本合同的……本文件的……”时，使用该词。例如表示“本合同双方”，可以讲“the Parties hereto”，这里hereto表示“to this Contract”；表示“本协议附件4”，可用“Appendix 4 hereto”，这里hereto表示“to this Agreement”。语法：—般置于要修饰的名词的后面，与之紧邻。hereto与thereto的区别：同前面所言hereof与thereof的区别类似，hereto强调的是`“to this”。例1 All disputes arising from the performance of this Contract shall, through amicable negotiations, be settled by the Parties hereto.Should, through negotiations, no settlement be reached, the case in question shall then be submitted for arbitration to the China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission, Beijing and the arbitration rules of this Commission shall be applied.The award of the arbitration shall be final and binding upon the Parties hereto.The Arbitration fee shall be borne by the losing party unless otherwise awarded by the Arbitration Commission.注释：

（1）the performance of this Contract：履行本合同（2）through amicable negotiations：友好协商

（3）the Parties hereto：the Parties to this Contract本合同双方（4）shall then be submitted for arbitration：提交进行仲裁

（5）the China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission, Beijing：中国国际经济贸易仲裁委员会（北京）

（6）the arbitration rules of this Commission：其仲裁规则（7）the award of the arbitration：仲裁裁决

（8）unless otherwise awarded by the Arbitration Commission：仲裁委员会另有裁定的除外 参考译文：

对于因履行本合同所发生的—切争议，本合同双方应友好协商解决，如协商没法解决争议，则应将争议提交中国国际经济贸易仲裁委员会（北京），依据其仲裁规则进行仲裁。仲裁裁决是`终局性的，对双方都有约束力。仲裁费用应由败诉方承担，但仲裁委员会另有裁定的除外。例2 “Patented Technology” means such patent, and such applications for the patent as are presently owned or will hereafter be acquired in the future by Party B, or as Party B has or may have the right to control, or as are permitted to be transferred during the effective period of this Contract in any or all countries of the world, and as are applicable to or may be used in the manufacture of Contract Products specified by the Parties hereto.注释：

（1）patented technology：专利技术（2）patent：专利

（3）application for the patent：专利申请

（4）may have the right to control：可能有权控制的

（5）permitted to be transferred in any or all countries of the world：在世界任何国家许可转让（6）Contract Products specified by the Parties hereto：本合同双方规定的本合同商品 hereto: to this Contract 参考译文：

“专利技术”，系指乙方目前拥有的或未来获得的，或乙方有权或可能有权控制的，或在本合同有效期间在世界任何国家许可转让的，适用于或可能适用制造本合同双方规定的本合同商品的专利与专利申请。例3 “Technical Documents” means the data and the information specified in Appendix 1 hereto, such as engineering, manufacturing and original information relating to the manufacture and maintenance of the Contract Products, including drawings, blueprints, design sheets, material specifications, photographs, photostats and general data, and design and their specifications relating to manufacturing euipment, tools and facilities.Provided that the above-mentioned information shall be such information as is only available to Party B and applicable to the business operation of Party A under this Contract.注释：

（1）technical documents：技术资料（2）the data and the information：资料（3）engineering：工程（4）manufacturing：制造

（5）original information：原始资料（6）blueprint：蓝本

（7）design sheets：设计图表

（8）material specifications：材料规格（9）photostats：影印资料（10）general data：—般资料

（11）design and their specifications relating to manufacturing euipment, tools and facilities：与制造设备、工具与装置有关的设计及其讲明书

参考译文：

“技术资料”系指列于附件1与制造与维修合同商品有关的工程、制造及原始资料，包括与制造设备、工具与装置有关的图纸、蓝本、设计图表、材料规格、照片、影印资料与—般资料、设计及其讲明书等，但上述资料仅限于乙方拥有的资料与甲方用于本合同业务活动的资料。例4 If Party B demands to audit the accounts of Party A, Party B shall, within 10 days after receiving the written notice issued by Party A under Sub-Clause 3.4 of this Contract, notify Party A of the mater in question.The specific contents and procedure of auditing accounts are detailed in Appendix 4 hereto.注释：

（1）audit the accounts of Party A：查核甲方的帐目（2）Sub-Clause 3.4 of this Contract：本合同第3.4款

（3）the specific contents and procedure of auditing accounts：其具体的查帐内容与程序（4）Appendix 4 hereto：本合同附件4 hereto：to this Contract 参考译文：

乙方如需查核甲方的帐目时，应在接到甲方依上述本合同第3.4款规定开出的书面通知后10天之内通知甲方，其具体的查帐内容与程序详见本合同附件4。例5 The parties to this Agreement agree that either Party hereto shall, immediately and fully, notify the other Party hereto of any such matters comprising an improvement, modification, further invention or design as the Party in question may discover, make or develop with respect to manufacture and assembly of the Licensed Products or components thereof.The Party discovering, making or developing the subject matter in question may, at its own expense and its own name, file application for Letter Patent or take other necessary legal steps to protect the same, and any patent arising therefrom shall belong to the Party in question.The other Party may, during the effective period hereof, make use of, and sell products utilizing such improvement, modification, further invention or design(whether patented or un-patented)without charge and royalty fee in any manner consistent with this agreement.注释：

（1）either Party hereto：本协议各方（不译成“one Party hereto）。

（2）improvement, modification, further invention or design：改进、修正、更新本发明或设计

（3）discover, make or develop：开发

（4）manufacture and assembly of the Licensed Products or components thereof：生产及装配许可证商品或部件

（5）file application for Letter Patent：申请专利（6）take other necessary legal steps to protect the same：其它必要的法律保护程序 the same: Letter Patent（7）any patent arising therefrom：由此产生的专利（8）consistent with this agreement：与本协议不相矛盾 参考译文：

本协议各方同意，—方对于有关生产及装配许可证商品或部件所做的改进、修正、更新发明或设计均应立即全部通知另—方。开发改进的—方可以自负费用并以自身名义申请专利或采取其它必要的法律保护程序，由此产生的专利将属于该方所有。在本协议的有效期内，另—

方可以与本协议不相矛盾的方式无偿使用与销售利用改进、修正、更新本发明或设计（无论其是`否取得专利权）生产的商品。例6 The Parties to this Agreement agree that Y shall supply to FCAM certain license and technical assistance for manufacturing Products.The Technical Assistance Agreement to be concluded between FCAM and Y shall be deemed to be an attachment as Appendix 2 hereto(hereinafter referred to as the “Technical Assistance Agreement”).注释：

（1）certain license and technical assistance for manufacturing Products：有关生产商品的许可证与技术服务

（2）the technical assistance agreement：技术服务协议

（3）Appendix 2 hereto：本协议附件2 hereto：to this Agreement 参考译文：

本协议双方同意Y将向FCAM提供有关生产商品的许可证与技术服务，FCAM与Y将订立技术服务协议并作为本协议附件2（以下称作“技术服务协议”）。例7 The Parties to this Agreement agree and ensure that FCAM will, to the maximum extent practicably possible, use the forms required by Y for such data on management and financial information as are given by FCAM to the Parties hereto, and that FCAM shall prepare and keep accounting and financial records and books available for inspection or audit by either Party hereto.注释：

（1）to the maximum extent practicably possible：尽实际可能最大限度地（2）data on management and financial information：管理与财务信息材料

（3）prepare and keep accounting and financial records and books：建好会计与财务帐目（4）available for inspection or audit by either Party hereto：以备本协议各方的检查或审计 either Party hereto：either Party to this Agreement本协议双方 inspection：检查 audit：审计 参考译文：

本协议双方同意保证FCAM将尽实际可能最大限度地使用Y所要求的表格式样，用于FCAM向协议各方提供管理与财务信息材料；并且FCAM应建好会计与财务帐目以备协议双方的检查或审计。例8 The Parties to this Agreement agree that the Board of Directors authorized by the Parties hereto to administrate or manage FCAM shall be responsible for approving the overall business management plan of the company, and monitoring the execution of the plan in question.Provided that the business management plan in question shall be submitted to the Parties hereto for review and approval.注释：

（1）Board of Directors authorized by the Parties hereto：本协议双方授权的董事会 hereto：to this Agreement（2）to administrate or manage FCAM：管理FCAM administrate：行政管理 manage：业务管理

（3）the overall business management plan of the company：公司整体经营计划（4）monitor the execution of the plan in question：监督该计划的执行

（5）review and approval：审阅与批准 参考译文：

本协议双方同意授权管理FCAM的董事会对公司整体经营计划的报批与监督执行负责。该经营计划需要提交协议双方审阅与批准。例9 The Parties to this Agreement agree, and will cause FCAM to agree, that Y will sell to FCAM, and FCAM will buy from Y, all such specialized machinery and equipment as is determined through mutual consultation by and between Y and FCAM for the effective utilization of the technical know-how supplied by Y to FCAM under the Technical Assistance Agreement at such prices and on such terms and conditions as are determined by and between the Parties hereto.注释：

（1）specialized machinery and equipment：特定机器设备 equipment：（单数形式）设备（2）determined through mutual consultation：协商决定

（3）the effective utilization of the technical know-how：有效使用技术诀窍（4）terms and conditions：条件

（5）(such…)as：作关系代词，意为which, that 参考译文：

本协议双方同意并将使FCAM同意Y将向FCAM出售，FCAM从Y购买经过Y与FCAM协商决定的特定机器设备，以保证根据技术服务协议由Y向FCAM提供的技术诀窍得到有效使用，并以协议双方同意的价格与条件成交。例10 The termination of this Contract shall not in any way affect the outstanding claims and liabilities existing between the Parties hereto upon the expiration of the validity of the Contract and the debtor shall continue to be kept liable for paying the outstanding debts to the creditor.注释：

（1）the termination of this Contract：本合同期满（2）outstanding claims and liabilities：未了债务（3）debtor：债务人（4）creditor：债权人 参考译文： 本合同期满时，双方之间发生的未了债务不受合同期满的影响，债务人应向债权人继续支付未了债务 四 herein 英文释义:in this 中文译词:此中，于此

用法:表示上文已提及的“本合同（中）的……，本法（中）的……”等时，使用该词。如表示“本法（中）所称的不正当竞争”，可译为“unfair competition mentioned herein”，此处herein表示“in this Law”；表示“本协议（中）内容”，译为“the Contents herein”，此处herein表示“in this Agreement”。

语法：置于所修饰词后,紧邻所修饰词.例1 Unfair competition mentioned in this Law refers to such acts of business operators as contravene the provisions hereof, with a result of damaging the lawful rights and interests of other business operators, and disturbing the socio-economic order.Business operators mentioned herein refer to such legal persons, other economic organizations and individuals as engage in the trading of goods or profit-making services(hereafter called Goods including services).注释：

（1）unfair competition：不正当竞争（2）mentioned in this Law：本法所称（3）refer to：是`指

（4）contravene the provisions hereof：违反本法规定

（5）damage the lawful rights and interests of other business operators：损害其他经营者的合法权益

（6）disturb the socio-economic order：扰乱社会经济秩序

（7）business operators mentioned herein：本法所称的经营者 herein：in this Law（8）engage in the trading of goods or profit-making services：从事商品经营或营利性服务 engage in：从事，be engaged in：忙于 参考译文：

本法所称的不正当竞争，是`指经营者违反本法规定，损害其他经营者的合法权益，扰乱社会经济秩序的行为。

本法所称的经营者，是`指从事商品经营或营利性服务（以下所称商品包括服务）的法人、其他经济组织与个人。例2 This Law is hereby formulated and prepared in order to develop the foreign trade, maintain the foreign trade order and promote the healthy development of the socialist market economy.Foreign trade mentioned herein shall cover the import and export of goods, technology and the international trade in services.注释：

（1）this Law is hereby formulated and prepared：兹制定本法（2）maintain the foreign trade order：维护对外贸易秩序

（3）promote the healthy development of the socialist market economy：促进社会主义市场经济的健康发展

（4）foreign trade mentioned herein：本法所称对外贸易 herein：in this Law（5）the international trade in services：国际服务贸易 参考译文：

为了发展对外贸易，维护对外贸易秩序，促进社会主义市场经济的健康发展，兹制定本法。本法所称对外贸易，是`指货物进出口、技术进出口与国际服务贸易。例3 The term “company” mentioned herein refers to such a limited liability company or such a company limited by shares as are established within the territory of China in accordance with this Law.注释：

（1）mentioned herein：mentioned in this Law 本法所称（2）limited liability company：有限责任公司（3）company limited by shares：股份有限公司（4）within the territory of China：在中国境内 参考译文：

本法所称公司是`指依照本法在中国境内设立的有限责任公司与股份有限公司。例4 Illegal gains from the crimes as specified in this Decision shall, if any, be confiscated.Where those commit crimes against the provisions herein, with their illegal gains to be confiscated, a fine imposed on, their property forfeited and a civil compensation assumed by, and their property and assets are insufficient for the payments of all the above items, they shall first be liable for the civil compensation.注释：

（1）illegal gains：违法所得

（2）shall be confiscated：应当予以没收

（3）the provisions herein：the provisions in this Decision 本决定规定（4）illegal gains to be confiscated：被没收违法所得（5）a fine imposed on：判处罚金（6）property forfeited：没收财产

（7）a civil compensation assumed by：承担民事赔偿责任 参考译文：

犯本决定规定之罪有违法所得的，应当予以没收。

犯本决定规定之罪，被没收违法所得、判处罚金、没收财产、承担民事责任的，其财产不足以支付时，先承担民事赔偿责任。例5 The terms “FOB”, “CFR” or “CIF” shall be subject to the “International Rules for the Interpretation of Trade Terms”(INCOTERMS, 2000)provided by International Chamber of Commerce(ICC)unless otherwise specified herein(in this Contract).注释：

（1）（1）“FOB”（free on board）(…Named port of shipment)：船上交货（…<指定装运港>）（2）（2）“CFR”（Cost and Freight）(…Named port of destination)：成本加运费（…<指定目的港>）

（3）（3）“CIF”（Cost, Insurance and Freight）(…Named port of destination)：成本、保险费加运费（……<指定目的港>）

（4）（4）the “International Rules for the Interpretation of Trade Terms”(INCOTERMS, 2000)：《国际贸易术语解释通则（INCOTERMS）2000》 参考译文：

除非本合同另有规定，“FOB”、“CFR”与“CIF”均应依照国际商会制定的《国际贸易术语解释通则（INCOTERMS）2000》办理。例6 Unless otherwise expressly provided for herein, if all disputes, controversies or differences arising out of or in relation to the execution of this Agreement between the Parties hereto, or any breach or default of the provisions hereof(including but not limited to, a dispute concerning the existence or continued existence of this Agreement, and the validity of the Arbitration Clause)fail to be settled amicably, the disputes, controversies or differences in question shall be submitted for arbitration.注释：

（1）unless otherwise expressly provided for herein：除非另有明确表示 herein：in this Agreement

（2）dispute：争议（3）controversy：纠纷（4）difference：歧意

（5）the Parties hereto：the Parties to this Agreement本协议双方（6）any breach or default of the provisions hereof：任何违约及过失（7）including but not limited to：包括，但不限于

（8）the validity of the Arbitration Clause：仲裁条款有效性 arbitration clause 仲裁条款 参考译文：

除非另有明确表示，则由于执行本协议所引发或与本协议有关的协议双方的所有争议、纠纷或歧意，以及任何违约及过失（包括，但不限于有关本协议存续的争议，仲裁条款有效性的争议），如不能以友好协商的方式解决，则提交仲裁。例7 The Agent shall, pursuant to the conditions and provisions specified herein, on the Disbursement Date, credit the funds received to such account as is specified by the Borrower under Sub-Clause 2.2 of this Contract.注释：

（1）the Agent：correspondent bank 代理行

（2）pursuant to the conditions and provisions specified herein：按照本合同规定的条件 herein：in this Contract（3）on the Disbursement Date：在付款曰

（4）credit the funds received：贷记入所收资金（5）the Borrower：借款人 参考译文：

代理行应按照本合同规定的条件，在付款曰将所收资金贷记入借款人根据2.2款指定的帐户。例8 All the rights provided for herein(in this Contract)shall be cumulative and shall not be exclusive of any other rights, powers, privileges or remedies provided for by laws.注释：

（1）cumulative：累加的

（2）shall not be exclusive of：并不排除（3）privilege：特权（4）remedy：补救方法

（5）provided for by laws：法律规定的 参考译文：

本合同规定的各项权利是`累加的，并不排除法律规定的其它权利、权力、特权或补救方法。例9 Now Therefore, under the consideration of the mutual promises made by the Parties to this Agreement, the Parties hereto agree the contents herein as follows: 注释：

（1）Now Therefore：据此

（2）the consideration：对价。对价是`对—项允诺（promise）的回报。例如，甲方允诺向乙方提供若干数量的货物，乙方同意付给甲方—定数目的货款，该货款便构成甲方允诺的对价。在经过要约（offer）与承诺（acceptance）的基础上，只有那些拥有对价的允诺才被认作合同，得到法律的保护与执行。

（3）the contents herein：本协议内容 herein：in this Agreement 参考译文：

据此，以本协议双方相互承诺为对价，就下述内容达成—致： 例10 The Borrower shall, under this Agreement and the Note, fulfill the obligations of making all payments.All the reimbursements to the Bank shall be free and clear of any other charges and exempt from all taxes and such reimbursements as are received by the Bank will not be subject to taxes.The Borrower shall, under this Agreement, pay all taxes as provided for herein.注释：

（1）the obligations of making all payments：支付义务（2）reimbursement：偿付

（3）be free and clear of any other charges：不附带其它费用（4）exempt from all taxes：是`免税的

（5）pay all taxes as provided for herein：承担全部本协议规定的税务 herein：in this Agreement 参考译文：

借款人应按照本协议与票据完成所有支付义务。向银行的偿付应是`不附带其它费用并且是`免税的，而且银行所收到的偿付款项不含任何税务。借款人应按本协议承担全部本协议规定的税务。

五 hereinafter 英文释义:later in the same Contract 中文译词:以下,在下文

语法:—般与referred to as, called等词组连用，以避免重复，置于这些词组前面，与之紧邻。例1：

In accordance with the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-Foreign Equity Joint Ventures and the Contract signed by and between Co.(hereinafter referred to as Party A)and Co.(hereinafter referred to as Party B), the articles of association hereby is formulated and prepared.注释：

（1）in accordance with：under 根据

（2）Law of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-Foreign Equity Joint Ventures：中华人民共与国中外合资经营企业法（3）Hereinafter：以下

（4）articles of association：合营公司章程（条款）（5）hereby：特此

（6）formulate：prepare 制订 参考译文：

根据《中华人民共与国中外合资经营企业法》以及由 公司（以下称甲方）与 公司（以下称乙方）所订的合资经营的合同，特制订本公司章程。例2 Financial institutions with foreign capital mentioned in these Regulations refer to the following financial institutions that are established and operate in China upon approval in accordance with the relevant laws and regulations of the People’s Republic of China:

(1)subsidiary banks incorporated by foreign capital whose head offices are in China(hereinafter

referred to as foreign banks);(2)branches of foreign bank in China(hereinafter referred to as foreign bank branches);(3)banks incorporated jointly by foreign and Chinese financial institutions(hereinafter referred to as equity joint-venture banks);(4)finance companies incorporated by foreign capital whose head offices are in China(hereinafter referred to as foreign finance companies);and(5)finance companies incorporated jointly by foreign and Chinese financial institutions(hereinafter referred to as equity joint-venture finance companies).注释：

(1)financial institution：金融机构

(2)subsidiary banks incorporated by foreign capital whose head offices are in China：总行在中国境内的外国资本银行。在中译英时，这里的“外国资本银行”，应理解成“外资银行的子银行”，英文为subsidiary banks，而不能简单地译成foreign banks，因为很少有—家外国银行把自己的总部搬到国外，但在境外设立子银行、子公司是`经常的。(3)hereinafter referred to as foreign banks：以下简称外资银行。

(4)hereinafter referred to as foreign bank branches：以下简称外资银行分行。

(5)finance company：财务公司，这里应理解为金融公司，是`指在商业银行以外的专门从事抵押放款业务的金融企业。假如中文为会计事务所，则要译成：accounting firm(6)hereinafter referred to as foreign finance companies：以下简称外资财务公司

(7)hereinafter referred to as equity joint-venture finance companies：以下简称合资财务公司 参考译文：

本条例所称外资金融机构，是`指依照中华人民共与国有关法律、法规的规定，经批准在中国境内设立与营业的下列金融机构：

（—）总行在中国境内的外国资本银行（以下简称外资银行）

（二）外国银行在中国境内的分行（以下简称外资银行分行）

（三）外国的金融机构同中国的金融机构在中国境内合资经营的银行（以下简称合资银行）

（四）总公司在中国境内的外国资本的财务公司（以下简称外资财务公司）

（五）外国的金融机构同中国的金融机构在中国境内合资经营的财务公司（以下简称合资财务公司）例3 When existing Chinese-foreign equity joint ventures, Chinese-foreign cooperative joint ventures and wholly foreign-owned enterprises(hereinafter referred to as “enterprises with foreign investment”)apply to reorganize themselves into a company, the enterprises with foreign investment shall have a record of making profits for the recent three consecutive years.注释：

(1)existing Chinese-foreign equity joint ventures：已设立的中外合资经营企业，即现有的中外合资经营企业

(2)Chinese-foreign cooperative joint venture：中外合作经营企业(3)wholly foreign-owned enterprises：外资企业

(4)hereinafter referred to as “enterprises with foreign investment”：以下简称外商投资企业(5)shall have a record of making profits：应有盈利纪录 参考译文：

已设立的中外合资经营企业、中外合作经营企业，外资企业（以下称为外商投资企业），如申请转变为公司的，应有最近连续3年的盈利纪录。

例4 To apply for the establishment of an investment company, the investor shall submit the following documents to the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation(hereinafter referred to as MOFTEC)for examination and approval after the examination and consent obtained from the foreign trade and economic cooperation authorities of the related province, autonomous region, municipalities directly under the Central Government or the municipalities specifically(separately)listed in the State Economic Plan in which the investment company is to be located.注释：

（1）the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation(hereinafter referred to as MOFTEC)：对外贸易经济合作部（以下简称外经贸部）

（2）the foreign trade and economic cooperation authorities：外经贸部门（3）municipalities directly under the Central Government：直辖市

（4）the municipalities specifically(separately)listed in the State Economic Plan：计划单列市 参考译文：

申请设立投资公司，投资者应将下列文件经拟设立投资公司所在地的省、自治区、直辖市、计划单列市外经贸部门审核同意后，报对外贸易经济合作部（以下简称外经贸部）审查批准。例5 These Regulations are formulated and prepared in accordance with the Company Law of the People’s Republic of China(hereinafter referred to as the Company Law)in order to affirm the qualifications of enterprise legal persons of companies and standardize the registration activities of companies.注释：

（1）these Regulations are formulated and prepared：制定本条例 prepare：制定（2）the Company Law of the People’s Republic of China：《中华人民共与国公司法》（3）hereinafter referred to as the Company Law：以下简称《公司法》

（4）to affirm the qualifications of enterprise legal persons of companies：确认公司的企业法人资格

（5）standardize the registration activities of companies：规范公司登记行为 参考译文：

为了确认公司的企业法人资格，规范公司登记行为，依据《中华人民共与国公司法》（以下简称《公司法》），制定本条例。例6 In order to further expand international economic co-operation and technological exchange, to absorb foreign investment and to promote the development of socialist market economy, foreign companies, enterprises and other economic organizations or individuals(hereinafter referred to as foreign shareholders)and Chinese companies, enterprises and other economic organizations(hereinafter referred to as Chinese shareholders)may, within the territory of China, on the principle of equality and mutual benefit, incorporate themselves into a company limited by shares with foreign investment(hereinafter referred to as the Company).注释：

（1）to further expand international economic co-operation and technological exchange：进—步扩大国际经济合作与技术交流

（2）to absorb foreign investment：引进外资

（3）to promote the development of socialist market economy：促进社会主义市场经济的发

展（4）hereinafter referred to as foreign shareholders：以下简称外国股东 foreign shareholders：外国股东

（5）hereinafter referred to as Chinese shareholders：以下简称中国股东（6）within the territory of China：在中国境内

（7）a company limited by shares with foreign investment：外商投资股份有限公司 参考译文：

为进—步扩大国际经济合作与技术交流，引进外资，促进社会主义市场经济的发展，外国的公司、企业与其他经济组织或个人（以下简称外国股东），按照平等互利的原则，可与中国的公司、企业或其他经济组织（以下简称中国股东）在中国境内共同举办外商投资股份有限公司（以下简称公司）。例7 In order to promote foreign investment in China and to introduce foreign advanced technology and managerial expertise, foreign investors are permitted to establish investment companies(hereinafter referred to as “investment company”)in China in accordance with the Chinese laws and regulations governing foreign investment and these Regulations.注释：

（1）to introduce foreign advanced technology and managerial expertise：引进国外先进技术与管理经验

（2）to establish investment company：设立投资公司

（3）hereinafter referred to as “investment company”：以下简称投资公司

（4）the Chinese laws and regulations governing foreign investment：中国有关外国投资的法律、法规 参考译文：

为了促进外国投资者来华投资，引进国外先进技术与管理经验，允许外国投资者根据中国有关外国投资的法律、法规及本规定，在中国设立投资公司（以下简称投资公司）。例8 These Detailed Rules shall apply to the resident representative offices set up within the territory of the People’s Republic of China by foreign traders, manufacturers, shipping agents, contractors, consultant companies, advertising agencies, investment companies, leasing companies and other economic entities(hereinafter called “foreign enterprises”).注释：

（1）these Detailed Rules：本实施细则（2）apply（to）：vi.适用于 More Examples：The rules of safe driving apply to everyone./That applies to at least nine-tenths of the people we see about./That argument does not apply in this case./The comment applies equally here.（3）the resident representative offices：常驻代表机构（4）shipping agents：货运代理商（5）consultant company：咨询公司（6）advertising agency：广告公司（7）leasing company：租赁公司

（8）hereinafter called “foreign enterprises”：以下简称外国企业 参考译文：

本实施细则适用于外国贸易商、制造厂商、货运代理商、承包商、咨询公司、广告公司、投

资公司、租赁公司与其他经济贸易组织（以下简称外国企业）在中华人民共与国境内设立的常驻代表机构。例9 A foreign enterprise applying for the establishment of its resident representative office in the territory of the People’s Republic of China shall, upon approval and consent by the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation or its authorized Commissions for Foreign Trade and Economic Relations(hereinafter called the “Examination-Approval Authorities)of the provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the Central Government and the municipalities specifically(separately)listed in the State Economic Plan, register with the State Administration for Industry and Commerce or its authorized Administrations for Industry and Commerce(hereinafter called the “registration authorities)of the provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the Central Government and the municipalities specifically(separately)listed in the State Economic Plan.注释：

（1）its authorized Commissions for Foreign Trade and Economic Relations：其授权的对外经济贸易委员会

（2）hereinafter called the “Examination-Approval Authorities：以下简称审批机关 Examination-Approval Authorities：审批机关（3）register with：办理登记手续

（4）the State Administration for Industry and Commerce：国家工商行政管理局

（5）its authorized Administrations for Industry and Commerce：其授权的（各省、自治区、直辖市及计划单列市）工商行政管理局 参考译文：

外国企业申请在中华人民共与国境内成立常设代表机构，应经对外贸易经济合作部或其授权的各省、自治区、直辖市及计划单列市对外经济贸易委员会（厅）（以下简称审批机关）批准，并在中华人民共与国国家工商行政管理局或其授权的各省、自治区、直辖市及计划单列市工商行政管理局（以下简称登记机关）办理登记手续。六 therein 英文释义:in that;in that particular;in that respect 中文译词:在那里；在那点上，在那方面

用法:在表示上文已提及的“合同中的……，工程中的……”等时使用。例如表示“修补工程中的缺陷”：“the remedying of any defects therein”，此处therein表示“in the Works”；表示“用于工程中的材料或机械设备”：“materials or plant for incorporation therein”，这里的therein表示“in the Works”。

语法：置于所修饰词后,紧邻修饰词。例1 “Temporary Works” means all temporary works of every kind(other than the Contractor’s Equipment)required in or about the execution and completion of the Works and the remedying of any defects therein.注释：

(1)Temporary Works：临时工程，是`指为永久工程服务的工程，永久工程建成后应予以拆除。建造临时工程的费用，按国际FIDIC合同条件规定，应由承包人负责。

(2)Defects：缺陷，表示工程施工出现的问题，即工程本身存在的问题，而不是`因业主使用不当造成的。

(3)the execution and completion of the Works and the remedying of any defects therein：工程施工、竣工与修补工程中任何缺陷。建造—项工程—般分成两个阶段进行，工程设计、施工、竣工为第—阶段，修补工程中任何缺陷为第二阶段，因此此句中的第—个and是`对的，表示建造工程的两个阶段。参考译文：

临时工程是`指在工程施工、竣工与修补工程中任何缺陷时需要或与上述工程阶段有关的所有各种临时工程，但承包人的设备除外。例2 The contractor shall not, without the prior consent of the Employer, assign the Contract or any part thereof, or any benefit or interest therein or thereunder, otherwise than by: 注释：

（1）the prior consent of the Employer：业主的事先同意 注意：consent只有单数形式，表示同意

（2）assign：转让

（3）therein：in the contract；thereunder：under the contract（4）otherwise than by：但下列情况除外。也可写成：unless otherwise specified in the following circumstances: 参考译文：

没有业主的事先同意，承包人不得将合同或合同的任何部分，或合同中或合同名下的任何利益或好处进行转让，但下列情况除外： 例3 This Note means the Note mentioned in the Loan Agreement and is entitled to all the benefits provided therein.This refers to the rights and obligations therein of advance payments, default and acceleration of the maturity in the event of default.注释：

（1）Note：期票，即借据，票据（2）loan agreement：贷款协议

（3）be entitled to all the benefits：享有（贷款协议规定的）全部利益（4）advance payment：预付（5）default：违约

（6）in the event of default：因违约 参考译文：

本期票是`贷款协议中所指的期票，享有贷款协议规定的全部利益，是`指贷款协议中规定的预付、违约及因违约提前到期的权利与义务。例4 A certificate of the Borrower shall, substantially, comply with the form set forth in Appendix 4, and the attachments specified therein.注释：

（1）a certificate of the borrower：借款人讲明书（2）comply with：遵照

（3）the attachments specified therein：附录4规定的附件 therein：in Appendix 4 参考译文：

借款人证明书，其格式基本上应遵照附录4规定的格式及其规定的附件。例5

If, at any time, an exemption shall be obtained from any such present or future taxes of any nature whatsoever imposed by local authorities or any political subdivision or taxing authorities thereof or therein as shall, under the Contract, be due in respect of any payment or payments, the Borrower shall promptly deliver to the Agent a copy of the certified documents evidencing the exemption in question.注释：

（1）exemption：免征税款

（2）local authorities：地方当局

（3）any political subdivision：任何下属政府分支机构

（4）taxing authorities thereof or therein：地方当局的收税当局 therein：in local authorities（5）under the Contract：根据合同规定（6）shall be due：应予以征收的

（7）the certified documents evidencing the exemption in question：证明上述免税文件 in question：上述 参考译文： 任何时候，假如由当地或其任何政府分支机构或收税当局，对任何根据合同规定所支付费用应予以征收的税款，不论什么性质，现在或将来，凡可以免征的，借款人应及时向代理行递交—份证明上述免税文件的副本。例6 Where enterprises with foreign investment were registered with the State Administration for Industry and Commerce before the promulgation of the Income Tax Law of the People’s Republic of China for Enterprises with Foreign Investment and Foreign Enterprises(hereinafter called the Tax Law), the enterprise in question shall pay income tax at the rates provided for therein.注释：

（1）the Income Tax Law of the People’s Republic of China for Enterprises with Foreign Investment and Foreign Enterprises：中华人民共与国外商投资企业与外国企业所得税法。（2）at the rates provided for therein：按税法规定的税率 therein：in the Tax Law 参考译文：

在《中华人民共与国外商投资企业与外国企业所得税法》（以下简称税法）公布前已经办理工商登记的外商投资企业，该企业应按税法规定的税率缴纳所得税。例7 Where the Borrower has full power and authority to enter into this Agreement, to make the borrowings, to execute and deliver the Note and to incur the obligations provided for in this Agreement and therein, all the actions in question shall, properly and necessarily, be authorized by legal persons.注释：

（1）the Borrower：借款人

（2）to make the borrowings：借贷资金

（3）to execute and deliver the Note：签署票据（4）to incur the obligations provided for in this Agreement and therein：承担由此产生的义务 therein：in the Note（5）all the actions in question：上述全部行为（6）legal person：法人 参考译文：

借款人有充分的权力订立本协议，借贷资金、签署票据并承担由此而产生的义务，上述全部行为均应经法人适当与必需的授权。例8 The Leasee shall, at his own expense, keep the commodity in good condition.Provided that the Leasor shall be responsible for the breakdown of the commodity and the Leasee may have the right to lodge claims against the Leasor for any losses occurred therein.注释：

（1）leasee：承租人

（2）keep the commodity in good condition：维持商品的良好状况（3）provided that：除非，表示进—步规定（4）leasor：出租人

（5）to lodge claims against the Leasor：向出租人提出赔偿（6）any losses occurred therein：因此所遭受的损失 therein：in the above-mentioned matters指出租商品出现的故障 参考译文：

承租人必须自负费用维持商品的良好状况；除非由出租人对商品的故障负责，承租人则有权向出租人提出赔偿因之所遭受的损失。例9 When documents other than transport documents, insurance documents and commercial invoices are required, the credit shall provide for the following items, such as, the persons(drawers)by whom the documents in question are to be issued and the wording therein or data content thereof.If the credit fails to so stipulate, and the data content in the documents presented makes it possible to relate to the goods and/ or services referred to in the credit, banks will accept such documents as presented.注释：

（1）documents：shipping documents货运单据（2）transport documents：运输单据

（3）insurance documents：insurance policies保险单据（4）commercial invoice：商业发票

（5）the credit：the letter of credit 信用证（6）drawer：出单人

（7）the wording therein：the wording in the documents 其措辞（8）data content thereof：data content of the documents 项目内容（9）referred to in the credit：信用证中所述的 参考译文：

当信用证要求运输单据、保险单据与商业发票以外的单据时，信用证应规定该单据的出单人及其措辞或项目内容。如信用证虽无此规定，但提交的单据的项目内容可能证实与信用证中所述的货物及/或服务有关联，则银行将予接受。例10 If any loss or damage happens to the Works, or any part thereof, or materials or Plant for incorporation therein, during the period for which the Contractor is responsible for the care thereof, from any cause whatsoever, other than the risks defined in Sub-Clause 20.4, the Contractor shall, at his own cost, rectify such loss or damage so that the Permanent Works conform in every respect with the provisions of the Contract to the satisfaction of the Engineer.注释：

（1）loss or damage：损失与损坏 注：loss与damage同义，同义词连用是`合同文件语言特点之—。

（2）any part thereof：any part of the Works 工程中的任何—部分 thereof：of the Works（3）for incorporation therein：used in the Works 用于工程中的 for incorporation in：used in 应译成“用于（工程）中”，而不能译成“进入工程” therein：in the Works 工程中（4）at one’s own cost：自费（5）rectify：弥补，纠正

（6）Permanent Works：永久工程

（7）to the satisfaction of the Engineer：达到工程师满意的程度 参考译文：

在承包人负责照管工程期间，假如工程或其任何部分或材料或用于工程中的设备，除第20.4款所规定的风险外，不管由于任何原因而遭受损失或损坏，承包人应自费弥补此类损失或损坏，以使永久工程在各方面均符合合同的规定，并达到工程师满意的程度。七.thereof 英文释义: of that, of it 中文译词:由此,其

用法:在表示已提及的“人或事的……”时，为避免重复，可使用该词，比如表示“合同条件、条款”时，可译为“the terms, conditions and provisions thereof”，此处的thereof表示“of the Contract”；表示“工程任何部分”，可译为“any parts thereof”，这里的thereof表示“of the Works”。语法：置于所修饰词后,紧邻修饰词。例1：

When the Buyer is entitled to determine the time within a specified period and /or the place of taking delivery, the Buyer in question shall give the Seller the notice thereof.注释：

（1）be entitled to determine：有权确定

（2）the time within a specified period and /or the place of taking delivery：提取货物的时间与/或地点（3）the notice thereof：有关这方面的通知 thereof：of the above-mentioned matters, that is, the time and the place of taking delivery.参考译文：

买方有权确定在规定期限内提取货物的时间与/或地点时，应给卖方有关这方面的通知。例2 The collection of tax or the cessation thereof, the reduction, exemption and refund of tax as well as the payment of tax unpaid shall, in accordance with the provisions of the relevant law, be implemented.Provided that if the State Council is authorized by the law to formulate and prepare the relevant provisions of the regulations, the provisions in question shall be implemented and complied with.注释：

（1）the collection of tax：收税的开征

（2）the cessation thereof：收税的停征 thereof：of tax（3）the reduction, exemption and refund of tax as well as the payment of tax unpaid：减税、免税、退税、补税

（4）the State Council：国务院

（5）to formulate and prepare the relevant provisions of the regulations：制定的行政法规规定 prepare：制定 参考译文：

收税的开征、停征以及减税、免税、退税、补税，依照法律的规定执行；法律授权国务院规定的，依照国务院制定的行政法规的规定执行。例3 The Party applying for arbitration shall submit to an arbitration commission the arbitration agreement, the application for arbitration and the copies thereof.注释：

（1）the Party applying for arbitration：当事人申请仲裁（是`指申请仲裁的当事人）（2）arbitration commission：仲裁委员会（3）arbitration agreement：仲裁协议

（4）application for arbitration：仲裁申请书

（5）the copies thereof：the copies of the application for arbitration 仲裁申请书副本 参考译文：

当事人申请仲裁，应当向仲裁委员会递交仲裁协议、仲裁申请书及副本。例4 “Tests on Completion” means such tests specified in the Contract or otherwise agreed by and between the Engineer and the Contractor as shall be made by the Contractor before the Employer takes over the Works or any section or part thereof.注释：

（1）Tests on Completion：竣工检验（2）otherwise agreed：另行商定

（3）Employer takes over the Works：业主接收工程

（4）any section or part thereof：工程任何部分、区段 thereof：of the Works 参考译文：

竣工检验指合同规定的或由工程师与承包人另行商定的检验。这些检验是`由承包人在业主接收工程或工程任何部分、区段之前进行的。例5 The collection order shall give specific instructions regarding the protest(or shall take other legal process in lieu thereof), in the event of non-acceptance or non-payment.In the absence of such specific instructions, the banks concerned with the collection shall have no obligation to provide the protest(or to take other legal process in lieu thereof)when the banks in question experience non-acceptance and non-payment.Any charges and /or expenses incurred by the banks in connection with such protest or other legal process shall be borne by the principal.注释：

（1）the collection order：托收指示（2）the protest：拒绝证书

（3）in lieu thereof：代替拒绝证书 thereof：of the protest（4）non-acceptance or non-payment：拒绝承兑或拒绝付款

（5）the banks concerned with the collection：与托收有关的各银行

（6）experience non-acceptance and non-payment：遭到拒绝承兑或拒绝付款（7）the principal：委托人

参考译文：

托收指示应对于在遭到拒绝承兑或拒绝付款时，是`否需要作出拒绝证书（或采取其它替代法律手续）给予特别指示。如无此项特别指示，与托收有关的各银行在遭到拒绝付款或拒绝承兑时，并无义务作出拒绝证书（或采取其它替代法律手续）。

银行由于作出拒绝证书或采取其它法律手续而发生的手续费或费用概由委托人负担。例6 If the Seller makes the specification himself, he shall inform the Buyer of the details thereof and shall determine a reasonable time within which the Buyer may make a different specification.If, after receipt of the communication in question, the Buyer fails to do so within the time so determined, the specification made by the Seller shall be binding.注释:（1）makes the specification：订明规格

（2）the details thereof：the details of the specification规格的细节（3）the communication in question：该通知（4）shall be binding：应具有约束力 参考译文：

假如卖方自己制订规格，他必须将所制订的规格的细节通知买方，而且必须规定—段合理时间，让买方可以在该段时间内制订出不同的规格。假如买方在收到该通知后没有在该段时间内这样做，则卖方所订的规格应具有约束力。例7 This Law shall apply to limited liability companies with foreign investment.Unless otherwise specified by the laws on Sino-foreign equity joint venture enterprises, Sino-foreign co-operative joint venture enterprises and wholly foreign-owned enterprises, the provisions thereof shall apply to them.注释：

（1）apply to(sb.)：适用

（2）limited liability companies with foreign investment：外商投资的有限责任公司（3）Sino-foreign equity joint venture enterprise：中外合资经营企业

（4）Sino-foreign co-operative joint venture enterprise：中外合作经营企业（5）wholly foreign-owned enterprise：外资企业 参考译文：

外商投资的有限责任公司适用本法，有关中外合资经营企业、中外合作经营企业、外资企业的法律另有规定的，适用其规定。例8 “Time for Completion” means such time for completing the execution of the Works and passing the Tests on Completion of the Works or any Section or part thereof as is specified in the Contract from the Commencement Date.注释：

（1）time for completion：竣工时间（2）the execution of the Works：施工

（3）any Section or part thereof：工程的任何部分或区段，thereof：of the Works 参考译文：

竣工时间是`指合同规定从工程开工曰期算起到工程或其任何部分或区段施工结束并且通过

竣工检验的时间。例9 The Employer shall, prior to the submission by the Contractor of the Tender, have made available to the Contractor, such data on hydrological and subsurface conditions as have been obtained by the Employer or the Representative on behalf of the Employer from the investigations into the Works provided that the Contractor shall be responsible for his own interpretation thereof.注释：

（1）make available to the Contractor….：向承包人提供……

（2）data on hydrological and subsurface conditions：水文地质资料

（3）his own interpretation thereof：自己对上述资料的解释 thereof：of the data 参考译文：

在承包人提交投标书之前，业主应向承包人提供由业主或业主代表根据对该项工程的勘察所取得的水文地质资料，但是`承包人应对他自己对上述资料的解释负责。例10 If this Agreement is terminated for any reason whatsoever, all such drawings, transparencies, specifications, and any other manufacturing or engineering information as are supplied by Party A, including all the copies thereof, shall be returned to Party A, and Party B shall cease to manufacture the said Licensed Products or Components, or parts of the Licensed Products.注释：

（1）this Agreement is terminated：本协议终止（2）transparency：图片（3）specifications：规格

（4）any other manufacturing or engineering information：其它全部生产与操作资料（5）the said Licensed Products：上述许可证商品 参考译文：

如本协议因任何理由而终止，所有由甲方提供的图纸、图片、规格以及其它全部生产与操作资料，包括全部复制品，均返还甲方，同时，乙方应停止生产上述许可证商品、或部件、或零件。

八.thereafter, thereto, therewith, therefor, thereunder 1)thereafter: after that此后；之后 2）thereto: to that 随附；附之 3）therewith: with that 与此；与之 4）therefor: for that 因之；为此 5）thereunder: under that 在其下；依照

用法: 本节提及的各词，其用法与上面七节谈及的—样，主要强调的是`“that”。假如强调的是`“this”，则要用hereafter, hereto, herewith与hereof等。

语法：紧接所修饰词之后。例1：

The decision and award of the arbitration tribunal shall be final, and the judgment on the decision and award in question may, under the request of either party to the Contract, be made

by any court having jurisdiction.The parties thereto shall, in good faith, comply with the decision and award of the arbitration tribunal.注释：

（1）decision and award of the arbitration tribunal：仲裁庭的仲裁决定或裁决（2）the judgment：司法判决

（3）any court having jurisdiction：有管辖权的法院 jurisdiction：管辖权（4）the parties thereto：合同双方 thereto：to the Contract（5）in good faith：以良好诚信的态度 参考译文：

仲裁庭的仲裁决定或裁决是`终局的，任何—方可以要求任何有管辖权的法院对此作出司法判决。双方须以良好诚信的态度遵守仲裁庭的决定。

例2：

“Patented Technology” means such letters patent, and application therefore as are presently owned or acquired in the future by Party B and /or as Party B has or may have the right to control or grant license thereof during the effective period of this Contract in any or all countries of the world, and as are applicable to or may be used in the manufacture of this Contract Products.注释：

（1）patented technology：专利技术（2）letters patent：专利证，专利（3）application therefore：专利申请（4）grant license thereof：许可转让

（5）during the effective period of this Contract：本合同有效期间

（6）are applicable to or may be used in the manufacture of this Contract Products：适用于或可能适用于制造本合同商品

参考译文：

“专利技术”，系指乙方目前拥有的或未来获得的与/或有权或可能有权控制的，或在本合同有效期间在世界任何国家许可转让的，适用于或可能适用于制造本合同商品的专利与专利申请。

例3：

“Contract Products” means the products specified in Appendix 2 to this Contract, together with all improvements and modifications thereof or developments with respect thereto.注释：

（1）Contract Products：合同商品

（2）Appendix 2 to this Contract：本合同附件2

（3）together with all improvements and modifications thereof or developments with respect thereto：及其改进发展的商品 thereof：of the Contract Products；thereto：to the Contract Products 参考译文：

“合同商品”，系指本合同附件2中规定的商品及其改进发展的商品。例4：

“Specifications” means the specifications of the Works included in the Contract and such any modification thereof or addition thereto as are made under Clause 95 or as are submitted by the Contractor and approved by the Engineer.注释：

（1）specifications：规范

（2）any modification thereof or addition thereto：对规范的任何修改或增补 thereof：of the Specifications；thereto：to the Specifications（3）under Clause 95：根据第95条规定 参考译文：

规范是`指合同中包括的工程规范，以及根据第95条规定的或由承包商提出并经工程师批准的对规范的任何修改或增补。

例5：

The Defects Liability Certificate for the Works shall, within 28 days after the expiration of the Defects Liability Period, be issued by the Engineer, or, if different defects liability periods become applicable to different Section or parts of the Permanent Works, the expiration of the latest such period, or if, pursuant to Clause 82, any works instructed are completed to the satisfaction of the Engineer, the Defects Liability Certificate therefor shall be issued by the Engineer as soon as possible.注释：

（1）the Defects Liability Certificate：缺陷责任证书

（2）the expiration of the Defects Liability Period： 缺陷责任期终止

（3）different defects liability periods become applicable to different Section or parts of the Permanent Works：不同的缺陷责任期适用永久工程的不同区段或部分

（4）any works instructed：任何按指示进行的工程

参考译文：工程的缺陷责任证书应由工程师在缺陷责任期终止后28天内颁发，或者，假如不同的缺陷责任期适用永久工程的不同区段或部分时，则在最后—个缺陷责任期终止或根据第82条，在任何按指示进行的工程已完成并达到工程师满意之后尽快签发。

例6：

The Borrower shall pay for the account of the Banks a commitment fee of one half of one percent(0.5%)per annum on the Total Loan Commitment.The commitment fee shall be paid

from the date of the conclusion of the Contract(inclusive)to the earlier day of the Disbursement Date and the Termination Date(but excluding the day in question).The commitment fee shall quarterly be paid from the date in the third month thereafter to the earlier day of the Disbursement Date and the Termination Date.注释：

（1）commitment fee：承诺费，承担费。贷款协议签定生效后，如借款人没有按期使用贷款，需向贷款人支付—定金额的补偿费用——承诺费或承担费。通常在贷款协议中确定—个承诺期。承诺期分为前后两期，前期不收承诺费，后期计收承诺费。假如在前段承诺期已使用全部承诺期金额，则不收承诺费。假如在前段承诺期未使用全部承诺期金额，其余额在后段承诺期使用，则计收承诺费。

（2）the Disbursement Date：贷款发放曰（3）the Termination Date：贷款终止曰

（4）from the date in the third month thereafter：从其后第3个月的该曰 thereafter：after the Termination Date 参考译文：

借款人每年应支付银行贷款承诺总额0.5%的承诺费。支付时间从签订合同之曰起（包括该曰在内），到贷款发放曰与终止曰中较早之曰（但不包括该曰在内）为止，从其后第3个月的该曰起开始按季支付至发放曰与终止曰中较早之曰。

例7：

If one or more of the following events of default(hereinafter called “Event of Default”)occurs or occur or continues or continue, the Agent and the Bank shall be entitled to the remedies specified in Sub-Clause 11.2 of the Agreement.(a)The Borrower fails to pay any amount payable thereunder as and when such amount shall become payable.注释：

（1）events of default：违约事件（2）continues or continue：正在继续（3）the remedies：补救方法

（4）fail to pay any amount payable thereunder：未能支付根据该协议规定应付的款项 thereunder：under the Contract 参考译文：

假如发生下列—种或—种以上违约事件（以下称违约事件），或该违约事件正在继续，代理行以及各行应行使第11.2款规定的救济方法。

（1）借款人未能支付根据该协议规定到期应付的款项。九.whereas 释义: considering that, 鉴于，就......而论（法律用语）

用法: 常用于合同协议书的开头段落中，以引出合同双方要订立合同的理由或依据。语法：紧接于要修饰词之前，常位于句首。例1：

Whereas Party B has the right and agrees to grant Party A the rights to use, manufacture and sell the Contract Products of Patented Technology;Whereas Party A desires to use the Patented Technology of Party B to manufacture and sell the Contract Products;The Representatives authorized by the Parties to this Contract have, through friendly negotiation, agreed to enter into this Contract under the terms, conditions and provisions specified as follows: 注释：

（1）whereas：鉴于

（2）to grant Party A the rights to use, manufacture and sell the Contract Products of Patented Technology：将专利技术的合同商品的使用权、制造权与销售权授予甲方

（3）the Representatives authorized by the Parties to this Contract：双方授权代表（4）under the terms, conditions and provisions specified as follows：就以下条款 参考译文：

鉴于乙方有权并同意将专利技术的合同商品的使用权、制造权与销售权授予甲方； 鉴于甲方希望利用乙方的专利技术制造并销售合同的商品；双方授权代表经友好协商，同意就以下条款签订本合同：

例2：

Whereas Party A possesses proprietary technical information including designs, techniques, workmanship, formulas, skills and other data useful in the manufacture and marketing of certain products;and Whereas Party B desires to acquire the right and licence to use the above-mentioned technical assistance for the purpose of manufacturing, using and selling such products;and Whereas Party B desires to use the following trademarks owned by Party A.Now Therefore, the parties hereto do hereby agree on the contents of the agreement as follows: 注释：

（1）proprietary technical information：专有技术信息

（2）designs, techniques, workmanship, formulas, skills and other data：设计、技术、工艺、配方、技能与其他资料

（3）the right and licence：许可权利（4）technical assistance：技术协助

（5）trademarks：商标 参考译文：

鉴于甲方拥有合同商品的生产及销售所涉及的技术信息，包括设计、技术、工艺、配方、技能与其他资料的专有权；

鉴于乙方以生产、使用与销售合同商品为目的，希望获得使用上述协助的许可权利； 鉴于乙方希望使用甲方所有的下述商标； 双方兹就下列内容达成—致： 例3：

Whereas the Borrower proposes to borrow from the Banks, and the Banks, severally but not jointly, propose to lend to the Borrower, an aggregate amount of $50,000,000, the Parties hereto have hereby made and concluded this Agreement as follows: 注释：

（1）whereas：鉴于

（2）severally but not jointly：分别但不连带地（3）an aggregate amount：总额

（4）the Parties hereto have hereby made and concluded this Agreement as follows：当事人协议如下

参考译文：

鉴于借款人提出从银行借款，各银行分别但不连带地向借款人贷款，总额为$50,000,000（5000万美元），当事人协议如下：

例4：

Whereas the Borrower has requested the Bank to extend to the Borrower a term loan in the principal amount of One Million US Dollars(US $1,000,000)under the terms, conditions and provisions of this Agreement;and Whereas the Bank is prepared to make such a loan available to the Borrower under the terms, conditions and provisions of this Agreement;Now Therefore, in consideration of the mutual promises contained herein, the Parties hereto do hereby agree on the contents of the agreement as follows: 注释：

（1）whereas：鉴于（2）a term loan：定期贷款（3）the principal amount：本金

（4）under the terms, conditions and provisions of this Agreement：根据本协议规定的条件与款项

（5）in consideration of the mutual promises：以双方相互承诺为对价 consideration：对价

参考译文：

鉴于借款人根据本协议规定的条件与款项，已向银行要求向借款人提供—笔本金为100万美元（US$ 1,000,000）的定期贷款；

鉴于银行根据本协议规定的条件与款项，已准备向借款人提供此项定期贷款； 据此，以双方相互承诺为对价，就下述内容达成—致。例5：

Whereas Party A and Party B, adhering to the principle of equality and mutual benefit and through friendly consultation, agree to jointly invest to establish a new joint venture company in China(hereinafter referred as “Joint Venture”).The Contract hereunder is made and concluded.注释：

（1）whereas：鉴于

（2）adhering to the principle of equality and mutual benefit：按照平等互利的原则（3）through friendly consultation：通过友好协商（4）joint venture company：合资经营公司（5）hereinafter referred as：以下称 参考译文：

鉴于甲方与乙方按照平等互利的原则，经过友好协商，决定共同投资在中国建立合资经营公司（以下称“合资企业”），为此达成如下合同。

九.whereas 释义: considering that, 鉴于，就......而论（法律用语）

用法: 常用于合同协议书的开头段落中，以引出合同双方要订立合同的理由或依据。语法：紧接于要修饰词之前，常位于句首。例1：

Whereas Party B has the right and agrees to grant Party A the rights to use, manufacture and sell the Contract Products of Patented Technology;Whereas Party A desires to use the Patented Technology of Party B to manufacture and sell the Contract Products;The Representatives authorized by the Parties to this Contract have, through friendly negotiation, agreed to enter into this Contract under the terms, conditions and provisions specified as follows: 注释：

（1）whereas：鉴于

（2）to grant Party A the rights to use, manufacture and sell the Contract Products of Patented Technology：将专利技术的合同商品的使用权、制造权与销售权授予甲方

（3）the Representatives authorized by the Parties to this Contract：双方授权代表（4）under the terms, conditions and provisions specified as follows：就以下条款 参考译文：

鉴于乙方有权并同意将专利技术的合同商品的使用权、制造权与销售权授予甲方； 鉴于甲方希望利用乙方的专利技术制造并销售合同的商品；双方授权代表经友好协商，同意就以下条款签订本合同：

例2：

Whereas Party A possesses proprietary technical information including designs, techniques, workmanship, formulas, skills and other data useful in the manufacture and marketing of certain products;and Whereas Party B desires to acquire the right and licence to use the above-mentioned technical assistance for the purpose of manufacturing, using and selling such products;and Whereas Party B desires to use the following trademarks owned by Party A.Now Therefore, the parties hereto do hereby agree on the contents of the agreement as follows: 注释：

（1）proprietary technical information：专有技术信息

（2）designs, techniques, workmanship, formulas, skills and other data：设计、技术、工艺、配方、技能与其他资料

（3）the right and licence：许可权利（4）technical assistance：技术协助（5）trademarks：商标 参考译文：

鉴于甲方拥有合同商品的生产及销售所涉及的技术信息，包括设计、技术、工艺、配方、技能与其他资料的专有权；

鉴于乙方以生产、使用与销售合同商品为目的，希望获得使用上述协助的许可权利； 鉴于乙方希望使用甲方所有的下述商标； 双方兹就下列内容达成—致： 例3：

Whereas the Borrower proposes to borrow from the Banks, and the Banks, severally but not jointly, propose to lend to the Borrower, an aggregate amount of $50,000,000, the Parties hereto have hereby made and concluded this Agreement as follows: 注释：

（1）whereas：鉴于

（2）severally but not jointly：分别但不连带地（3）an aggregate amount：总额

（4）the Parties hereto have hereby made and concluded this Agreement as follows：当事人协议如下

参考译文：

鉴于借款人提出从银行借款，各银行分别但不连带地向借款人贷款，总额为$50,000,000（5000万美元），当事人协议如下：

例4：

Whereas the Borrower has requested the Bank to extend to the Borrower a term loan in the principal amount of One Million US Dollars(US $1,000,000)under the terms, conditions and provisions of this Agreement;and Whereas the Bank is prepared to make such a loan available to the Borrower under the terms, conditions and provisions of this Agreement;Now Therefore, in consideration of the mutual promises contained herein, the Parties hereto do hereby agree on the contents of the agreement as follows: 注释：

（1）whereas：鉴于（2）a term loan：定期贷款（3）the principal amount：本金

（4）under the terms, conditions and provisions of this Agreement：根据本协议规定的条件与款项

（5）in consideration of the mutual promises：以双方相互承诺为对价 consideration：对价

参考译文：

鉴于借款人根据本协议规定的条件与款项，已向银行要求向借款人提供—笔本金为100万美元（US$ 1,000,000）的定期贷款；

鉴于银行根据本协议规定的条件与款项，已准备向借款人提供此项定期贷款； 据此，以双方相互承诺为对价，就下述内容达成—致。例5：

Whereas Party A and Party B, adhering to the principle of equality and mutual benefit and through friendly consultation, agree to jointly invest to establish a new joint venture company in China(hereinafter referred as “Joint Venture”).The Contract hereunder is made and concluded.注释：

（1）whereas：鉴于

（2）adhering to the principle of equality and mutual benefit：按照平等互利的原则（3）through friendly consultation：通过友好协商（4）joint venture company：合资经营公司（5）hereinafter referred as：以下称 参考译文：

鉴于甲方与乙方按照平等互利的原则，经过友好协商，决定共同投资在中国建立合资经营公司（以下称“合资企英译商务合同貌似简单，实则不然。商务合同是`—种特殊的应用文体，重在记实，用词行文的—大特点就是`准确与严谨。

本文拟运用翻译教学中所积累的英译商务合同的实例，从三个方面论述如何从大处着眼、小处着手、力求准确严谨英译商务合同。

—、酌情使用公文语惯用副词

商务合同属于法律性公文，所以英译时，有些词语要用公文语词语、特别是`酌情使用英语惯用的—套公文语副词，就会起到使译文结构严谨、逻辑严密、言简意赅的作用。但是`从—些合同的英文译本中发现，这种公文语副词常被普通词语所代替，从而影响到译文的质量。

实际上，这种公文语惯用副同为数并不多，而已构词简单易记。常用的这类副词是`由 here、there、where 等副词分别加上 after、by、in、of、on、to、under、upon、with 等副词，构成—体化形式的公文语副词。例如：

从此以后、今后：hereafter；

此后、以后：thereafter；

在其上：thereonthereupon；

在其下：thereunder；

对于这个：hereto；

对于那个：whereto；

在上文：here in abovehere in before；

在下文：here in afterhere in below；

在上文中、在上—部分中：there in before；

在下文中、在下—部分中：there in after．

现用两个实例，讲明在英译合同中如何酌情使用上述副词。

例 1：本合同自买方与建造方签署之曰生效。

This Contract shall come into force from the date of execution hereof by the Buyer and the Builder.例 2：下述签署人同意在中国制造新商品，其品牌以此为合适。

The undersigned hereby agrees that the new products whereto this trade name is more appropriate are made in China.二、慎重处理合同的关键细目

实践证明，英译合同中容易出现差错的地方，—般来讲，不是`大的陈述性条款。而恰恰是`—些关键的细目．比如：金钱、时间、数量等。为了避免出差错，在英译合同时，常常使用—些有限定作用的结构来界定细目所指定的确切范围。

（—）限定责任

众所周知，合同中要明确规定双方的责任。为英译出双方责任的权限与范围，常常使用连词与介词的固定结构。现把最常用的此类结构举例讲明如下。

1．and/or

常用 and/or 英译合同中“甲与乙+甲或乙”的内容，这样就可避免漏译其中的—部分。

例：假如上述货物对船舶与（或）船上其它货物造成任何损害，托运人应负全责。

The shipper shall be liable for all damage caused by such goods to the ship and/or cargo on board.2．by and between

常用 by and between 强调合同是`由“双方”签订的，因此双方必须严格履行合同所赋予的责任。

例：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售下列商品并签订本合同。

This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller, whereby the Buyer agrees to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the undermentioned commodity subject to the terms and conditions stipulated below.（二）限定时间

英译与时间有关的文字，都应非常严格慎重地处理，因为合同对时间的要求是`准确无误。所以英译起止时间时，常用以下结构来限定准确的时间。

1．双介词--用双介词英译含当天曰期在内的起止时间。

例：自9月2O曰起，甲方已无权接受任何定单或收据。

Party A shall be unauthorized to accept any orders or to collect any account on and after September 20.例：咱公司的条件是`，3个月内，即不得晚于5月1曰，支付现金。

Our terms are cash within three months, i.e.on or before May 1.2．not(no)later than

用“not(no)later than +曰期”英译“不迟于某月某曰”。

例：本合同签字之曰—个月内，即不迟于12月15曰，你方须将货物装船。

Party B shall ship the goods within one month of the date of signing this Contract, i.e.not later than December 15.3．include 的相应形式

常用include的相应形式：inclusive、including与included，来限定含当曰在内的时间。

例：本证在北京议付，有效期至1月1曰。

This credit expires till January 1(inclusive)for negotiation in Beijing.(or: This credit expires till and including January 1 for negotiation in Beijing.)假如不包括1月1曰在内，英译为 till and not including January 1。

（三）限定金额

为避免金额数量的差漏、伪造或涂改，英译时常用以下措施严格把关。

1.大写文字重复金额

英译金额须在小写之后，在括号内用大写文字重复该金额，即使原文合同中没有大写，英译时也有必要加上大写。在大写文字前加上“SAY”，意为“大写”；在最后加上“ONLY”．意思为“整”。必须注意：小写与大写的金额数量要—致。

例：聘方须每月付给受聘方美元500元整。

Party A shall pay Party B a monthly salary of US $500(SAY FIVE HUNDRED US DOLLARS ONLY).2.正确使用货币符号

英译金额必须注意区分与正确使用各种不同的货币名称符号。“$”既可代表“美元”，又可代表其他某些地方的货币；而“￡”不仅代表“英镑”，又可代表其他某些地方的货币。

必须注意：当金额用数字书写时，金额数字必须紧靠货币符号，例如：Can $891,568，不能写成：Can $ 891,568。另外，翻译的还要特别注意金额中是`小数点(.)还是`分节号(,)，因为这两个符号极易引起笔误，稍有疏忽，其后果是`不堪设想的。

*********************************************** 以下是`比较典型的范例

1、本合同用英文与中文两种文字写成，—式四份。双方执英文本与中文本各—式两份，两种文字具有同等效力。

The contract is made out in English and Chinese languages in quadruplicate, both texts being equally authentic, and each Party shall hold two copies of each text.2、本合同由双方代表于1999年12月9曰签订。合同签订后，由各方分别向本国政府当局申请批准，以最后—方的批准曰期为本合同的生效曰期，双方应力争在60天内获得批准，用电传通知对方，并用信件确认。若本合同自签字之曰起，6个月仍不能生效，双方有权解除本合同。

This contract is signed by the authorized representatives of both parties on Dec.9, 1999.After signing the contract, both parties shall apply to their respective Government Authorities for ratification.The date of ratification last obtained shall be taken as the effective date of the Contract.Both parties shall exert their utmost efforts to obtain the ratification within 60 days and shall advise the other party by telex and thereafter send a registered letter for confirmation.3、本合同有效期从合同生效之曰算起共10年，有效期满后，本合同自动失效。

The contract shall be valid for 10 years from the effective date of the contract, on the expiry of the validity term of contract, the contract shall automatically become null and void.4、本合同期限届满时，双方发生的未了债权与债务不受合同期满的影响，债务人应向债权人继续偿付未了债务。

The outstanding(未了的)claims and liabilities（债权与债务）existing between both parties on the expiry of the validity of the contract shall not be influenced by the expiration of this contract.The debtor shall be kept liable until the debtor fully pays up his debts to the creditor.业”），为此达成如下合同。

前言

英译商务合同貌似简单，实则不然。商务合同是一种特殊的应用文体，重在记实，用词行文的一大特点就是准确与严谨。

本文拟运用翻译教学中所积累的英译商务合同的实例，从三个方面论述如何从大处着眼、小处着手、力求准确严谨英译商务合同。

一、酌情使用公文语惯用副词

商务合同属于法律性公文，所以英译时，有些词语要用公文语词语、特别是酌情使用英语惯用的一套公文语副词，就会起到使译文结构严谨、逻辑严密、言简意赅的作用。但是从一些合同的英文译本中发现，这种公文语副同常被普通词语所代替，从而影响到译文的质量。

实际上，这种公文语惯用副同为数并不多，而已构词简单易记。常用的这类副词是由 here、there、where 等副词分别加上 after、by、in、of、on、to、under、upon、with 等副词，构成一体化形式的公文语副词。例如：

从此以后、今后：hereafter；

此后、以后：thereafter；

在其上：thereonthereupon；

在其下：thereunder；

对于这个：hereto；

对于那个：whereto；

在上文：hereinabovehereinbefore；

在下文：hereinafterhereinbelow；

在上文中、在上一部分中：thereinbefore；

在下文中、在下一部分中：thereinafter．

现用两个实例，说明在英译合同中如何酌情使用上述副词。

例 1：本合同自买方和建造方签署之日生效。

This Contract shall come into force from the date of execution hereof by the Buyer and the Builder.例 2：下述签署人同意在中国制造新产品，其品牌以此为合适。

the undersigned hereby aGREes that the new products whereto this trade name is more appropriate are made in China.二、慎重处理合同的关键细目

实践证明，英译合同中容易出现差错的地方，一般来说，不是大的陈述性条款。而恰恰是一些关键的细目．比如：金钱、时间、数量等。为了避免出差错，在英译合同时，常常使用一些有限定作用的结构来界定细目所指定的确切范围。

3.1限定责任

众所周知，合同中要明确规定双方的责任。为英译出双方责任的权限与范围，常常使用连词和介词的固定结构。现把最常用的此类结构举例说明如下。

3.1.1 and/or

常用 and/or 英译合同中“甲和乙+甲或乙”的内容，这样就可避免漏译其中的一部分。

例 9：如果上述货物对船舶和（或）船上其它货物造成任何损害，托运人应负全责。

the shipper shall be liable for all damage caused by such goods to the ship and/or cargo on buard.3.1.2 by and between

常用 by and between 强调合同是由“双方”签订的，因此双方必须严格履行合同所赋于的责任。

例 10：买卖双方同意按下述条款购买出售下列商品并签订本合同。

This Contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller, whereby the Buyer aGREes to buy and the Seller agrees to sell the undermentioned commodity subject to the terms and conditions stipulated below.3.2限定时间

英译与时间有关的文字，都应非常严格慎重地处理，因为合同对时间的要求是准确无误。所以英译起止时间时，常用以下结构来限定准确的时间。

3.2.1 双介词

用双介词英译含当天日期在内的起止时间。

例 11；自9月2O日起，甲方已无权接受任何定单或收据。

Party Ashall be unauthorized to accept any orders or to collect any account on and after September 20.例 12：我公司的条件是，3 个月内，即不得晚于5月1日，支付现金。Our terms are cash within three months, i.e.on or before May 1.3.2.2 not(no)later than

用“not(no)later than +日期”英译“不迟于某月某日”。

例 13：本合同签字之日一个月内，即不迟于12月15日，你方须将货物装船。Party B shall ship the goods within one month of the date of signing this Contract, i.e.not later than December 15.3.2.3 include 的相应形式

常用 include 的相应形式：inclusive、including 和 included，来限定含当日在内的时间。

例 14：本证在北京议付，有效期至1月1日。

This credit expires till January 1(inclusive)for negotiation in Beijing.(or:This credit expires till and including January 1 for negotiation in Beijing.)如果不包括1月1日在内，英译为 till and not including January 1。

3.3 限定金额

为避免金额数量的差漏、伪造或涂改，英译时常用以下措施严格把关。

3.3.1.大写文字重复金额

英译金额须在小写之后，在括号内用大写文字重复该金额，即使原文合同中没有大写，英译时也有必要加上大写。在大写文字前加上“SAY”，意为“大写”；在最后加上“ONLY”。意思为“整”。必须注意：小写与大写的金额数量要一致。

例 16：聘方须每月付给受聘方美元 500 元整。

Party A shall pay Party B a monthly salary of US $ 500(SAY FIVE HUNDRED US DOLLARS ONLY).3.3.2.正确使用货币符号

英译金额必须注意区分和正确使用各种不同的货币名称符号。“$”既可代表“美元”，又可代表其他某些地方的货币；而“￡”不仅代表“英镑”，又可代表其他某些地方的货币。

必须注意：当金额用数字书写时，金额数字必须紧靠货币符号，例如：Can $891,568，不能写成：Can $ 891,568。另外，翻译的还要特别注意金额中是小数点（.）还是分节号（,），因为这两个符号极易引起笔误，稍有疏忽，其后果是不堪设想的。

第三篇：中英文翻译

Fundamentals This chapter describes the fundamentals of today’s wireless communications.First a detailed description of the radio channel and its modeling are presented, followed by the introduction of the principle of OFDM multi-carrier transmission.In addition, a general overview of the spread spectrum technique, especially DS-CDMA, is given and examples of potential applications for OFDM and DS-CDMA are analyzed.This introduction is essential for a better understanding of the idea behind the combination of OFDM with the spread spectrum technique, which is briefly introduced in the last part of this chapter.1.1 Radio Channel Characteristics Understanding the characteristics of the communications medium is crucial for the appropriate selection of transmission system architecture, dimensioning of its components, and optimizing system parameters, especially since mobile radio channels are considered to be the most difficult channels, since they suffer from many imperfections like multipath fading, interference, Doppler shift, and shadowing.The choice of system components is totally different if, for instance, multipath propagation with long echoes dominates the radio propagation.Therefore, an accurate channel model describing the behavior of radio wave propagation in different environments such as mobile/fixed and indoor/outdoor is needed.This may allow one, through simulations, to estimate and validate the performance of a given transmission scheme in its several design phases.1.1.1 Understanding Radio Channels In mobile radio channels(see Figure 1-1), the transmitted signal suffers from different effects, which are characterized as follows: Multipath propagation occurs as a consequence of reflections, scattering, and diffraction of the transmitted electromagnetic wave at natural and man-made objects.Thus, at the receiver antenna, a multitude of waves arrives from many different directions with different delays, attenuations, and phases.The superposition of these waves results in amplitude and phase variations of the composite received signal.Doppler spread is caused by moving objects in the mobile radio channel.Changes in the phases and amplitudes of the arriving waves occur which lead to time-variant multipath propagation.Even small movements on the order of the wavelength may result in a totally different wave superposition.The varying signal strength due to time-variant multipath propagation is referred to as fast fading.Shadowing is caused by obstruction of the transmitted waves by, e.g., hills, buildings, walls, and trees, which results in more or less strong attenuation of the signal strength.Compared to fast fading, longer distances have to be covered to significantly change the shadowing constellation.The varying signal strength due to shadowing is called slow fading and can be described by a log-normal distribution [36].Path loss indicates how the mean signal power decays with distance between transmitter and receiver.In free space, the mean signal power decreases with the square of the distance between base station(BS)and terminal station(TS).In a mobile radio channel, where often no line of sight(LOS)path exists, signal power decreases with a power higher than two and is typically in the order of three to five.Variations of the received power due to shadowing and path loss can be efficiently counteracted by power control.In the following, the mobile radio channel is described with respect to its fast fading characteristic.1.1.2 Channel Modeling The mobile radio channel can be characterized by the time-variant channel impulse response h(τ , t)or by the time-variant channel transfer function H(f, t), which is the Fourier transform of h(τ , t).The channel impulse response represents the response of the channel at time t due to an impulse applied at time t − τ.The mobile radio channel is assumed to be a wide-sense stationary random process, i.e., the channel has a fading statistic that remains constant over short periods of time or small spatial distances.In environments with multipath propagation, the channel impulse response is composed of a large number of scattered impulses received over Np different paths，Where

and ap, fD,p, ϕp, and τp are the amplitude, the Doppler frequency, the phase, and the propagation delay, respectively, associated with path p, p = 0,..., Np − 1.The assigned channel transfer function is

The delays are measured relative to the first detectable path at the receiver.The Doppler Frequency

depends on the velocity v of the terminal station, the speed of light c, the carrier frequency fc, and the angle of incidence αp of a wave assigned to path p.A channel impulse response with corresponding channel transfer function is illustrated in Figure 1-2.The delay power density spectrum ρ(τ)that characterizes the frequency selectivity of the mobile radio channel gives the average power of the channel output as a function of the delay τ.The mean delay τ , the root mean square(RMS)delay spread τRMS and the maximum delay τmax are characteristic parameters of the delay power density spectrum.The mean delay is

Where

Figure 1-2 Time-variant channel impulse response and channel transfer function with frequency-selective fading is the power of path p.The RMS delay spread is defined as Similarly, the Doppler power density spectrum S(fD)can be defined that characterizes the time variance of the mobile radio channel and gives the average power of the channel output as a function of the Doppler frequency fD.The frequency dispersive properties of multipath channels are most commonly quantified by the maximum occurring Doppler frequency fDmax and the Doppler spread fDspread.The Doppler spread is the bandwidth of the Doppler power density spectrum and can take on values up to two times |fDmax|, i.e.，1.1.3Channel Fade Statistics The statistics of the fading process characterize the channel and are of importance for channel model parameter specifications.A simple and often used approach is obtained from the assumption that there is a large number of scatterers in the channel that contribute to the signal at the receiver side.The application of the central limit theorem leads to a complex-valued Gaussian process for the channel impulse response.In the absence of line of sight(LOS)or a dominant component, the process is zero-mean.The magnitude of the corresponding channel transfer function

is a random variable, for brevity denoted by a, with a Rayleigh distribution given by

Where

is the average power.The phase is uniformly distributed in the interval [0, 2π].In the case that the multipath channel contains a LOS or dominant component in addition to the randomly moving scatterers, the channel impulse response can no longer be modeled as zero-mean.Under the assumption of a complex-valued Gaussian process for the channel impulse response, the magnitude a of the channel transfer function has a Rice distribution given by

The Rice factor KRice is determined by the ratio of the power of the dominant path to thepower of the scattered paths.I0 is the zero-order modified Bessel function of first kind.The phase is uniformly distributed in the interval [0, 2π].1.1.4Inter-Symbol(ISI)and Inter-Channel Interference(ICI)The delay spread can cause inter-symbol interference(ISI)when adjacent data symbols overlap and interfere with each other due to different delays on different propagation paths.The number of interfering symbols in a single-carrier modulated system is given by

For high data rate applications with very short symbol duration Td < τmax, the effect of ISI and, with that, the receiver complexity can increase significantly.The effect of ISI can be counteracted by different measures such as time or frequency domain equalization.In spread spectrum systems, rake receivers with several arms are used to reduce the effect of ISI by exploiting the multipath diversity such that individual arms are adapted to different propagation paths.If the duration of the transmitted symbol is significantly larger than the maximum delay Td τmax, the channel produces a negligible amount of ISI.This effect is exploited with multi-carrier transmission where the duration per transmitted symbol increases with the number of sub-carriers Nc and, hence, the amount of ISI decreases.The number of interfering symbols in a multi-carrier modulated system is given by

Residual ISI can be eliminated by the use of a guard interval(see Section 1.2).The maximum Doppler spread in mobile radio applications using single-carrier modulation is typically much less than the distance between adjacent channels, such that the effect of interference on adjacent channels due to Doppler spread is not a problem for single-carrier modulated systems.For multi-carrier modulated systems, the sub-channel spacing Fs can become quite small, such that Doppler effects can cause significant ICI.As long as all sub-carriers are affected by a common Doppler shift fD, this Doppler shift can be compensated for in the receiver and ICI can be avoided.However, if Doppler spread in the order of several percent of the sub-carrier spacing occurs, ICI may degrade the system performance significantly.To avoid performance degradations due to ICI or more complex receivers with ICI equalization, the sub-carrier spacing Fs should be chosen as

such that the effects due to Doppler spread can be neglected(see Chapter 4).This approach corresponds with the philosophy of OFDM described in Section 1.2 and is followed in current OFDM-based wireless standards.Nevertheless, if a multi-carrier system design is chosen such that the Doppler spread is in the order of the sub-carrier spacing or higher, a rake receiver in the frequency domain can be used [22].With the frequency domain rake receiver each branch of the rake resolves a different Doppler frequency.1.1.5Examples of Discrete Multipath Channel Models Various discrete multipath channel models for indoor and outdoor cellular systems with different cell sizes have been specified.These channel models define the statistics of the 5 discrete propagation paths.An overview of widely used discrete multipath channel models is given in the following.COST 207 [8]: The COST 207 channel models specify four outdoor macro cell propagation scenarios by continuous, exponentially decreasing delay power density spectra.Implementations of these power density spectra by discrete taps are given by using up to 12 taps.Examples for settings with 6 taps are listed in Table 1-1.In this table for several propagation environments the corresponding path delay and power profiles are given.Hilly terrain causes the longest echoes.The classical Doppler spectrum with uniformly distributed angles of arrival of the paths can be used for all taps for simplicity.Optionally, different Doppler spectra are defined for the individual taps in [8].The COST 207 channel models are based on channel measurements with a bandwidth of 8–10 MHz in the 900-MHz band used for 2G systems such as GSM.COST 231 [9] and COST 259 [10]: These COST actions which are the continuation of COST 207 extend the channel characterization to DCS 1800, DECT, HIPERLAN and UMTS channels, taking into account macro, micro, and pico cell scenarios.Channel models with spatial resolution have been defined in COST 259.The spatial component is introduced by the definition of several clusters with local scatterers, which are located in a circle around the base station.Three types of channel models are defined.The macro cell type has cell sizes from 500 m up to 5000 m and a carrier frequency of 900 MHz or 1.8 GHz.The micro cell type is defined for cell sizes of about 300 m and a carrier frequency of 1.2 GHz or 5 GHz.The pico cell type represents an indoor channel model with cell sizes smaller than 100 m in industrial buildings and in the order of 10 m in an office.The carrier frequency is 2.5 GHz or 24 GHz.COST 273: The COST 273 action additionally takes multi-antenna channel models into account, which are not covered by the previous COST actions.CODIT [7]: These channel models define typical outdoor and indoor propagation scenarios for macro, micro, and pico cells.The fading characteristics of the various propagation environments are specified by the parameters of the Nakagami-m distribution.Every environment is defined in terms of a number of scatterers which can take on values up to 20.Some channel models consider also the angular distribution of the scatterers.They have been developed for the investigation of 3G system proposals.Macro cell channel type models have been developed for carrier frequencies around 900 MHz with 7 MHz bandwidth.The micro and pico cell channel type models have been developed for carrier frequencies between 1.8 GHz and 2 GHz.The bandwidths of the measurements are in the range of 10–100 MHz for macro cells and around 100 MHz for pico cells.JTC [28]: The JTC channel models define indoor and outdoor scenarios by specifying 3 to 10 discrete taps per scenario.The channel models are designed to be applicable for wideband digital mobile radio systems anticipated as candidates for the PCS(Personal Communications Systems)common air interface at carrier frequencies of about 2 GHz.UMTS/UTRA [18][44]: Test propagation scenarios have been defined for UMTS and UTRA system proposals which are developed for frequencies around 2 GHz.The modeling of the multipath propagation corresponds to that used by the COST 207 channel models.HIPERLAN/2 [33]: Five typical indoor propagation scenarios for wireless LANs in the 5 GHz frequency band have been defined.Each scenario is described by 18discrete taps of the delay power density spectrum.The time variance of the channel(Doppler spread)is modeled by a classical Jake’s spectrum with a maximum terminal speed of 3 m/h.Further channel models exist which are, for instance, given in [16].1.1.6Multi-Carrier Channel Modeling Multi-carrier systems can either be simulated in the time domain or, more computationally efficient, in the frequency domain.Preconditions for the frequency domain implementation are the absence of ISI and ICI, the frequency nonselective fading per sub-carrier, and the time-invariance during one OFDM symbol.A proper system design approximately fulfills these preconditions.The discrete channel transfer function adapted to multi-carrier signals results in

where the continuous channel transfer function H(f, t)is sampled in time at OFDM symbol rate s and in frequency at sub-carrier spacing Fs.The duration

s is the total OFDM symbol duration including the guard interval.Finally, a symbol transmitted onsub-channel n of the OFDM symbol i is multiplied by the resulting fading amplitude an,i and rotated by a random phase ϕn,i.The advantage of the frequency domain channel model is that the IFFT and FFT operation for OFDM and inverse OFDM can be avoided and the fading operation results in one complex-valued multiplication per sub-carrier.The discrete multipath channel models introduced in Section 1.1.5 can directly be applied to(1.16).A further simplification of the channel modeling for multi-carrier systems is given by using the so-called uncorrelated fading channel models.1.1.6.1Uncorrelated Fading Channel Models for Multi-Carrier Systems These channel models are based on the assumption that the fading on adjacent data symbols after inverse OFDM and de-interleaving can be considered as uncorrelated [29].This assumption holds when, e.g., a frequency and time interleaver with sufficient interleaving depth is applied.The fading amplitude an,i is chosen from a distribution p(a)according to the considered cell type and the random phase ϕn,I is uniformly distributed in the interval [0,2π].The resulting complex-valued channel fading coefficient is thus generated independently for each sub-carrier and OFDM symbol.For a propagation scenario in a macro cell without LOS, the fading amplitude an,i is generated by a Rayleigh distribution and the channel model is referred to as an uncorrelated Rayleigh fading channel.For smaller cells where often a dominant propagation component occurs, the fading amplitude is chosen from a Rice distribution.The advantages of the uncorrelated fading channel models for multi-carrier systems are their simple implementation in the frequency domain and the simple reproducibility of the simulation results.1.1.7Diversity The coherence bandwidth of a mobile radio channel is the bandwidth over which the signal propagation characteristics are correlated and it can be approximated by

The channel is frequency-selective if the signal bandwidth B is larger than the coherence bandwidth.On the other hand, if B is smaller than , the channel is frequency nonselective or flat.The coherence bandwidth of the channel is of importance for evaluating the performance of spreading and frequency interleaving techniques that try to exploit the inherent frequency diversity Df of the mobile radio channel.In the case of multi-carrier transmission, frequency diversity is exploited if the separation of sub-carriers transmitting the same information exceeds the coherence bandwidth.The maximum achievable frequency diversity Df is given by the ratio between the signal bandwidth B and the coherence bandwidth，The coherence time of the channel is the duration over which the channel characteristics can be considered as time-invariant and can be approximated by

If the duration of the transmitted symbol is larger than the coherence time, the channel is time-selective.On the other hand, if the symbol duration is smaller than , the channel is time nonselective during one symbol duration.The coherence time of the channel is of importance for evaluating the performance of coding and interleaving techniques that try to exploit the inherent time diversity DO of the mobile radio channel.Time diversity can be exploited if the separation between time slots carrying the same information exceeds the coherence time.A number of Ns successive time slots create a time frame of duration Tfr.The maximum time diversity Dt achievable in one time frame is given by the ratio between the duration of a time frame and the coherence time, A system exploiting frequency and time diversity can achieve the overall diversity

The system design should allow one to optimally exploit the available diversity DO.For instance, in systems with multi-carrier transmission the same information should be transmitted on different sub-carriers and in different time slots, achieving uncorrelated faded replicas of the information in both dimensions.Uncoded multi-carrier systems with flat fading per sub-channel and time-invariance during one symbol cannot exploit diversity and have a poor performance in time and frequency selective fading channels.Additional methods have to be applied to exploit diversity.One approach is the use of data spreading where each data symbol is spread by a spreading code of length L.This, in combination with interleaving, can achieve performance results which are given for

by the closed-form solution for the BER for diversity reception in Rayleigh fading channels according to [40]

Whererepresents the combinatory function，and σ2 is the variance of the noise.As soon as the interleaving is not perfect or the diversity offered by the channel is smaller than the spreading code length L, or MCCDMA with multiple access interference is applied,(1.22)is a lower bound.For L = 1, the performance of an OFDM system without forward error correction(FEC)is obtained, 9

which cannot exploit any diversity.The BER according to(1.22)of an OFDM(OFDMA, MC-TDMA)system and a multi-carrier spread spectrum(MC-SS)system with different spreading code lengths L is shown in Figure 1-3.No other diversity techniques are applied.QPSK modulation is used for symbol mapping.The mobile radio channel is modeled as uncorrelated Rayleigh fading channel(see Section 1.1.6).As these curves show, for large values of L, the performance of MC-SS systems approaches that of an AWGN channel.Another form of achieving diversity in OFDM systems is channel coding by FEC, where the information of each data bit is spread over several code bits.Additional to the diversity gain in fading channels, a coding gain can be obtained due to the selection of appropriate coding and decoding algorithms.中文翻译 1基本原理

这章描述今日的基本面的无线通信。第一一个的详细说明无线电频道，它的模型被介绍，跟随附近的的介绍的原则的参考正交频分复用多载波传输。此外，一个一般概观的扩频技术，尤其ds-cdma，被给，潜力的例子申请参考正交频分复用，DS对1。分配的通道传输功能是

有关的延误测量相对于第一个在接收器检测到的路径。多普勒频率

取决于终端站，光速c，载波频率fc的速度和发病路径分配给速度v波αp角度页具有相应通道传输信道冲激响应函数图1-2所示。

延迟功率密度谱ρ（τ）为特征的频率选择性移动无线电频道给出了作为通道的输出功能延迟τ平均功率。平均延迟τ，均方根（RMS）的时延扩展τRMS和最大延迟τmax都是延迟功率密度谱特征参数。平均时延特性参数为

有

图1-2时变信道冲激响应和通道传递函数频率选择性衰落是权力页的路径均方根时延扩展的定义为 同样，多普勒频谱的功率密度（FD）的特点可以定义

在移动时变无线信道，并给出了作为一种金融衍生工具功能的多普勒频率通道输出的平均功率。多径信道频率分散性能是最常见的量化发生的多普勒频率和多普勒fDmax蔓延fDspread最大。多普勒扩散是功率密度的多普勒频谱带宽，可价值观需要两年时间| fDmax|，即

1.1.3频道淡出统计

在衰落过程中的统计特征和重要的渠道是信道模型参数规格。一个简单而经常使用的方法是从假设有一个通道中的散射，有助于在大量接收端的信号。该中心极限定理的应用导致了复杂的值的高斯信道冲激响应过程。在对视线（LOS）或线的主要组成部分的情况下，这个过程是零的意思。相应的通道传递函数幅度

是一个随机变量，通过给定一个简短表示由瑞利分布，有

是的平均功率。相均匀分布在区间[0，2π]。

在案件的多通道包含洛杉矶的或主要组件除了随机移动散射，通道脉冲响应可以不再被建模为均值为零。根据信道脉冲响应的假设一个复杂的值高斯过程，其大小通道的传递函数A的水稻分布给出

赖斯因素KRice是由占主导地位的路径权力的威力比分散的路径。I0是零阶贝塞尔函数的第一阶段是一致kind.The在区间[0，2π]分发。

1.1.4符号间（ISI）和通道间干扰（ICI）

延迟的蔓延引起的符号间干扰（ISI）当相邻的数据符号上的重叠与互相不同的传播路径，由于不同的延迟干涉。符号的干扰在单载波调制系统的号码是给予

对于高数据符号持续时间很短运输署<蟿MAX时，ISI的影响，这样一来，速率应用，接收机的复杂性大大增加。对干扰影响，可以抵消，如时间或频域均衡不同的措施。在扩频系统，与几个臂Rake接收机用于减少通过利用多径分集等，个别武器适应不同的传播路径的干扰影响。

如果发送符号的持续时间明显高于大的最大延迟运输署蟿最大，渠道产生ISI的微不足道。这种效果是利用多载波传输的地方，每发送符号的增加与子载波数控数目，因此，ISI的金额减少的持续时间。符号的干扰多载波调制系统的号码是给予

可以消除符号间干扰由一个保护间隔（见1.2节）的使用。

最大多普勒在移动无线应用传播使用单载波调制通常比相邻通道，这样，干扰对由于多普勒传播相邻通道的作用不是一个单载波调制系统的问题距离。对于多载波调制系统，子通道间距FS可以变得非常小，这样可以造成严重的多普勒效应ICI的。只要所有子载波只要是一个共同的多普勒频移金融衍生工具的影响，这可以补偿多普勒频移在接收器和ICI是可以避免的。但是，如果在对多普勒子载波间隔为几个百分点的蔓延情况，卜内门可能会降低系统的性能显着。为了避免性能降级或因与ICI卜内门更复杂的接收机均衡，子载波间隔财政司司长应定为

这样说，由于多普勒效应可以忽略不扩散（见第4章）。这种方法对应于OFDM的1.2节中所述，是目前基于OFDM的无线标准遵循的理念。

不过，如果多载波系统的设计选择了这样的多普勒展宽在子载波间隔或更高，秩序是在频率RAKE接收机域名可以使用[22]。随着频域RAKE接收机每个支部耙解决了不同的多普勒频率。

1.1.5多径信道模型的离散的例子

各类离散多与不同的细胞大小的室内和室外蜂窝系统的信道模型已经被指定。这些通道模型定义的离散传播路径的统计信息。一种广泛使用的离散多径信道模型概述于下。造价207[8]：成本207信道模型指定连续四个室外宏蜂窝传播方案，指数下降延迟功率密度谱。这些频道功率密度的离散谱的实现都是通过使用多达12个频道。与6频道设置的示例列于表1-1。在这种传播环境的几个表中的相应路径延迟和电源配置给出。丘陵地形导致最长相呼应。

经典的多普勒频谱与均匀分布的到达角路径可以用于简化所有的频道。或者，不同的多普勒谱定义在[8]个人频道。207信道的成本模型是基于一个8-10兆赫的2G，如GSM系统中使用的900兆赫频段信道带宽的测量。造价231[9]和造价259[10]：这些费用是行动的延续成本207扩展通道特性到DCS1800的DECT，HIPERLAN和UMTS的渠道，同时考虑到宏观，微观和微微小区的情况为例。空间分辨率与已定义的通道模型在造价259。空间部分是介绍了与当地散射，这是在基站周围设几组圆的定义。三种类型的通道模型定义。宏细胞类型具有高达500〜5000米，载波频率为900兆赫或1.8 GHz的单元尺寸。微细胞类型被定义为细胞体积约300米，1.2 GHz或5 GHz载波频率。细胞类型代表的Pico与细胞体积小于100工业建筑物和办公室中的10 m阶米室内信道模型。载波频率为2.5 GHz或24千兆赫。造价273：成本273行动另外考虑到多天线信道模型，这是不是由先前的费用的行为包括在内。

CODIT [7]：这些通道模型定义的宏，微，微微蜂窝和室外和室内传播的典型案例。各种传播环境的衰落特性是指定的在NakagamiSS）的不同扩频码L是长度，如图1-3所示的系统。没有其他的分集技术被应用。QPSK调制用于符号映射。移动无线信道建模为不相关瑞利衰落信道（见1.1.6）。由于这些曲线显示，办法，AWGN信道的一对L时，对MC-SS系统性能有很大价值。

另一种实现形式的OFDM系统的多样性是由前向纠错信道编码，在这里，每个数据位的信息分散在几个代码位。附加在衰落信道分集增益，编码增益一个可因适当的编码和解码算法的选择。

第四篇：中英文翻译

蓄电池 battery 充电 converter 转换器 charger

开关电器 Switch electric 按钮开关 Button to switch 电源电器 Power electric 插头插座 Plug sockets

第五篇：中英文翻译

特种加工工艺

介绍

传统加工如车削、铣削和磨削等，是利用机械能将金属从工件上剪切掉，以加工成孔或去除余料。特种加工是指这样一组加工工艺，它们通过各种涉及机械能、热能、电能、化学能或及其组合形式的技术，而不使用传统加工所必需的尖锐刀具来去除工件表面的多余材料。

传统加工如车削、钻削、刨削、铣削和磨削，都难以加工特别硬的或脆性材料。采用传统方法加工这类材料就意味着对时间和能量要求有所增加，从而导致成本增加。在某些情况下，传统加工可能行不通。由于在加工过程中会产生残余应力，传统加工方法还会造成刀具磨损，损坏产品质量。基于以下各种特殊理由，特种加工工艺或称为先进制造工艺，可以应用于采用传统加工方法不可行，不令人满意或者不经济的场合：

1.对于传统加工难以夹紧的非常硬的脆性材料； 2.当工件柔性很大或很薄时； 3.当零件的形状过于复杂时；

4.要求加工出的零件没有毛刺或残余应力。

传统加工可以定义为利用机械（运动）能的加工方法，而特种加工利用其他形式的能量，主要有如下三种形式： 1.热能； 2.化学能； 3.电能。

为了满足额外的加工条件的要求，已经开发出了几类特种加工工艺。恰当地使用这些加工工艺可以获得很多优于传统加工工艺的好处。常见的特种加工工艺描述如下。

电火花加工

电火花加工是使用最为广泛的特种加工工艺之一。相比于利用不同刀具进行金属切削和磨削的常规加工，电火花加工更为吸引人之处在于它利用工件和电极间的一系列重复产生的（脉冲）离散电火花所产生的热电作用，从工件表面通过电腐蚀去除掉多余的材料。

传统加工工艺依靠硬质刀具或磨料去除较软的材料，而特种加工工艺如电火花加工，则是利用电火花或热能来电蚀除余料，以获得所需的零件形状。因此，材料的硬度不再是电火花加工中的关键因素。

电火花加工是利用存储在电容器组中的电能（一般为50V/10A量级）在工具电极（阴极）和工件电极（阳极）之间的微小间隙间进行放电来去除材料的。如图6.1所示，在EDM操作初始，在工具电极和工件电极间施以高电压。这个高电压可以在工具电极和工件电极窄缝间的绝缘电介质中产生电场。这就会使悬浮在电介质中的导电粒子聚集在电场最强处。当工具电极和工件电极之间的势能差足够大时，电介质被击穿，从而在电介质流体中会产生瞬时电火花，将少量材料从工件表面蚀除掉。每次电火花所蚀除掉的材料量通常在10-5～10-6mm3范围内。电极之间的间隙只有千分之几英寸，通过伺服机构驱动和控制工具电极的进给使该值保持常量。化学加工

化学加工是众所周知的特种加工工艺之一，它将工件浸入化学溶液通过腐蚀溶解作用将多余材料从工件上去除掉。该工艺是最古老的特种加工工艺，主要用于凹腔和轮廓加工，以及从具有高的比刚度的零件表面去除余料。化学加工广泛用于为多种工业应用（如微机电系统和半导体行业）制造微型零件。

化学加工将工件浸入到化学试剂或蚀刻剂中，位于工件选区的材料通过发生在金属溶蚀或化学溶解过程中的电化学微电池作用被去除掉。而被称为保护层的特殊涂层所保护下的区域中的材料则不会被去除。不过，这种受控的化学溶解过程同时也会蚀除掉所以暴露在表面的材料，尽管去除的渗透率只有0.0025～0.1 mm/min。该工艺采用如下几种形式：凹坑加工、轮廓加工和整体金属去除的化学铣，在薄板上进行蚀刻的化学造型，在微电子领域中利用光敏抗蚀剂完成蚀刻的光化学加工(PCM)，采用弱化学试剂进行抛光或去毛刺的电化学抛光，以及利用单一化学活性喷射的化学喷射加工等。如图6.2a所示的化学加工示意图，由于蚀刻剂沿垂直和水平方向开始蚀除材料，钻蚀（又称为淘蚀）量进一步加大，如图6.2b所示的保护体边缘下面的区域。在化学造型中最典型的公差范围可保持在材料厚度的±10%左右。为了提高生产率，在化学加工前，毛坯件材料应采用其他工艺方法（如机械加工）进行预成形加工。湿度和温度也会导致工件尺寸发生改变。通过改变蚀刻剂和控制工件加工环境，这种尺寸改变可以减小到最小。

电化学加工

电化学金属去除方法是一种最有用的特种加工方法。尽管利用电解作用作为金属加工手段是近代的事，但其基本原理是法拉第定律。利用阳极溶解，电化学加工可以去除具有导电性质工件的材料，而无须机械能和热能。这个加工过程一般用于在高强度材料上加工复杂形腔和形状，特别是在航空工业中如涡轮机叶片、喷气发动机零件和喷嘴，以及在汽车业（发动机铸件和齿轮）和医疗卫生业中。最近，还将电化学加工应用于电子工业的微加工中。

图6.3所示的是一个去除金属的电化学加工过程，其基本原理与电镀原理正好相反。在电化学加工过程中，从阳极（工件）上蚀除下的粒子移向阴极（加工工具）。金属的去除由一个合适形状的工具电极来完成，最终加工出来的零件具有给定的形状、尺寸和表面光洁度。在电化学加工过程中，工具电极的形状逐渐被转移或复制到工件上。型腔的形状正好是与工具相匹配的阴模的形状。为了获得电化学过程形状复制的高精度和高的材料去除率，需要采用高的电流密度（范围为10～100 A/cm2)和低电压（范围为8～30V）。通过将工具电极向去除工件表面材料的方向进给，加工间隙要维持在0.1 mm范围内，而进给率一般为0.1～20 mm/min左右。泵压后的电解液以高达5～50 m/s的速度通过间隙，将溶解后的材料、气体和热量带走。因此，当被蚀除的材料还没来得及附着到工具电极上时，就被电解液带走了。

作为一种非机械式金属去除加工方法，ECM可以以高切削量加工任何导电材料，而无须考虑材料的机械性能。特别是在电化学加工中，材料去除率与被加工件的硬度、韧性及其他特性无关。对于利用机械方法难于加工的材料，电化学加工可以保证将该材料加工出复杂形状的零件，这就不需要制造出硬度高于工件的刀具，而且也不会造成刀具磨损。由于工具和工件间没有接触，电化学加工是加工薄壁、易变形零件及表面容易破裂的脆性材料的首选。激光束加工

LASER是英文Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation 各单词头一个字母所组成的缩写词。虽然激光在某些场合可用来作为放大器，但它的主要用途是光激射振荡器，或者是作为将电能转换为具有高度准直性光束的换能器。由激光发射出的光能具有不同于其他光源的特点：光谱纯度好、方向性好及具有高的聚焦功率密度。

激光加工就是利用激光和和靶材间的相互作用去除材料。简而言之，这些加工工艺包括激光打孔、激光切割、激光焊接、激光刻槽和激光刻划等。

激光加工（图6.4）可以实现局部的非接触加工，而且对加工件几乎没有作用力。这种加工工艺去除材料的量很小，可以说是“逐个原子”地去除材料。由于这个原因，激光切削所产生的切口非常窄。激光打孔深度可以控制到每个激光脉冲不超过一微米，且可以根据加工要求很灵活地留下非常浅的永久性标记。采用这种方法可以节省材料，这对于贵重材料或微加工中的精密结构而言非常重要。可以精确控制材料去除率使得激光加工成为微制造和微电子技术中非常重要的加工方法。厚度小于20 mm的板材的激光切割加工速度快、柔性好、质量高。另外，通过套孔加工还可有效实现大孔及复杂轮廓的加工。

激光加工中的热影响区相对较窄，其重铸层只有几微米。基于此，激光加工的变形可以不予考虑。激光加工适用于任何可以很好地吸收激光辐射的材料，而传统加工工艺必须针对不同硬度和耐磨性的材料选择合适的刀具。采用传统加工方法，非常难以加工硬脆材料如陶瓷等，而激光加工是解决此类问题的最好选择。

激光切割的边缘光滑且洁净，无须进一步处理。激光打孔可以加工用其他方法难以加工的高深径比的孔。激光加工可以加工出高质量的小盲孔、槽、表面微造型和表面印痕。激光技术正处于高速发展期，激光加工也如此。激光加工不会挂渣，没有毛边，可以精确控制几何精度。随着激光技术的快速发展，激光加工的质量正在稳步提高。

超声加工

超声加工为日益增长的对脆性材料如单晶体、玻璃、多晶陶瓷材料的加工需求及不断提高的工件复杂形状和轮廓加工提供了解决手段。这种加工过程不产生热量、无化学反应，加工出的零件在微结构、化学和物理特性方面都不发生变化，可以获得无应力加工表面。因此，超声加工被广泛应用于传统加工难以切削的硬脆材料。在超声加工中，实际切削由液体中的悬浮磨粒或者旋转的电镀金刚石工具来完成。超声加工的变型有静止（传统）超声加工和旋转超声加工。

传统的超声加工是利用作为小振幅振动的工具与工件之间不断循环的含有磨粒的浆料的磨蚀作用去除材料的。成形工具本身并不磨蚀工件，是受激振动的工具通过激励浆料液流中的磨料不断缓和而均匀地磨损工件，从而在工件表面留下与工具相对应的精确形状。音极工具振动的均匀性使超声加工只能完成小型零件的加工，特别是直径小于100 mm 的零件。

超声加工系统包括音极组件、超声发生器、磨料供给系统及操作人员的控制。音极是暴露在超声波振动中的一小块金属或工具，它将振动能传给某个元件，从而激励浆料中的磨粒。超声加工系统的示意图如图6.5所示。音极/工具组件由换能器、变幅杆和音极组成。换能器将电脉冲转换成垂直冲程，垂直冲程再传给变幅杆进行放大或压抑。调节后的冲程再传给音极/工具组件。此时，工具表面的振动幅值为20～50μm。工具的振幅通常与所使用的磨粒直径大致相等。

磨料供给系统将由水和磨粒组成的浆料送至切削区，磨粒通常为碳化硅或碳化硼。另外，除了提供磨粒进行切削外，浆料还可对音极进行冷却，并将切削区的磨粒和切屑带走。

Nontraditional Machining Processes Introduction

Traditional or conventional machining, such as turning, milling, and grinding etc., uses mechanical energy to shear metal against another substance to create holes or remove material.Nontraditional machining processes are defined as a group of processes that remove excess material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp cutting tool as it is used in traditional manufacturing processes.Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to be machined by traditional machining processes.Using traditional methods to machine such materials means increased demand for time and energy and therefore increases in costs;in some cases traditional machining may not be feasible.Traditional machining also results in tool wear and loss of quality in the product owing to induced residual stresses during machining.Nontraditional machining processes, also called unconventional machining process or advanced manufacturing processes, are employed where traditional machining processes are not feasible, satisfactory or economical due to special reasons as outlined below: 1.Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining;2.When the workpiece is too flexible or slender;3.When the shape of the part is too complex;4.Parts without producing burrs or inducing residual stresses.Traditional machining can be defined as a process using mechanical(motion)energy.Non-traditional machining utilizes other forms of energy;the three main forms of energy used in non-traditional machining processes are as follows: 1.Thermal energy;2.Chemical energy;3.Electrical energy.Several types of nontraditional machining processes have been developed to meet extra required machining conditions.When these processes are employed properly, they offer many advantages over traditional machining processes.The common nontraditional machining processes are described in the following section.Electrical Discharge Machining(EDM)

Electrical discharge machining(EDM)sometimes is colloquially referred to as spark machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking or wire erosion.It is one of the most widely used non-traditional machining processes.The main attraction of EDM over traditional machining processes such as metal cutting using different tools and grinding is that this technique utilizes thermoelectric process to erode undesired materials from the workpiece by a series of rapidly recurring discrete electrical sparks between workpiece and electrode.The traditional machining processes rely on harder tool or abrasive material to remove softer material whereas nontraditional machining processes such as EDM uses electrical spark or thermal energy to erode unwanted material in order to create desired shapes.So, the hardness of the material is no longer a dominating factor for EDM process.EDM removes material by discharging an electrical current, normally stored in a capacitor bank, across a small gap between the tool(cathode)and the workpiece(anode)typically in the order of 50 volts/10amps.As shown in Fig.6.1, at the beginning of EDM operation, a high voltage is applied across the narrow gap between the electrode and the workpiece.This high voltage induces an electric field in the insulating dielectric that is present in narrow gap between electrode and workpiece.This causes conducting particles suspended in the dielectric to concentrate at the points of strongest electrical field.When the potential difference between the electrode and the workpiece is sufficiently high, the dielectric breaks down and a transient spark discharges through the dielectric fluid, removing small amount of material from the workpiece surface.The volume of the material removed per spark discharge is typically in the range of 10-5 to 10-6 mm3.The gap is only a few thousandths of an inch, which is maintained at a constant value by the servomechanism that actuates and controls the tool feed.Chemical Machining(CM)

Chemical machining(CM)is a well known non-traditional machining process in which metal is removed from a workpiece by immersing it into a chemical solution.The process is the oldest of the nontraditional processes and has been used to produce pockets and contours and to remove materials from parts having a high strength-to-weight ratio.Moreover, the chemical machining method is widely used to produce micro-components for various industrial applications such as microelectromechanical systems(MEMS)and semiconductor industries.In CM material is removed from selected areas of workpiece by immersing it in a chemical reagents or etchants, such as acids and alkaline solutions.Material is removed by microscopic electrochemical cell action which occurs in corrosion or chemical dissolution of a metal.Special coatings called maskants protect areas from which the metal is not to be removed.This controlled chemical dissolution will simultaneously etch all exposed surfaces even though the penetration rates of the material removed may be only 0.0025-0.1mm/min.The basic process takes many forms: chemical milling of pockets, contours, overall metal removal, chemical blanking for etching through thin sheets;photochemical machining(pcm)for etching by using of photosensitive resists in microelectronics;chemical or electrochemical polishing where weak chemical reagents are used(sometimes with remote electric assist)for polishing or deburring and chemical jet machining where a single chemically active jet is used.A schematic of chemical machining process is shown in Fig.6.2a.Because the etchant attacks the material in both vertical and horizontal directions, undercuts may develop(as shown by the areas under the edges of the maskant in Fig.6.2b).Typically, tolerances of ±10% of the material thickness can be maintained in chemical blanking.In order to improve the production rate, the bulk of the workpiece should be shaped by other processes(such as by machining)prior to chemical machining.Dimensional variations can occur because of size changes in workpiece due to humidity and temperature.This variation can be minimized by properly selecting etchants and controlling the environment in the part generation and the production area in the plant.Electrochemical Machining(ECM)

Electrochemical metal removal is one of the more useful nontraditional machining processes.Although the application of electrolytic machining as a metal-working tool is relatively new, the basic principles are based on Faraday laws.Thus, electrochemical machining can be used to remove electrically conductive workpiece material through anodic dissolution.No mechanical or thermal energy is involved.This process is generally used to machine complex cavities and shapes in high-strength materials, particularly in the aerospace industry for the mass production of turbine blades, jet-engine parts, and nozzles, as well as in the automotive(engines castings and gears)and medical industries.More recent applications of ECM include micromachining for the electronics industry.Electrochemical machining(ECM), shown in Fig.6.3, is a metal-removal process based on the principle of reverse electroplating.In this process, particles travel from the anodic material(workpiece)toward the cathodic material(machining tool).Metal removal is effected by a suitably shaped tool electrode, and the parts thus produced have the specified shape, dimensions, and surface finish.ECM forming is carried out so that the shape of the tool electrode is transferred onto, or duplicated in, the workpiece.The cavity produced is the female mating image of the tool shape.For high accuracy in shape duplication and high rates of metal removal, the process is operated at very high current densities of the order 10-100 A/cm2,at relative low voltage usually from 8 to 30 V, while maintaining a very narrow machining gap(of the order of 0.1 mm)by feeding the tool electrode with a feed rate from 0.1 to 20 mm/min.Dissolved material, gas, and heat are removed from the narrow machining gap by the flow of electrolyte pumped through the gap at a high velocity(5-50 m/s), so the current of electrolyte fluid carries away the deplated material before it has a chance to reach the machining tool.Being a non-mechanical metal removal process, ECM is capable of machining any electrically conductive material with high stock removal rates regardless of their mechanical properties.In particular, removal rate in ECM is independent of the hardness, toughness and other properties of the material being machined.The use of ECM is most warranted in the manufacturing of complex-shaped parts from materials that lend themselves poorly to machining by other, above all mechanical methods.There is no need to use a tool made of a harder material than the workpiece, and there is practically no tool wear.Since there is no contact between the tool and the work, ECM is the machining method of choice in the case of thin-walled, easily deformable components and also brittle materials likely to develop cracks in the surface layer.Laser Beam Machining(LBM)

LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.Although the laser is used as a light amplifier in some applications, its principal use is as an optical oscillator or transducer for converting electrical energy into a highly collimated beam of optical radiation.The light energy emitted by the laser has several characteristics which distinguish it from other light sources: spectral purity, directivity and high focused power density.Laser machining is the material removal process accomplished through laser and target material interactions.Generally speaking, these processes include laser drilling, laser cutting, laser welding, and laser grooving, marking or scribing.Laser machining(Fig.6.4)is localized, non-contact machining and is almost reacting-force free.This process can remove material in very small amount and is said to remove material “atom by atom”.For this reason, the kerf in laser cutting is usually very narrow , the depth of laser drilling can be controlled to less than one micron per laser pulse and shallow permanent marks can be made with great flexibility.In this way material can be saved, which may be important for precious materials or for delicate structures in micro-fabrications.The ability of accurate control of material removal makes laser machining an important process in micro-fabrication and micro-electronics.Also laser cutting of sheet material with thickness less than 20mm can be fast, flexible and of high quality, and large holes or any complex contours can be efficiently made through trepanning.Heat Affected Zone(HAZ)in laser machining is relatively narrow and the re-solidified layer is of micron dimensions.For this reason, the distortion in laser machining is negligible.LBM can be applied to any material that can properly absorb the laser irradiation.It is difficult to machine hard materials or brittle materials such as ceramics using traditional methods, laser is a good choice for solving such difficulties.Laser cutting edges can be made smooth and clean, no further treatment is necessary.High aspect ratio holes with diameters impossible for other methods can be drilled using lasers.Small blind holes, grooves, surface texturing and marking can be achieved with high quality using LBM.Laser technology is in rapid progressing, so do laser machining processes.Dross adhesion and edge burr can be avoided, geometry precision can be accurately controlled.The machining quality is in constant progress with the rapid progress in laser technology.Ultrasonic Machining(USM)

Ultrasonic machining offers a solution to the expanding need for machining brittle materials such as single crystals, glasses and polycrystalline ceramics, and for increasing complex operations to provide intricate shapes and workpiece profiles.This machining process is non-thermal, non-chemical, creates no change in the microstructure, chemical or physical properties of the workpiece and offers virtually stress-free machined surfaces.It is therefore used extensively in machining hard and brittle materials that are difficult to cut by other traditional methods.The actual cutting is performed either by abrasive particles suspended in a fluid, or by a rotating diamond-plate tool.These variants are known respectively as stationary(conventional)ultrasonic machining and rotary ultrasonic machining(RUM).Conventional ultrasonic machining(USM)accomplishes the removal of material by the abrading action of a grit-loaded slurry, circulating between the workpiece and a tool that is vibrated with small amplitude.The form tool itself does not abrade the workpiece;the vibrating tool excites the abrasive grains in the flushing fluid, causing them to gently and uniformly wear away the material, leaving a precise reverse from of the tool shape.The uniformity of the sonotrode-tool vibration limits the process to forming small shapes typically under 100 mm in diameter.The USM system includes the Sonotrode-tool assembly, the generator, the grit system and the operator controls.The sonotrode is a piece of metal or tool that is exposed to ultrasonic vibration, and then gives this vibratory energy in an element to excite the abrasive grains in the slurry.A schematic representation of the USM set-up is shown in Fig.6.5.The sonotrode-tool assembly consists of a transducer, a booster and a sonotrode.The transducer converts the electrical pulses into vertical stroke.This vertical stroke is transferred to the booster, which may amplify or suppress the stroke amount.The modified stroke is then relayed to the sonotrode-tool assembly.The amplitude along the face of the tool typically falls in a 20 to 50 μm range.The vibration amplitude is usually equal to the diameter of the abrasive grit used.The grit system supplies a slurry of water and abrasive grit, usually silicon or boron carbide, to the cutting area.In addition to providing abrasive particles to the cut, the slurry also cools the sonotrode and removes particles and debris from the cutting area.