建筑英文文献及翻译

第一篇：建筑英文文献及翻译

外文原文出处: NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security, 2009, Increasing Seismic Safety by Combining Engineering Technologies and Seismological Data, Pages 147-149

动力性能对建筑物的破坏

引言：建筑物在地震的作用下，和一些薄弱的建筑结构中，动力学性能扮演了一个很重要的角色。特别是要满足最基本的震动周期，无论是在设计的新建筑，或者是评估已经有的建筑，使他们可以了解地震的影响。

许多标准(例如：欧标，2003；欧标，2006)，建议用简单的表达式来表达一个建筑物的高度和他的基本周期。这样的表达式被牢记在心，得出标定设计(高尔和乔谱拉人，1997)，从而人为的低估了标准周期。因为这个原因，他们通常提供比较低的设计标准当与那些把设计基础标准牢记在心的人(例：乔普拉本和高尔，2000)。当后者从已进行仔细建立的数字模型中得到数值(例：克劳利普和皮诺，2004；普里斯特利权威，2007)。当数字估计与周围震动测量的实验结果相比较，有大的差异，提供非常低的周期标准(例：纳瓦洛苏达权威，2004)。一个概述不同的方式比较确切的结果刊登在马西和马里奥(2008)；另外，一个高级的表达式来指定更有说服力的坚固建筑类型，提出了更加准确的结构参数表(建筑高度，开裂，空隙填实，等等)。

联系基础和上层建筑的震动周期可能发生共振的效果。这个原因对于他们的振动，可能建筑物和土地在非线性运动下受到到破坏，这个必须被重视。通常，结构工程师和岩土工程师有不同的观点在共振作用和一些变化的地震活动。结构工程师们认为尽管建筑物和土壤的自振周期和地震周期都非常的接近。但对于建筑物周期而言，到底是因为结构还是非结构造成的破坏提出了疑问。如果加大振动，建筑物减轻自身的重量对共振产生的破坏有很大的减轻效果。岩土工程的工程师们还没有完全同意这个观点，因为土壤可以提高自身的振动周期，与建筑物有相同的振动周期，从而建立了产生共振的条件。这个问题的处理在于这个增加量到底是多少？一般来说这种答案是不可能的，因为它取决于建筑类型和土壤类型。例如，一些普通的混凝土建筑物，对这建筑物增加一个非常大的震动周期，可以知道在平常的振动下就会迅速的遭到破坏，尤其是那些砌体建筑，比如，马雪凯利建筑(2004)和克劳福建筑(2006)。

最后，估计在改装或者加固后参数表数字的变化，通过计算机计算来改变标准的振动周期，阻尼因数和振动波形。这可以是一个非常好的评估工具对于存在的一些干扰(法拉斯等，2008)。这种效果也可以作为一种诊断工具，对周围的振动测量很有帮助(布丁和汉斯，2008)。

对以上问题的进一步研究，强烈要求建立更加宽广的原地实验或者是实验室实验，得出实验结果来估算。用一个经济实用的方式，来营造动态特性。

Role of Dynamic Properties on Building Vulnerability NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security, 2009, Increasing Seismic Safety by Combining Engineering Technologies and Seismological Data, Pages 147-149 Introduction Dynamic properties have a major role on the seismic behavior and vulnerability of building structures.Particularly, fundamental periods of vibration are needed, both in design of new buildings and in assessment of existing ones, so that their seismic response can be evaluated.Several codes(e.g.CEN, 2003;NZSEE, 2006)recommend empirical simplified expressions between the height of a building type and its fundamental period.Such expressions were calibrated keeping in mind a force-based design(Goel and Chopra, 1997), thus intentionally aim at underestimating period values.For this reason they usually provide rather low values when compared to those ones obtained keeping in mind a displacement-based design(see e.g.Chopra and Goel, 2000), also when the latter were obtained from numerical simulations performed on carefully set up models(see e.g.Crowley and Pinho, 2004;Priestley et al., 2007).Even larger differences appear when numerical estimates are compared to experimental results based on ambient vibration measurements that provide very low period values(see e.g.Navarro et al., 2004).An overview of the different approaches together with a comparison of the relevant results is reported in Masi and Vona(2008);further, period-height expressions for some reinforced concrete building types are given, where the role of important structural characteristics(building height, cracking, masonry infills, elevation irregularities, etc.)is carefully taken into account.Coupling between soil and building fundamental periods of vibration may cause resonance effects.For this reason also their variation, as a consequence of possible building damage and/or soil non linear behavior during the motion, needs to be considered.Typically, structural and geotechnical engineers have different points of view about resonance effect and its variation during a seismic motion.Structural engineers say that whereas building and soil have initially close periods and an earthquake occurs, the building period, as a result of structural and non structural damage, is expected to increase during the motion, so that the building “hides” itself reducing the heaviest effects of resonance.Geotechnical engineers do not completely agree with this opinion saying that also the soil period can shift towards higher values, that is in the same direction of the building one, thus the resonance condition could arise again.The question to be dealt with is: how much is the relative amount of that increase? A general answer is not possible, as it depends on building and soil type.For example, in case of reinforced concrete buildings with masonry infill, a very large increase of the building period can be expected with the level of shaking due to cracking of structural members and, particularly, of brittle masonry infill, see e.g.Mucciarelli et al.(2004), Calvi et al.(2006).Finally, estimating the variation of the dynamic characteristics after retrofitting or strengthening interventions, by computing the modified values of fundamental periods, damping factors and mode shapes, can be a practical tool to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention(Farsi et al., 2008).To this purpose and also as a diagnosis tool, ambient vibration measurements can be very helpful(Boutin and Hans, 2008).All the above questions strongly require that further studies as well wide in-situ and laboratory experimental campaigns are carried out to set up procedures able to evaluate, in a reliable as well not expensive way, building dynamic properties.

第二篇：英文文献翻译

数字印刷的未来

------北大方正的董事长刘小琨在国际论坛上对于印刷技术的发展的发言

在我们外国友人介绍了他们的数字印刷技术和创新后，我想借这次机会去介绍北大方正对于印刷业的想法。

北大方正是一个基于它拥有自己的伟大的独立的技术，服务与全球媒体行业的技术公司。我们提供一个先进的商业模式和一个广阔的市场营销观点。我们提供报纸和出版行业的一个从最初的内容到最终的内容出版的完整的应用程序解决方案。我们提供商业印刷公司印刷过程的一个完整的解决方案和印前，印刷，印后的管理，并提供政府机关完整和可靠的系统制作和发送官方文件。

数字印刷和北大方正的造诣

作为数字印刷，我相信它包含三个方面，第一方面是数字化的生产流程，第二个方面是印刷过程，第三个方面是管理。

首先，我想去解释生产流程的数字化。生产流程的数字化包括排版，imposition，打样，制版，印刷，印前JDF指令和工作流程。随着技术的发展，数字化生产流程已经包含越来越多的项目。印刷技术已经改变了激光图像雕刻到CTP和数字印刷，从印前的数字化到印前，印刷和印后的集成。数字化生产流程是数字印刷的基础。它是效率、质量和成本的一个重要保证。

生产流程的数字化将必然导致印刷内容的数字化。数字化文件基于更方便长距离传输的文件格式。这需要我们去创建一个可存储、查询和转载的印刷文件数据库，提供印刷购买者较好的印刷服务。电子通讯、图书和杂志已经成为印刷媒体多次输入及输出技术的一个重要的完整的模型技术。

最后，管理数字化已成为印刷数字化的一个重要的部分。管理数字化包括设置印刷服务网络，它指的是自动提供更快的服务报价，跟踪工作等等。管理数字化还包括加强员工和财产资源的管理，项目管理的准确的项目计算，客户关系管理系统的市场和销售数据库的实现，以及编辑、印刷、分工的集成管理。管理数字化已经越来越紧跟生产流程的数字化的脚步。

印刷数字化的这三个方面是我的观点。那么方正在这三个方面已经做了或者实现了什么呢？ 方正在生产流程的数字化的实现是包含一下产品在内的，包括方正FIT页面布局软件，Wenhe 拼版软件，EagleProof，EagleDot 数码打样，语言文体库，RIP，打印控制器，ElecRoc 工作流程和CTP，EasiPrint 数码印刷系统和SuperLine 防伪系统。同时在印刷内容数字化中，方正有多媒体内容系统和数字化资产管理印刷系统。我们在数字化管理上也有RIP和分配系统。对于数字化印刷，方正已经做了很多贡献。

我们现在看看全球印前数字化的进程。CTF已经进入了它的发展的最后阶段。CTF已经在其发展的顶峰。数字化彩色印刷正在迅速发展。

数码印刷的全球趋势

数字化印前软件的全球进程是怎样呢？我们可以看到，RIP应用程序已经达到了顶峰。印刷和可变数据印刷正迅速发展，同时完整综合的印刷工作流程在稳健地发展。中国的印刷趋势与全球印刷趋势有一点点差异。这些差异体现在发达地区和发展中地区。发展中地区需要很长时间和很大空间去达到发达地区的水平。

接下来让我们去看看CTP的趋势。我之前已经提到，CTF已经进入它的生命周期的最后阶段，但是它仍有一些新的发展，原因如下：成熟的CTF生产流程，集成系统的特性，高成本高效率的性能，高投资高回报的性能，广泛的市场基础和在中国不同地区，需求的不同。在中国接下来的三年里，CTF的就职人员数量每年将约100人。在接下来的几年里，CTF和CTP将并存在市场上。

对于CTP，在一些发达国家和发达地区，它已经十分受欢迎。由于CTP的全面数字化，CTP的生命历程将比CTF的生命历程长。在中国，CTP仍处于一个发展的阶段。随着CTP设备和制版的价格的降低，CTP应用程序将使生产最大化。从2006年起，在中国，CTP的安装已经达到750台，以后的每年增加200-300台。我们相信未来的几年里，CTP将以高成本高效率的性能成为印刷市场的主流。至于全球市场，我们可以看到，CTP的应用程序的发展在美国变得越来越慢，同时，在欧洲，CTP应用程序的发展也变得平缓，但是在中国和南美，CTP仍处于一个快速增长的阶段。

接下来我想分享一下数字化工作流程的所有应用趋势。CTP和工作流程组成CTP系统。CTP的安装不仅仅是对设备的购买，而是拥有工作流程软件，程序，制版和系统设备。基于JDF/JDF的工作流程能够连接印前到印刷到印后，它已经成为CTP系统的核心。我想在这儿提到的是：方正的ElecRoc 工作流程系统和CTP 应用技术是被特别设计的，符合中国（和亚洲）的印刷企业。对于工作流程来说，网点，色彩管理，字体语言库，捕捉和油墨控制是最重要的组成部分。正在应用的是胶印和数码印刷合成的集成工作流程。在印刷企业里，对于公司的管理，紧密结合ERP系统的数字化工作流程将变成基本的平台。

现在，让我们来看一下印刷进程的全球趋势。从2005年到2010年，胶印，数码印刷和附加服务的全球百分比将会增加。印刷进程中将逐渐从胶版印刷向数码印刷，然后再向附加服务转移。

传统胶印虽然仍处于正在增长的趋势，但是它在印刷市场所占的份额却正在下降，而数码印刷所占印刷市场的份额正以我们可见的状态迅速增长。这是印刷工艺的一个改变，尽管在未来很长一段时间里，胶印将仍然是印刷技术的主要力量。由于数码印刷的快速增长，它将提高它在印刷市场的份额。数码印刷有短版活件，可变数据印刷，高速印刷，远程印刷和印刷个性化这些特殊的优势。印刷现在不仅仅是一个工艺，它还让我们有广泛的为购买者提供附加服务的机会。

下面是我们对喷墨印刷发展的看法。从2005年到2010年，在商业印刷的领域里，直邮，传统印刷，包装印刷，标签和出版都将快速发展。直邮行业的增长率将达到24%，包装印刷将达到60%，标签印刷将达到39.9%。我们可以得出结论，喷墨印刷即将突破中国市场。

喷墨印刷发展是随着数码印刷发展起来的，干墨粉成像是最受欢迎的成像技术。但是由于格式，速度和衬底的限制，干墨粉成像技术的发展面临限制。以上所有的限制和劣势都能够被克服来满足生产的需求。喷墨印刷技术近年来已经在迅速发展，并且将成为数码印刷的主流。在包装，标签和出版领域，喷墨印刷的行业增长率将显著增加。数码印刷将随着高性能印刷服务和工作流程的支持而发展。

印刷行业不仅仅是一个制造行业或者是一个服务行业，而更重要的是，也是继承我们民族文化的一个最初的行业。全球印刷行业是非常大的，收入多达六千亿美元。它对于中国，是一个挑战，更是一个机会。面对如此激烈的竞争，全球印刷购买者想要寻求拥有更好的成本效益性能的印刷服务的提供者。中国印刷行业将持续创新和发展。印刷质量的改善和印刷服务的成本优势将使得中国成为国际合作印刷服务的供应商。

数码印刷为印刷需求带来新的机会，为客户提供个性化印刷和短版印刷。它为附加服务提供了极大的潜在的机会。传统印刷将与数码印刷共存，并且通过集成的工作流程一起工作。基于互联网的电子期刊将对纸质出版带来一些影响，但对于整个印刷行业，它几乎没有影响。

基于之前提到的数码印刷的不同方面，方正提供一个集成的从工作流程的数字化到内容创建再到管理的解决方案。这个集成的解决方案包含从手稿的最初材料到成品的最终出版的完整的工作流程的管理。它是一个基于数字化内容资源管理和资源管理工作流程的平台。在这个集成的解决方案里，方正也为每一个领域提供个性化的解决方案。

结语

最后，我想总结一下方正对于数码印刷的看法。数字化技术不仅仅为印刷行业提供了先进的工具，还提供了准确的管理方法。数字化技术使得印刷，出版和信息服务合成一体成为可能。它将改变印刷和出版的配置。它将带来新的机遇。方正将致力于中国印刷和出版行业和其他随从行业的技术改进。

第三篇：英文文献翻译

2.2 影响SO3浓度的过程因素

一直减少的体积流量和引入的富氧燃烧过程的烟气循环增加了烟气中SO3的浓度。例如Ochs等人计算的SO2浓度从空气燃烧条件中的200ppm增加到富氧燃烧条件中900ppm，Kakaras等人估算的以褐煤为基础时模型由空气到O2/CO2（有循环的）时，SO2浓度从270ppm增加到到800ppm。

试验结果说明虽然实际中SO2的浓度依赖于很多的因素（概括在表4中），但是从空气燃烧到富氧燃烧SO2的浓度增加2-4倍。对于同一个研究中湿烟气循环（没有凝结水）已经表明它比干烟气循环（在循环之前使水凝结）的SO2的浓度的高。

表4 富氧燃烧条件下影响熔炉中SO2浓度的因素

变量控制因素相关结果

燃料中硫煤的质量

矿物质煤/灰分的质量

理论配比需煤的质量

求的氧气量

（燃料/O2比率）

过量O2，火焰的控制

阶级风/燃尽风

氧浓度火焰的控制

烟气循环的比率火焰的控制

一次风/二次风

送风量，速度的型线

烟气的杂质（空气分离单元，不

O2,N2,Ar,H2O）控制的空气入口

酸露点热量传递的控制灰分的化学成分，SO3/SO2的转化，H2SO4的转化 飞灰中Na,K,Ca,Mg倾向于形成硫酸盐从而减少SO2的浓度。在飞灰中硫的捕获率依赖于数量，微粒粒径，金属氧化物在灰分中的形成和分布。更高浓度的水分和灰分使燃料/O2的比值更小。S的生成物H2S和COS在还原气氛中间断的形成，焦炭的燃尽影响影响整个燃料中硫元素的转化。碳的燃尽，火焰的温度，传递给锅炉的辐射热。通过燃烧器的烟气流体积的改变，稀释/SO2的循环。通过燃烧器的气体流体积发生改变，SO2稀释 在烟气酸露点下运行的热量交换单元将会导致H2SO4的沉

积而引起腐蚀的问题。在富氧燃烧条件下，特定的烟气温度

将发生改变，SO3和H2O的浓度也将随着改变。

第四篇：建筑项目招投标外文翻译外文文献英文文献

Building engineering bidding

Abstract: Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed.The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market.This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.bidding documents should be well formulated ,which is important to a successful bidding and direct influence the success or failure of the bidding work.Because the success or failure of the bidding for the survival and development of enterprise has a direct impact, so we have a high quality, improve the bid documents of the unit, prevent invalid and successful pass mark appear, become a research topic.key : bidding drawbacks of unfair competition countermeasures Bidding is a form of project transactions, project bidding process is to determine the successful bidder and the cost of the process and the price of the project, project bidding work of a very important link, do a good job bidding to determine the price, we can effectively control construction costs, and create a fair and equitable market environment, create orderly competition mechanism.Bidding in construction activities, construction enterprises in order to tender invincible works to be successful, And from the contracted projects profitable, it needs to integrate various subjective and objective conditions, the tender research strategy determine tender.Tender bidding strategy, including pricing strategies and skills.All of the strategies and skills from the numerous contractors bidding on the accumulated experience and objective

understanding of the law and of the actual situation understanding, but also with the contractor's decision-making ability and courage are closely related.Bidding documents is the general programme and play book of the bidding activity through the process of bidding.The bidding documents will specify that How to conduct each bidding work, how to dispatch bidding documents, the requirements for tenderer,how to rate and decide bidding and the procedures of bidding.Therefore, the personnel who is responsible for prepare bidding documents should first have a

general view of the bidding work, include all the requirements and arrangements into the bidding documents.If meet problems that have not been considered previously, then resolve them one by one during the preparation.The course of bidding documents preparation is also the course of making bidding scheme.In another respect, bidding documents is also the legal instruments.Besides relevant law and rules, the bidding documents are the common game rules that bidder,bidding agent and tenderer should subject to through the bidding.Bidding documents are the legal instruments that all the three bidding related parties should subject to, have legal force, therefore, the bidding documents-making personnel required to have the awareness and quality of legal in order to reflect the fair, just and legal requirement in the bidding documents.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role.But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve.This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.Nowadays in the engineering construction industry, the market which is characteristic for project bidding, has formed.The construction companies,which want to create good benefits, have to control their cost and improve management to enhance the capacity of adapting and competing in this market.This article focuses on how to decrease cost and increase income so as to control the construction cost effectively.In building engineering bidding law enforcement and the practice of project construction supervision system on standardizing China's construction market, improve the construction quality and played an active role.But in the process of implementing exist some disadvantages, needs to perfect, enrich and improve.This project bidding documents in accordance with the bidding law of the People's Republic of China for bidders, bidding regulation, enterprise strictly, put forward to bidders professional requirements of project profile was illustrated.The practice of project bidding purpose is to market competition of openness, fairness and justice.However, due to the construction market development is not standard, management system and the experience of inadequate, architectural engineering bidding in concrete operation exist in ACTS of unfair competition, and some drawbacks.This obviously violate the bidding, the bidding process, and will lose its significance for other bidder fails to bid is unjust, disturbed the bidding(project contracting market economic order, for activities), this kind of behavior must be prohibited, only in this way can we make construction engineering competitive trading activity lawfully healthy.This subject will I learned and social practice, present situation and construction project bidding system is expounded, and the disadvantages of bidding for construction project with ACTS of unfair competition phenomenon and analysis of causes, and finally make corresponding preventive countermeasures.Construction cost management system, both theoretical discussion, but also need to practice innovation.Under the conditions of market economy, project cost management, competitive and orderly market for construction management services platform structures.In such a premise, the original scale and method of valuation is inappropriate, and this needs to be reformed and improved.The spirit of “the government's macro regulation and control, enterprise autonomy offer, the market will price” principle, to implement the implementation specification bill of quantity.Inventory Valuation bidding activities are based on market economy mechanism, based on legal, scientific, fair, open and reasonable way to determine the winning bidder of an economic activity.Bidding is bidding activities constitute two basic aspects.The bidding activity is merely that by bidding to choose the one with the work

Construction process capability, moderate cost, quality is excellent, short duration of construction enterprises, and this is the ultimate goal tender.I have participated in internships over the course of the project bidding, and completed over part of the calculation of quantities, combined with graduate experience in the design process, a brief analysis of the mode Quantities Call for Tender The meaning of risk and risk characteristics of the general construction, the lowest price sealed bidding construction method produces several risks and incentives，according to their characteristics discussed the feasibility of risk control and prevention.Comparison of engineering and engineering security risk management, insurance, similarities and differences between the two projects and benefits;construction project bidding and tendering process characteristics of human behavior is analyzed to reveal the bidder's risk appetite and behavioral characteristics with changes in the external environment change, when the default punishment is light, the bidder preference appetite for risk and default penalties, with the increase exceeds a certain value, the risk of bidders to show preference for behavior change to avoid the risk of penalties, the greater the bidder biased in favor of a more risk-averse behavior, the results of the control and prevention of risk behavior of bidders has an important and practical significance Construction Cost Management from the “quantity-one price” plan model to “price of separation volume” model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost.This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation.It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.With the construction of in-depth development of the market, the traditional fixed pricing model no longer suited to market-oriented economic development needs.In order to adapt to the current project bidding by the market needs of a project cost, we must work on the existing valuation methods and pricing model for reform, the implementation of projects bill pricing.Engineering is a list of pricing model and adapt to the market economy, allowing independent contractor pricing through market competition determine prices, with the international practice of pricing model.With the bill pricing model projects to promote, in accordance with international bidding practices is imperative.Therefore, “the lowest reasonable price of the successful bidder” My future is the most important evaluation methods.At this stage due to the implementation of projects bill pricing model and the problems mainly against China

at this stage “ in the minimum reasonable price of the principles of the successful bidder, most contractors have not yet set up their own enterprises of scale, companies unable to determine the reasonable Cost.This article is a scientific and fast set ”reasonable cost“ to study the key.First, from the project cost of the basic concept, of the engineering bill pricing model under the cost structure, to accurately predict costs of the project provided the basis, considering the average cost of the social cost to individual enterprises and the tender stage of the cost estimates.Followed through on fuzzy math and technology for smooth in-depth analysis, through ”close-degree,“ the concept of reasonable fuzzy math and exponential smoothing technologies, construction of the project cost vague prediction model, and in accordance with the relevant information and statistics Information and experience to establish a ”framework structure,“ the comparison works Construction Cost Management from the ”quantity-one price“ plan model to ”price of separation volume“ model of the market, and gradually establish a market price-based price formation mechanism, the price of the decision in the hands of the parties involved in the market, and ultimately the allocation of resources through the market in order to realize through the market mechanism to decide on project cost.This will standardize the construction market-competitive behavior and the promotion of project bidding mechanisms play an important role in innovation.It can be said that the implementation of the project bill of quantities is a project cost management system in our country a big step forward, but also in China's accession to the WTO, the global construction industry a powerful tool for peer competition.A healthy bidding system should be in accordance with the ”open, fair and justice" and the principle of good faith, and establish a unified, open, competitive and orderly construction market.In view of the current problems existing in the bidding process, adopt regulations, and formulate and perfect the institution, strengthening process supervision measures, they can better regulate construction market order, prevent corruption from its source, purify construction market, promote the construction market order progressively toward standardization, institutionalized, and constantly improve the quality and level of the bidding work.建筑项目招投标

摘要:目前在工程建设项目行业中，以工程招投标为特征的建筑市场已经形成，施工企业为创造良好经济效益，必须严格控制成本，加强成本控制管理，才能提高市场适应能力和竞争力。本文从降低成本、增加收入两方面阐述对施工成本的有效控制。投标文件的编制是投标工作的一个重要环节，直接影响投标工作的成败，投标的成败对企业的生存和发展有着直接的影响，因此要编制出高质量的投标文件，提高单位的中标率，防止无效标及废标出现。关键词：

招投标

不正当竞争

防范对策

招标投标是一种工程交易形式，工程招投标的过程就是确定中标人和工程价格的过程，而工程价格的确定，是工程招投标工作中非常重要的一个环节，搞好招投标工程的价格确定工作，可以有效地控制工程造价，创造公平、公正的市场环境，营造有序竞争的机制。在建筑工程招标投标活动中，建筑施工企业要想在投标中立于不败之地，中标得到工程，然后又要从承包工程中赢利，就需要综合考虑各种主观条件与客观因素、研究投标策略，确定投标方法。

投标策略包括投标策略和作价技巧。所有的策略和技巧来自承包商的无数次投标的经验积累以及对客观规律的认识和对实际情况的了解，同时也与承包商的决策能力和魄力息息相关。

从招标进程上讲，招标文件是招标活动的总纲和剧本。每项招标工作如何开始，如何发出招标文件，对投标人有什么要求，如何评标，如何决标，招标程序是什么，都在招标文件中做出规定，所以编制招标文件的人员首先要对本次招标工作有一个全局性的认识，把本次招标的要求和安排反映到招标文件当中，在编制当中也会遇到事先没有想到的问题，那就在编制当中逐一解决，编制招标文件的过程也是制定招标方案的过程。

从另一个意义上来讲，招标文件也是法律文件，除了相关的法律法规外，在招标的全过程中招标人，投标人，招标代理机构共同遵循的游戏规则就是招标文件，这是参加招标工作三方人士必须遵循的法律文件，具有法律效力，所以编制招标文件的人员须有法律意识和素质，在招标文件中体现出公平、公正、合法的要求。

我国建筑工程招投标法实施以及工程施工监理制度的实践，对规范我国建筑市场、提高建筑工程施工质量，起到了积极的作用。但是在实施过程中存在不

少缺陷，需要完善、充实和提高。本工程招标文件根据《中华人民共和国招投标法》规定，对投标人，投标企业进行严格把关，对竞标者提出了专业性的要求，对工程的概况进行了说明。

目前在工程建设项目行业中，以工程招投标为特征的建筑市场已经形成，施工企业为创造良好经济效益，必须严格控制成本，加强成本控制管理，才能提高市场适应能力和竞争力。本文从降低成本、增加收入两方面阐述对施工成本的有效控制。

我国建筑工程招投标法实施以及工程施工监理制度的实践，对规范我国建筑市场、提高建筑工程施工质量，起到了积极的作用。但是在实施过程中存在不少缺陷，需要完善、充实和提高。本工程招标文件根据《中华人民共和国招投标法》规定，对投标人，投标企业进行严格把关，对竞标者提出了专业性的要求，对工程的概况进行了说明。

实行工程招投标的目的是为了市场竞争的公开、公平、公正。但是，由于建筑市场发育尚不规范，管理体制的束缚以及经验不足等原因，建筑工程招标投标在具体操作中还存在不正当竞争行为和一些弊端。这显然违背了招投标的目的，整个招标投标过程也就失去了意义，对其他未中标的投标人来讲也是不公正的，扰乱了招投标（工程承发包市场）经济活动秩序，对于这类行为必须予以禁止，只有这样，才能使建设工程竞争性交易活动依法健康运行。因此本课题将结合本人所学及社会实践，对目前的建设工程招投标制度及现状进行阐述，并针对建设工程招投标存在的弊端与不正当竞争行为现象及产生原因进行分析，最后做出相应的防范对策研究。

造价管理体系的建设，既包括理论上的探讨，又需要实践中的创新。市场经济条件下的工程造价管理，要为建筑市场有序竞争搭建管理服务平台。在这样一个大前提下，原有的定额和计价方法是不适应的，这就需要改革和完善。本着“政府宏观调控、企业自主报价、市场形成价格”的原则，来推行实施工程量清单计价规范。清单计价模式下招投标活动是建立在市场经济运行机制下，依据法律程序，以科学、公正、公开合理的方法确定中标人的一种经济活动。招投标是构成招标投标活动中两个最基本的环节。而招投标活动，无非是想通过招标，选择一家具有工

工程施工能力、造价适中、质量较优、工期较短的施工企业，这也是进行招标的最终目的。本人在实习过程中曾参与过多个项目的招投标工作，并完成过

部分工程量清单的计算，结合毕业设计过程中的体会，简要分析一下工程量清单计价模式下的招投标工作。

从风险的内涵和建设工程一般性风险特点出发，了建设工程最低价格密封招标法的几种风险及其产生的诱因，根据其特性探讨了风险控制与防范的可行性。比较了工程担保与工程保险这两种工程风险管理异同与优点；并对建设工程招投标过程中的投标人的行为特征进行了分析，揭示投标人的风险偏好行为特征随着外部环境的改变而变化，当违约惩罚较轻时，投标人偏向于追求风险，而随着违约惩罚标准加大超过某一值后，投标人表现出的风险行为改变为偏向于规避风险，惩罚标准越大投标人行为偏向于更加规避风险，这一结果对控制和防范投标人的行为风险具有重要的与现实意义。

工程造价管理由“量价合一”的计划模式向“量价分离”的市场模式转变，逐步建立市场形成价格为主的价格机制，把价格的决定权交给参与市场的各方，并最终通过市场来配置资源，从而真正实现通过市场机制决定工程造价。这对规范建筑市场的竞争行为和促进工程招标投标机制的创新发挥重要作用。可以说，实行工程量清单计价是我国工程造价管理制度的一大进步，也是在我国加入WTO后，与全球建筑业同行竞争的有力工具。

随着工程建筑市场的深入发展，传统的定额计价模式已不适应市场化经济发展的需要。为了适应目前工程招投标由市场形成工程造价的需要，必须对现行工程计价方法和计价模式进行改革，实行工程量清单计价。工程量清单计价模式是一种与市场经济相适应的、允许承包单位自主报价、通过市场竞争确定价格、与国际惯例接轨的计价模式。随着工程量清单计价模式的推广，按国际惯例招标投标势在必行。因此“最低合理价中标”是我国今后最主要的评标办法。现阶段因实施工程量清单计价模式而出现的问题主要有，针对我国现阶段《招标投标法》中规定的最低合理价中标的原则，多数承包商尚未建立自己的企业定额，无法确定企业的合理成本。本文就是以科学、快捷的确定“合理成本价”为研究的关键。首先从工程成本的基本概念入手，分析了工程量清单计价模式下的成本构成，为准确预测工程成本提供了基础，综合考虑了社会平均成本和企业个别成本来进行投标阶段的成本估算。其次通过对模糊数学和指数平滑技术的深入分析，通过“贴近度”的概念，合理的将模糊数学与指数平滑技术结合起来，构建了工程成本模糊预测技术的数学模型，并根据统计的有关参考资料和经验建立了“框架结构体系”的对比工程

一个健康的招投标制度应该是按照“公开、公正、公平”和诚实信用的原则，建立起统一、开放、竞争、有序的建筑市场。针对当前招投标过程中存在的问题，采取完善法规、明确职责、健全机构，强化过程监督等措施，才能更好地规范建筑市场秩序，从源头上遏止腐败，净化建筑市场，促进建筑市场秩序逐步走向规范化，法制化的轨道，不断提高工程招投标工作的质量和水平。

第五篇：土木工程类专业英文文献及翻译

PAVEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSED

BY COLLAPSIBLE SUBGRADES

By Sandra L.Houston,1 Associate Member, ASCE

(Reviewed by the Highway Division)

ABSTRACT: Problem subgrade materials consisting of collapsible soils are com-mon in arid environments, which have climatic conditions and depositional and weathering processes favorable to their formation.Included herein is a discussion of predictive techniques that use commonly available laboratory equipment and testing methods for obtaining reliable estimates of the volume change for these problem soils.A method for predicting relevant stresses and corresponding collapse strains for typical pavement subgrades is presented.Relatively simple methods of evaluating potential volume change, based on results of familiar laboratory tests, are used.INTRODUCTION

When a soil is given free access to water, it may decrease in volume,increase in volume, or do nothing.A soil that increases in volume is called a swelling or expansive soil, and a soil that decreases in volume is called a collapsible soil.The amount of volume change that occurs depends on the soil type and structure, the initial soil density, the imposed stress state, and the degree and extent of wetting.Subgrade materials comprised of soils that change volume upon wetting have caused distress to highways since the be-ginning of the professional practice and have cost many millions of dollars in roadway repairs.The prediction of the volume changes that may occur in the field is the first step in making an economic decision for dealing with these problem subgrade materials.Each project will have different design considerations, economic con-

straints, and risk factors that will have to be taken into account.However, with a reliable method for making volume change predictions, the best design relative to the subgrade soils becomes a matter of economic comparison, and a much more rational design approach may be made.For example, typical techniques for dealing with expansive clays include:(1)In situ treatments with substances such as lime, cement, or fly-ash;(2)seepage barriers and/ or drainage systems;or(3)a computing of the serviceability loss and a mod-ification of the design to “accept” the anticipated expansion.In order to make the most economical decision, the amount of volume change(especially non-uniform volume change)must be accurately estimated, and the degree of road roughness evaluated from these data.Similarly, alternative design techniques are available for any roadway problem.The emphasis here will be placed on presenting economical and simple

methods for:(1)Determining whether the subgrade materials are collapsible;and(2)estimating the amount of volume change that is likely to occur in the 'Asst.Prof., Ctr.for Advanced Res.in Transp., Arizona State Univ., Tempe, AZ 85287.Note.Discussion open until April 1, 1989.To extend the closing date one month,a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals.The manuscript

for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on February 3, 1988.This paper is part of the Journal of Transportation.Engineering, Vol.114, No.6,November, 1988.ASCE, ISSN 0733-947X/88/0006-0673/$1.00 + $.15 per page.Paper No.22902.67

3field for the collapsible soils.Then this information will place the engineer

in a position to make a rational design decision.Collapsible soils are fre-

quently encountered in an arid climate.The depositional process and for-

mation of these soils, and methods for identification and evaluation of the

amount of volume change that may occur, will be discussed in the following

sections.COLLAPSIBLE SOILS

Formation of Collapsible Soils

Collapsible soils have high void ratios and low densities and are typically

cohesionless or only slightly cohesive.In an arid climate, evaporation greatly

exceeds rainfall.Consequently, only the near-surface soils become wetted

from normal rainfall.It is the combination of the depositional process and

the climate conditions that leads to the formation of the collapsible soil.Although collapsible soils exist in nondesert regions, the dry environment in

which evaporation exceeds precipitation is very favorable for the formation

of the collapsible structure.As the soil dries by evaporation, capillary tension causes the remaining

water to withdraw into the soil grain interfaces, bringing with it soluble salts,clay, and silt particles.As the soil continues to dry, these salts, clays, and

silts come out of solution, and “tack-weld” the larger grains together.This

leads to a soil structure that has high apparent strength at its low, natural

water content.However, collapse of the “cemented” structure may occur

upon wetting because the bonding material weakens and softens, and the soil

is unstable at any stress level that exceeds that at which the soil had been

previously wetted.Thus, if the amount of water made available to the soil

is increased above that which naturally exists, collapse can occur at fairly

low levels of stress, equivalent only to overburden soil pressure.Additional

loads, such as traffic loading or the presence of a bridge structure, add to

the collapse, especially of shallow collapsible soil.The triggering mechanism

for collapse, however, is the addition of water.Highway Problems Resulting from Collapsible Soils

Nonuniform collapse can result from either a nonhomogeneous subgrade

deposit in which differing degrees of collapse potential exist and/or from

nonuniform wetting of subgrade materials.When differential collapse of

subgrade soils occurs, the result is a rough, wavy surface, and potentially

many miles of extensively damaged highway.There have been several re-

ported cases for which differential collapse has been cited as the cause of

roadway or highway bridge distress.A few of these in the Arizona and New

Mexico region include sections of 1-10 near Benson, Arizona, and sections

of 1-25 in the vicinity of Algadonas, New Mexico(Lovelace et al.1982;

Russman 1987).In addition to the excessive waviness of the roadway sur-

face, bridge foundations failures, such as the Steins Pass Highway bridge,1-10, in Arizona, have frequently been identified with collapse of foundation

soils.Identification of Collapsible Soils

There have been many techniques proposed for identifying a collapsible

soil problem.These methods range from qualitative index tests conducted on

4disturbed samples, to response to wetting tests conducted on relatively un-

disturbed samples, to in situ meausrement techniques.In all cases, the en-

gineer must first know if the soils may become wetted to a water content

above their natural moisture state, and if so, what the extent of the potential

wetted zone will be.Most methods for identifying collapsible soils are only

qualitative in nature, providing no information on the magnitude of the col-

lapse strain potential.These qualitative methods are based on various func-

tions of dry density, moisture content, void ratio, specific gravity, and At-

terberg limits.In situ measurement methods appear promising in some cases, in that many

researchers feel that sample disturbance is greatly reduced, and that a more

nearly quantitative measure of collapse potential is obtainable.However,in situ test methods for collapsible soils typically suffer from the deficien-

cy of an unknown extent and degree of wetting during the field test.This

makes a quantitative measurement difficult because the zone of material

being influenced is not well-known, and, therefore, the actual strains, in-

duced by the addition of stress and water, are not well-known.In addition,the degree of saturation achieved in the field test is variable and usually

unknown.Based on recently conducted research, it appears that the most reliable

method for identifying a collapsible soil problem is to obtain the best quality

undisturbed sample possible and to subject this sample to a response to wet-

ting test in the laboratory.The results of a simple oedometer test will indicate

whether the soil is collapsible and, at the same time, give a direct measure

of the amount of collapse strain potential that may occur in the field.Potential

problems associated with the direct sampling method include sample distur-

bance and the possibility that the degree of saturation achieved in the field

will be less than that achieved in the laboratory test.The quality of an undisturbed sample is related most strongly to the area

ratio of the tube that is used for sample collection.The area ratio is a measure

of the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the sample collected to the cross-

sectional area of the sample tube.A thin-walled tube sampler by definition

has an area ratio of about 10-15%.Although undisturbed samples are best

obtained through the use of thin-walled tube samplers, it frequently occurs

that these stiff, cemented collapsible soils, especially those containing gravel,cannot be sampled unless a tube with a much thicker wall is used.Samplers

having an area ratio as great as 56% are commonly used for Arizona col-

lapsible soils.Further, it may take considerable hammering of the tube to

drive the sample.The result is, of course, some degree of sample distur-

bance, broken.bonds, densification, and a correspondingly reduced collapse

measured upon laboratory testing.However, for collapsible soils, which are

compressive by definition, the insertion of the sample tube leads to local

shear failure at the base of the cutting edge, and, therefore, there is less

sample disturbance than would be expected for soils that exhibit general shear

failure(i.e., saturated clays or dilative soils).Results of an ongoing study

of sample disturbance for collapsible soils indicate that block samples some-

times exhibit somewhat higher collapse strains compared to thick-walled tube

samples.Block samples are usually assumed to be the very best obtainable

undisturbed samples, although they are frequently difficult-to-impossible to

obtain, especially at substantial depths.The overall effect of sample distur-

bance is a slight underestimate of the collapse potential for the soil.67

5译文：

湿陷性地基引起的路面问题

作者：...摘要：在干旱环境中，湿陷性土壤组成的路基材料是很常见的，干旱环境中的气候条件、沉积以及风化作用都有利于湿陷性土的形成。在这方面包括了一种使用常用的实验室设备和测试方法获得这些问题的土壤的体积变化的可靠估计的预测技性讨论。对典型的路面路基提供了一种方法去预测相关的应力和相应的湿陷张力。基于熟悉的实验室测试结果，使用相对简单的方法评估潜在体积的变化。

引言：当土壤接触到水的时候，可能体积会减小或扩大，也可能不变化。遇到水体积增大的土叫做膨胀土，而体积减小的称为湿陷性土。土壤的类型结构、最初的土壤密度、施加应力状态以及土壤浸湿的程度范围决定了体积变化量的大小。自从专业实践开始由这些遇水体积变化的土组成的路基材料已经导致了许多公路病害，并且在维修方面已经花费了数百万美元。处理这种路基材料做出经济决策的第一步是做出可能发生的体积变化的预测。

每个工程项目都有不同的设计考虑、经济限制和风险因素，所有这些情况都必须考虑到。然而，最好的和最合理的设计可能会具有更大的经济优势相比于可靠的体积变化预测。例如，典型的处理膨胀黏土的技术有：(1)在现场用例如石灰、粉煤灰或者水泥等处置处理；(2)设置渗流屏障或者排水设施；(3)进行适用性散失的计算来变更设计来接受预期膨胀。为了做出最经济的决定，体积变化（特别是不均匀的体积变化）的量必须要精确计算，并且要从计算出的数据上估测出路面的平整度。同样，不寻常的设计技术可利用到任何道路问题中。这里将重点对以下两点提供简单和经济的方法：(1)决定路基材料是否是湿陷性膨胀性或者其他;(2)估算湿陷性土在路基中极有可能发生的体积变化量。这些信息将会是工程师做出合理的决定。湿陷性土在干旱地区是非常常见的。这种土的形成过程以及计算可能发生的体积变化量将在下文中介绍。

美国亚利桑那州皇家经济学会高级助理教授Tempe

注：讨论开放至1989年4月1日。增加截止日期一个月，必须要有ASCE期刊经理批准的书面请求。这篇文章是提交复审的初稿，可能出版的时间在1988年2月3日。本文是运输杂志收录的的一篇文章。114工程卷，6号，1988年11月。ASCE，ISSN 0733-947x / / / 88 0006-0673 1美元+每页15美元。22902号文件

湿陷性土

湿陷性土的结构

湿陷性土有高孔隙率、低密度和较弱的黏性等特点。在干旱地区，有很高的蒸发量，而降水量较低。因此，当有降水时只有地面土壤湿润。沉积作用和气候条件共同造成了湿陷性土的形成。尽管湿陷性土存在于非沙漠地区，但干旱环境中蒸发量远超降水量这一特点非常有利于湿陷性土结构的形成。

当土壤在蒸发过程中变干后，毛细张力使其余的水进入土壤颗粒的界面，同时带出可溶性盐、粘土和粉砂颗粒。随着土壤继续变干，可溶性盐、黏土和粉砂颗粒逐渐从溶解状态脱离出来，大量的颗粒物聚集在一起。这就导致这种土壤在低含水量时具有较高的表面强度。然而，当遇到水时，由于结合材料的弱化和软化，土壤承受应力超过浸湿之前，会使土结构发生崩塌。这样，如果提供给土壤水量高于自然状态水量，可能在较低水平的压力时就发生崩溃，或许

就在上覆土压力作用下。额外的负荷，如交通荷载或桥梁结构的存在，增加了湿陷性，特别是对于浅层土。无论怎样，触发湿陷性的原因就是加入水。

湿陷性土引起的公路问题

不均匀的沉陷可能是因为地基矿床存在不同程度的不均匀性或者是地基材料湿度不一样。当路基土发生微分崩溃时，结果是一个粗糙的、波浪状的表面，并潜在存在许多英里路基的广泛灾害。已经有一些报道，微分崩溃已被引用作为道路或公路桥梁病害的原因。其中一些在亚利桑那州和新墨西哥州地区包括靠近本森,亚利桑那州125部分。除了道路表面的过度波动，桥梁基础的问题，比如在亚利桑那州斯坦通公路桥梁，其他的经常被确定地基土的崩溃。

鉴别湿陷性土 已经有许多技术，提出了鉴别湿陷性土的问题。这些方法的范围从干扰样品进行质量指标的测试到比较浸湿前后土的性状再到现场观测技术。在所有的情况下，工程师首先必须要知道是否被浸湿的土壤含水量在天然含水量之上，如果是，那么就要确定潜在的浸湿范围。大部分鉴定湿陷性土的方法在本质上都是定性的，没有提供潜在崩塌规模的大小。这些定性的方法是基干密度、水分含量、空隙率、比重和阿太堡界限之上的。

原位检测出现在某些较有前途的研究中，因为许多专家认为样品干扰大大减少，而定量检测更能得到潜在的崩塌结论。然而，湿陷性土原位测试方法在现场测试时通常遭受润湿分布范围和程度未知这一问题的困扰。由于该区域材料材料以及水和应力的影响是未知的，使得定量检测难以进行。此外，在现场试验取得的饱和度是变化的，通常也不能确定。

根据最近的研究，表明鉴别湿陷性土的最可靠地方法是在试验室中观测最优质的原状样品在接触到水时的反应。简单的土压缩试验结果将表明土壤是否是湿陷性的，与此同时，还能得到这些区域潜在湿陷应力的直接测量值。直接测量的方法存在的现在的问题包括样品干扰以及测到的饱和度可能低于实验室测得的。

未受干扰的样品质量是与收集样品的管的面积比有很大关系的。面积比是收集到的样品横截面积与样品管横截面积的比。根据定义，A型薄壁样品管具有10%-15%的面积比率。虽然最好通过薄壁管来获得原状样品，但实际情况下样品很容易发生僵硬、胶结，尤其是封闭的砂砾，所以通常情况用较厚的管来采样。亚利桑那州的土壤通常有56%的面积比。另外，可能需要相当大的锤击该管一驱动样品。当然，其结果是，样品一定程度的干扰、断键、致密化，并相应的减小实验室测量时的崩溃。然而，符合定义的湿陷性土，样品管插入时导致局部剪切破坏，比一般剪切的土壤样品量更少干扰失败。