考研英语作文新东方内部必背50篇（汇编）

第一篇：考研英语作文新东方内部必背50篇

01 The Language of Music

A painter hangs his or her finished pictures on a wall, and everyone can see it.A composer writes a work, but no one can hear it until it is performed.Professional singers and players have great responsibilities, for the composer is utterly dependent on them.A student of music needs as long and as arduous a training to become a performer as a medical student needs to become a doctor.Most training is concerned with technique, for musicians have to have the muscular proficiency of an athlete or a ballet dancer.Singers practice breathing every day, as their vocal chords would be inadequate without controlled muscular support.String players practice moving the fingers of the left hand up and down, while drawing the bow to and fro with the right arm—two entirely different movements.Singers and instruments have to be able to get every note perfectly in tune.Pianists are spared this particular anxiety, for the notes are already there, waiting for them, and it is the piano tuner’s responsibility to tune the instrument for them.But they have their own difficulties;the hammers that hit the string have to be coaxed not to sound like percussion, and each overlapping tone has to sound clear.This problem of getting clear texture is one that confronts student conductors: they have to learn to know every note of the music and how it should sound, and they have to aim at controlling these sound with fanatical but selfless authority.Technique is of no use unless it is combined with musical knowledge and understanding.Great artists are those who are so thoroughly at home in the language of music that they can enjoy performing works written in any century.01音乐的语言

画家将已完成的作品挂在墙上，每个人都可以观赏到。作曲家写完了一部作品，得由 演奏者将其演奏出来，其他人才能得以欣赏。因为作曲家是如此完全地依赖于职业歌手和职业演奏者，所以职业歌手和职业演奏者肩上的担子可谓不轻。

一名学音乐的学生要想成为一名演奏者，需要经受长期的、严格的训练，就象一名医科的学生要成为一名医生一样。绝大多数的训练是技巧性的。

音乐家们控制肌肉的熟练程度，必须达到与运动员或巴蕾舞演员相当的水平。歌手们每天都练习吊嗓子，因为如果不能有效地控制肌肉的话，他们的声

带将不能满足演唱的要求。弦乐器的演奏者练习的则是在左手的手指上下滑动的同时，用 右手前后拉动琴弓--两个截然不同的动作。歌手和乐器演奏者必须使所有的音符完全相同协调。钢琴家们则不用操这份心，因为每个音符都已在那里等待着他们了。

给钢琴调音是调音师的职责。但调音师们也有他们的难处：他们必须耐心地调理敲击琴弦的音锤，不能让

音锤发出的声音象是打击乐器，而且每个交叠的音都必须要清晰。如何得到乐章清晰的纹理 是学生指挥们所面临的难题：他们必须学会了解音乐中的每一个音及其发音之道。他们还 必须致力于以热忱而又客观的权威去控制这些音符。除非是和音乐方面的知识和悟性结合起来，单纯的技巧没有任何用处。

艺术家之所以伟大在于他们对音乐语言驾轻就熟，以致于可以满怀喜悦地演出写于任何时代的作品。

02 Schooling and Education

It is commonly believed in United States that school is where people go to get an education.Nevertheless, it has been said that today children interrupt their education to go to school.The distinction between schooling and education implied by this remark is important.Education is much more open-ended and all-inclusive than schooling.Education knows no bounds.It can take place anywhere, whether in the shower or in the job, whether in a kitchen or on a tractor.It includes both the formal learning that takes place in schools and the whole universe of informal learning.The agents of education can range from a revered grandparent to the people debating politics on the radio, from a child to a distinguished scientist.Whereas schooling has a certain predictability, education quite often produces surprises.A chance conversation with a stranger may lead a person to discover how little is known of other religions.People are engaged in education from infancy on.Education, then, is a very broad, inclusive term.It is a lifelong process, a process that starts long before the start of school, and one that should be an integral part of one’s entire life.Schooling, on the other hand, is a specific, formalized process, whose general pattern varies little from one setting to the next.Throughout a country, children arrive at school at approximately the same time, take assigned seats, are taught by an adult, use similar textbooks, do homework, take exams, and so on.The slices of reality that are to be learned, whether they are the alphabet or an understanding of the working of government, have usually been limited by the boundaries of the subject being taught.For example, high school students know that there not likely to find out in their classes the truth about political problems in their communities or what the newest filmmakers are experimenting with.There are definite conditions surrounding the formalized process of schooling.上学与受教育 在美国，人们通常认为上学是为了受教育。而现在却有人认为孩子们上学打断了他们受教育的过程。这种观念中的上学与受教育之间的区别非常重要。

与上学相比，教育更具开放性，内容更广泛。教育不受任何限制。它可以在任何场合下进行，在淋浴时，在工作时，在厨房里或拖拉机上。

它既包括在学校所受的正规教育，也包括一切非正规教育。传授知识的人可以是德高望重的老者，可以是收音机里进行政治辩论的人们，可以是小孩子，也可以是知名的科学家。上学读书多少有点可预见性，而教育往往能带来意外的发现。与陌生人的一次随意谈话可能会使人认识到自己对其它宗教其实所知甚少。人们从幼时起就开始受教育。因此，教育是一个内涵很丰富的词，它自始至终伴随人的一生，早在人们上学之前就开始了。

教育应成为人生命中不可缺少的一部分。然而，上学却是一个特定的形式化了的过程。在不同场合下，它的基本形式大同小异。在全国各地，孩子们几乎在同一 时刻到达学校，坐在指定的座位上，由一位成年人传授知识，使用大致相同的教材，做作业，考试等等。

他们所学的现实生活中的一些片断，如字母表或政府的运作，往往受到科目范围的限制。例如，高中生们知道，在课堂上他们没法弄清楚他们社区里政治问题的真情，也不会了解到最新潮的电影制片人在做哪些尝试。

学校教育这一形式化的过程是有特定的限制的。

03 The Definition of “Price”

Prices determine how resources are to be used.They are also the means by which products and services that are in limited supply are rationed among buyers.The price system of the United States is a complex network composed of the prices of all the products bought and sold in the economy as well as those of a myriad of services, including labor, professional, transportation, and public-utility services.The interrelationships of all these prices make up the “system” of prices.The price of any particular product or service is linked to a broad, complicated system of prices in which everything seems to depend more or less upon everything else.If one were to ask a group of randomly selected individuals to define “price”, many would reply that price is an amount of money paid by the buyer to the seller of a product or service or, in other words that price is the money values of a product or service as agreed upon in a market transaction.This definition is, of course, valid as far as it goes.For a complete understanding of a price in any particular transaction, much more than the amount of money involved must be known.Both the buyer and the seller should be familiar with not only the money amount, but with the amount and quality of the product or service to be exchanged, the time and place at which the exchange will take place and payment will be made, the form of money to be used, the credit terms and discounts that apply to the transaction, guarantees on the product or service, delivery terms, return privileges, and other factors.In other words, both buyer and seller should be fully aware of all the factors that comprise the total “package” being exchanged for the asked-for amount of money in order that they may evaluate a given price.“价格”的定义价格决定资源的使用方式。价格也是有限的产品与服务在买方中的配给手段。美国的价格系统是复杂的网状系统，包括经济生活中一切产品买卖的价格，也包括名目繁多的各种服务，诸如劳动力、专职人员、交通运输、公共事业等服务的价格。

所有这些价格的内在联系构成了价格系统。任何一种个别产品或服务的价格都与这个庞大而复

杂的系统密切相关，而且或多或少地受到系统中其它成份的制约。如果随机挑选一群人，问 问他们如何定义“价格”，许多人会回答价格就是根据卖方提供的产品或服务，买方向其付出的钱数。换句话说，价格就是市场交易中大家认同的产品或服务的货币量。该定义就其本身来说自有

其道理。

但要获得对价格在任何一桩交易中的完整认识，就必须考虑到大量“非货币”因素的影响。买卖双方不但要清楚交易中的钱数，而且要非常熟悉交易物的质量和 数量，交易的时间、地点，采用哪种形式付款，有怎样的缓付和优惠，对交易物的质量保证、交货条款、退赔权利等等。

也就是说，为了能估算索价，买卖双方必须通晓构成交易物价格的通盘细节。

04 Electricity

The modern age is an age of electricity.People are so used to electric lights, radio, televisions, and telephones that it is hard to imagine what life would be like without them.When there is a power failure, people grope about in flickering candlelight, cars hesitate in the streets because there are no traffic lights to guide them, and food spoils in silent refrigerators.Yet, people began to understand how electricity works only a little more than two centuries ago.Nature has apparently been experimenting in this field for million of years.Scientists are discovering more and more that the living world may hold many interesting secrets of electricity that could benefit humanity.All living cell send out tiny pulses of electricity.As the heart beats, it sends out pulses of record;they form an electrocardiogram, which a doctor can study to determine how well the heart is working.The brain, too, sends out brain waves of electricity, which can be recorded in an electroencephalogram.The electric currents generated by most living cells are extremely small – often so small that sensitive instruments are needed to record them.But in some animals, certain muscle cells have become so specialized as electrical generators that they do not work as muscle cells at all.When large numbers of these cell are linked together, the effects can be astonishing.The electric eel is an amazing storage battery.It can seed a jolt of as much as eight hundred volts of electricity through the water in which it live.(An electric house current is only one hundred twenty volts.)As many as four-fifths of all the cells in the electric eel’s body are specialized for generating electricity, and the strength of the shock it can deliver corresponds roughly to length of its body.电当今时代是电气时代。人们对电灯、收音机、电视和电话早已司空见惯以致很难想象没有它们生活会变成什么样。

当停电时，人们在摇曳不定的烛光下暗中摸索；因没有红绿灯的指示，汽车在道路上迟疑不前；冰箱也停止工作，导致食物变质。人们只是在两个世

纪前一点才开始了解电的使用原理，自然界却显然在这方面经历过了数百万年。科学家不 断发现许多生物世界里可能有益于人类的关于电的有趣秘密。所有生物细胞都会发出微小的电脉冲。

当心脏跳动时，把它发出的脉冲记录下来就成了心电图，这可让医生了解心脏的工作状况。

大脑也发出脑电波，这可在脑电图上记录下来。

许多生物细胞发出的电流都是极微小的，小到要用灵敏仪器才能记录和测量。但一些动物的某些肌肉细胞能转化成一个个发电机，以致完全失去肌肉细胞的功能。这种细胞大量地连接在一起时产生的效果将是非常令人吃惊的。电鳗就是一种令人惊异的蓄电池。它可以在水中发出相当于800伏特电

压电流(家庭用户的电压只有120伏特)。在电鳗的身体里，多至五分之四的细胞都专门用来发电，而且发出的电流的强度大约和它身体的长度成正比。

05 The Beginning of Drama

There are many theories about the beginning of drama in ancient Greece.The on most widely accepted today is based on the assumption that drama evolved from ritual.The argument for this view goes as follows.In the beginning, human beings viewed the natural forces of the world-even the seasonal changes-as unpredictable, and they sought through various means to control these unknown and feared powers.Those measures which appeared to bring the desired results were then retained and repeated until they hardened into fixed rituals.Eventually stories arose which explained or veiled the mysteries of the rites.As time passed some rituals were abandoned, but the stories, later called myths, persisted and provided material for art and drama.Those who believe that drama evolved out of ritual also argue that those rites contained the seed of theater because music, dance, masks, and costumes were almost always used, Furthermore, a suitable site had to be provided for performances and when the entire community did not participate, a clear division was usually made between the “acting area” and the “auditorium.” In addition, there were performers, and, since considerable importance was attached to avoiding mistakes in the enactment of rites, religious leaders usually assumed that task.Wearing masks and costumes, they often impersonated other people, animals, or supernatural beings, and mimed the desired effect-success in hunt or battle, the coming rain, the revival of the Sun-as an actor might.Eventually such dramatic representations were separated from religious activities.Another theory traces the theater's origin from the human interest in storytelling.According to this vies tales(about the hunt, war, or other feats)are gradually elaborated, at first through the use of impersonation, action, and dialogue by a narrator and then through the assumption of each of the roles by a different person.A closely related theory traces theater to those dances that are primarily rhythmical and gymnastic or that are imitations of animal movements and sounds.戏剧的起源关于古希腊戏剧的起源存在着多种理论，其中一个最普遍为人接受的理论假设认为戏剧从仪式演化而来。

这个观点是这样进行论证的：一开始，人类把世界上的自然力量，甚至季节的变化都看成是不可预料的。他们试图通过各种方式去控制这些未知的、令人恐惧的力量。那些似乎带来了满意结果的手段就被保留下来并且重复直到这些手段固化为不变的仪式，最后产生了能够解释或者掩盖这些仪式神秘性的故事。随着时间的推移，一些仪式被废弃了，但这些后来被称作神话的故事流传下来并且为艺术和戏剧提供了素材。

认为戏剧从仪式演化而来的人们还认为那些仪式包含了戏剧的基本因素，因为音乐、舞蹈、面具和服装几乎经常被使用，而且，必须为演出提供一个合适的地点；如果不是整个社区共同参加演出，经常在“演出区”和“观众席”之间划分出明显的分界。

另外，仪式中还有演员，而且宗教领袖通常承担演出任务，因为在仪式的执行中避免错误的发生被认为有相当大的重

要性；他们经常带着面具，穿着服装象演员那样扮演其它人、动物或超自然的生灵，用动作 来表演以达到所需要的效果，比如打猎的成功或战斗的胜利、将至的雨、太阳的复活。最后这些戏剧性的表演从宗教活动中分离了出来。

另一个追溯戏剧起源的理论认为它来自人们对叙述故事的兴趣。根据这个观点，故事(关于狩猎、战争或者其它伟绩)是逐渐丰富起来的。

首先通过一个讲解人来运用模仿、表演和对话，然后再由不同的人扮演各自的角色； 另一个与之紧密相关的理论将戏剧的起源追溯至舞蹈，这些舞蹈大体上是有节奏感的和体操式的那一类，或者是对动物动作和声音的模仿。

06 Television

Television-----the most pervasive and persuasive of modern technologies, marked by rapid change and growth-is moving into a new era, an era of extraordinary sophistication and versatility, which promises to reshape our lives and our world.It is an electronic revolution of sorts, made possible by the marriage of television and computer technologies.The word “television”, derived from its Greek(tele: distant)and Latin(visio: sight)roots, can literally be interpreted as sight from a distance.Very simply put, it works in this way: through a sophisticated system of electronics, television provides the capability of converting an image(focused on a special photoconductive plate within a camera)into electronic impulses, which can be sent through a wire or cable.These impulses, when fed into a receiver(television set), can then be electronically reconstituted into that same image.Television is more than just an electronic system, however.It is a means of expression, as well as a vehicle for communication, and as such becomes a powerful tool for reaching other human beings.The field of television can be divided into two categories determined by its means of transmission.First, there is broadcast television, which reaches the masses through broad-based airwave transmission of television signals.Second, there is nonbroadcast television, which provides for the needs of individuals or specific interest groups through controlled transmission techniques.Traditionally, television has been a medium of the masses.We are most familiar with

broadcast television because it has been with us for about thirty-seven years in a form similar to what exists today.During those years, it has been controlled, for the most part, by the broadcast networks, ABC, NBC, and CBS, who have been the major purveyors of news, information, and entertainment.These giants of broadcasting have actually shaped not only television but our perception of it as well.We have come to look upon the picture tube as a source of entertainment, placing our role in this dynamic medium as the passive viewer.电视电视--以快速变化与发展为标志的最普遍、最具有影响力的一项现代技术，正在步入一个极端复杂化与多样化的新时代。

这个时代承诺重新塑造我们的生活和我们的世界。这可以称得上是又一次电子革命，其关键在于电视技术与计算机技术的结合。“电视”这个词

来源于希腊语词根(tele：远)和拉丁语词根(vision：景象)，可以从字面上理解为来自远处的景象。

简单说来，电视是以这种方式工作的，通过一个复杂的电子系统，电视能够将一幅 图像(这幅图像被聚焦在一部摄像机内的一块特殊的光导底片上)转换成能经过导线或电缆发送出去的电子脉冲信号。

当这些电子脉冲信号被输入一部接收机(电视机)时，就可以用电子学的方法把脉冲信号重新恢复成同一幅图像。但是，电视不仅仅是一个电子系统，它还

是一种表达工具和传播渠道。因此，电视成了一个对其他人发生影响的强大工具。电视这个领域可以根据其发射方式分为两类。第一类为广播电视，通过电视信号的宽带无线电波发射展现在大众面前；第二类为非广播电视，使用受控的发射技术来满足个人以及某些特殊

利益群体的需要。电视早已成为大众媒介。我们熟悉广播电视，因为广播电视已经以类似目前的方式存在了大约37年。

在那些年头中，电视绝大部分一直由ABC、NBC、CBS这些广播电视公司控制着，这些广播电视公司一直是新闻、信息和娱乐的主要提供者。这些 广播业的巨头实际上不仅塑造了电视，而且也塑造了我们对电视的理解。我们渐渐把显像管看作是娱乐的来源，让自己成为这个生动的媒介的被动观众。

07 Andrew Carnegie

Andrew Carnegie, known as the King of Steel, built the steel industry in the United States, and , in the process, became one of the wealthiest men in America.His success resulted in part from his ability to sell the product and in part from his policy of expanding during periods of economic decline, when most of his competitors were reducing their investments.Carnegie believed that individuals should progress through hard work, but he also felt strongly that the wealthy should use their fortunes for the benefit of society.He opposed charity, preferring instead to provide educational opportunities that would allow others to help themselves.“He who dies rich, dies disgraced,” he often said.Among his more noteworthy contributions to society are those that bear his name, including the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, which has a library, a museum of fine arts, and a museum of national history.He also founded a school of technology that is now part of Carnegie-Mellon University.Other philanthrophic gifts are the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace to promote understanding between nations, the Carnegie Institute of Washington to fund scientific research, and Carnegie Hall to provide a center for the arts.Few Americans have been left untouched by Andrew Carnegie's generosity.His contributions of more than five million dollars established 2,500 libraries in small communities throughout the country and formed the nucleus of the public library system that we all enjoy today.安德鲁?卡内基被称作钢铁大王的安德鲁?卡内基在美国建立了钢铁工业。在这个过程中，他变成了美国最富有的人之一。

他的成功，部分来自于他销售产品的能力，部分来自于经济萧条时期的扩充策略。在萧条时期，他的多数对手都在缩减投资。卡内基认为个 人应该通过努力工作来获得进展，但他也强烈地感到有钱人应该运用他们的财富来为社会谋取福利。他反对施舍救济，更愿意提供教育机会，使别人自立。

卡内基经常说：“富有着死去的人死得可耻。”他对社会的较重要的贡献都以他的名字命名。这些贡献包括匹兹堡卡内基学校。

这个学校有一个图书馆，一个美术馆和一个国家历史博物馆；他还创立了一所技术学校，这所学校现在是卡内基梅隆大学的一部分；其他的慈善捐赠有为促进国家间了 解的“卡内基国际和平基金”，为科学研究提供经费的华盛顿卡内基学院以及给各种艺术活动 提供活动中心的卡内基音乐厅。安德鲁?卡内基的慷慨大度几乎影响到每个美国人的生活。由于他超过五百万美元的捐款，2500 个图书馆得以建立起来，遍布在美国各地的小村镇，形成了我们今天还在享用的公共图书馆系统的核心。

08 American Revolution

The American Revolution was not a sudden and violent overturning of the political and social framework, such as later occurred in France and Russia, when both were already independent nations.Significant changes were ushered in, but they were not breathtaking.What happened was accelerated evolution rather than outright revolution.During the conflict itself people went on working and praying, marrying and playing.Most of them were not seriously disturbed by the actual fighting, and many of the more isolated communities scarcely knew that a war was on.America's War of Independence heralded the birth of three modern nations.One was Canada, which received its first large influx of English-speaking population from the thousands of loyalists who fled there from the United States.Another was Australia, which became a penal colony now that America was no longer available for prisoners and debtors.The third newcomer-the United States-based itself squarely

on republican principles.Yet even the political overturn was not so revolutionary as one might suppose.In some states, notably Connecticut and Rhode Island, the war largely ratified a colonial self-rule already existing.British officials, everywhere ousted, were replaced by a home-grown governing class, which promptly sought a local substitute for king and Parliament.美国革命美国革命其实并不算是一场革命，因为它并未导致完全的和彻底的变化。这 次革命并不是对政治和社会框架的一次突然和猛烈的颠覆，象后来在已经是独立国家的法国和俄国所爆发的革命那样。

革命带来了重大的变化，但并非翻天覆地，所发生的只是进化的加速，而不是一场彻底的革命；在冲突期间，人们仍然上班、做礼拜、结婚、玩耍。多

数人并没有受到实际战斗的严重影响。许多较闭塞的社区对这场战争几乎一无所知。美国独立战争宣布了三个现代国家的诞生，其中一个是加拿大。

加拿大的第一大批讲英语的流入人口来自于成千上万英王的效忠者，这些人从美国逃到了加拿大。另一个国家是澳大利 亚，因为美国不再是容纳罪犯和欠债者的国度了，澳大利亚就变成了一个惩治罪犯的殖民地(注：独立战争前，英国政府将罪犯流放到美国)。第三个国家就是美国，它完全建立在共 和原则基础上。即使政治上的颠覆也不如人们可能想象的那样具有革命性。在一些州，特别是康涅狄格和罗德岛，战争基本上只是承认了已经存在的殖民地的自治。四处被驱逐的英国官员都被本土的统治阶级所替代，这个统治阶级迅速地以地方权力机关来替代国王和议会。

09 Suburbanization

If by “suburb” is meant an urban margin that grows more rapidly than its already developed interior, the process of suburbanization began during the emergence of the industrial city in the second quarter of the nineteenth century.Before that period the city was a small highly compact cluster in which people moved about on foot and goods were conveyed by horse and cart.But the early factories built in the 1840's were located along waterways and near railheads at the edges of cities, and housing was needed for the thousands of people drawn by the prospect of employment.In time, the factories were surrounded by proliferating mill towns of apartments and row houses that abutted the older, main cities.As a defense against this encroachment and to enlarge their tax bases, the cities appropriated their industrial neighbors.In 1854, for example, the city of Philadelphia annexed most of Philadelphia County.Similar municipal maneuvers took place in Chicago and in New York.Indeed, most great cities of the United States achieved such status only by incorporating the communities along their borders.With the acceleration of industrial growth came acute urban crowding and accompanying social stress-conditions that began to approach disastrous proportions when, in 1888, the first commercially successful electric traction line was

developed.Within a few years the horse-drawn trolleys were retired and electric streetcar networks crisscrossed and connected every major urban area, fostering a wave of suburbanization that transformed the compact industrial city into a dispersed metropolis.This first phase of mass-scale suburbanization was reinforced by the simultaneous emergence of the urban Middle Class, whose desires for homeownership in neighborhoods far from the aging inner city were satisfied by the developers of single-family housing tracts.郊区的发展如果“郊区”指的是比已建好的城市内部发展更为迅速的城市边缘地带，那么郊区化可以说始于1825年至1850年工业化城市出现期间。

在这之前，城市只是高度密集的小聚居群。在其中，人们步行走动，商品靠马车来运送。但是建于18世纪三四十年

代的早期工厂位于城边的航道和铁路附近，被工作机会吸引到这里的成千上万的人们需要住房。

渐渐地，在与旧有的主要城区相毗邻的地方，不断涌现出由排房和公寓楼组成的工人

聚居区，包围了工厂。作为对这种侵蚀的自卫，也为了扩大它们收税的地域范围，城市吞并了工业化的临近地带，比如1854 年费城的城区就兼并了费县的绝大部分地区。相似的城市化也发生在芝加哥和纽约。今天很多美国的大城市其实就是靠吞并它们附近的边缘地区而

变成大都会的。随着工业化的加速发展，城市里出现了严重拥挤和相伴而来的社会压力。当 1888年第一条商业上成功的电气化铁轨被制造出来时，压力开始接近危机的程度。几年之 内，马车就被废弃了，电车网相互交织连接着各个重要的城区，从而形成了一种郊区化的潮流，即密集的工业城市转变成了分散的都市。

此时城市中产阶级的出现进一步加强了第一波大规模郊区化。这些中产阶级希望在远离老旧城市的地区拥有住宅，单一家庭住宅地区的开发者满足了他们的愿望。Types of Speech

Standard usage includes those words and expressions understood, used, and accepted by a majority of the speakers of a language in any situation regardless of the level of formality.As such, these words and expressions are well defined and listed in standard dictionaries.Colloquialisms, on the other hand, are familiar words and idioms that are understood by almost all speakers of a language and used in informal speech or writing, but not considered appropriate for more formal situations.Almost all idiomatic expressions are colloquial language.Slang, however, refers to words and expressions understood by a large number of speakers but not accepted as good, formal usage by the majority.Colloquial expressions and even slang may be found in standard dictionaries but will be so identified.Both colloquial usage and slang are more common in speech than in writing.Colloquial speech often passes into standard speech.Some slang also passes into standard speech, but other slang expressions enjoy momentary popularity followed by obscurity.In some cases, the majority never accepts certain slang phrases but nevertheless retains them in their collective memories.Every generation seems to require its own set of words to describe familiar objects and events.It has been pointed out by a number of linguists that three cultural conditions are necessary for the creation of a large body of slang expressions.First, the introduction and acceptance of new objects and situations in the society;second, a diverse population with a large number of subgroups;third, association among the subgroups and the majority population.Finally, it is worth noting that the terms “standard” “colloquial” and “slang” exist only as abstract labels for scholars who study language.Only a tiny number of the speakers of any language will be aware that they are using colloquial or slang expressions.Most speakers of English will, during appropriate situations, select and use all three types of expressions.语言的类型标准用法包括那些为使用这种语言的大多数人在任何场合下理解、使用和接受的词和短语，而不论该场合是否正式。

这些词和短语的意义已很确定并被列入了标准词典中。相反，俗语是指那些几乎所有讲这种语言的人都理解并在非正式的口头或书面中

使用，却不适用于更正规的一些场合的词和短语。几乎所有的习惯用语都属于俗语，而俚 语指的是为很多讲这种语言的人理解但大多数人不把它们列入好的、正式用法之内的词和短语；俗语甚至俚语都可能在标准字典中查到，但是字典中会标明它们的性质。

俗语和俚语词汇的应用都是口头较多、笔头较少。俗语用法经常地被接受为标准用法。一些俚语也变

成了标准用法，但另外一些俚语只经历了短暂的流行，而后就被弃之不用了。有时候，多数人从来不接受某些俚语，但是他们把这些俚语保存到集中记忆中。

每一代人似乎都需要独有的一套词汇来描述熟知的物体和事件。很多语言学家指出，大量俚语的形成需要三个 文化条件：第一，对社会中新事物的引入和接受；第二，一个由大量子群构成的多样化人口； 第三，各子群与多数人口之间的联系。最后需要提到的是，“标准语”、“俗语”和“俚语”这些术语只是对研究语言的专家才有用的抽象标签。

不论何种语言，只会有很小一部分使用者 能够意识到他们是在使用俗语或俚语。讲英语的多数人能够在适当的场合中选择使用所有这三种语言类型。Archaeology

Archaeology is a source of history, not just a bumble auxiliary discipline.Archaeological data are historical documents in their own right, not mere illustrations to written texts, Just as much as any other historian, an archaeologist studies and tries to reconstitute the process that has created the human world in which we livespace.With collections expanding, with the needs and functions of museums changing, empty space has become a very precious commodity.Probably nowhere in the country is this more true than at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, which has needed additional space for decades and which received its last significant facelift ten years ago.Because of the space crunch, the Art Museum has become increasingly cautious in considering acquisitions and donations of art, in some cases passing up opportunities to strengthen its collections.Deaccessingworks of art has taken on new importance because of the museum's space problems.And increasingly, curators have been forced to juggle gallery space, rotating one masterpiece into public view while another is sent to storage.Despite the clear need for additional gallery and storage space, however,“ the museum has no plan, no plan to break out of its envelope in the next fifteen years,” according to Philadelphia Museum of Art's president.博物馆从波士顿到洛杉机，从纽约到芝加哥、到达拉斯，所有的博物馆或者正在筹划、建造或

者正在完成大规模的扩建计划。这些计划或者已经根本性地改变了博物馆门面与展厅的设计，或者预期在不久的将来会这样做。

单单在纽约市，六个主要机构或者已经向空中和周围扩展，或者正准备这样做。大家一致行动的原因是复杂多样的，但其中的一个因素是普遍考虑的空间问题。随着收藏品的增多，也随着博物馆的需要和功能的变化，空间已经变成了一项非常珍贵的商品。在我国，也许没有任何其他地方比费城艺术博物馆更符合这个事实。

这个博物馆几十年来一直需要额外的空间，十年前进行了最后一次重大的翻新。由于空间 紧缺，该艺术博物馆在考虑购买与受赠艺术品已越来越谨慎，有时甚至放弃增强艺术收藏的 机会。由于博物馆的空间问题，将艺术品脱手或者说卖掉已经有了新的重要意义。博物馆 馆长们被迫巧妙轮换利用陈列馆的空间，轮流着把一些艺术杰作向公众展出，而把另一些送 入存储室中。虽然对额外的陈列室和存储室空间需要很明显，但据费城艺术博物馆经理讲： “博物馆还没有在未来十五年打破这个束缚的计划。” Skyscrapers and Environment

In the late 1960's, many people in North America turned their attention to environmental problems, and new steel-and-glass skyscrapers were widely criticized.Ecologists pointed out that a cluster of tall buildings in a city often overburdens public transportation and parking lot capacities.Skyscrapers are also lavish consumers, and wasters, of electric power.In one recent year, the addition of 17 million square feet of skyscraper office space in New York City raised the peak daily demand for electricity by 120, 000 kilowatts-enough to supply the entire city of Albany, New York, for a day.Glass-walled skyscrapers can be especially wasteful.The heat loss(or gain)through a wall of half-inch plate glass is more than ten times that through a typical masonry wall filled with insulation board.To lessen the strain on heating and air-conditioning equipment, builders of skyscrapers have begun to use double-glazed panels of glass, and reflective glasses coated with silver or gold mirror films that reduce glare as well as heat gain.However, mirror-walled skyscrapers raise the temperature of the surrounding air and affect neighboring buildings.Skyscrapers put a severe strain on a city's sanitation facilities, too.If fully occupied, the two World Trade Center towers in New York City would alone generate 2.25 million gallons of raw sewage each year-as much as a city the size of Stanford, Connecticut , which has a population of more than 109, 000.摩天大楼与环境

60年代后期，许多北美人把注意力转向了环境问题，那些崭新的玻璃钢摩天大楼受到了广泛的批评。

生态学家指出，城市中密集的高层建筑经常给公共交通与停车场的承载能力造成过重的负担。摩天大楼还是电能的过度消费者与浪费者。最近的某一年，纽约市摩

天写字楼1，700万英尺办公面积的增加使电能的最高日需求量提高了120，000千瓦。这 些电能足以供纽约的整个奥尔巴尼市使用一天。玻璃表面的摩天大楼特别地浪费。通过半 英寸的平板玻璃墙壁损失(或增加)的热量是典型的加入绝缘板的石墙所允许的热量损失(或增加)的十倍以上。

为了减轻取暖设备或空调设备的压力，摩天大楼的建造者们已经开始使用双面上釉的玻璃镶板和涂上了金色或银色反光薄膜的反光玻璃，来减少强光照射和热量的

增加；但是，镜面的摩天大楼会提高周围空气的温度并会对附近的建筑物产生影响。摩天大楼也对城市的卫生设施造成了沉重的压力。

单单纽约市的二个世界贸易中心大楼如果完全被占满的话，每年就会产生2，250，000加仑的污水。这相当于康涅狄格州的斯坦福市这

样大的城市一年所产生的污水量，而康州的斯坦福市拥有109，000人口。A Rare Fossil Record

The preservation of embryos and juveniles is a rate occurrence in the fossil record.The tiny, delicate skeletons are usually scattered by scavengers or destroyed by weathering before they can be fossilized.Ichthyosaurs had a higher chance of being preserved than did terrestrial creatures because, as marine animals, they tended to live in environments less subject to erosion.Still, their fossilization required a suite of factors: a slow rate of decay of soft tissues, little scavenging by other animals, a lack of swift currents and waves to jumble and carry away small bones, and fairly rapid burial.Given these factors, some areas have become a treasury of well-preserved ichthyosaur fossils.The deposits at Holzmaden, Germany, present an interesting case for analysis.The ichthyosaur remains are found in black, bituminous marine shales deposited about 190 million years ago.Over the years, thousands of specimens of marine reptiles, fish and invertebrates have been recovered from these rocks.The quality of preservation is outstanding, but what is even more impressive is the number of ichthyosaur fossils containing preserved embryos.Ichthyosaurs with embryos have been reported from 6 different levels of the shale in a small area around Holzmaden, suggesting that a specific site was used by large numbers of ichthyosaurs repeatedly over time.The embryos are quite advanced in their physical development;their paddles, for example, are already well formed.One specimen is even preserved in the birth canal.In addition, the shale contains the remains of many newborns that are between 20 and 30 inches long.Why are there so many pregnant females and young at Holzmaden when they are so rare elsewhere? The quality of preservation is almost unmatched and quarry operations have been carried out carefully with an awareness of the value of the fossils.But these factors do not account for the interesting question of how there came to be such a concentration of pregnant ichthyosaurs in a particular place very close to their time of giving birth.罕见的化石记录胚胎与幼体被保存下来在化石记录中是少见的事情。微小纤细的骨骼通常在石化前就被食腐肉的动物拆散了，或者被风化作用破坏掉了。鱼龙比起陆地的动物有更大的几率被保存下来，因为它们作为海洋动物常生活在腐蚀性较小的环境中。但是它

们的石化需要一系列因素：软组织的腐烂速度缓慢，很少被其他动物残食，缺少混杂、冲走小骨头的快速水流和波浪，以及相当快地被掩埋。

当这些因素存在时，某些地区就会变成一个充满保存完好的鱼龙化石的宝库。在德国获尔兹梅登，那儿的沉积物给人们提出了一个有趣的分析案例。

人们在黑色的、含沥青的海洋页岩中发现了约19，000年前沉积下来的鱼龙化石。

几年时间内，在这些岩石中取得了数以千计的海洋爬行动物、鱼类以及无脊椎动物的标本。它们的保存质量非常的好，但更令人称奇的是保存下来的育有胚胎的鱼龙化石数目。在获尔兹梅登附近一个小地区的六个不同的页岩层中分别发现了育有胚胎的鱼龙 化石。这表明大量的鱼龙经年累月重复使用一个特定的地点。那些胚胎已经发育得相当完整了。比如，它们的蹼桨已经完全形成了。

有一个标本甚至被保存在产道中。而且，那块页岩包含着很多在20到30英寸之间的新生幼体的化石。为什么在其他地方那么稀少的怀

孕雌兽和幼体在获尔兹梅登却那么多呢?因为其保存质量几乎举世无双，采集工作的进行一直是一丝不苟的。

大家都认识到这些化石的价值极其珍贵，但这些因素并不能解释这个有趣的问题：为什么在一个特定的地点会如此集中地出现即将临产的怀孕鱼龙群呢? The Nobel Academy

For the last 82years, Sweden's Nobel Academy has decided who will receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, thereby determining who will be elevated from the great and the near great to the immortal.But today the Academy is coming under heavy criticism both from the without and from within.Critics contend that the selection of the winners often has less to do with true writing ability than with the peculiar internal politics of the Academy and of Sweden itself.According to Ingmar Bjorksten , the cultural editor for one of the country's two major newspapers, the prize continues to represent “what people call a very Swedish exercise: reflecting Swedish tastes.”

The Academy has defended itself against such charges of provincialism in its selection by asserting that its physical distance from the great literary capitals of the world actually serves to protect the Academy from outside influences.This may well be true, but critics respond that this very distance may also be responsible for the Academy's inability to perceive accurately authentic trends in the literary world.Regardless of concerns over the selection process, however, it seems that the prize will continue to survive both as an indicator of the literature that we most highly praise, and as an elusive goal that writers seek.If for no other reason, the prize will continue to be desirable for the financial rewards that accompany it;not only is the cash prize itself considerable, but it also dramatically increases sales of an author's books.诺贝尔委员会

过去的82年里，瑞典的诺贝尔委员会决定了谁将获得诺贝尔文学奖，因此也就决定了谁将从伟大或近乎伟大荣升为不朽。

但在今天，该委员会却遭到了评选委员会内外的猛烈批评。批评者们争论说：“评选获奖者时，起作用更大的不是真实的写作能力，而是该委员

会以及瑞典特有的内部政治。按照瑞典两家主要报纸之一的文化版编辑IngmarBjorksten 的说法，该文学奖仍然是”人们所说的一种非常瑞典式的做为：反映瑞典口味“。对于其评选 过程中目光短浅的指责，该委员会辩护说，该委员会与世界几大文学之都相距遥远，实际上使该委员会免受外来的干扰。

这也许是对的，但批评者们反驳说，也正因为相距如此遥远，该委员会才不能准确地把握文学界的真正趋势。尽管对评选程序存在着关注，该文学奖将继

续作为世人最为推崇的文学的标志而存在，并将继续是作家们难以达到却又会不断追逐的目标。

如果不考虑其他因素，而仅仅考虑与之俱来的经济利益，该奖也将继续为人所渴求： 这不仅因为该奖本身就是一笔可观的现金收入，而且该奖还将极大地增加一个作家的著作的销量。

16.the war between Britain and France

In the late eighteenth century, battles raged in almost every corner of Europe, as well as in the Middle East, south Africa ,the West Indies, and Latin America.In reality, however, there was only one major war during this time, the war between Britain and France.All other battles were ancillary to this larger conflict, and were often at least partially related to its antagonist’ goals and strategies.France sought total domination of Europe.this goal was obstructed by British independence and Britain’s efforts throughout the continent to thwart Napoleon;through treaties.Britain built coalitions(not dissimilar in concept to today’s NATO)guaranteeing British participation in all major European conflicts.These two antagonists were poorly matched, insofar as they had very unequal strengths;France was predominant on land, Britain at sea.The French knew that, short of defeating the British navy, their only hope of victory was to close all the ports of Europe to British ships.Accordingly, France set out to overcome Britain by extending its military domination from Moscow t Lisbon, from Jutland to Calabria.All of this entailed tremendous risk, because France did not have the military resources to control this much territory and still protect itself and maintain order at home.French strategists calculated that a navy of 150 ships would provide the force necessary to defeat the British navy.Such a force would give France a three-to-two advantage over Britain.This advantage was deemed necessary because of Britain’s superior sea skills and technology because of Britain’s superior sea skills and technology, and also because Britain would be fighting a defensive war, allowing it to win with fewer forces.Napoleon never lost substantial impediment to his control of Europe.As his force neared that goal, Napoleon grew increasingly impatient and began planning an immediate attack.英法战争

在18世纪后期，战争爆发于欧洲大陆的几乎每一个角落，在中东、南非、西印度群岛、拉丁美洲亦都是如此。

然而实际上，在这一时期只有一场主要的战争，那就是英法之间的战争。所有其他战争都服从于这一更大的争端，至少是与这两个对手的目标和战略有某些关联。

法国力图统治整个欧洲，而英国的自主及其力图在整个欧洲大陆挫败拿破仑的种种

努力都是法国实现这一目标的障碍。英国通过条约建立了联盟(和今天北约的概念没有什么不同)以保证英国插手所有欧洲的主要争端。

这两个对头并不是一对好对手，因为他们的力量极不均衡：法兰西在陆地上称王，英格兰则

在海上称霸。法国人明白，如果不能击败英

国海军，他们胜利的唯一希望就是让欧洲的所有港口都对英国舰船关闭。于是，法国将其 军事占领从莫斯科延伸到里斯本，从尤特兰延伸到卡拉布里亚，企图以此来制服英国。所 有这些行动包含着巨大的风险，因为法国并不具备足够的军事资源，来控制这么多地盘，同时又能保护自己，维持国内的秩序。法国战略家们的算盘是，其海军若拥有

150艘军舰，则将足以击跨英国海军。这样的武力将使法国对英国具有3比2的优势。这种优势被认为是

必不可少的，因为英国人具有超群的海上技能和技术，并且打的是一场防御战争，使它能以少胜多。

拿破仑从未忘却他的目标，因为英国是他统治全欧的最后一个重大的障碍。随着他的力量越来越靠近这个目标，拿破仑变得越来越不耐烦起来，开始策划立即攻击。

17.Evolution of sleep

Sleep is very ancient.In the electroencephalographic sense we share it with all the primates and almost all the other mammals and birds: it may extend back as far as the reptiles.There is some evidence that the two types of sleep, dreaming and dreamless, depend on the life-style of the animal, and that predators are statistically much more likely to dream than prey, which are in turn much more likely to experience dreamless sleep.In dream sleep, the animal is powerfully immobilized and remarkably unresponsive to external stimuli.Dreamless sleep is much shallower, and we have all witnessed cats or dogs cocking their ears to a sound when apparently fast asleep.The fact that deep dream sleep is rare among pray today seems clearly to be a product of natural selection, and it makes sense that today, when sleep is highly evolved, the stupid animals are less frequently immobilized by deep sleep than the smart ones.But why should they sleep deeply at all? Why should a state of such deep immobilization ever have evolved?

Perhaps one useful hint about the original function of sleep is to be found in the fact that dolphins and whales and aquatic mammals in genera seem to sleep very little.There is, by and large, no place to hide in the ocean.Could it be that, rather than increasing an animal’s vulnerability, the University of Florida and Ray Meddis of London University have suggested this to be the case.It is conceivable that animals who are too stupid to be quite on their own initiative are, during periods of high risk, immobilized by the implacable arm of sleep.The point seems particularly clear for the young of predatory animals.This is an interesting notion and probably at least partly true.睡眠的进化 睡眠是古老的。从脑电图上看，我们人类和所有灵长目动物以及几乎所有的哺乳动物和鸟类都一样需要睡眠；甚至爬行类动物也有睡眠。有证据显示，有梦睡眠和无梦睡眠这

两种类型的睡眠取决于该动物的生活方式。从统计上看，食肉动物比被捕食动物有更多的有梦睡眠，而被捕食动物更多地无梦睡眠。

动物在有梦睡眠时，被有效地解除动作能力，并且对外界刺激缺乏反应。无梦睡眠则要浅得多。我们都看到过猫和狗在显然的酣睡中，有一点响动耳朵就会竖起来。被捕食动物很少有深度的有梦睡眠，这看来显然是自然选择的结果。

而且这一点是有道理的：当睡眠高度进化以后，愚笨的动物比聪明的动物更少在深度睡眠状态下丧失动作能力。

但是动物为什么要进入深度睡眠呢?为什么这样的无动作状态也会进化出来呢?海豚、鲸鱼以及水生哺乳动物睡眠都极少，这一事实可以给睡眠的根本

功能提供有用的线索。海洋中是没有藏身之处的。会不会是这样，睡眠不但不增加动物受伤害的可能性，反而是减少了这种可能性呢?佛罗里达大学的Wilse Webb和伦敦大学的RayMeddis认为情况就是如此。可以想像得出，在危险的时刻，那些由于太愚笨而不能自动保

持安静的动物，会不由自主地变得动弹不得。这一点在食肉动物的幼兽身上表现得特别明显。这是一个很有意思的看法，它至少部分是正确的。

18.Modern American Universities 胖胖：）

Before the 1850’s, the United States had a number of small colleges, most of them dating from colonial days.They were small, church connected institutions whose primary concern was to shape the moral character of their students.Throughout Europe, institutions of higher learning had developed, bearing the ancient name of university.In German university was concerned primarily with creating and spreading knowledge, not morals.Between mid-century and the end of the 1800’s, more than nine thousand young Americans, dissatisfied with their training at home, went to Germany for advanced study.Some of them return to become presidents of venerable colleges-----Harvard, Yale, Columbia---and transform them into modern universities.The new presidents broke all ties with the churches and brought in a new kind of faculty.Professors were hired for their knowledge of a subject, not because they were of the proper faith and had a strong arm for disciplining students.The new principle was that a university was to create knowledge as well as pass it on, and this called for a faculty composed of teacher-scholars.Drilling and learning by rote were replaced by the German method of lecturing, in which the professor’s own research was presented in class.Graduate training leading to the Ph.D., an ancient German degree signifying the highest level of advanced scholarly attainment, was introduced.With the establishment of the seminar system, graduate student learned to question, analyze, and conduct their own research.At the same time, the new university greatly expanded in size and course offerings, breaking completely out of the old, constricted curriculum of mathematics, classics, rhetoric, and music.The president of Harvard pioneered the elective system, by which students were able to choose their own course of study.The notion of major fields

of study emerged.The new goal was to make the university relevant to the real pursuits of the world.Paying close heed to the practical needs of society, the new universities trained men and women to work at its tasks, with engineering students being the most characteristic of the new regime.Students were also trained as economists, architects, agriculturalists, social welfare workers, and teachers.现代美国大学

19世纪50年代以前美国有一些小的学院，大多数成立于殖民时期。它们是与教会挂 钩的小机构，主要目的是培养学生的道德品行。当时在欧洲各地，高等教育机构已经发展起来，用的是一个古老的名称--大学。德国已经发展出一种不同类型的大学。德国大学关心的主要是创造知识和传播知识，而不是道德教育。从世纪中叶到世纪末，有9000多名美

国青年因不满国内所受的教育而赴德深造。他们中的一些人回国后成为一些知名学府--哈佛、耶鲁、哥伦比亚的校长并且把这些学府转变成了现代意义的大学。新校长们断绝了和教会的关系，聘请了新型的教职员，聘用教授根据的是他们在学科方面的知识，而不是正确的信仰和约束学生的强硬手段。

新的原则是大学既要传播知识也要创造知识。这就需要由学者型老师组成教工队伍。靠死记硬背和做练习来学习的方法变为德国式的讲解方法。德

国式的讲解就是由教授讲授自己的研究课题。通过研究生性质的学习可以获得表明最高学术造诣的古老的德国学位--博士学位。

随着讨论课制度的建立，研究生们学会了提问、分析以及开展他们自己的研究。同时，新式大学学校规模和课程设置完全突破了过去那种只

有数学、经典著作、美学和音乐的狭窄课程表。哈佛大学的校长率先推出选课制度，这样 学生们就能选择自己的专业。主修领域的概念也出现了。新的目标是使大学对实际社会更有用。

密切关注着社会上的实际需求，新的大学着意培养学生解决问题的能力。工程系学生 成为新式教育体制下最典型的学生。学生们还被培训成为经济学家、建筑师、农学家、社会工作人员以及教师。

19.children’s numerical skills 怎么还是胖胖：）

people appear to born to compute.The numerical skills of children develop so early and so inexorably that it is easy to imagine an internal clock of mathematical maturity guiding their growth.Not long after learning to walk and talk, they can set the table with impress accuracy---one knife, one spoon, one fork, for each of the five chairs.Soon they are capable of nothing that they have placed five knives, spoons and forks on the table and, a bit later, that this amounts to fifteen pieces of silverware.Having thus mastered addition, they move on to subtraction.It seems almost reasonable to expect that if a child were secluded on a desert island at birth and retrieved seven years later, he or she could enter a second enter a second-grade

mathematics class without any serious problems of intellectual adjustment.Of course, the truth is not so simple.This century, the work of cognitive psychologists has illuminated the subtle forms of daily learning on which intellectual progress depends.Children were observed as they slowly grasped-----or, as the case might be, bumped into-----concepts that adults take for quantity is unchanged as water pours from a short glass into a tall thin one.Psychologists have since demonstrated that young children, asked to count the pencils in a pile, readily report the number of blue or red pencils, but must be coaxed into finding the total.Such studies have suggested that the rudiments of mathematics are mastered gradually, and with effort.They have also suggested that the very concept of abstract numbers------the idea of a oneness, a twoness, a threeness that applies to any class of objects and is a prerequisite for doing anything more mathematically demanding than setting a table-----is itself far from innate

儿童的数学能力

人似乎生来就会计算。孩子们使用数字的技能发展得如此之早和如此必然，很容易让人想象有一个内在的精确而成熟的数字钟在指导他们的成长。孩子们在学会走路和说话后不久，就能以令人惊叹的准确布置桌子--五把椅子前面分别摆上一把刀、一个汤匙、一把叉 子。很快地，他们就能知道他们已在桌面上摆放了五把刀、五个汤匙、五把叉子。没有多久，他们就又能知道这些东西加起来总共是15把银餐具。

如此这般地掌握了加法之后，他们又转向减法。有一种设想几乎顺理成章，那就是，即使一个孩子一出生就被隔绝到荒岛

上，七年后返回世间，也能直接上小学二年级的数学课，而不会碰到任何智力调整方面的大麻烦。当然，事实并没有这么简单。

本世纪认知心理学家的工作已经揭示了智力发展所依赖的日常学习的微妙形式。他们观察到孩子们缓慢掌握那些成年人认为理所当然的概念的

过程，或者是孩子们偶然遇到这些概念的过程。他们也观察到孩子们拒绝承认某些常识的情况。比如：

孩子们拒绝承认当水从短而粗的瓶中倒入细而长的瓶子中时，水的数量没有变化。心理学家们而后又展示一个例子，即：让孩子们数一堆铅笔时，他们能顺利地报出蓝铅笔或红铅笔的数目，但却需诱导才能报出总的数目。此类研究表明：数学基础是经过逐渐努力后掌握的。

他们还表示抽象的数字概念，如可表示任何一类物品并且是在做比摆桌子有更高数学要求的任何事时都必备的一、二、三意识，远远不是天生就具备的。The Historical Significance of American Revolution

The ways of history are so intricate and the motivations of human actions so complex that it is always hazardous to attempt to represent events covering a number of years, a multiplicity of persons, and distant localities as the expression of one

intellectual or social movement;yet the historical process which culminated in the ascent of Thomas Jefferson to the presidency can be regarded as the outstanding example not only of the birth of a new way of life but of nationalism as a new way of life.The American Revolution represents the link between the seventeenth century, in which modern England became conscious of itself, and the awakening of modern Europe at the end of the eighteenth century.It may seem strange that the march of history should have had to cross the Atlantic Ocean, but only in the North American colonies could a struggle for civic liberty lead also to the foundation of a new nation.Here, in the popular rising against a “tyrannical” government, the fruits were more than the securing of a freer constitution.They included the growth of a nation born in liberty by the will of the people, not from the roots of common descent, a geographic entity, or the ambitions of king or dynasty.With the American nation, for the first time, a nation was born, not in the dim past of history but before the eyes of the whole world.美国革命的历史意义历史的进程是如此错综复杂，人类行为的动机是如此令人费解，以至于想把那些时间跨 度大，涉及人数多，空间范围广的事件描述成为一个智者或一场社会运动的表现的企图是危险的。

然而以托马斯?杰弗逊登上总统宝座为高潮的那一段历史过程可以被视为一个特殊的例子。在这段历史时期里不仅诞生了新的生活方式，而且民族主义成为了一种新的生活方式。美国独立战争成为联结17世纪现代英格兰的自我意识和18 世纪末现代欧洲的觉醒的纽带。历史的行程需要跨越大西洋，这看起来似乎有些奇怪，但却只有在北美殖民地为民权和自由的斗争才能导致新国家的建立。

这里，反对”暴政“的民众起义的成果不仅是获得一个包含更多自由的宪法，还包括了一个依照人民的意愿诞生在自由中的国家的成长。这

个国家不是基于血缘、地理、君主或王朝的野心。由于有了美国，第一次一个国家的诞生 不是发生在历史模糊的过去，而是在全世界人们的眼前。The Origin of Sports

When did sport begin? If sport is, in essence, play, the claim might be made that sport is much older than humankind, for , as we all have observed, the beasts play.Dogs and cats wrestle and play ball games.Fishes and birds dance.The apes have simple, pleasurable games.Frolicking infants, school children playing tag, and adult arm wrestlers are demonstrating strong, transgenerational and transspecies bonds with the universe of animals – past, present, and future.Young animals, particularly, tumble, chase, run wrestle, mock, imitate, and laugh(or so it seems)to the point of delighted exhaustion.Their play, and ours, appears to serve no other purpose than to give pleasure to the players, and apparently, to remove us temporarily from the anguish of life in earnest.Some philosophers have claimed that our playfulness is the most noble part of our basic nature.In their generous conceptions, play harmlessly and experimentally

permits us to put our creative forces, fantasy, and imagination into action.Play is release from the tedious battles against scarcity and decline which are the incessant, and inevitable, tragedies of life.This is a grand conception that excites and provokes.The holders of this view claim that the origins of our highest accomplishments----liturgy, literature, and law----can be traced to a play impulse which, paradoxically, we see most purely enjoyed by young beasts and children.Our sports, in this rather happy, nonfatalistic view of human nature, are more splendid creations of the nondatable, transspecies play impulse.体育的起源体育运动开始于何时?如果体育运动的本质就是游戏的话，我们就可以宣称体育运动比

人类古老，因为正如我们所观察到的，野兽也进行嬉戏。狗和猫会扭抱玩球，鱼和鸟翩翩起舞，猿类会进行一些简单的、愉快的游戏。

雀跃的幼儿，捉迷藏的学童和成年摔跤者展示出人与动物界的有力的跨越世代与物种的永恒的联系--特别是幼兽，它们翻筋斗、追逐、奔跑、扭打、模仿、嬉笑(或者看起来是)，直到愉快地精疲力尽。他们的玩耍，同我们的 一样，似乎并没有别的目的而只是给游戏者以愉悦，暂时把我们从严肃生活的痛苦中拉出来。一些哲学家称我们的嬉戏是我们本质中最崇高的部分。

依他们这些随意性很大的见解，游戏无害而且实验性地允许我们的创造力、幻想和想象发挥作用。游戏让人们从永不间断亦

不可避免的生活悲剧-与乏匮和衰退进行的枯燥抗争中得到一种解脱。这是一个令人兴奋、给人启发的伟大见解。

这种见解的持有者宣称，我们的最高成就如宗教典礼、文学、法律的起源可以追溯到游戏的冲动。但令人不解的是我们看到只有幼兽和小孩子才最纯粹地享

受着这种冲动。从这种比较豁达和非宿命的人性观来看，我们的运动是超时代、跨物种的辉煌的创造。

22.Collectibles

Collectibles have been a part of almost every culture since ancient times.Whereas some objects have been collected for their usefulness, others have been selected for their aesthetic beauty alone.In the United States, the kinds of collectibles currently popular range from traditional objects such as stamps, coins, rare books, and art to more recent items of interest like dolls, bottles, baseball cards, and comic books.Interest in collectibles has increased enormously during the past decade, in part because some collectibles have demonstrated their value as investments.Especially during cycles of high inflation, investors try to purchase tangibles that will at least retain their current market values.In general, the most traditional collectibles will be sought because they have preserved their value over the years, there is an organized auction market for them, and they are most easily sold in the event that cash is needed.Some examples of the most stable collectibles are old masters, Chinese ceramics, stamps, coins, rare books, antique jewelry, silver，porcelain, art by well-known artists, autographs, and period furniture.Other items of more recent interest include old photograph records, old magazines, post cards, baseball cards, art glass, dolls, classic cars, old bottles, and comic books.These relatively new kinds of collectibles may actually appreciate faster as short-term investments, but may not hold their value as long-term investments.Once a collectible has had its initial play, it appreciates at a fairly steady rate, supported by an increasing number of enthusiastic collectors competing for the limited supply of collectibles that become increasingly more difficult to locate.收藏品

从古代开始，收藏品就是文化的一部分。一些物品因它们的有用性被收藏，而另一些则纯粹因为它们的美被收藏。

在美国，当今流行的收藏品种类从传统物件，如邮票、硬币、珍本书籍、艺术品，到更近期一些的有趣的东西，如布娃娃、瓶子、垒球卡、连环漫画册。

对收藏品的兴趣在过去十年中大大地增长，部分原因是一些收藏品显示出了它们的投资价值。

尤其在高通货膨胀时期，投资者尽量购买那些至少会保持他们现有市场价值的有形资产。一般来说，最传统的收藏品受青睐，因为它们多年后仍保持其价值。

它们拥有完善的拍卖市场，在需要现金的时候最容易被卖掉。一些最稳当的收藏品是古老的画作、中国陶

器、邮票、硬币、珍本书籍、古代珠宝、银器、瓷器、著名艺术家的作品、亲笔签名和有时代特征的家具。

其它更近期的物品有旧唱片、旧杂志、明信片、垒球卡片、彩色玻璃、布娃娃、早期汽车、古瓶和连环画册。作为短期投资这些相对说来较新颖的收藏品的确可能

更快地增值，但作为长期投资则可能不能保值。一旦一件收藏品有了它第一次交易，它便 以一个相当稳定的比率增值，这个增值率受到越来越多的热情的收藏者的支持，他们为有限的而且越来越难找到的收藏品而竞争。Ford

Although Henry Ford’s name is closely associated with the concept of mass production, he should receive equal credit for introducing labor practices as early as 1913 that would be considered advanced even by today’s standards.Safety measures were improved, and the work day was reduced to eight hours, compared with the ten-or twelve-hour day common at the time.In order to accommodate the shorter work day, the entire factory was converted from two to three shifts.In addition, sick leaves as well as improved medical care for those injured on the job were instituted.The Ford Motor Company was one of the first factories to develop a technical school to train specialized skilled laborers and an English language school for immigrants.Some efforts were even made to hire the handicapped and provide jobs for former convicts.The most widely acclaimed innovation was the five-dollar-a-day minimum wage that was offered in order to recruit and retain the best mechanics and to discourage the growth of labor unions.Ford explained the new wage policy in terms of efficiency and profit sharing.He also mentioned the fact that his employees would be able to purchase the automobiles that they produced – in effect creating a market for the product.In order to qualify for the minimum wage, an employee had to establish a decent home and demonstrate good personal habits, including sobriety, thriftiness, industriousness, and dependability.Although some criticism was directed at Ford for involving himself too much in the personal lives of his employees, there can be no doubt that, at a time when immigrants were being taken advantage of in frightful ways, Henry Ford was helping many people to establish themselves in America.亨利?福特尽管亨利?福特的名字和大生产的概念相连，但他在劳工保护上得到同样的赞誉，因为

他早在1913年便实行了用今天的标准来衡量依然是先进的标准。安全措施得到改进，日工作时间从当时普遍的10或12小时减少到8小时。

为了适应更短的日工作时间，整个工厂从双班变成了三班。而且，病假和改善了的工伤医疗得以制度化。福特汽车公司是最早建

立技术学校来培训专门技工和为移民开设英语学校的工厂之一。公司甚至为雇佣残疾人和 有前科的人而作出了一些努力。最受广泛称赞的革新是实行五美元一天的最低工资。其目的是招收和留住那些最好的技工并阻碍工会的发展。

福特从效率和利润分享的角度来解释这项新的工资政策。他也提到这样一个事实，他的员工可以买他们生产的汽车--这实际上是为其产品另开辟了一个市场。为了够资格得到最低工资，员工必须建立一个得体的家庭并显示出良好的个人习惯，包括节制、俭省、勤勉和可靠。虽然有人批评福特过多地干涉

了员工的私人生活，但毫无疑问，在移民们被用恶劣的方式剥削的时代，亨利?福特却帮助了许多人在美国扎下根来。

24．Piano

The ancestry of the piano can be traced to the early keyboard instruments of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries---the spinet, the dulcimer, and the virginal.In the seventeenth century the organ, the clavichord, and the harpsichord became the chief instruments of the keyboard group, a supremacy they maintained until the piano supplanted them at the end of the eighteenth century.The clavichord’s tone was metallic and never powerful;nevertheless, because of the variety of tone possible to it, many composers found the clavichord a sympathetic instrument for intimate chamber music.The harpsichord with its bright, vigorous tone was the favorite instrument for supporting the bass of the small orchestra of the period and for concert use, but the character of the tone could not be varied save by mechanical or structural devices.The piano was perfected in the early eighteenth century by a harpsichord maker in Italy(though musicologists point out several previous instances of the

instrument).This instrument was called a piano e forte(sort and loud), to indicate its dynamic versatility;its strings were struck by a recoiling hammer with a felt-padded head.The wires were much heavier in the earlier instruments.A series of mechanical improvements continuing well into the nineteenth century, including the introduction of pedals to sustain tone or to soften it, the perfection of a metal frame, and steel wire of the finest quality, finally produced an instrument capable of myriad tonal effects from the most delicate harmonies to an almost orchestral fullness of sound, from a liquid, singing tone to a sharp, percussive brilliance.钢琴

钢琴的家系可以追溯至15至16世纪早期的键盘乐器，包括小型拨弦琴、洋琴和维金娜琴。17 世纪时风琴、敲弦琴和拨弦琴成为键盘乐器类的主要成员。这种至高无上的地位一直为它们所保持，直到18世纪末期钢琴将它们取代。

敲弦古钢琴的音调有金属的音质，缺乏雄劲。然而由于它的音调变化多，许多作曲家发现对于亲切的室内乐是一种得体的乐器。

人们最喜欢用具备明快有力音调的拨弦古钢琴来配合当时小型管弦乐团的低音乐器以及在演奏会上演奏。但它的音调难以变化，除非使用机械或构件装置。18 世纪早期的意大利，钢琴在一位拨琴钢琴制造者手中得到完善(尽管音乐理论家们指出有更早的例子)。这种乐器被称为pianoeforte(意大利语，柔和而响亮的)，以显示它有力的多样性。演奏者用一个头部带皮毡的弹击乐锤敲击琴弦。更早的这种乐器之上的金属丝要重得多。从此，持 续到19世纪的一系列机械上的改进，包括引入踏板以维持音调或使其柔和，改善金属框架，以及使用最佳性能的钢丝，最终产生了一种具备无数音调效果的乐器。

这些效果涵盖了从最精致的和声到几乎全部的管弦乐音响，从明快流畅的吟唱的音调到尖锐的打击乐器的清晰动人的恢宏气势。

NOTE: Musical Instruments 1.The strings(弦乐)1)plectrum: harp, lute, guitar, mandolin;2)keyboard: clavichord, harpsichord, piano;3)bow: violin, viola, cello, double bass.2.The Wood（木管）—winds : piccolo, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, English horn;3.the brass（铜管）: French horn, trumpet, trombone, cornet, tuba, bugle, saxophone;4.the percussion（打击组）: kettle drum, bass drum, snare drum, castanet, xylophone, celesta, cymbal, tambourine.25.Movie Music

Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1927 as “silent”, the film has never been, in the full sense of the word, silent.From the very beginning，music was regarded as an indispensable accompaniment;when the Lumiere films were shown at the first public film exhibition in the United States in February 1896, they were accompanied by piano improvisations on popular tunes.At first, the music played bore no special relationship to the films;an accompaniment of any kind was sufficient.Within a very short time, however, the incongruity of playing lively music to a solemn film became apparent, and film pianists began to take some care in matching their pieces to the mood of the film.As movie theaters grew in number and importance, a violinist, and perhaps a cellist, would be added to the pianist in certain cases, and in the larger movie theaters small orchestras were formed.For a number of years the selection of music for each film program rested entirely in the hands of the conductor or leader of the orchestra, and very often the principal qualification for holding such a position was not skill or taste so much as the ownership of a large personal library of musical pieces.Since the conductor seldom saw the films until the night before they were to be shown(if indeed, the conductor was lucky enough to see them then), the musical arrangement was normally improvised in the greatest hurry.To help meet this difficulty, film distributing companies started the practice of publishing suggestions for musical accompaniments.In 1909, for example, the Edison Company began issuing with their films such indications of mood as “ pleasant”, “sad”, “lively”.The suggestions became more explicit, and so emerged the musical cue sheet containing indications of mood, the titles of suitable pieces of music, and precise directions to show where one piece led into the next.Certain films had music especially composed for them.The most famous of these early special scores was that composed and arranged for D.W Griffith’s film Birth of a Nation, which was released in 1915.电影插曲

尽管我们习惯于将1927年以前的电影称为”无声电影“，但是就无声这个词完整的意义 上来说，电影从未真正的无声过，从最初开始音乐就被视为必不可少的伴奏。当卢米埃尔的电影在1896年2 月美国首届影片公映展览上放映的时候，影片便用当时的流行曲临场钢琴伴奏。最初，这些音乐伴奏与电影没有什么特别的关系，用什么曲子伴奏都行。但在很

短的时间内，为一部庄重的影片演奏快活的音乐所产生的不协调感变得显而易见，因此钢琴家们开始注意将自己的作品与影片的情调结合起来。

随着影剧院在数量上与重要性上的不断增长，在一些场合，除了钢琴师外，还要加上小提琴师，或许还有一位大提琴师。较大 的影剧院里还组成了小型的管弦乐队。在很长的时间内，为各部影片选择配乐完全掌握在 乐队指挥或队长手中，而通常把持这种职位的资格不是技巧或鉴赏品味，而是拥有一个大的音乐作品的个人收藏。

因为直到电影上映的前一天晚上乐队指挥才能看到影片(如果这个指挥真正有幸能够看到影片的话)，音乐安排通常是在非常匆忙的情况下临场进行的。为了解

决以上的困难，电影发行公司开办了为音乐伴奏印制提示单的业务。例如1909年爱迪生公 司开始将一些诸如”喜悦的“、”悲伤的“、”活泼的“之类表明影片情调特征的提示与影片一起发行。

这些提示逐渐变得更加具体，并且出现了包括影片情调说明、适用乐曲名称和乐曲转换点等内容的配乐说明单。某些影片拥有专门为其创作的音乐。

这些早期特创乐谱中最著名的便是为D.W.格雷夫斯1915年上映的影片《一个国家的诞生》所创作的音乐。Note: 美国通俗音乐分类： 1．Jazz;1)traditional jazz----a)blues, 代表人物：Billy Holiday

b)ragtime(切分乐曲): 代表人物：Scott Joplin c)New Orleans jazz(= Dixieland jazz)eg: Louis Armstron d)swing eg: Glenn Miller, Duke Ellington, etc.e)bop(=bebop, rebop)eg: Lester Young, Charlie Parker etc.2)modern jazz------a)cool jazz(=progressive jazz)高雅爵士乐。Eg: Kenny G.b)third-stream jazz.Eg: Charles Mingus, John Lewis.c)main stream jazz.d)avant-garde jazz.e)soul jazz.Eg: Sarah Vaughn, Ella Fitzgerald f)Latin jazz.2.gospel music 福音音乐，主要源于Nero spirituals.Eg.Dolly Parker, Mahalia Jackson 3.Country and Western music.Eg.John Denver, Tammy Wynette, Kenny Rogers, etc.4.Rock music-----------a)rock and roll eg: Elvis Prestley(US), the Beatles(UK.)

b)folk rock Eg: Bob Dylon, Michael Jackson, Mariah Carey, Bruce Springsteen, Lionel Riche etc.c)punk rock d)acid rock

e)rock jazz eg: M.J.McLaughlin

f)Jurassic rock 5.Music for easy listening(i.e.light music)

26.International Business and Cross-cultural Communication

The increase in international business and in foreign investment has created a need for executives with knowledge of foreign languages and skills in cross-cultural communication.Americans, however, have not been well trained in either area and, consequently, have not enjoyed the same level of success in negotiation in an international arena as have their foreign counterparts.Negotiating is the process of communicating back and forth for the purpose of reaching an agreement.It involves persuasion and compromise, but in order to participate in either one, the negotiators must understand the ways in which people are persuaded and how compromise is reached within the culture of the negotiation.In many international business negotiations abroad, Americans are perceived as wealthy and impersonal.It often appears to the foreign negotiator that the American represents a large multi-million-dollar corporation that can afford to pay the price without bargaining further.The American negotiator’s role becomes that of an impersonal purveyor of information and cash.In studies of American negotiators abroad, several traits have been identified that may serve to confirm this stereotypical perception, while undermining the negotiator’s position.Two traits in particular that cause cross-cultural misunderstanding are directness and impatience on the part of the American negotiator.Furthermore, American negotiators often insist on realizing short-term goals.Foreign negotiators, on the other hand, may value the relationship established between negotiators and may be willing to invest time in it for long-term benefits.In order to solidify the relationship, they may opt for indirect interactions without regard for the time involved in getting to know the other negotiator.国际商业和跨文化交流国际贸易和海外投资的增加产生了对具有外语知识和跨文化交流技巧的经理的需求。

然而，美国人在这两方面未得到良好的训练，因此没有在国际谈判中象他们的外国对手一样成功。谈判是为了达成协议而反复交流的过程。它包括说服和妥协。

但是为了去进行说服和妥协，谈判者必须懂得在谈判的文化中怎样说服人和怎样达成妥协。在国外的国际商务谈判中，美国人被视为富有和不带个人情感。

在外国谈判者看来，似乎美国人代表着一个庞大的拥有数百万资财的大企业，不用进一步地讨价还价就能出得起价钱。

美国谈判者的角色变成了一个没有个人感情的信息及现金的供应者。对在国外的美 国谈判者的研究中，我们找出了损害谈判者能力的几个特点，或许证实这个已成定式的看法。尤其引起跨文化误解的两个特点是美国谈判者的直截了当和缺乏耐心。

此外，美国谈判者经常坚持实现短期目标，而外国的谈判者会珍视建立谈判者之间的联系并愿意为长期利益投入时间。

为了巩固这种联系，他们会选择非直接的交流而不计较投入用于了解对方的时间。明显地，价值观的不同和理解上的差异影响了谈判的结果和谈判者的成功与否。

美国人要在国际商务谈判中扮演更为有效的角色，他们就必须投入更多的努力提高跨文化的理解力。

27.Scientific Theories

In science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed events that are related.A theory often involves an imaginary model that helps scientists picture the way an observed event could be produced.A good example of this is found in the kinetic molecular theory, in which gases are pictured as being made up of many small particles that are in constant motion.A useful theory, in addition to explaining past observations, helps to predict events that have not as yet been observed.After a theory has been publicized, scientists design experiments to test the theory.If observations confirm the scientist’s predictions, the theory is supported.If observations do not confirm the predictions, the scientists must search further.There may be a fault in the experiment, or the theory may have to be revised or rejected.Science involves imagination and creative thinking as well as collecting information and performing experiments.Facts by themselves are not science.As the mathematician Jules Henri Poincare said, “Science is built with facts just as a house is built with bricks, but a collection of facts cannot be called science any more than a pile of bricks can be called a house.”

Most scientists start an investigation by finding out what other scientists have learned about a particular problem.After known facts have been gathered, the scientist comes to the part of the investigation that requires considerable imagination.Possible solutions to the problem are formulated.These possible solutions are called hypotheses.In a way, any hypothesis is a leap into the unknown.It extends the scientist’s thinking beyond the known facts.The scientist plans experiments, performs calculations, and makes observations to test hypotheses.Without hypothesis, further investigation lacks purpose and direction.When hypotheses are confirmed, they are incorporated into theories.科学理论

在科学中，理论是对所观察到的相关事件的合理解释。理论通常包含一个虚构的模型，这个模型帮助科学家构想所观察到的事件是如何发生的。分子运动理论便是我们能找到的一个很好的例子。

在这个理论中，气体被描绘成由许多不断运动的小颗粒组成。一个有用的理论，除了能够解释过去的观测，还有助于预测那些未被观测到的事件。一个理论公开

后，科学家们设计实验来检验这个理论。如果观察证实了科学家的预言，这个理论则得到了验证。如果观察不能证实科学家的预言，科学家就必须进一步的研究。或许是实验存在错误，或许是这个理论必须被修改或抛弃。科学家除了收集信息和操作实验外还需要想象能力和创/造性思维。事实本身并不是科学。

正如数学家乔斯?亨利?波恩克尔所说：”科学建立在事实之上，就像房子用砖砌成一样。但事实的收集不能被称作科学，就像一堆砖不能被叫作房子一样。

“多数科学家通过找出别的科学家在一个特定问题上的所知来开始研究。在收集了已知事实之后，科学家开始了研究中需要相当想像力的部分。他们尔后拟订

对这个问题的可行的解决方法。这些可行的解决方式被称为假设。在某种意义上，任何假 设都是向未知的跳跃。它使科学家的思维超越已知事实。科学家计划实验、计算、观测以检

验假定。若没有假设，进一步的研究便缺乏目的和方向。当假设被证实了，就成为理论的一部分。

28.Changing Roles of Public Education

One of the most important social developments that helped to make possible a shift in thinking about the role of public education was the effect of the baby boom of the 1950's and 1960's on the schools.In the 1920's, but especially in the Depression conditions of the 1930's, the United States experienced a declining birth rate---every thousand women aged fifteen to forty-four gave birth to about 118 live children in 1920, 89.2 in 1930, 75.8 in 1936, and 80 in 1940.With the growing prosperity brought on by the Second World War and the economic boom that followed it young people married and established households earlier and began to raise larger families than had their predecessors during the Depression.Birth rates rose to 102 per thousand in 1946,106.2 in 1950, and 118 in 1955.Although economics was probably the most important determinant, it is not the only explanation for the baby boom.The increased value placed on the idea of the family also helps to explain this rise in birth rates.The baby boomers began streaming into the first grade by the mid 1940's and became a flood by 1950.The public school system suddenly found itself overtaxed.While the number of schoolchildren rose because of wartime and postwar conditions, these same conditions made the schools even less prepared to cope with the food.The wartime economy meant that few new schools were built between 1940 and 1945.Moreover, during the war and in the boom times that followed, large numbers of teachers left their profession for better-paying jobs elsewhere in the economy.Therefore in the 1950’s and 1960’s, the baby boom hit an antiquated and inadequate school system.Consequently, the “ custodial rhetoric” of the 1930’s and early 1940’s no longer made sense that is, keeping youths aged sixteen and older out of the labor market by keeping them in school could no longer be a high priority for an institution unable to find space and staff to teach younger children aged five to sixteen.With the baby boom, the focus of educators and of laymen interested in education inevitably turned toward the lower grades and back to basic academic skills and discipline.The system no longer had much interest in offering nontraditional, new, and extra services to older youths.公共教育的角色变化一项重要的、有可能促使人们对公共教育的角色的看法发生转变的社会发展是本世纪五

六十年代的生育高峰对学校的影响。在20年代，尤其是在30年代后的大萧条中，美国经历了一次出生率的下降--1920年每千名年龄在15 岁至45岁的妇女生下大约118个存活婴儿，1930年89.2个，1936年75.8个，1940年80个。随着二战带来的持续繁荣以及随之而来 的经济增长，年轻人比大萧条中的同龄人更早地结婚成家，而且比前辈养育更大的家庭。

1946年出生率上升到102%，1950年达106%，1955年达118%。对于生育高峰，经济有可 能是最重要的决定因素，但它并不是唯一的解释。不断受到重视的家庭观念也有助于解释出生率的上升。到40 年代中期为止，这些生育高峰出生的孩子们开始源源不断地进入小学一年级。到了1950年，就形成了一股洪流。公共教育系统突然感到不堪重负了。

由于战时和战后的状况，使得学龄儿童人数增加，这些状况使得学校面对这股洪流更加措手不及。战时经济意味着在1940年到1950 年间几乎没有建立新学校。而且，在战时和随后的经济增长时期，大量的教师离开岗位去别处从事报酬更为优厚的工作。因此，在五六十年代，生育高峰冲击着陈旧而不完备的学校体系。这样一来，30年代以及40年代早期，”监护理论“就不再有意义了。也就是说，通过使16 岁以上的年轻人留在学校不进入劳动力市场的做法再也不是教育机构的优先考虑了。因为教育机构不再能找到场地和教师来教育那些更小的5-16 岁的孩子。随着生育高峰，教育者和圈外人士对教育的兴趣和焦点，不可避免地转向了更低的年级和基础的学术技能和学科上。

这个系统不再有浓厚的兴趣给较年长的年轻人提供非传统的新式的和额外的服务。Telecommuting

Telecommuting--substituting the computer for the trip to the job----has been hailed as a solution to all kinds of problems related to office work.For workers it promises freedom from the office, less time wasted in traffic, and help with child-care conflicts.For management, telecommuting helps keep high performers on board, minimizes tardiness and absenteeism by eliminating commutes, allows periods of solitude for high-concentration tasks, and provides scheduling flexibility.In some areas, such as Southern California and Seattle, Washington, local governments are encouraging companies to start telecommuting programs in order to reduce rush-hour congestion and improve air quality.But these benefits do not come easily.Making a telecommuting program work requires careful planning and an understanding of the differences between telecommuting realities and popular images.Many workers are seduced by rosy illusions of life as a telecommuter.A computer programmer from New York City moves to the tranquil Adirondack Mountains and stays in contact with her office via computer.A manager comes in to his office three days a week and works at home the other two.An accountant stays home to care for her sick child;she hooks up her telephone modern connections and does office work between calls to the doctor.These are powerful images, but they are a limited reflection of reality.Telecommuting workers soon learn that it is almost impossible to concentrate on work and care for a young child at the same time.Before a certain age, young children cannot recognize, much less respect, the necessary boundaries between work and

family.Additional child support is necessary if the parent is to get any work done.Management too must separate the myth from the reality.Although the media has paid a great deal of attention to telecommuting in most cases it is the employee’s situation, not the availability of technology that precipitates a telecommuting arrangement.That is partly why, despite the widespread press coverage, the number of companies with work-at-home programs or policy guidelines remains small.电子交通

电子交通--用电脑取代上班的往返--作为对各种各样的办公室工作问题的解决办法已受到了欢迎。

对工作者来说，它承诺不受办公室的约束，更少的时间浪费在交通上和有助于解决照看小孩的矛盾。

对管理者来说，电子交通有助于挽留高效率的工作者，通过省去办公室与家之间的来回往返，大大减少工作拖拉和旷工，给予管理者独处的时间来完成需要高

度集中精神的任务，为管理者提供灵活的时间安排。在一些地区，如南加利福尼亚和西雅 图、华盛顿，地方政府鼓励公司开始电子交通计划以减少交通高峰时的塞车和提高空气质量。但这些益处也来之不易。

要使电子交通成功需要仔细的计划并且理解电子交通的现实状况和流行的想象之间的区别。许多工作者被电子交通的美好幻想所迷惑。一位电脑程序设计

员从纽约市搬到了宁静的阿第伦达克山，用电脑保持与她办公室之间的联系。一位经理一 周三天到办公室，其他两天在家工作；一位会计师在家照顾她生病的孩子，接通电话调制解调器的接头，在同医生通话之余完成办公室工作。这些是很有震撼力的情景，但也是对现实有限的反映。电子交通者很快发现在同一时间专注工作和照看小孩几乎是不可能的。在

某个年龄之前，小孩子不可能意识到，更不可能尊重工作与家庭之间的界限。如果家长要完成工作，就必须另外照看小孩。管理阶层必须把现实同神话分开。

虽然传媒对电子交通投入了极大的关注，但在很大程度上，是员工的实际情况而不是技术的可能性促成电子交通的安排。

这就是为什么尽管有广泛的报导，具有在家工作项目或行动纲领的公司数目依然很少的部分原因。The origin of Refrigerators

By the mid-nineteenth century, the term “icebox” had entered the American language, but ice was still only beginning to affect the diet of ordinary citizens in the United States.The ice trade grew with the growth of cities.Ice was used in hotels, taverns, and hospitals, and by some forward-looking city dealers in fresh meat, fresh fish, and butter.After the Civil War(1861-1865),as ice was used to refrigerate freight cars, it also came into household use.Even before 1880,half of the ice sold in New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and one-third of that sold in Boston and Chicago, went to families for their own use.This had become possible because a new household

convenience, the icebox, a precursor of the modern refrigerator, had been invented.Making an efficient icebox was not as easy as we might now suppose.In the early nineteenth century, the knowledge of the physics of heat, which was essential to a science of refrigeration, was rudimentary.The commonsense notion that the best icebox was one that prevented the ice from melting was of course mistaken, for it was the melting of the ice that performed the cooling.Nevertheless, early efforts to economize ice included wrapping up the ice in blankets, which kept the ice from doing its job.Not until near the end of the nineteenth century did inventors achieve the delicate balance of insulation and circulation needed for an efficient icebox.But as early as 1803, and ingenious Maryland farmer, Thomas Moore, had been on the right track.He owned a farm about twenty miles outside the city of Washington, for which the village of Georgetown was the market center.When he used an icebox of his own design to transport his butter to market, he found that customers would pass up the rapidly melting stuff in the tubs of his competitors to pay a premium price for his butter, still fresh and hard in neat, one-pound bricks.One advantage of his icebox, Moore explained, was that farmers would no longer have to travel to market at night in order to keep their produce cool.冰箱的由来

直到19世纪中期，”冰箱“这个名词才进入了美国语言，但冰仅仅只是开始影响美国普通市民的饮食。冰的买卖随着城市的发展而发展。

冰被用在旅馆、酒馆、医院以及被一些有眼光的城市商人用于肉、鱼和黄油的保鲜。内战(1861-1865)之后，冰被用于冷藏货车，同时也进入了民用。

甚至在1880年前，半数在纽约、费城和巴尔的摩销售的冰，三分之一

在波士顿和芝加哥销售的冰进入家庭使用，因为一种新的家庭设备，冰箱，即现代冰箱的前身，被发明了。制造一台有效率的冰箱不像我们想象的那么简单。

19世纪早期，关于对冷藏科学至关重要的热物理知识是很浅陋的。认为最好的冰箱应该防止冰的融化这样一个

普遍的观点显然是错误的，因为正是冰的融化起了制冷作用。早期为节省冰的努力，包括用毯子把冰包起来，使得冰不能发挥它的作用。直到近19 世纪末，发明家们才成功地找到有效率的冰箱所需要的精确的隔热和循环的精确平衡。但早在1803年，一位有发明天才的

马里兰农场主，托马斯?莫尔，找到了正确方法。他拥有一个农场，离华盛顿约20英里，那里的乔治镇村庄是集市中心。

当他用自己设计的冰箱运送黄油去市场时，他发现顾客们会走过装在竞争者桶里那些迅速融化的黄油而给他比市价更高的价格买他仍然新鲜坚硬，整

齐地切成一磅一块的黄油。莫尔说他的冰箱的一个好处是使得农民们不必在夜里上路去市场以保持他们产品的低温。

British Columbia

British Columbia is the third largest Canadian provinces, both in area and population.It is nearly 1.5 times as large as Texas, and extends 800 miles(1,280km)north from the United States border.It includes Canada’s entire west coast and the islands just off the coast.Most of British Columbia is mountainous, with long rugged ranges running north and south.Even the coastal islands are the remains of a mountain range that existed thousands of years ago.During the last Ice Age, this range was scoured by glaciers until most of it was beneath the sea.Its peaks now show as islands scattered along the coast.The southwestern coastal region has a humid mild marine climate.Sea winds that blow inland from the west are warmed by a current of warm water that flows through the Pacific Ocean.As a result, winter temperatures average above freezing and summers are mild.These warm western winds also carry moisture from the ocean.Inland from the coast, the winds from the Pacific meet the mountain barriers of the coastal ranges and the Rocky Mountains.As they rise to cross the mountains, the winds are cooled, and their moisture begins to fall as rain.On some of the western slopes almost 200 inches(500cm)of rain fall each year.More than half of British Columbia is heavily forested.On mountain slopes that receive plentiful rainfall, huge Douglas firs rise in towering columns.These forest giants often grow to be as much as 300 feet(90m)tall, with diameters up to 10 feet(3m).More lumber is produced from these trees than from any other kind of tree in North America.Hemlock, red cedar, and balsam fir are among the other trees found in British Columbia.英属哥伦比亚

英属哥伦比亚是加拿大的第三大省，无论是面积还是人口都是如此。它几乎是德克萨斯的1.5倍，从美国边境一直向北延伸了800英里(1，280 公里)。它包括了加拿大整个西海岸及附近岛屿。大部分英属哥伦比亚多山峦。绵长而粗犷的山脉贯通南北。甚至那些

沿海的岛屿都是那些存在于千万年前的山脉的遗迹。在上一个冰河时期，这些山脉被冰河冲刷侵蚀，直到大部分山脉被淹没在海中。它们的峰顶显现为沿着海岸散布的岛屿。西南海岸地区有着潮湿温和的海洋性气候。从太平洋来的温暖的洋流使得从西吹过内陆的海风变得温暖。

因此这儿冬天平均气温在零上而且夏天也不会酷热。这些温暖的西风同样也从海洋带来了湿气。

来自太平洋的、从海岸向内陆的风遇到海岸山脉和落基山脉这些山脉屏障。当气流升高跨越这些山脉时，风的温度就降低了，风中的水分形成降雨。在一些朝西

山坡区域每年大约有200英寸(500厘米)的降水。大部分英属哥伦比亚密布着森林。在有充足降水的斜坡，巨大的道格拉斯枞树高耸入云。

这些森林巨人常常长到高达300英尺(90米)，直径粗达10英尺(3米)。这些树产出了比北美其他任何树都多的木材。铁杉、红香

椿、香脂冷杉枞都是发现于英属哥伦比亚的其它树种。

Botany

Botany, the study of plants, occupies a peculiar position in the history of human knowledge.For many thousands of years it was the one field of awareness about which humans had anything more than the vaguest of insights.It is impossible to know today just what our Stone Age ancestors knew about plants, but form what we can observe of pre-industrial societies that still exist a detailed learning of plants and their properties must be extremely ancient.This is logical.Plants are the basis of the food pyramid for all living things even for other plants.They have always been enormously important to the welfare of people not only for food, but also for clothing, weapons, tools, dyes, medicines, shelter, and a great many other purposes.Tribes living today in the jungles of the Amazon recognize literally hundreds of plants and know many properties of each.To them, botany, as such, has no name and is probably not even recognized as a special branch of “ knowledge” at all.Unfortunately, the more industrialized we become the farther away we move from direct contact with plants, and the less distinct our knowledge of botany grows.Yet everyone comes unconsciously on an amazing amount of botanical knowledge, and few people will fail to recognize a rose, an apple, or an orchid.When our Neolithic ancestors, living in the Middle East about 10,000 years ago, discovered that certain grasses could be harvested and their seeds planted for richer yields the next season the first great step in a new association of plants and humans was taken.Grains were discovered and from them flowed the marvel of agriculture: cultivated crops.From then on, humans would increasingly take their living from the controlled production of a few plants, rather than getting a little here and a little there from many varieties that grew wild-and the accumulated knowledge of tens of thousands of years of experience and intimacy with plants in the wild would begin to fade away.植物学

植物学，即对植物的研究，在人类知识的历史中占据了特殊的地位。这是人类几千年来超越模糊的认知而真正有所了解的领域之一。

我们今天不可能知道新石器时代的祖先们对植物到底了解多少，但我们在至今仍存在的前工业化社会观察到：人类对植物及其特性的详细了解应该是非常古老的。

这是理所当然的。植物是其他生物甚至其他植物食物金字塔的基础。它们对人们的生活至关重要，不仅在食物上，而且在衣物、武器、工具、染料、药物、住所和许许多多其他的用途上。至今仍生活在亚马逊河丛林中的部落确实能够辨识几百种植物并知道每一种的许多特性。

对他们来说，植物学没有专门的名称，甚至可能根本未被认为是一种专门知识。不幸的是，工业化的程度越高，我们距直接与植物接触就越 远，我们的植物学知识的增加也就越微不足道。然而每个人在不知不觉中拥有大量的植物学知识，很少有人认不出玫瑰、苹果或兰花。

大约一万年前居住在中东的新时代的祖先们发现某些草能被收获，它们的种子下一季耕种会收获更多时，人类就迈出了人和植物之间的新关系第一大步。

谷子被发现后，农业的奇迹从此诞生：这就是可栽培的谷物。从那时起，人类越来越依赖少数可控制的作物生存，而不再是从众多的野生种类中这里获取一点，那里

获取一点。这样在千万年中对于野生植物的经验和密切联系中积累起来的知识就开始消失了。

Plankton浮游生物./ 'plжηktэn;`plжηktэn/

Scattered through the seas of the world are billions of tons of small plants and animals called plankton.Most of these plants and animals are too small for the human eye to see.They drift about lazily with the currents, providing a basic food for many larger animals.Plankton has been described as the equivalent of the grasses that grow on the dry land continents, and the comparison is an appropriate one.In potential food value, however, plankton far outweighs that of the land grasses.One scientist has estimated that while grasses of the world produce about 49 billion tons of valuable carbohydrates each year, the sea’s plankton generates more than twice as much.Despite its enormous food potential, little effect was made until recently to farm plankton as we farm grasses on land.Now marine scientists have at last begun to study this possibility, especially as the sea’s resources loom even more important as a means of feeding an expanding world population.No one yet has seriously suggested that “ plankton-burgers” may soon become popular around the world.As a possible farmed supplementary food source, however, plankton is gaining considerable interest among marine scientists.One type of plankton that seems to have great harvest possibilities is a tiny shrimp-like creature called krill.Growing to two or three inches long, krill provides the major food for the great blue whale, the largest animal to ever inhabit the Earth.Realizing that this whale may grow to 100 feet and weigh 150 tons at maturity, it is not surprising that each one devours more than one ton of krill daily.浮游生物数十亿吨的被称为”浮游生物“的小动物、植物散布在世界的海洋中。这些小的动、植物大多太小而难以被人眼看到。它们随波逐流，为许多较大的动物提供了基本的食物。浮游生物曾被描述为生长在大陆陆地上的各种草类的海洋对应物。这种比喻是恰当 的。然而就潜在的食物价值而言，浮游生物远胜于草类。一位科学家曾经估计，世界上的草类每年生产大约490 亿吨有用的碳水化合物，而海洋里的浮游生物每年生产的碳水化合物多于此数的两倍。尽管浮游生物具备巨大的食物潜能，但直到最近人们还很少象种植草类

那样付出努力养殖浮游生物。现在，海洋科学家们至少已开始研究这种可能性。全球人口不

断扩张，海洋资源作为食品的重要性日益突出。

现在还没有人认真说过”浮游生物汉堡“会很快在世界上流行起来。然而，作为一种可能养殖的补充性食物资源，浮游生物正引起了海洋科学家们相当大的兴趣。

一种似乎具有很大收获可能性的微小的虾状浮游生物被称为鳞虾。鳞虾长至2～3英寸长时即成为地球上曾居住过的最大动物--蓝鲸的主要食物。成

熟的蓝鲸可以达到100英尺长，150吨重，所以每头鲸每天吞食1吨多的鳞虾一点也不让人吃惊。

Raising Oysters

In the oysters were raised in much the same way as dirt farmers raised tomatoes-by transplanting them.First, farmers selected the oyster bed, cleared the bottom of old shells and other debris, then scattered clean shells about.Next, they ”planted” fertilized oyster eggs, which within two or three weeks hatched into larvae.The larvae drifted until they attached themselves to the clean shells on the bottom.There they remained and in time grew into baby oysters called seed or spat.The spat grew larger by drawing in seawater from which they derived microscopic particles of food.Before long, farmers gathered the baby oysters, transplanted them once more into another body of water to fatten them up.Until recently the supply of wild oysters and those crudely farmed were more than enough to satisfy people’s needs.But today the delectable seafood is no longer available in abundance.The problem has become so serious that some oyster beds have vanished entirely.Fortunately, as far back as the early 1900’s marine biologists realized that if new measures were not taken, oysters would become extinct or at best a luxury food.So they set up well-equipped hatcheries and went to work.But they did not have the proper equipment or the skill to handle the eggs.They did not know when, what, and how to feed the larvae.And they knew little about the predators that attack and eat baby oysters by the millions.They failed, but they doggedly kept at it.Finally, in the 1940’s a significant breakthrough was made.The marine biologists discovered that by raising the temperature of the water, they could induce oysters to spawn not only in the summer but also in the fall, winter, and spring.Later they developed a technique for feeding the larvae and rearing them to spat.Going still further, they succeeded in breeding new strains that were resistant to diseases, grew faster and larger, and flourished in water of different salinities and temperatures.In addition, the cultivated oysters tasted better!

饲养牡蛎

过去人们饲养牡蛎的方式很大程度上类似于田地里的农夫种植蕃茄--通过移植来饲养它们。首先，农夫选好牡蛎苗床，清除底部的旧壳和其它杂物，然后四处撒播干净的壳。接着，他们”栽种“已受精的牡蛎卵。这些卵在2～3周内会孵化成幼贝。

幼贝一直漂流直到粘在苗床底部干净的壳上为止。它们会呆在那儿并逐渐长成小牡蛎。我们称之为种子或贝

苗。贝苗吸进海水中的微小生物作为食物从而越长越大。不久之后，农夫将这些小牡蛎收 集起来，把它们移种进其他的水域加快其生长，然后再次将它们移种进另外的水域以使其肥壮起来。直到最近，野生的以及人工饲养的牡蛎完全能够满足人们的需要。

但是今天这种可口的海味已不再大量存在。这个问题已经变得如此严重以至于一些牡蛎苗床已完全消失。幸运的是，早在20 世纪初期海洋生物学家们就意识到如果不采取新的措施，牡蛎将会灭绝或至少会变为一种奢侈的食品。因此他们建造了装备良好的孵卵场所并开始工作。但是他

们尚没有适当的装置或技术来处理牡蛎卵。他们不知道何时、用什么以及如何喂养幼贝。他们对捕食数百万幼小牡蛎的动物天敌也所知无几。

他们失败了，但他们顽强地坚持了下来。终于，在20世纪40年代，一个重要的突破性的进展产生了。海洋生物学家发现，升高水 温能够诱导牡蛎不仅在夏季也在秋季、冬季和春季里产卵。后来他们发展了一项技术来喂养幼贝至其长成贝苗。

他们进一步成功地培养出了新的品种，可以抵抗疾病、长得更快、更大并且在不同的盐度和温度的水中都能茁壮生长。此外，这些培殖出的牡蛎口感更佳!

35.Oil Refining

An important new industry, oil refining, grew after the Civil war.Crude oil, or petroleum – a dark, thick ooze from the earth – had been known for hundreds of years, but little use had ever been made of it.In the 1850’s Samuel M.Kier, a manufacturer in western Pennsylvania, began collecting the oil from local seepages and refining it into kerosene.Refining, like smelting, is a process of removing impurities from a raw material.Kerosene was used to light lamps.It was a cheap substitute for whale oil, which was becoming harder to get.Soon there was a large demand for kerosene.People began to search for new supplies of petroleum.The first oil well was drilled by E.L.Drake, a retired railroad conductor.In 1859 he began drilling in Titusville, Pennsylvania.The whole venture seemed so impractical and foolish that onlookers called it “ Drake’s Folly”.But when he had drilled down about 70 feet(21 meters), Drake struck oil.His well began to yield 20 barrels of crude oil a day.News of Drake’s success brought oil prospectors to the scene.By the early 1860’s these wildcatters were drilling for “ black gold” all over western Pennsylvania.The boom rivaled the California gold rush of 1848 in its excitement and Wild West atmosphere.And it brought far more wealth to the prospectors than any gold rush.Crude oil could be refined into many products.For some years kerosene continued to be the principal one.It was sold in grocery stores and door-to-door.In the 1880’s refiners learned how to make other petroleum products such as waxes and lubricating

oils.Petroleum was not then used to make gasoline or heating oil.炼油

一种重要的新兴工业--炼油业在国内战争后成长起来。未加工的石油，或原油--一种深色的地下的稠浆--数百年来一直为大众所知，但是人们却很少使用过它。

在十九世纪五十年代，萨缪尔?M?科尔，宾西法尼亚西部的一位制造商，开始从当地的溢出物中收集石油

并将它炼成煤油。与冶炼矿石一样，石油提炼是一个从未加工的原料中除去杂质的过程。煤油被用来点灯。

它是鲸油的一种便宜的替代品，而鲸油正变得越来越难以获得。不久就产生了对煤油的大量需求。人们开始寻找新的石油供应。第一口油井为

E?L?瑞克，一个退休的火车检票员所钻得。1859年他开始在宾西法尼亚的泰特斯维尔钻井。整个的这项

冒险事业看起来是如此不现实和愚蠢以致旁观者称之为”鸭子的蠢行“。(译者注：Drake'sFolly,drake 在这里意含双关，即指瑞克的名字，又指该词的本义即鸭子。)但当瑞克往下钻至70英尺(21米)的时候，他发现了石油。他的油井从此每天生产

20桶原油。瑞克成功的消息将石油勘探者们吸引到现场。截止到19世纪60年代早期，这些冒险者为寻找”黑色的

金子“钻探遍了整个宾西法尼亚西部。这项繁荣的事业在刺激性和粗犷的西部气氛上可与 1848年的加州淘金热相媲美，而且它为勘探者带来了远超过淘金潮的财富。原油能被提炼成许多产品。多年以来煤油一直是主要的一种产品。它在杂货店中出售由人挨户推销。19世纪八十九十年代炼油者们懂得了生产其它石油产品，如蜡和润滑油。那时石油还没有被 用来制造汽油或采暖装置用油。

36.Plate Tectonics and Sea-floor Spreading

The theory of plate tectonics describes the motions of the lithosphere, the comparatively rigid outer layer of the Earth that includes all the crust and part of the underlying mantle.The lithosphere(n.[地]岩石圈)is divided into a few dozen plates of various sizes and shapes, in general the plates are in motion with respect to one another.A mid-ocean ridge is a boundary between plates where new lithospheric material is injected from below.As the plates diverge from a mid-ocean ridge they slide on a more yielding layer at the base of the lithosphere.Since the size of the Earth is essentially constant, new lithosphere can be created at the mid-ocean ridges only if an equal amount of lithospheric material is consumed elsewhere.The site of this destruction is another kind of plate boundary: a subduction zone.There one plate dives under the edge of another and is reincorporated into the mantle.Both kinds of plate boundary are associated with fault systems, earthquakes and volcanism, but the kinds of geologic activity observed at the two boundaries are quite different.The idea of sea-floor spreading actually preceded the theory of plate tectonics.In its original version, in the early 1960’s, it described the creation and destruction of the ocean floor, but it did not specify rigid lithospheric plates.The hypothesis was substantiated soon afterward by the discovery that periodic reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field are recorded in the oceanic crust.As magma rises under the mid-ocean ridge, ferromagnetic minerals in the magma become magnetized in the direction of the magma become magnetized in the direction of the geomagnetic field.When the magma cools and solidifies, the direction and the polarity of the field are preserved in the magnetized volcanic rock.Reversals of the field give rise to a series of magnetic stripes running parallel to the axis of the rift.The oceanic crust thus serves as a magnetic tape recording of the history of the geomagnetic field that can be dated independently;the width of the stripes indicates the rate of the sea-floor spreading.板块结构与海床扩展

板块结构理论描述岩石圈的运动。岩石圈是相对坚硬的地球外层，包括全部地壳和部分地幔。岩石圈被划分为几十个大小不同形状各异的板块，一般而言这些板块都处于相对运动之中。一道中海脊是板块之间的边界，在那里新的岩石圈的物质从下部注入。

当板块从中海脊脱离时，它们滑向在岩石圈基部较易变形的地层上。因为地球的大小本质上是不

变的，只有同等数量的岩石圈物质在其它地方被吞没，新的岩石圈才能生成。销毁旧岩石 圈的地方形成另外一种板块边界：一块潜没的区域。在这里，一块板块潜没到另一板块的边缘之下并结合入地幔之中。两种板块边界均与地层系统、地震以及火山活动有关，但在两种边界处观察到的诸般地质活动却迥然不同。海床扩展说实际上早于板块结构理论。在

20世纪60年代它的理论雏形中，描述了海底的生成和毁灭，但没有详细介绍坚硬的岩石圈板块。这个假定不久之后为发现所证实。

该发现表明地球磁场周期性的逆转被记录在海洋地壳中。当岩浆从中海脊下涌起的时候，岩浆中的磁铁矿物质按地磁场的方向被磁化。岩

浆冷却并凝固下来后，地磁场的方向和磁极被保留在磁化了的火山岩中。磁场的逆转形成一系列与断层轴线平行的条形磁区。

这样海洋壳就扮演了磁带的角色，记录下可以鉴定时间的地磁场的历史。条形磁区的宽度表明了海底扩展的速度。

Icebergs

Icebergs are among nature’s most spectacular creations, and yet most people have never seen one.A vague air of mystery envelops them.They come into being-----somewhere------in faraway, frigid waters, amid thunderous noise and splashing turbulence, which in most cases no one hears or sees.They exist only a short time and then slowly waste away just as unnoticed.Objects of sheerest beauty they have been called.Appearing in an endless variety of shapes, they may be dazzlingly white, or they may be glassy blue, green or purple，tinted faintly of in darker hues.They are graceful, stately, inspiring-----in calm, sunlight seas.But they are also called frightening and dangerous, and that they are----in the night, in the fog, and in storms.Even in clear weather one is wise to stay a safe distance away from them.Most of their bulk is hidden below the water, so their underwater parts may extend out far beyond the visible top.Also, they may roll over unexpectedly, churning the waters around them.Icebergs are parts of glaciers that break off, drift into the water, float about awhile, and finally melt.Icebergs afloat today are made of snowflakes that have fallen over long ages of time.They embody snows that drifted down hundreds, or many thousands, or in some cases maybe a million years ago.The snows fell in polar regions and on cold mountains, where they melted only a little or not at all, and so collected to great depths over the years and centuries.As each year’s snow accumulation lay on the surface, evaporation and melting caused the snowflakes slowly to lose their feathery points and become tiny grains of ice.When new snow fell on top of the old, it too turned to icy grains.So blankets of snow and ice grains mounted layer upon layer and were of such great thickness that the weight of the upper layers compressed the lower ones.With time and pressure from above, the many small ice grains joined and changed to larger crystals, and eventually the deeper crystals merged into a solid mass of ice.冰山冰山是大自然最壮观的创造之一，但大多数人却从未看到过冰山，一种朦胧神秘的气氛 笼罩着它们。冰山形成于久远的、寒冷的水体中，而且伴随着雷声轰鸣般的嘈杂和水花汹 涌的风暴，但却无人耳闻目睹。冰山仅存在短短的一段时间就慢慢地悄无声息地融化掉。冰山具有最纯粹的美，人们如是说。

冰山呈现出千姿百态，可能白得耀眼，或者是闪耀着蓝色、绿色或紫色的玻璃般的光芒，或浓或淡。它们在平静的阳光照耀的海水中显得优雅堂

皇，令人浮想联翩。但是人们亦把冰山称为恐怖的和危险的。它们的确如此--在夜间，雾天和风暴肆虐时。

即便是在晴朗的天气里，与它们保持一段安全距离也是明智的。冰山的大部分体积稳藏于水下，因此其水下部分的伸展远远超过可见的顶部。冰山也可能出人意

料地翻滚，剧烈地搅动周围的水体。冰山是冰川的一部分，从冰川断裂漂流进水中，一段时间后融化。今天的冰山由多年前降落的雪花形成。

它们的体内是数百年，或数千年，有时甚至是数百万年前的降雪。这些雪花落在极地或寒冷的山上，仅有少量融化或根本不融

化，这样经过许多年或许多世纪后积累了巨大的深度。由于每年的雪花积累在表面之上，蒸发和融化使得雪花慢慢失去其羽状尖端而变成微小的冰粒。

当新的雪花降落到旧的表面上，也变成了冰粒。因而雪花覆盖层和冰粒层层堆积起来直到如此之大的厚度以致较上层的重量压缩较下层。在时间和压力的作用下，许多小冰粒结合到一起变成更大的晶体，最终较底层的晶体合并成庞大而坚固的冰块。

Topaz

Topaz is a hard, transparent mineral.It is a compound of aluminum, silica, and fluorine.Gem topaz is valuable.Jewelers call this variety of the stone “precious topaz”.The best-known precious topaz gems range in color from rich yellow to light brown or pinkish red.Topaz is one of the hardest gem minerals.In the mineral table of hardness, it has a rating of 8, which means that a knife cannot cut it, and that topaz will scratch quartz.The golden variety of precious topaz is quite uncommon.Most of the world’s topaz is white or blue.The white and blue crystals of topaz are large, often weighing thousands of carats.For this reason, the value of topaz does not depend so much on its size as it does with diamonds and many other precious stones, where the value increases about four times with each doubling of weight.The value of a topaz is largely determined by its quality.But color is also important: blue topaz, for instance, is often irradiated to deepen and improve its color.Blue topaz is often sold as aquamarine and a variety of brown quartz is widely sold as topaz.The quartz is much less brilliant and more plentiful than true topaz.Most of it is variety of amethyst: that heat has turned brown.黄水晶

黄水晶是一种坚硬、透明的矿物质。它是铝、硅和氟的化合物。黄水晶宝石价值不菲。珠宝商把这种石头称为”黄玉“。

最出名的黄玉有各种颜色如深黄色、淡棕色、浅红色等。黄水晶是最坚硬的宝石矿中的一种。在矿石硬度表上，它的硬度为8，这表明刀子不能割开 它而它可在石英上划痕。金黄色的黄玉品种非常罕见。世界上大多数的黄水晶是白色或蓝色的。这些白色或蓝色的黄水晶晶体很大，常常有数千克拉重。

由于这个原因，黄水晶的价值不像钻石和许多其它宝石那样主要依赖于其大小，重量翻一番价值即上升约四倍。黄

水晶的价值很大程度上取决于其品质，但颜色也很重要。举例来说，蓝色的黄水晶常需放射处理以加深和改善其颜色。

蓝色的黄水晶常被作为海蓝宝石出售，许多种棕色石英被当作黄水晶广为贩卖。石英光亮度远小于黄水晶，矿藏储量也远较黄水晶丰富。大多数石英 是一种紫水晶，高温使其变为棕色。

NOTE: topaz / 'tэupжz;`topжz/ n(a)[U] transparent yellow mineral 黄玉（矿物）.(b)[C] semi-precious gem cut from this 黄玉;黄宝石.39 The Salinity of Ocean Waters

If the salinity of ocean waters is analyzed, it is found to vary only slightly from

place to place.Nevertheless, some of these small changes are important.There are three basic processes that cause a change in oceanic salinity.One of these is the subtraction of water from the ocean by means of evaporation---conversion of liquid water to water vapor.In this manner the salinity is increased, since the salts stay behind.If this is carried to the extreme, of course, white crystals of salt would be left behind.The opposite of evaporation is precipitation, such as rain, by which water is added to the ocean.Here the ocean is being diluted so that the salinity is decreased.This may occur in areas of high rainfall or in coastal regions where rivers flow into the ocean.Thus salinity may be increased by the subtraction of water by evaporation, or decreased by the addition of fresh water by precipitation or runoff.Normally, in tropical regions where the sun is very strong, the ocean salinity is somewhat higher than it is in other parts of the world where there is not as much evaporation.Similarly, in coastal regions where rivers dilute the sea, salinity is somewhat lower than in other oceanic areas.A third process by which salinity may be altered is associated with the formation and melting of sea ice.When sea water is frozen, the dissolved materials are left behind.In this manner, sea water directly materials are left behind.In this manner, sea water directly beneath freshly formed sea ice has a higher salinity than it did before the ice appeared.Of course, when this ice melts, it will tend to decrease the salinity of the surrounding water.In the Weddell Sea Antarctica, the densest water in the oceans is formed as a result of this freezing process, which increases the salinity of cold water.This heavy water sinks and is found in the deeper portions of the oceans of the world.海水盐度如果我们分析海水的盐度，会发现地区间只有轻微的变化，然而有些小的变化是重要的。

导致海洋的盐度变化的基本过程有三个，其中之一是通过蒸发的方式即把液态水转化为水蒸气来减少海洋中的水分。这样由于盐留了下来，所以盐度增大。

当然，如果这种方式走向极端，将会余下白色的盐晶体。与蒸发相反的是降水，如降雨，由此水被加入海中，海水被稀释，从而盐度降低。

这种情形会发生在大量降雨的地区，或江河入海岸处。因此，盐度通过蒸发减少水分而上升或通过降水或径流增加淡水成分而下降。一般来说，在阳光很

强烈的热带地区，海水的盐度略高于世界上其它没有热带那样多的蒸发的地区。同理，在江河稀释海水的海岸地带，海水盐度略低于其它海区。

第三个可以变更盐度的过程与海洋中冰的形成和融化有关。海水冻结时，溶于其中的物质被留了下来。这样，在新形成的海

水冰面的正下方的海水比在冰形成之前有更高的盐度。当然，当冰融化的时候，会降低周围水中的盐度。

在南极洲边缘的威德尔海中，结冰过程增加低温海水的盐度，从而形成了浓度最大的海水。

这些大密度的海水下沉，可以在世界海洋的深水域发现。NOTE：

salinity / sэ'linэti;sэ`linэti/ n [U] the high salinity of sea water 海水的高含盐量.->>saline / 'seilain;US-li:n;`selin/ 1.adj [attrib 作定语](fml 文)containing salt;salty 含盐的;咸的: * a saline lake 盐湖 * saline springs 盐泉

* saline solution, eg as used for gargling, storing contact lenses, etc 盐溶液（如用于漱喉、存放隐形眼镜等）.2.n [U](medical 医)solution of salt and water 盐水.40 Cohesion-tension Theory

Atmospheric pressure can support a column of water up to 10 meters high.But plants can move water much higher;the sequoia tree can pump water to its very top more than 100 meters above the ground.Until the end of the nineteenth century, the movement of water in trees and other tall plants was a mystery.Some botanists hypothesized that the living cells of plants acted as pumps.But many experiments demonstrated that the stems of plants in which all the cells are killed can still move water to appreciable heights.Other explanations for the movement of water in plants have been based on root pressure, a push on the water from the roots at the bottom of the plant.But root pressure is not nearly great enough to push water to the tops of tall trees.Furthermore, the conifers, which are among the tallest trees, have unusually low root pressures.If water is not pumped to the top of a tall tree, and if it is not pushed to the top of a tall tree, then we may ask: how does it get there? According to the currently accepted cohesion-tension theory, water is pulled there.The pull on a rising column of water in a plant results from the evaporation of water at the top of the plant.As water is lost from the surface of the leaves, a negative pressure, or tension, is created.The evaporated water is replaced by water moving from inside the plant in unbroken columns that extend from the top of a plant to its roots.The same forces that create surface tension in any sample of water are responsible for the maintenance of these unbroken columns of water.When water is confined in tubes of very small bore, the forces of cohesion(the attraction between water molecules)are so great that the strength of a column of water compares with the strength of a steel wire of the same diameter.This cohesive strength permits columns of water to be pulled to great heights without being broken.内聚压力理论

大气压能够支持10米高的水柱，但植物可将水送得更高。美洲红杉就能把水泵到地面以上100多米高的树顶。直到19 世纪末，水在树木和其它高大植物中的输送还是一个谜。一些植物学家假定植物中的活细胞

充当了水泵的角色。但许多实验表明细胞都已死亡的植

物茎干仍能将水输送到相当可观的高度。对于植物中输送水的其它解释都基于根压--植物底端的根对水的推动。但根压完全不足以将水推到树顶。

况且，最高树木中的松柏只有很低的根压。如果水不是被泵到高树的树顶，也不是被推到树顶，那么我们会问：它是怎样

到达树顶的呢?根据目前为人们所接受的内聚压力的理论，水是被拉到上面去的。一株植物中作用于一个正在升高的水柱之上的拉力来自该植物顶部水的蒸发。

由于水从叶子表面丧失，一个负压力，或张力就得以产生。蒸发出去的水被植物里流动的水代替。这些水形成

水柱从植物顶端一直延伸到根部。在任何水样中造成表面张力的力支持着这些不断的水柱。当水被限制在内径很小的管道中时，内聚压力(水分子之间的相互吸引力)是如此之大以致一支水柱的强度相当于一根直径相同的钢丝的强度。这种内聚压力使得水柱被拉到非常高的地方而不会断裂。

41.American black bears

American black bears appear in a variety of colors despite their name.In the eastern part of their range, most of these brown, red, or even yellow coats.To the north, the black bear is actually gray or white in color.Even in the same litter, both brown and black furred bears may be born.Black bears are the smallest of all American bears, ranging in length from five to six feet, weighing from three hundred to five hundred pounds Their eyes and ears are small and their eyesight and hearing are not as good as their sense of smell.Like all bears, the black bear is timid, clumsy, and rarely dangerous , but if attacked, most can climb trees and cover ground at great speeds.When angry or frightened, it is a formidable enemy.Black bears feed on leaves, herbs.Fruit, berries, insects, fish, and even larger animals.One of the most interesting characteristics of bears, including the black bear, is their winter sleep.Unlike squirrels, woodchucks, and many other woodland animals, bears do not actually hibernate.Although the bear does not during the winter moths, sustaining itself from body fat, its temperature remains almost normal, and it breathes regularly four or five times per minute.Most black bears live alone, except during mating season.They prefer to live in caves, hollow logs, or dense thickets.A little of one to four cubs is born in January or February after a gestation period of six to nine months, and they remain with their mother until they are fully grown or about one and a half years old.Black bears can live as long as thirty years in the wild , and even longer in game preserves set aside for them.美国黑熊

美国黑熊虽然被叫做黑熊但却有各种各样的颜色。在它们生活区域的东部，大部分黑熊长有富有光泽的黑毛，但在西部，他们则长着棕色、红色甚至是黄色的毛。在北部，黑熊其实长着灰色或白色的毛。就是在一胎所生的小熊中，都可能混杂棕毛和黑毛。黑熊是所有美洲熊中最小的，5～6英尺长，300～500 磅重。它们的眼睛和耳朵都很小，他们的视力和听觉不如嗅觉那样好。像所有的熊一样，黑熊胆小，笨拙，很少具有危险性。但如果

受到攻击，大部分黑熊会以很快的速度爬上树和奔跑。当发怒或受惊吓时，黑熊会成为可怕的对手。

黑熊以树叶、草、树根、水果、浆果、昆虫、鱼，甚至更大的动物为食。熊类，包括黑熊的最有趣的一个特点是他们的冬眠。

与松鼠、旱獭和其它别的林地动物不同，熊并不真正地冬眠。虽然熊在冬天的几个月中不吃东西，靠体内脂肪维持生命，但它们的体

温保持正常，并有规律地一分钟呼吸4或5次。除交配季节外，大多数黑熊独自生活。他们喜欢住在洞里、空心的大木头里或茂密的树丛里。经过6 到9个月的怀孕期后一胎1～4个小熊在1月或2月出生。它们同母熊住在一起，直到它们完全长大，即1岁半左右。黑

熊在野外可以活到长达30年，在专门的保护区中甚至能活得更长。

42.Coal-fired power plants

The invention of the incandescent light bulb by Thomas A.Edison in 1879 created a demand for a cheap, readily available fuel with which to generate large amounts of electric power.Coal seemed to fit the bill, and it fueled the earliest power stations.(which were set up at the end of the nineteenth century by Edison himself).As more power plants were constructed throughout the country, the reliance on coal increased throughout the country, the reliance on coal increased.Since the First World War, coal-fired power plants had a combined in the United States each year.In 1986 such plants had a combined generating capacity of 289,000 megawatts and consumed 83 percent of the nearly 900 million tons of coal mined in the country that year.Given the uncertainty in the future growth of the nearly 900 million tons of coal mined in the country that year.Given the uncertainty in the future growth of nuclear power and in the supply of oil and natural gas, coal-fired power plants could well provide up to 70 percent of the electric power in the United States by the end of the century.Yet, in spite of the fact that coal has long been a source of electricity and may remain on for many years(coal represents about 80 percent of United States fossil-fuel reserves), it has actually never been the most desirable fossil fuel for power plants.Coal contains less energy per unit of weight than weight than natural gas or oil;it is difficult to transport, and it is associated with a host of environmental issues, among them acid rain.Since the late 1960’s problems of emission control and waste disposal have sharply reduced the appeal of coal-fired power plants.The cost of ameliorating these environment problems along with the rising cost of building a facility as large and complex as a coal-fired power plant, have also made such plants less attractive from a purely economic perspective.Changes in the technological base of coal-fired power plants could restore their attractiveness, however.Whereas some of these changes are intended mainly to increase the productivity of existing plants, completely new technologies for burning coal cleanly are also being developed.火力发电厂托马斯?爱迪生1879年发明的白炽灯导致对便宜、易得、可生产大量电能的燃料的需求。

煤似乎符合这个要求，并成为第一批电厂的燃料(正是爱迪生本人在19世纪末建造了第一批电厂)。全国到处兴建电厂时，对煤的依赖加深了。

自第一次世界大战以来，美国每年约有一半的电力是以煤为燃料的电厂提供的。1986年这些电厂的总发电能力达到28，900 千瓦并且消耗了当年全国开采的九亿吨煤的83%。考虑到核能发展以及石油、天然气供应中的不确定因素，到本世纪末，火力发电厂仍可能为美国提供多达 70%的电力。然而，尽管煤长期以来一直是电力的原料之一并且可能会继续如此(煤占美国化石燃料储量的80%)，它却不是电厂的理想燃料。煤的单位能量含量低于石油和天然气，而且会导致包括酸雨在内的一系列环境问题。从1960年以来，排放控制和垃圾处理的问题极大地

削弱了燃煤电厂的魅力。由于减轻这些环境问题需要大量资金，而且建造庞大复杂的燃煤电厂的费用不断上涨，也使得这些电厂从经济角度上不具备吸引力。

改变火力发电厂的基础技术却可能恢复它们的吸引力。虽然某些技术改进是渐进的，其目的只是提高现有电厂的生产率，但人们正在开发全新的清洁燃煤的技术。

43.Statistics

There were two widely divergent influences on the early development of statistical methods.Statistics had a mother who was dedicated to keeping orderly records of government units(states and statistics come from the same Latin root status)and a gentlemanly gambling father who relied on mathematics to increase his skill at playing the odds in games of chance.The influence of the mother on the offspring, statistics, is represented by counting, measuring, describing, tabulating, ordering, and the taking of censuses—all of which led to modern descriptive statistics.From the influence of the father came modern inferential statistics, which is based squarely on theories of probability.Describing collections involves tabulating, depicting and describing collections of data.These data may be quantitative such as measures of height, intelligence or grade level------variables that are characterized by an underlying continuum---or the data may represent qualitative variables, such as sex, college major or personality type.Large masses of data must generally undergo a process of summarization or reduction before they are comprehensible.Descriptive statistics is a tool for describing or summarizing or reducing to comprehensible form the properties of an otherwise unwieldy mass of data.Inferential statistics is a formalized body of methods for solving another class of problems that present great of problems characteristically involves attempts to make predictions using a sample of observations.For example, a school superintendent wishes to determine the proportion of children in a large school system who come to school without breakfast, have been vaccinated for flu, or whatever.Having a little knowledge of statistics, the superintendent would know that it is unnecessary and inefficient to question each child: the proportion for the sample of as few as 100 children.Thus , the purpose of inferential statistics is to predict or estimate characteristics of a population from a knowledge of the characteristics of only a sample of the population.统计学

统计方法的早期发展受到两种截然不同的影响。统计学有一个”母亲“，她致力于井井 有条地记录政府机构的文件(国家和统计学这两个词源于同一个拉丁语词根，status)，还有一

个有绅士般的赌博”父亲“，他依靠数学来提高赌技，以便在几率的游戏中取胜。”母亲“对 其子女统计学的影响表现在计数、测量、描述、制表、归类和人口普查。所有这些导致了现代描述统计学的诞生。

由于”父亲"的影响则产生了完全基于概率论原理的现代推理统计学。描述统计学涉及对所收集数据的制表、制图和描述。这些数据可以是数量性的数据，如高度、智商、或者是层级性的数据--具有连续性的变量--或数据也可以代表性质变量，如性别、大学专业或性格类型等等。

数量庞大的数据通常必须经过概括或删减的程序才能为人所理解。描述统计学就是这样一个工具，它对极其庞杂的数据进行描述、概括或删减，使其变成能为人理解的东西。推理统计学是一套已定形了的方法体系，它解决的是光凭人脑极难解决的另一类问题。

这类问题的显著特点是试图通过取样调查来作出预测。例如，有一位教育督察想知道在一个庞大的学校系统中，不吃早饭就上学的学生、已经做过防感冒

免疫的学生，或其它任何类型的学生占多大比例。若具备一些统计学的知识，这位督察应明白，询问每个孩子是没有必要而且没有效率的，只要用100 个孩子为样本，他就可以相当精确地得出这些孩子占整个学区的比例了。因此，推理统计学的目的就是通过了解一个群

体中一些样本的特性，从而对整个群体的特性进行推测和估算。

44.Obtaining Fresh water from icebergs

The concept of obtaining fresh water from icebergs that are towed to populated areas and arid regions of the world was once treated as a joke more appropriate to cartoons than real life.But now it is being considered quite seriously by many nations, especially since scientists have warned that the human race will outgrow its fresh water supply faster than it runs out of food.Glaciers are a possible source of fresh water that has been overlooked until recently.Three-quarters of the Earth’s fresh water supply is still tied up in glacial ice，a reservoir of untapped fresh water so immense that it could sustain all the rivers of the world for 1,000 years.Floating on the oceans every year are 7,659 trillion metric tons of ice encased in 10000 icebergs that break away from the polar ice caps, more than ninety percent of them from Antarctica.Huge glaciers that stretch over the shallow continental shelf give birth to icebergs throughout the year.Icebergs are not like sea ice, which is formed when the sea itself freezes, rather, they are formed entirely on land, breaking off when glaciers spread over the sea.As they drift away from the polar region, icebergs sometimes move mysteriously in a direction opposite to the wind, pulled by subsurface currents.Because they melt more slowly than smaller pieces of ice, icebergs have been known to drift as far north as 35 degrees south of the equator in the Atlantic Ocean.To corral them and steer them to parts of the world where they are needed would not be too difficult.The difficulty arises in other technical matters, such as the prevention of rapid melting in warmer climates and the funneling of fresh water to shore in great volume.But even if the icebergs lost half of their volume in towing, the water they could provide would be far cheaper than that produced by desalinization, or removing salt from water.从冰山中获取淡水把冰山拖到世界上人口稠密的地区和干旱地带，再从中获取淡水，这个想法曾一度被认

为是一个笑话，更适合于卡通画，而非现实生活。然而现在，许多国家正相当认真地考虑这件事情，特别是在科学家们发出警告之后。

科学家们认为人类将在耗尽粮食之前首先耗尽淡水资源。冰川是一个直到最近以前一直被忽视的可能的淡水源。全球四分之三的淡水还锁在冰川的冰块中。

冰川就是一个蓄水池，其中未开发的淡水量是如此巨大，足够支持全世界的江河1000年。每年有7，659万亿公吨冰漂流在海洋中。

它们包含在10，000座从极地冰帽中断裂出来的冰山中。这些冰山的90%以上来自南极。一年四季里，覆盖

在浅层大陆架上的巨大冰川生成了众多冰山。冰山和海水的冰不同，后者是海水自身结冰形成的，而冰山则完全是在陆地上形成的。

当冰川伸展到海水中时，冰山就断裂下来。当漂离极地地区时，冰山有时会在底层洋流的推动下颇为神秘地逆风移动。由于冰山比小块 的冰融化要慢，因此有的冰山在大西洋中向北飘到了赤道以南35°的地方。把冰山蓄拦起来并拖到世界上需要它们的地方将不会太困难。有困难的是其它的技术事宜。比如，如何防止冰山在较暖的气候中迅速融化以及如何把大量的淡水收集到岸上去。但是，即便在拖 的过程中冰山失去了一半体积，这样做也远比从海水中脱盐取得淡水便宜。

45.The source of Energy

A summary of the physical and chemical nature of life must begin, not on the Earth,

第二篇：考研英语之新东方写作强化必背

小作文

1、十大必背范文之一：08真题：道歉+建议信 Directions: You have just come back from Canada and found a music CD in your luggage that you forgot to return to Bob, your landlord there.Write him a letter to 1）make an apology, and

2）suggest a solution Dear Bob: I’m writing to apologize for having forgotten to return the “the Beatles” CD to you when I left Canada.I was in such a hurry that I packed everything in my luggage without checking carefully.Had I paid more attention then, I wouldn’t have made such a stupid mistake.Now something must be done to solve the problem because I understand you cherish the CD enormously.I can either send it to you by express mail or alternatively compensate you at a reasonable price.If you do not mind, I may bring it back to you next time I go to Canada.Please let me know which solution you prefer at your earliest convenience.I really hope you will accept my sincere apology.Faithfully yours

Li Ming 亲爱的鲍勃：

我写此信的目的是为了向你道歉。在离开加拿大时，我忘了把那盘披头士乐队的CD还给你。走的时候太匆忙了，我把所有东西都塞到行李中，没有仔细检查。当时要是多加注意的话，就不会犯这种低级错误了。

因为我知道你特别珍爱那盘CD，所以一定要想办法解决这个问题。我可以寄快递包裹给你，也可以按合理的价格赔偿你的损失。如果你不介意的话，我也可以在下次去加拿大的时候把它给你带回去。

请在方便的时候尽快让我知道你倾向哪一种解决方案。希望你能接受我真诚的道歉。

您真诚的

李明

2、十大必背范文之二：2009真题：建议信/致编辑信（=短议论文）教材115页 Directions: Restrictions on the use of plastic bags have not been so successful in some regions.“White Pollution” is still going on.Write a letter to the editor(s)of your local newspaper to 1)give your opinions briefly, and

2)make two or three suggestions.Dear Editors:

I have been reading your newspaper for many years with a great enthusiasm and interest.It is my view that limiting the use of disposable plastic bags is of utmost significance.To crack this hard nut, I would like to propose several practical recommendations as follows.First and foremost, it is imperative for us to ban the free use of disposable plastic bags.In addition, we should develop possible alternative forms to replace them, such as paper or clothing bags.Last but not least, plastic bags should be offered in a much higher price in department stores or supermarkets.I hope you will find the above proposals conducive and I would like to discuss this matter to further details.Your prompt attention to my suggestions would be highly appreciated.Yours sincerely，Li Ming 尊敬的编辑：

多年来我一直怀着极大的热情与兴趣阅读贵报。我认为限制使用一次性塑料袋非常重要。

为解决这个难题，我想提出如下几个实用的建议。首先，我们急需禁止免费使用一次性塑料袋。其次，我们应该开发塑料袋的替代品，如纸袋或布袋。最后，商场或超市应以更高的价格提供塑料袋。

我希望您觉得上述建议有益，同时希望进一步讨论这一问题。十分感谢您对我的建议给予及时的关注。

您真诚的

李明

3、十大必背范文之三：2010英语

（二）真题：感谢信 Directions: You have just come back from the U.S as a member of Sino-American cultural exchange program.Write a letter to your American colleague to 1）express your thanks to his/her warm reception, 2）welcome him/her to visit China in due course.Dear Bob:

I have just arrived at my home from the airport.As I sit behind the desk, I just want to write a letter to you.I am grateful for your warm reception in this cultural exchange program.You and your family gave me a deep impression.The program is one of the most wonderful memories in my life.In once talk you said you want to travel in China.Well, you will be welcomed and it will be my pleasure to be your guide.By the way, send me a list and write down the places where you would like to visit.Please give my best regards to your family.(110 words)

Sincerely yours

Zhang Wei 亲爱的鲍勃：

我刚从机场回到家里。我在书桌前坐下就想给你写这封信。在这次文化交流项目中，非常感谢你的热情接待。你和你的家人给我留下了深刻的印象。这个项目是我一生中最美好的回忆之一。

你曾经说过你想来中国旅行。那么，非常欢迎，而且我很荣幸做你的导游。顺便说一句，给我寄一张清单，写下你想去的地方。

请向你的家人致以诚挚的祝福。

你真诚的

张伟

4、十大必背范文之四：2011真题：推荐信 Directions: Write a letter to a friend of yours to 1)recommend one of your favorite movies and 2)give reasons for your recommendation.Dear Neo: I’m so glad to hear from you.How have you been theses days?

In your last letter, you talked about movies you love.I agreed with you that Matrix is a great movie.Guess what? If you lose some weight, you’ll be as cool as “Neo” in the film!

Anyway, here is one of my favorite movies that I would like to recommend to you.The title of the movie is The Legend of 1900 and there’re some reasons for my recommendation.Firstly, the director is very famous and respected all over the world.Its story is very moving and its hero is a very talented pianist named “1900”.More importantly, the sound track of the movie is extraordinarily beautiful.I know you like music and you are learning to play piano.I hope you’ll enjoy the movie and learn something about playing piano.I am looking forward to your reply.Take care!

Yours, Li Ming 利奥：

很高兴收到你的来信。近来过得怎么样？

在上封信里，你提到了喜爱的电影。我也认为《黑客帝国》是一部伟大的电影。你猜怎么着？如果减点肥的话，你会像电影里的“利奥”一样酷。

无论如何，我想给向推荐我最喜爱的一部电影。电影的名字是《海上钢琴师》，推荐原因如下。首先，这位导演全球闻名，并且受人敬重。它的故事非常感人，主人公是名叫“1900”的一位天才钢琴师。此外，电影的音效尤其优美。我知道你喜欢音乐，而且你正在学习弹钢琴。希望你喜欢这部电影，并且从中学习一些钢琴技巧。期待着你的回信。保重！

李明

5、十大必背范文之五： 2011英语

（二）真题：祝贺+建议信 Directions: Suppose your cousin Li Ming has just been admitted to a university.Write him/her a letter to: 1)congratulate him/her, and 2)give him/her suggestions on how to get prepared for university life.Do not sign your own name at the end of the letter.Use “Zhang Wei” instead.Dear Li Ming: I’m so glad to hear that you have received the offer from Beijing University.Congratulations!There’s nothing surprising——I remember seeing how hard you have been working since childhood.Now you have the opportunity to learn physics, which you have a huge interest in, in one of the best universities in China.I feel extremely happy for you.Well, I want to share some reminders for university life with you.First of all, don’t forget your study.Second, take some time to know yourself well and make your own decisions.Third, enjoy your life as long as it’s under your control.I hope you will have a wonderful time!

Yours Zhang Wei 李明：

很高兴得知你收到了来自北京大学的录取通知。祝贺你！没什么好奇怪的——我现在还记得你童年以来一直在多么努力地学习。现在你终于有机会在中国最好的大学之一学习物理学，你有强烈兴趣的专业。我格外为你高兴。

下面，我想和你分享一些大学生活的建议。首先，别忘了学习。其次，花点时间好好了解自己，自己做出决定。第三，只要你能掌控，尽可能享受生活。希望你过得开心。

张伟

6、十大必背范文之六： 2012真题：欢迎+建议信（教材121页）Directions: Some international students are coming to your university.Write them an email in the name of the Students' Union to 1)extend your welcome and 2)provide some suggestions for their campus life here.Dear Friends: On behalf of the Students’ Union of Beijing Foreign Studies University, I would like to extend our heartfelt welcome to all of the overseas students from all over the world to study in our university.It is my great pleasure to offer you several practical suggestions.In the first place, life in this prestigious university perhaps is not as easy as you have expected.You may be tightly bound by continual classes, abundant homework and exams.Then, be prepared for the hectic life here.In the second place, in spite of all those burdens, various extracurricular activities such as sports meets, speech contests, social gatherings still will provide ample opportunity to make friends.So, enjoy your life in this esteemed institute!All in all, although there is a lot of pressure, the time you spend on our campus will be worthwhile in your whole life.Hope you like it here!

Yours sincerely

Li Ming 亲爱的朋友们：

我谨代表北京外国语大学学生会，向来我校学习的留学生表达衷心的欢迎。

我很荣幸地向你们提出一些实用的建议。首先，这所著名学府的生活也许不像你们所设想的那么轻松。你们可能会陷入面临繁重的课程、大量的作业和考试。因此，做好准备迎接这里的繁忙生活吧。其次，尽管有以上负担，运动会、演讲比赛、联谊会等各种各样的课外活动仍会提供大量结交朋友的机会。所以，尽情享受这所著名大学里的生活吧！

总之，尽管有很多压力，但你们在我们校园里度过的时光仍将是你一生中一段有意义的岁月。希望你们喜欢这里！

您真诚的

李明

7、十大必背范文之七： 2012英语

（二）真题：投诉信（教材122页）Directions: Suppose you have found something wrong with the electronic dictionary that you bought from an online store the other day.Write an email to the customer service center to 1)make a complaint, and 2)demand a prompt solution.Dear Sir or Madam: I bought an electronic dictionary from your online store on January 1st, but I found it has some problems after using it for a short period of time.To begin with, the battery needs recharging after a mere 2 hours of use.This means that I need to carry my charger with me when I go out for a day.In addition, the buttons on the electronic dictionary are so small that it is nearly impossible to type anything with them.Personally, I find this to be completely unacceptable.Therefore, I would like to either change the electronic dictionary for another model that works well or a full refund.Your help is greatly appreciated.Yours sincerely

Zhang Wei 尊敬的先生或女士：

1月1日我在贵网店购买了一部电子词典，但在使用了一段时间之后，我发现它有一些问题。

首先，在仅仅使用两小时之后，电池就需要充电。这就意味着当我出门一天时，就需要随身携带充电器。此外，这部电子词典的按键如此之小，以至于几乎无法通过键盘输入任何东西。对我个人而言，我认为这一点完全不能接受。

因此，我希望要么为我换一个能运行正常的型号，要么全额退款。非常感谢您的帮助。

您真诚的

张伟

8、十大必背范文之八：2010英语

（一）真题： Directions: You are supposed to write for the postgraduate association a notice to recruit volunteers for an international conference on globalization.The notice should include the basic qualification of applicant and the other information you think relative.You should write about 100 words on ANSWER SHEET 2.Do not sign your own name at the end of the notice.Use “ postgraduate association ” instead.(10 points)

Notice Volunteers are needed for the International Conference on Globalization to be held on this campus in early July.Basic requirements are familiarity with the theme of the conference and proficiency of English.Other requirements include interpersonal communication ability, familiarity with our city in terms of its tourist attractions and its history, proper manners, and sense of responsibility.Priority and preference will be given to those experienced, either in international conference or in other similar activities.Call 86754321 or send messages to postgr_ass@ccc.edu.cn for an application and for information on the interview.Enquiries are encouraged but visits declined.（97 words）

The Postgraduate’s Association

告示

七月初将于本校举行关于全球化的国际研讨会，现招募志愿者。基本要求是熟悉本次会议的主题以及精通英语。其他要求包括人际沟通能力、熟悉我市的景点及历史，举止适当，有责任感。优先考虑参加过国际会议或其他类似活动的有经验者。

申请职位以及咨询面试相关信息，请致电86754321或发送邮件到postgr_ass@ccc.edu.cn。欢迎垂询，谢绝来访。

研究生会

9、十大必背范文之九：备忘录/报告： Directions: The environmental protection club is going to organize some activities with the theme of “Creating Green Culture and Building Low-Carbon Campus”.As the club leader, you will write a memo to the members to explain the importance and arrangements of those activities.Do not sign your own name.Use “Li Ming” instead.To: All club members From: Li Ming Date: January 19, 2013 Subject: Creating Green Culture and Building Low-Carbon Campus We are going to launch a series of activities to promote low-carbon lifestyle, or more specifically to advocate energy efficiency, waste minimization and recycling.This green lifestyle is a potential recipe for a healthier and more habitable environment and highly recommendable to every person.To attract more schoolmates to accept this low-carbon lifestyle, we will hold lectures to introduce the new life concept, make broadcast programs to record low-carbon experience around us and host an exhibition of fruits of recycling to encourage students to make the best use of old stuff.In addition, we will hand out leaflets to every dormitory, recommending students to switch off unused lights and other electrical equipments, recycle paper, batteries and plastic bottles, and travel by bicycle, bus or subway.All members are required to take part in those above activities.Other creative thoughts and brilliant ideas about activity plan will be encouraged.(148 words)致：全体成员 自：李明

日期：2013年1月19日

主题：创建绿色文化，建设低碳校园

我们将举办一系列推广低碳生活的活动，更准确的说，就是推广有效利用能源，减少浪费和回收利用。绿色生活是实现更健康更宜居环境的诀窍，应该推荐给每个人。

为了吸引更多的校友接受低碳生活，我们将举办讲座介绍新的生活理念，制作广播节目记录我们身边的低碳经历并且举办回收成果展览以鼓励学生利用旧东西。另外，我们将向各寝室发放传单，以建议同学关掉不用的电灯、电器；回收纸、电池和塑料瓶；乘自行车、公交、地铁出行。

所有成员要求参加上述活动。大家可以提出其他关于活动计划的创意和好点子。

10、十大必背范文之十：经济类摘要（教材98页）

Directions: Read the following Chinese text and write an abstract of it in 80-100 English words on ANSWER SHEET 2.(10 points)摘要：summary, thesis

经济全球化的主要原因

第一段：20世纪50年代初以来，经济全球化获得迅猛发展。简单归纳，其原因主要包括以下几个方面： 第二段：全球化的技术基础。科技进步为全球化快速发展提供了物质基础和技术手段。科技革命是经济全球化发展的最根本的物质基础和动力，历史上历次科技革命都促进了社会生产力的飞跃发展，同时也促进了整个世界的融合。20世纪50年代以电子技术和信息技术等为主要 标志的新的科技革命的兴起，使科技日益成为社会生产力发展的先导，成为影响生产力发展的至关重要的因素。科技知识在社会生产的各个领域中得到广泛传播和运用，劳动者的智能和技能得到进一步的开发，创造出越来越多的物质和精神财富，极大地促进了世界生产力的发展，生产社会化程度日益提高，国际分工日益深化，各国经济以此为基础紧密相联,世界经济进入一个全新的繁荣时期。同时，新科技革命使得科技成果积累的速度大大加快，新材料、新产品不断涌现，大量高技术产业不断产生，在世界范围内促进了产业结构的调整和转移，新的产业布局开始形成,以信息技术和产业为主导，以高新技术为基础的新兴产业部门也蓬勃兴起并迅速发展，快速取代了传统产业而逐渐成为经济的主导部门推进的重要动力源。

第三段：全球化的经济基础。市场经济体制的强势地位不断增强，跨国公司的突飞发展，国际经济组织的不断完善为经济全球化奠定了坚实的经济基础。

第四段：首先，市场经济体制成为世界各国发展经济的首选。20世纪80 年代末至90年代初，世界形势发生了重大变化，东欧剧变，苏联解体, 40多年的冷战格局最终结束。冷战结束后，国际形势总体上走向缓和。各国纷纷把发展经济列为首要目标，普遍扩大了对外开放，和平与发展成为当今时代的两大主题。前苏联和东欧国家先后走上了向市场经济过渡的轨道，改行自由市场经济，并积极致力于融入西方经济体系。中国在长期的实践中，也逐渐认识到计划经济的不足和弊端，自1978年起开始实行以市场为导向的、全面的经济改革，大力推行对外开放，努力实现同世界经济的接轨，目前已成为世界经济的重要组成部分。这一切都说明，市场经济体制已成为不同制度、不同发展层次国家的共同选择，市场经济已基本实现了全球化，经济全球化是以市场为基础的，没有市场经济就没有生产要素在国际间的自由流动，就谈不上经济全球化。

第五段：其次，力量不断壮大的跨国公司成为经济全球化的中坚力量。跨国公司是以本国作为基地，通过对外直接投资，在世界各地设立分支机构和子公司，从事国际化生产和经营的企业。跨国公司凭借其雄厚的经济实力和灵活的经营战略，以全球为工厂，以它所在的各个国家为车间，在全球范围内充分利用各地的优势组织生产和流通，通过自己广泛的经营活动，实现了商品和资本等生产要素在全球范围内的整合，促进了生产在国家间的水平分工和垂直分工，使之密切联系在一起，从而为经济全球化的发展打下了坚实的微观基础，并成为经济全球化的主要推动力量和主要载体。

第六段：最后，国际经济组织是经济全球化发展的组织保障。二战结束以后，生产力的不断提高，生产力的国际化使得越来越多的商品、资本、劳动进入国际交流.各国的国际分工和相互依赖性不断增强。这种日益增强的经济联系要求突破原有的国家间的障碍，实现全球范围内的更高层次的经济合作，这就要求有超脱于国家之外的国际经济组织发挥重要作用。战后，国际经济日益明显，国际经济协作不断加强。在当今国际经济关系中，世行、世贸组织、国际货币基金组织等世界性经济组织的调节作用越来越大，而且还出现出进一步增强的趋势。世贸组织（WTO）所制定的关于贸易、投资等方面的制度和规则，成为规范全球经济运行，创造自由、公平竞争环境的统一制度和规则，作为世界金融领域的重要国际组织，即国际货币基金组织（IMF）和世界银行(WB)也在国际金融全球化进程中扮演了重要的角色。这些国际经济组织的成立使得国际贸易和国际金融运行有了统一的规则，对成员国的经贸活动和经济行为起着协调和规范作用。这些都为经济全球化的发展起着制度保障作用。（1590字）中文摘要

20世纪50年代初以来，经济全球化获得迅猛发展。简单归纳，其原因主要包括以下几个方面。全球化的技术基础。科技进步为全球化快速发展提供了物质基础和技术手段。全球化的经济基础。首先，市场经济体制成为世界各国发展经济的首选。其次，力量不断壮大的跨国公司成为经济全球化的中坚力量。最后，国际经济组织是经济全球化发展的组织保障。（155字）

Main Reasons of Economic Globalization Since the early 1950s, economic globalization has been developing rapidly.Briefly speaking, its reasons mainly include the following ones.The first reason is the technical foundation of economic globalization.Advancements in science and technology have provided the material basis and the technical means for the rapid development of globalization.The second reason is the economic foundation of globalization.Firstly, the market economy has become the first choice of promoting economy for every country in the world.Secondly, multinationals which are expanding continuously have become the center of economic globalization.Lastly, international economic organizations have been the organic safeguards for the development of economic globalization.(104 words)

大作文

1、十大必背范文之一： 2000年考研真题（教材159页）Directions: A.Study the following two pictures carefully and write an essay in at least 150words.B.Your essay must be written neatly on the ANSWER SHEET2.C.Your essay should meet the requirements below: 1）Describe the pictures.2）Deduce the purpose of the painter of the pictures.3）Suggest counter measures.第一段：As is shown in the pictures, with the rampancy of commercial fishing, the number of fish has dramatically shrunk.In the first picture, we learn that the year 1900 witnessed a quite encouraging scene of world fishing.There were various kinds of fish and only one fishing-boat.On the contrary, in 1995 there was only one fish swimming freely but many fishing-boats sailing in the sea.It is apparent that a disastrous change has occurred.第二段：The purpose of the pictures is to tell us that due attention has to be paid to the reduction of ocean resources.Owing to the over-exploitation of marine resources, the number of fish has declined at an accelerating rate.If we let this situation continue as it is, we do not know where fish will be in the future.By that time, our environment will suffer a great destruction.第三段：Hence, it is imperative for us to take drastic measures to reverse this disturbing trend illustrated in the above pictures.For one thing, we should appeal to our authorities to make strict laws to control commercial fishing.For another, we should cultivate the awareness of people that the ocean resources are of great significance to us.Only in this way can we protect our ocean resources.Also, I believe that we humans can surmount this difficulty, and we will have a brilliant future.如图所示，随着商业捕鱼的泛滥，鱼的数量已经显著下降。在第一幅图中，我们可以看到在1900年，世界捕鱼业是鼓舞人心的，画面上有很多鱼，只有一艘渔船。而在第二幅图中，在1995年，只有一条鱼在游动，但有很多渔船在海上航行。显而易见，灾难性的变化已经发生。

这组画的目的是告诉我们应该对海洋资源的减少给予充分重视。由于海洋资源的过度开发，鱼的数量已经明显下降。如果听任这种情况发展，我们不知道鱼的未来在哪儿。到那时，我们的环境将会遭受巨大的破坏。

因此，我们急需采取严厉措施扭转图画中所示的令人困扰的趋势。一方面，我们应该呼吁各级政府制定严格的法律来控制商业捕鱼。另一方面，我们应该增强人们的意识：海洋资源对我们非常重要。只有这样才能保护我们的海洋资源。同时，我相信我们人类能够克服这个困难，并将拥有美好的未来。

2、十大必背范文之二：2005年真题 Directions: Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing.In your essay, you should first describe the drawing, then interpret its meaning, and give your comment on it..图画描述：This picture reveals a not-uncommon phenomenon of how elders are treated by their grown-up children in some of the families in China.When they are too old to take care of themselves, the elders become burdens to be kicked around by their sons and daughters like a football, a pitiful and unjust sight that will arouse indignation among many Chinese.意义阐释：As a nation renowned in the world for many of its virtues, the Chinese people have been practicing filial piety throughout history.Many much-told stories reiterate this time-honored virtue of loving and respecting the elders, like the story of Tiying in the West Han Dynasty who risked her life in order to save her wronged father from corporal punishment.Those who try every means to avoid their duties of looking after their elders should bear in mind that they are much indebted to their parents for their birth and growth.Without the loving care and unrelenting work of their parents, how could they have grown up healthily and successfully? How could it be possible for them to go about without the pricks of conscience? 建议措施：Everyone of us should live up to the virtues passed down to us by our ancestors.Only in this way can we be worthy of the name of a Chinese.(214 words)

这幅图画反映了一些中国家庭中普遍存在的现象——子女成年后如何对待他们的父母。当父母年龄太大，不能照顾自己的时候，他们就成了负担，被自己的子女们像足球一样踢来踢去。这是一种不公正的可鄙现象，引起了很多中国人的愤慨。

作为一个以很多美德闻名于世的民族，中国人民自古以来一直奉行孝道。许多广为传颂的故事反复强调了这种历史悠久的爱老敬老的传统，如西汉时缇萦舍身营救蒙冤的父亲免于肉刑的故事。那些千方百计逃避照顾双亲的责任的子女们应该牢记，他们在出生和成长的过程中亏欠父母太多了。没有父母关怀备至的照料和不懈的工作，他们怎能健康成长并且取得成功？他们怎能虐待父母而不受到良心的谴责？

我们每个人都应该遵守从祖先那里传承下来的美德。只有这样我们才能无愧为中国人。

3、十大必背范文之三：2006年真题 Directions: Study the following photos carefully and write an essay in which you should 1)describe the photos briefly;2)interpret the social phenomenon reflected by them, and 3)give your point of view.图画描述：As is vividly depicted in the photos above, Beckham, the smart British football superstar, is enjoying a striking popularity among the adolescents.In the first picture, Beckham’s name appears on a young man’s face.The caption indicates that worship for the idol is written on the face.In the second photograph, another young person is doing Beckham’s chic hairstyle in a barbershop.We are informed that he is spending 300 yuan imitating his idol’s haircut.意义阐释：Undoubtedly, the pictures have subtly reflected the social phenomenon that idol worship is prevalent among the teenagers nowadays.Beckham represents the image of sport hero whose handsome appearance and unparalleled football skills are passionately adored by all the sports fans.Likewise, several teenage girls won their fame overnight in The 2005 Super Girl Contest in China, which provoked nationwide noisy debates on the value and harm of admiring these idols.Briefly speaking, young people are inclined to idolize the people who excel in appearance, intelligence or talent.建议措施：Hence, idolatry, the thought-provoking social phenomenon, is a double-edged sword which can exert profound influence on the growth of young people.If we simply worship the idols by imitating their hairstyle or pursuing fashions unreasonably, the obsession will certainly waste us a great deal of time and money, endangering the efficiency of our work.On the contrary, we will lead a positive and fruitful life if we endeavor to improve ourselves by bridging the gap between our models and us.Accordingly, the latter attitude should be adopted to direct our way of life.(255 words)以上的照片生动地显示出来，相貌英俊的英国足球巨星贝克汉姆在年轻人中广受欢迎。在第一张照片中，贝克汉姆的名字出现在一个年轻人的额头上。文字表明：对偶像的崇拜写在了脸上。在第二张照片中，这个年轻人正在理发店中做贝克汉姆的时髦发型。我们得到的信息是他正花300元来模仿偶像的发式。

毫无疑问，照片巧妙地反映了这样一个社会现象：偶像崇拜目前在青年人中非常盛行。贝克汉姆代表了体育界英雄的形象，他的英俊外表以及高超的球技正是球迷们热情追捧的。同样，2005年中国举办的“超级女生”大赛中，几个十几岁的女孩一夜成名。围绕着崇拜这些偶像的意义和危害，这个事件激起了全国性的争论。总之，青年人往往容易崇拜那些在外表、才华和特长方面极其出色的人。

在我看来，偶像崇拜这个发人深思的社会现象，其实是把双刃剑，可以深刻影响青年人成长。如果我们只是靠模仿偶像发型或追逐时尚的方式来崇拜他们，这种痴迷将必定浪费我们大量的金钱和时间，影响我们的工作效率。相反，如果我们靠弥补我们和榜样之间的差距来努力提高自己，我们就会过一种积极和收获显著的生活。因此，我们应当采取后面一种态度来指引我们的人生。

4、十大必背范文之四：2007年真题 Directions: Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing.In your essay, you should 1)describe the drawing briefly, 2)explain its intended meaning, and then 3)support your view with an example/examples.图画描述：As we can see from the picture, a football match is going on.On guarding the goal, the man on the left seems to be keeping a “huge one” that is easy and inevitable for a goal, while the person on the right hesitates to kick the ball with an illusion about the “huge keeper”.It is obvious that both of them exaggerate the difficulties in front of them.意义阐释：This picture does reflect a thought-provoking social phenomenon which is not uncommon in China now.The young always give up because the problem is beyond their ability to cope with.Superficially, it seems to be somewhat reasonable, but when weighing in the mind, we find there is an apparent tendency underlying this phenomenon: the lack of confidence.Firstly, it is well-known that we exist in a dynamic world with various difficulties.We can do nothing but face them.Secondly, attitude is the key point to take the first step.Assuming bravery and confidence to solve the problem, you will find the question is not as “huge” as you imagine.Take us for example, the entrance exam for graduate students even seems to be a horrible monster before us.Some people give up, some persist.So, with confidence and the right assessment of the difficulties, try and exert our strength, and then we will overcome all problems.On the whole, I believe we young people should face the difficulties in right manner.And nothing is impossible, just do it.(243 words)如图所示，一场足球赛正在进行。左边的人似乎在守一个对于射门轻而易举、不可避免的“大门”，而右边的人由于拥有关于“巨大守门员”的幻觉，踢球很犹豫。显而易见，他们两个人都夸大了面前的困难。

这幅图画确实反映了一个目前在中国很普遍同时发人深思的社会现象。由于问题超出他们应对的能力，年轻人总是放弃。表面上看，这幅图画似乎有一些道理，但当我们仔细思考时，我们就会发现在这个现象之下有一个明显的趋势：缺乏自信。首先，众所周知，我们生活在一个充满各种困难的多元化世界。我们别无选择，只能面对。其次，态度是采取第一步的关键。拥有勇气和信心来解决问题，你就会发现问题并非你想象的那么“严重”。以我们自己为例，研究生入学考试似乎是我们面前的一个可怕的怪物。有些人放弃了，而有些人则坚持了下来。因此，拥有信心和对困难的正确估计，并且竭尽全力，我们就将解决所有的问题。总而言之，我认为我们年轻人应该以正确的方式面对困难。世上无难事，只怕有心人。

5、十大必背范文之五：2008年考研真题 Directions: Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing.In your essay, you should 1)describe the drawing briefly, 2)explain its intended meaning, and then 3)give your comments.图画描述：As is vividly depicted in the picture, two disabled men are running fast through teamwork although each of them has only one leg.Obviously, it is teamwork that makes it possible for them to go anywhere they want to.意义阐释：Simple as it is, what the picture conveys to us is thought-provoking.With the development of economy and society, competition is increasingly fierce.It is impossible for anyone to finish a work all by himself.Hence, people in mounting numbers put great emphasis on teamwork.In fact, it has been universally acknowledged that the ability of teamwork is the most essential qualification that anyone who wants to achieve success should possess.归纳结论：Accordingly, it is imperative for us to take some measures to enhance the sense of teamwork in our society.We should bear in mind that teamwork is of great significance to both our society and ourselves.Every one should have the ability of teamwork.Only in this way can we achieve success and only in this way can our society become more harmonious to live in.(176 words)如图画中生动所示，尽管每人只有一条腿，但是两个残疾人通过团队合作正在快速奔跑。显而易见，正是合作才使得他们走南闯北成为可能。

尽管这幅图画很简单，但它向我们表达了发人深省的含义。随着经济和社会的发展，竞争日渐激烈。任何人都无法完全独立完成一份工作。因此，越来越多的人开始重视团队合作。事实上，人们公认合作的能力是想要获得成功的人都应该具备的最重要的素质。

因此，我们迫切需要采取措施来提高人们的合作意识。我们应该牢记合作对于社会和自身都非常重要。每个人都应拥有合作的能力。只有这样我们才能获得成功，而且只有这样社会才能变得更加和谐。

6、十大必背范文之六：2009年真题 Directions: Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing.In your essay, you should 1)describe the drawing briefly，2)explain its intended meaning, and then

3)give your comments.图画描述：As is symbolically illustrated in the cartoon, a large number of people are surfing on line within a stretching spider web, either to entertain themselves or to meet the work's needs.Unfortunately, it seems rather ironic to present people separated from each other by the spider web when they attempt to communicate.Undoubtedly, the spider web serves as a symbol of Internet, both connecting people and isolating them from each other.意义阐释：The metaphorical and impressive portrayal has subtly revealed the duality of the relationship between man and Internet.On the one hand, there is no denying that Internet is currently one of the most efficient media used for interpersonal communication.As a college student, I get on line every day to discuss news with other people on BBS, to study English by registering for web courses, to chat freely through MSN Messenger with my friends.But on the other hand, a good many people admit that they are too much addicted to Internet to maintain face-to-face contact with their friends and colleagues.Once indulged in the fictitious world, people feel reluctant to approach others and to concentrate on real life.That's why some people have lost the skill of direct contact and get alienated from others.归纳结论：Hence, it is necessary for us to use Internet in a reasonable way and restrain from overindulgence.After all, Internet is invented to connect you and me, and to bring conveniences to our life rather than set a barrier to keep people beyond reach.(249 words)这幅漫画象征性地阐释了无论是为了自我娱乐还是适应工作的需求，很多人在一个拉伸的蜘蛛网之内网上冲浪。然而，看来相当讽刺的地方是，这幅图呈现了他们在试图互相交流的同时，却被蜘蛛网彼此隔开。毫无疑问，这个蜘蛛网作为互联网的一种象征，既连接了人们，又使他们彼此隔离。

这幅比喻并使人印象深刻的图画象征性揭示了人与互联网之间的双重关系。一方面，不可否认网络目前是用于人际交流的最高效媒介之一。作为一名大学生，我每天上网与他人在BBS上讨论新闻，通过注册网络课程来学习英语，借助MSN和我的朋友们免费聊天。但另一方面，很多人承认他们太沉迷于网络而不愿与朋友和同事保持面对面接触。一旦沉迷于这种虚幻世界，人们不愿接近他人并关注现实生活。这就是一些人丧失了直接沟通技能并与他人疏远的原因。

因此，我们很有必要以一种合理的方式使用互联网，避免过度沉迷。毕竟，人们发明互联网是为了连接你和我，为我们的生活带来方便，而非设置障碍使人彼此疏远。

7、十大必背范文之七：2010年真题（教材176页）Directions: Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing.In your essay, you should 1)describe the drawing briefly，2)explain its intended meaning, and then

3)give your comments.文化“火锅”，既美味又营养

毕昇、老舍、莎士比亚、爱因斯坦、儒、佛、道、仁、礼、启蒙、人本、后现代、解构、京剧、功夫、梁祝、天鹅湖

图画描述： As is symbolically illustrated in the portrayal, there is a boiling hot pot containing various ingredients of multi-cultures.These pluralistic cultures can be categorized as celebrities home and abroad as Bi Sheng, Lao She, Shakespeare and Einstein, philosophical concepts as Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, benevolence, ritual, humanism, enlightenment, post-modernism and deconstruction, as well as performing arts as Peking Opera, kung-fu and Swan Lake.We are informed that the cultural “hot pot” is both delicious and nutritious.意义阐释： The purpose of the cartoonist is to show us that instead of being outdated and of little value in a rapidly modernizing world, cultural blending should be encouraged and maintained.On the one hand, mosaic cultures are part of the universal heritage of humanity and they are powerful means of bringing together diverse peoples and social groups.Consequently, cultural integration has become indispensable as a means of promoting further culture development and maintenance.On the other hand, for China and many other rapidly developing countries, there is a danger that age-old customs and traditions may become lost in the shadows of modernization.If kung-fu, Peking Opera or Swan Lake Ballet ever perished from the earth, it would be a tragedy of immeasurable proportions.归纳结论： In my view, multi-cultures can be kept alive by the people with the time to do so, and is extremely vital in ensuring a community’s future development and prosperity.As a consequence of successful commercialization efforts, unwavering government support and growing interest overseas, the future of cultural blending looks brighter and more secure than ever before.(254 words)如图象征性所示，一只沸腾的火锅中拥有诸多多元文化元素。这些多元文化可分为毕昇、老舍、莎士比亚、爱因斯坦等国内外名人，佛、道、儒、仁、礼、启蒙、人本、后现代、解构等哲学概念，以及京剧、功夫、《天鹅湖》等表演艺术。文字说明显示：“文化‘火锅’，既美味又营养。”

画家的目的是告诉我们，在迅速现代化的世界里，文化融合并未过时或失去价值，相反还应受到鼓励和保护。一方面，多元文化作为全体人类遗产的一部分，是将不同人群和社会群体融合的有力方式。因此，文化融合作为促进文化发展和保护的一种方式，已经不可或缺。另一方面，对于中国

和其他快速发展的国家来说，古老的习俗和传统面临着在现代化阴影里消失的危险。如果京剧、功夫或《天鹅湖》从地球上消失，那将是不可估量的损失。

在我看来，如果人们能为多元文化花费时间的话，那么它就能够长存。这对确保将来社会的繁荣和发展至关重要。由于成功的商业化努力、政府坚定不移的支持和不断增长的海外兴趣，多元文化的将来会比过去任何时候都明朗、安全。

8、十大必背范文之八：2011年真题（教材180页）Directions: Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing.In your essay, you should 1)describe the drawing briefly，2)explain its intended meaning, and then

3)give your comments.旅程之“余”

图画描述：As is subtly portrayed in the cartoon, two tourists are taking sightseeing on a small boat while discarding their picnic leftovers casually into a lake.Unfortunately, the lake is already littered and teamed with flow rubbish like plastic containers, fish-bones, banana peel, watermelon rind, bottles, tins, food wrappings, and so on.And below the drawing, there is a topic which says: “after” the travel or “me” in the travel.意义阐释：From the portrayal, we can conclude that the painter wants to convey such a message: a good many scenic spots are flooded with visitors, who spoil the beauty of nature by creating and leaving behind God-knows-how-much trash.On the one hand, tourism, as a multibillion-dollar business, is booming everywhere.Some people, laboring under the belief that tourism serves as an engine of economic growth, seem to ignore its negative effects on the environment.Nevertheless, these are not concerns that we can shrug off lightly.On the other hand, tourism has exerted great pressure on the environment we are living in: water is polluted, the ecological system is disturbed, and natural resources have been excessively used.建议措施：Undoubtedly, tourism could not be banned in any country as it does help to shore up the economy in places which have few sources of income.The significant point is that the unchecked growth of the travel business may render the development of an economy unsustainable.It is high time that we enhanced people's awareness to rectify this by taking the environmental protection into consideration.如图所示，两名游客正在一艘小船上观光，同时把野餐的剩余垃圾随意丢入湖中。不幸的是，湖中已经堆满了漂浮的塑料盒、鱼骨、香蕉皮、西瓜皮、瓶子、罐头、食品包装等各色垃圾。在图画下方，有个小标题写明：旅程之 “余”。

从漫画中，我们可以得出结论，画家想要表达这样一种信息：成群的游客涌入众多景点，制造并丢弃了大量的垃圾，影响了自然之美。一方面，旅游业作为一项产值数十亿美元的产业，正在世界各地迅猛发展。有些人认为旅游业是经济发展的引擎，似乎忽视了其对环境的负面影响。然而，我们必须充分关注这一问题。另一方面，旅游业已经对我们生存的环境造成了巨大的压力：水受到污染，生态平衡遭到破坏，自然资源被过度开发。

毫无疑问，由于对那些几乎没有其他收入来源的地区而言，旅游业确实有助于发展经济，因此任何国家都无法禁止旅游业。但重要的是，旅游业毫无节制的发展可能使得经济发展不可持续。是时候加强人们的意识，通过多加考虑环境保护因素，来改变这一现状了。

9、十大必背范文之九：2012年真题（教材184页）Directions: Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing.In your essay, you should 1)describe the drawing briefly.2)explain its intended meaning, and 3)give you comments.图画描述：As is symbolically demonstrated in the cartoon, two individuals respond to the same event in completely diverse ways.The person on the left airs his dissatisfaction and disappointment when a bottle is overturned, while the man on the right is hurry to raise it up, with a sweet smile on his face.We are informed that various folks take different attitudes toward the same scene.意义阐释：The aim of the portrayal is to illustrate that keeping optimistic is of utmost significance to both our society and our life.In the first place, optimism brings us creative power into play, arouses our enthusiasm for work and helps us overcome difficulties.In other words, with pessimism, achievements can hardly be made.In the second place, keeping optimistic gives us light when we are in dark and encouragement when we are dismayed.It is optimism, rather than genius and extraordinary abilities, that inspires us to finish the arduous task.With optimism, the goal we set can be reached, and the hard nut can be cracked.归纳结论：In conclusion, being optimistic enables people to behave wisely, kindly and confidently, and it is also crucial for any individual’s, in terms of both character and competence.如图所示，两个人对同一件事情的反应截然相反。瓶子倒后，左边的人表达了不满和失望，然而右边的人却面带微笑，急着把它扶起来。我们由此得知，不同的人对同一事物态度不同。

这幅漫画的目的是阐明保持乐观对于我们的生活至关重要。首先，乐观能使我们发挥创造力，点燃我们对工作的激情，并帮助我们克服困难。换言之，悲观时，我们很难取得任何成绩。其次，在我们身处黑暗，乐观能给我们带来光明；当我们灰心沮丧，乐观能给予我们鼓励。是乐观而不是天才或卓越的才能，在激励我们完成艰巨的任务。拥有乐观，我们才能实现设定的目标，克服难题。

总之，乐观能使人行事睿智、仁慈、自信，它也是个人性格和能力培养中不可缺少的部分。

三、图表作文：

十大必背范文之十：2006 MBA真题（教材198页）Directions: In this section, you are asked to write an essay based on the following diagram.Describe the diagram and analyze the possible causes.You should write at least 150 words.1998-2004年全国工程硕士招生录取人数

（工程硕士：Master of Engineering）招生 recruitment 录取 enrollment

图表描述：The diagram above clearly illustrates that dramatic elevation has occurred in the recruitment of Master of Engineering(ME)in the past seven years.According to the statistics given above, we may conclude that the recruitment of ME was on a steady rise from 1998 to 2004.In 1998, the number was at a low level, only about 2,500.Surprisingly, it reached to more than 35,000 in 2004 within no more than seven years.原因列举：Some driving factors that contribute to the above-mentioned changes may be summarized as follows.First and foremost, China has become particularly active in manufacturing, which leads to the increasing demand of qualified engineers.In addition, the development of job market on the whole cannot keep pace with the expansion of college graduates, which obliges a large number of students to stay on campus for another three years to get better prepared for their career.Last but not least, working pressure is another reason.Taking all these factors into account, we may predict that with speedy development of our society, the number of recruitment of ME will keep growing in the forthcoming decade.建议措施：On the other side of the coin, however, this tendency may bring about a good many problems, such as the waste of talent.It is necessary for us to take effective measures to ensure this situation doesn’t get out of hand, and encourage students to choose majors in which theoretical knowledge and practical skills will be demanded in the job market.(246 words)上述图表清楚揭示了过去七年工程硕招生录取人数急剧增长。根据上面给出的数据，我们可以得出结论：从1998到2004年，工程硕士招生录取人数稳步增长。在1998年，招生人数较少，只有大约2500人。令人惊讶的是，到2004年招生人数在不到七年的时间里达到3.5万人以上。

促成上述变化的一些主要原因可以概括如下。首先，中国在制造业方面已经变得异常活跃，这使得对高素质工程师的需求增长。此外，就业市场的总体发展无法跟上大学毕业生人数的增加，这促使很多学生在校园里再呆三年时间，为就业做更好的准备。最后，工作压力是另外一个原因。考虑到所有这些因素，我们可以预计：随着社会的迅速发展，工程硕士的招生人数在未来十年将会继续增加。

第三篇：2014考研英语作文必背

2014考研英语作文必背十大模板中域考研王舰

考研英语作文，你是选择背模板还是提升英语写作自己写？两方面见解相持不下，不过对于英语复习时间不够充足和备考时间不够的同学，模板想必是少不了的。

1.图画作文

It seems to me that the cartoonist is sending a message about _______(图画主题)，which is ______________(进一步的说明)。He seems to be saying that_______________(给出细节)。In my opinion，___________(个人阐述)。

This simple picture is a wake up call for ______(所涉群体，如the whole of the human race)。Therefore，it is imperative for us to take drastic measures to put an end to _____________(问题所在)。One the one hand，we must _________________(建议一)。It is clear that the drawer of the illustration is urging us to _________(进一步说明)。On the other hand，________________(建议二)Only in this way can we___________(展望前景)。

2.图表作文

The chart gives us an overall picture of the ____________(图表主题)。The first thing we notice is that_______________(图表最大特点)。This means that as __________，_________________(进一步说明)。

We can see from the statistics given that _______________(图表细节一)。After

ving_________(细节一中的第一个变化)，the _____Ved+幅度+时间(紧跟着的变化)。The figures also tells us that_________________________(图表细节二)。(数据位置，如In the second column)，we can see that ____________accounts for _______(进一步描述)。

Judging from these figures，we can draw the conclusion that___________(结论)。The reason for this，as far as I am concerned is that_____________(给出原因)。/ It is high time that we Ved(发出倡议)

3.利弊型作文

Recently the issue of whether or not______(讨论话题)has been in the limelight and has aroused wide concern in the public.There are two major arguments that can be made for_________.For one thing，__________can bring ____ to_____________(优点一)。For another，it is widely hold that people usually ____when ________________________________(优点二)。

But we must not lose sight of the fact that there are also drawbacks to__________，among which are ____________(列举缺点)。For instance，it can be __________to _____________(举例说明)。In addition，many people find it ________(形容词)to _______________(第二个缺点)

When asked to __________，I tend to ____________.This is because I _______________(原因

一)。Furthermore，_______________________(原因二)。Finally，______________(原因三)。

4.展望未来型

The effects ___________ has produced on____________ can be boiled down to two major ones.First，__________________(影响一)。More importantly，________________(影响二)。Hence，I believe that we will see a ____________(提出展望)/ Nevertheless，I do not think we will see a ______(或反面展望)

There are numerous reasons why ____，and I would like to explore a few of the most important ones here.The first is that the more(比较级)_____，the more(比较级)。In addition，we all aGREe that________________________(第二个原因)

5.告示

You should write about 100 words.Do not sign your own name at the end of the letter.Use Department of Chinese Language and Literature at the end of the announcement.Chinese-Speaking Contest

January 19，2008

To improve students‘ ability to speak Chinese and enrich after-class activities，the Students’ Union of Department of Chinese Language and Literature is organizing a school-wide Chinese-speaking contest to be held on Saturday next week(26 January)at the Students‘ Auditorium.Those who are interested in taking part in it may sign up with the monitor of their classes before Tuesday next week.Five professors will be invited to be judges.The first six winners will be given awards.Everybody is welcome to be present at the contest.the Students‘ Union

Department of Chinese Language and Literature

6.职业道德

the cartoons vividly depict people in expanding numbers are engaged in open and rampant cheating in business.In the first drawing，a boy has no courage to have dinner in front of delicious foods in that there may exist pesticide pollution or poisonous elements in the foods.In the second picture，the administrative office，salesmen，breeding families and forage

shops are laughing at the hanging of a poisonous duck.Professional dishonesty has a very damaging effect.In the first place，since cheating in business reveals the moral deficiencies as well as the humanity weakness of those businessmen who engage in it，the dishonest practice will ultimately exerts a perverse influence on the whole society.In the second place，it not only puts honest businessmen at a competitive disadvantage，encouraging those who did not cheat to adopt similar practices later，but undermines the very foundation of professional ethics in business.It is often painful to impose sanctions in a specific case.But it is worthwhile.For one thing，to eliminate professional dishonesty thoroughly，serious forms of punishment for a willful offense—a suspension of the offender from business—should be applied.For another，since the incentives to engage in cheating in business are mainly due to a lack of adequate precautions，drastic actions should be taken to prevent one form of cheating or another.7.投诉信

Directions： You live in a room in college which you share with another student.You find it very difficult to work there because your roommate always has friends visiting and has parties in the room.Write a letter to the Accommodation Officer at the college and ask for a new room next term.You would prefer a single room.Explain your reasons.Dear Sir or Madam，I am writing to express/air dissatisfaction/disappointment/concern regarding accommodation.I would prefer to move into a single room next semester，as I find the present sharing arrangement inconvenient.I must explain that the reason for my dissatisfaction is my roommate‘s inconsiderate behavior.For one thing，his friends are constantly visiting him;for another，he regularly holds noisy parties.To solve this problem/surmount this difficulty/improve this situation/crack this hard nut，I hope to draw the attention of the authorities concerned.I am sure you will aGREe that the only solution for me is to move into a room of my own.Therefore，I would be grateful if you could find a single room for me，preferably not in the same building but as near to the college campus as possible.Yours sincerely，Li Ming

8.网络问题

In recent years，people are developing an inseparable relationship with Internet.As is vividly depicted in the picture，it is convenient for us to click the mouse when surfing on line，either to entertain ourselves or to meet the work‘s needs.Actually on-line visiting has become a routine activity in our everyday life.However，it seems rather ironic to use a chain instead of normal wire to connect with the mouse in this picture.The exaggerative and impressive portrayal has subtly revealed the duality of the relationship between man and Internet.Discussion on the duality has become very popular in newspapers or in people‘s chats.On the one hand，no one denies that Internet is currently one of the most useful media in our daily life.People from all walks of life are benefiting considerably from its powerful function of information communication.But on the other hand，a GREat many people admit that they are too much addicted to Internet to maintain a regular and wholesome lifestyle.Cyber-living resembles the experience of looking constantly into a kaleidoscope which displays both colored patterns and illusions.Such a waste of time inevitably leads to their failure in their life and work.Accordingly，it is necessary for us to use Internet in a reasonable way and restrain from overindulgence.For one thing，college students in expanding numbers get on line every day to learn the news，to study English by registering for web courses，to exchange information through e-mails with their net friends and to download their favorite music，FLASH，film and pictures.Being veteran on-line shoppers，they frequently purchase books，CDs at much lower prices.For another，once indulged in the fictitious world，people can barely concentrate on real life.Consequently，many students just chat on line or play computer games immoderately everyday，skipping many essential classes.After all，Internet is invented to enrich our life，to connect you and me，and to improve the efficiency of our work rather than shackle us with a chain.9.环境问题

the pictures symbolically illustrate pollution is becoming increasingly serious around the globe.In the first cartoon，a man is scorching the earth on a chimney.In the second one，a famous ancient Chinese poet，Wang Bo is astonished by the heavy smoke poured by chimneys into the air and dirty river polluted by a factory.We are informed that “the autumn river is the same color with the sky”。

the drawer is sending a message about the significance of the need for everyone to fight against the danger of environmental pollution.There is no denying that the industry is indications of civilization，proGREss and development.Unfortunately，as industry develops，so will the number of factories，and the amount of industry pollutants.We are so development-oriented that we almost can sacrifice our blue sky and pure water in order to obtain a little material gain.As a consequence，it is imperative for us to take drastic actions.On the one hand，the factories should be equipped with devices which can dispose of waste gas and water so as to prevent them from polluting our planet.On the other hand，there should be an increasingly

loud voice from the public for firm actions against poisonous gas sent off and unhealthy water polluted by factories.10.提纲式议论文

Directions：

A.Title： Air Travel

B.Time limit： 40 minutes

C.Word limit： about 200 words

D.Your essay should be written clearly on ANSWER SHEET 2.E.Your essay should be based on the information given below.现在许多人愿意乘飞机旅行。随着我国民航事业的迅速发展，全国各大城市兴建了许多现代化的机场。乘飞机旅行有许多长处(方便、快捷、省时、舒适等);但是，空中旅行也有许多不足之处(机票价格贵，有的旅客不适应空中旅行，常常感到身体不适，甚至有人还担心发生空难)。请你简单阐述上述两个方面。最后请你说明你的看法。

(Composition for reference only)

Many people prefer to travel by air.This is because air travel has some advantages.In the first place，airplane，the miracle created by man，is the fastest means of transport.It takes the least time for one to travel by air from one place to another.Secondly，traveling by air is convenient and comfortable.Friendly air hostesses are affectionate and considerate.They look after passengers all the way to their destinations.Moreover，on long distance flights there are films and music for people to entertain themselves.As a popular saying goes，“Everything has two sides.” The same is true of air travel.It has some disadvantages，too.For one thing，air travel costs a GREat deal.The average Chinese are not rich enough to afford expensive air fares.So they prefer to take trains，which save a lot of money.For another，although passengers are assured of their safety，they are still worried about it during the journey because flying always involves more or less risk.As far I am concerned，the advantage mentioned above exceed the disadvantages.If I were given choice between traveling by train，I would certainly prefer the former.For me，time is money and it is the most important thing I have to take into consideration whatever I do.(216 words)

第四篇：新东方必背30篇

学英语，练听力，上听力课堂！

第一篇：Youth 青春

Youth

Youth is not a time of life;it is a state of mind;it is not a matter of rosy cheeks, red lips and supple knees;it is a matter of the will, a quality of the imagination, a vigor of the emotions;it is the freshness of the deep springs of life.Youth means a temperamental predominance of courage over timidity, of the appetite for adventure over the love of ease.This often exists in a man of 60 more than a boy of 20.Nobody grows old merely by a number of years.We grow old by deserting our ideals.Years may wrinkle the skin, but to give up enthusiasm wrinkles the soul.Worry, fear, self-distrust bows the heart and turns the spirit back to dust.Whether 60 or 16, there is in every human being’s heart the lure of wonders, the unfailing appetite for what’s next and the joy of the game of living.In the center of your heart and my heart, there is a wireless station;so long as it receives messages of beauty, hope, courage and power from man and from the infinite, so long as you are young.When your aerials are down, and your spirit is covered with snows of cynicism and the ice of pessimism, then you’ve grown old, even at 20;but as long as your aerials are up, to catch waves of optimism, there’s hope you may die young at 80.译文：

青春

青春不是年华，而是心境；青春不是桃面、丹唇、柔膝，而是深沉的意志，恢宏的想象，炙热的恋情；青春是生命的深泉在涌流。

青春气贯长虹，勇锐盖过怯弱，进取压倒苟安。如此锐气，二十后生而有之，六旬男子则更多见。年岁有加，并非垂老，理想丢弃，方堕暮年。

岁月悠悠，衰微只及肌肤；热忱抛却，颓废必致灵魂。忧烦，惶恐，丧失自信，定使心灵扭曲，意气如灰。

无论年届花甲，拟或二八芳龄，心中皆有生命之欢乐，奇迹之诱惑，孩童般天真久盛不衰。人人心中皆有一台天线，只要你从天上人间接受美好、希望、欢乐、勇气和力量的信号，你就青春永驻，风华常存。、一旦天线下降，锐气便被冰雪覆盖，玩世不恭、自暴自弃油然而生，即使年方二十，实已垂垂老矣；然则只要树起天线，捕捉乐观信号，你就有望在八十高龄告别尘寰时仍觉年轻。

声明：本资料由听力课堂网站收集整理，仅供英语爱好者学习使用，资料版权属于原作者。-1-

第五篇：2015年考研英语作文必背

1)话题引出段

Nowadays, there is a growing concern over the issue of……

People in growing numbers are directing theirattention to ……

With the development of ……，the problem of …has becomeincreasingly serious.When it comes to ……，people's notions may vary fromone to another.Recently, a heated discussion has sprung up as to ……

Traditional virtue/value has it that……，yet peopleare……currently.2)图画图表描述段

As is vividly shown in the picture,……

It is clearly depicted in the picture that ……

This picture depicts a thought-provoking scene of ……

According to the figures given in the chart……

The chart above provides a series of essentialfigures, illustrating the changes taking place in a time span of …years.3)观点对比段

Opposite voices are now rising in the debate.Somepeople firmly believe that…… On the contrary, quite a few people argue that……

The controversial issue has aroused opposite opinions.One focuses on ……;the other opinion revolves around……

4)利弊列举段

Every coin has two sides, and this issue is noexception.Above all, …In addition…More importantly… However, the negativeinfluence it renders should not be neglected.not only …but also

Is this phenomenon a blessing or a curse.? Thefollowing list of advantages and disadvantages can explain everything.5)举例论证段

For instance;

Take…for an example;

A case in point is……

The following illustrations can serve as strongevidence of the phenomenon.6)原因列举段

Why should this phenomenon take place? There aregenerally three factors accounting for it.Having taken everything into consideration, we may attributethe sharp change to three aspects.7)意义阐释段

The purpose of the picture is to show us that dueattention has to be paid to…

The fact/phenomenon that…indicates that … …

Having scrutinized the details of the picture, we candiscuss the implications subtly conveyed from it.8)归纳结论段

In conclusion，In my opinion，As far as I am concerned，Taking into account all the analyses above, we mayconfidently come to the conclusion that……

9)预测趋势段

There is no denying that ……will continueincreasing/decreasing in the better/worse direction.Undoubtedly, the tendency reflected from the chartwill undergo a continuous increase/decrease in the near future.10)建议措施段

Therefore, it is imperative that we should take somedrastic measures.As far as I am concerned, two effective measures mustbe immediately taken to pull through the crisis.As a result, it is advisable to settle the problem bytwo means.考研英语小作文万能模板

1.一般开头句型

I'm writing to… 开门见山的开头模式

I'm writing to inform you that…(通知类型)

I'm writing to seek your assistance in …(请求类型)

I'm writing in response to your advertisement in …(回应类型)

I'm writing to express my views on …(建议类型)

I'm writing to apply for the scholarship that yourdepartment offers to students from other countries.(申请类型)

I'm writing to see if it is possible for you toprovide me with information regarding…(咨询类型)

I'm writing to express my disappointment/dissatisfaction about…(投诉类型)

2.感谢类句型

thank-gratitude-grateful-appreciate 的多种变体

I'm most grateful to you for your…

I'm writing this letter to express my sinceregratitude for…

I would like to convey in this letter my heartfeltthanks for…

I feel greatly indebted to you for…

I'm writing to tell you how greatly I appreciate allyou have done for me…

But for your kind assistance, I would have …

I must thank you again for your generous help.Please accept my deepest gratitude.3.道歉类句型

sorry-apologize-apology的多种变体

I feel really sorry to you for…

I must apologize to you for…

I would like to express my deepest apology / regretfor not being able to …

Had I …，I would have…

Please accept my sincere apology for…

I want you to know how badly I feel about…

4.一般结尾句型

Any favorable consideration of my application will behighly appreciated.(申请/求职)

We should be very pleased if you could honor us withyour presence.(邀请函)

Best wishes for your greater success in your career.(祝愿)

Thank you for your patience and concern in readingthis letter.I hope this does not cause you too much inconvenience.I lookforward to hearing from you at your earliest convenience.(套话组合)

虽然信函的套用句型还有很多的变化，但上面选取的这些句子在考试中都是非常实用的，无论什么样的话题，开头结尾加上表示感谢和道歉的礼貌客气话总是必不可少的。

2015考研英语一必备五大应用文预测

Topic 1 : 申请信

命题规律：考研英语

一、英语二都未曾考察;申请信相对来说并不难写。只要在信中写上申请的理由，以及自身的条件就可以了。

预热题目：

Directions：

Write a letter to the London Olympic Committee to state your application to be a volunteer, describe your qualifications, and express the appreciation of

an interview.【中文译文】

致相关人士，我写这封信是为了申请伦敦奥运会的志愿者这一职务。首先简单的自我介绍一下，我叫李明，是北京大学英语专业的学生。在我读大学期间，我良好地掌握了英语和其他几门外语，这就保证了我可以和外国友人流利而又顺畅地沟通。其次，参加了几次国际性的运动会之后，我累积了大量的实际经验。最后，我的沟通技能和团队精神 也使我非常适合这个岗位。

我真诚地希望你可以考虑我的申请并且在您方便的时候给我一个面试的机会。你真诚的，李明

Topic2 : 询问信

命题规律：考研英语

一、英语二都未曾考察;询问信，相对而言是一种比较特殊的书信。尤其是作文的第二段，需要“不停地发问”来 询问相关的信息。考生应该熟练地运用特殊疑问句的句型，顺利流畅地完成这种类型的作文。常用的一些 疑问句式包括：

I am most interested in whether …我很有兴趣想知道是否…

I would like to be informed whether I can...我想知道是否我可以…

what…do I need to…? 做…我需要…?

I wonder if there be…? 我想知道是否有…

预热题目：

Directions:

You are planning to have a holiday in Southern China during the summer vacation.Write a letter to the sales department of travel agency to inquire relevant information.Topic3: 投诉信

命题规律：2012 年英语二考察一次(请参见官方高分范文)

写作策略：投诉信仅在 2012 年的考研英语(二)考察过一次，近几年的命题频率不高。也正因如此，考生应该重点准备，尤其是英语(一)因为从没有考察过，反而更加应该关注和重视。投诉信主要在于投诉对某物的不满，或者对某个过程的不满，描述细节。难点在于，考生考前可以准备投诉信这种类型的题目，但是如果真题果真考察投诉信，投诉的内容发生变化，考生又应该现场发挥写作。

作文题目：

Directions:

Suppose you met a rude salesperson in a supermarket.Write to the sales

manager of the supermarket to show your complaints.Topic4: 祝贺信

命题规律：2011年英语二考察一次(请参见官方高分范文)

写作策略：祝贺信仅在 2011 年英语(二)中考察，英语(一)未考察。祝贺信的内容相对来说较为空洞，反倒不好发挥。在祝贺信书写的过程中，要写明祝贺对方的理由，并对对方的未来提出期许。祝贺信的固定句式相对较多，因而准备此类型的作文难度不大!

作文题目：

Directions:

suppose you are Li Ming and your friend Li Hua just won the first-class science

award because of the work in the field of applied chemistry.Write a letter of congratulation to her.Topic5: 感谢信

命题规律：2010 年英语二考察一次(请参见官方高分范文)

写作策略：感谢信仅在 2010 年英语(二)考察一次，之后的真题就没有考察。由于近几年出现频率过低，因而我们可以重点预测这种考试题目，尤其是考研英语(一)需要重点掌握。感谢信主要在作文的第二段熟悉感谢的理由，内容视具体作文题而定。

作文题目：

Directions:

You have just come back from a student exchange program in the U.S.Write a letter to your host family in New York to express your gratitude for their hospitality, describe the help they gave you, offer to repay their help and invite them to visit you.Top 1：投诉信高分热文

I am writing to air（表达）disappointment（不满）regarding accommodation.I would prefer to move into a single room next semester, as I find the present sharing arrangement inconvenient.I must explain that the reason for my dissatisfaction is my roommate's inconsiderate behavior（不体谅行为）.For one thing, his friends are constantly visiting him;for another, he regularly holds noisy parties.To crack this hard nut（为了解决这个难题）, I hope to draw the attention of（引起）the authorities concerned.I am sure you will agree that the only solution for me is to move into a single room.Therefore, I would be grateful if you could find a single room for me, preferably（最好）not in the same building but as near to the college campus as possible.Yours sincerely, Li Ming 3 精彩译文

尊敬的先生或女士：

我写信是为了表达关于住宿的不满。由于我发现目前的居住状况很不方便，我想下学期搬到一个单间。我需要解释的是，我不满的原因是我室友不体谅的行为。首先，他的朋友经常来访。其次，他经常举办一些吵闹的聚会。为了解决这个问题，我希望引起相关部门的注意。我相信您也会同意，唯一的解决措施是搬到一个我自己的房间。因此，如果您可以给我找一个最好不在同楼，但离校园越近越好的单间，我将非常感谢。您真诚的，李明

Top 2：申请信高分热文 Dear Sir or Madam, I am a Chinese student who wishes to apply for admission into your prestigious university（贵校）.My plan is to start my course next term, and I would be grateful if you would be kind enough to provide me with certain essential information（基本信息）.First, what qualifications（资

格）do I need to follow a course of study at your university? I have already had a bachelor's degree from Peking University, but I wonder if there are any further academic requirements（学术要求）.Second, how much are the tuition fee（学费）? Although I intend to be self-supporting（自费）, I would be interested to hear if there are any scholarships（奖学金）available for international students（留学生）.Third, what is the situation regarding accommodation? I look forward to your reply, and to attending your esteemed institution.Yours sincerely, Li Ming 3 精彩译文

尊敬的先生或女士, 我是一名中国学生，希望到贵校这所著名大学学习。我计划下学期开始我的课程，如果您能好心提供一些基本信息，我将非常感谢。首先，我到贵校上课需要什么条件？我已经从北京大学获得学士学位，但我想知道是否有进一步的学业上的要求。其次，学费是多少？尽管我打算自费，但我想了解一下国外学生可否获得奖学金。最后，住宿情况怎么样？

期待您的回复，希望成为贵校的一员。您真诚的，李明

Top 3：建议信高分热文 Dear John, You asked for advice concerning whether you should study history or computer science at university.I will try making some suggestions.You must keep in mind（记住）that, above all, your university training is a preparation for your future career.There is no doubt that（毫无疑问）the field of computer science offers far more job opportunities than history.We are now in a high-tech age（高科技时代）.For the foreseeable future（可预知的未来）, it would be necessary for everyone to be equipped with（配备）computer skills merely to earn a living.Of course, I would recommend that you keep up your reading of history in your spare time.Yours sincerely, Li Ming 精彩译文 亲爱的约翰：

你问我关于该学历史还是计算机的看法，我将尽力给你一些有用的建议。

首先，你必须牢记的是，你在大学所受的训练是为了将来的职业做准备的。毫无疑问，计算机科学将比历史提供更广泛的工作机会。我们都处在高科技的时代，在不久的将来，每个人为了谋生还需要具备计算机技能。

当然，我仅以你在业余时间继续读历史。您真诚的，李明

Top 4：求职信

高分热文

Dear Mr.Byron, I am writing to express my interest in your recently advertised position for a waitress.Enclosed with（附上）this letter is my resume, which further details my qualifications（资历）and previous work experiences.Not only do my qualifications and work experience make me a perfect candidate（完美候选人）for the job, but my personality is well suited to（适合）working as a waitress.I am a very friendly person who can quickly establish rapport with people of all ages.I would like to meet with you at your earliest convenience, to discuss the possibility of working at your restaurant.Thank you for your consideration of my application.I look forward to meeting you in the near future.Yours sincerely, Li Ming 3 精彩译文

亲爱的拜伦先生，写信是想表达我对您近期刊登的女服务员的岗位很感兴趣。附件中是我的简历，进一步详述了我的资历和先前的工作经验。

我的资历和经验都非常适合这份工作，而且我的性格也很适合做服务员的工作。我性格随和，能很快跟不同年龄阶段的人建立起友好关系。

希望能尽快在您方便之时见面，探讨在您酒店工作的可能性。感谢您对我申请的关注，期待尽快与您见面。您真诚的，李明

Top 5：邀请信高分热文 Dear Xiaobao, I will hold a dinner party at my house on April 1st, 2008 to celebrate Mr.Guo Jing's marriage with Miss Huang Hong.As you are a close friend of ours, we would very much like you to participate in the celebration and share our joy.The occasion will start at seven o'clock in the evening, with the showing of their wedding ceremony.This will be followed by a dinner party.At around ten, we will hold a small musical soiree(晚会), at which a band will perform some works by Bach and Strauss.If you do not have any prior appointment on April 1st, we look forward to the pleasure of your company.Yours sincerely, Li Ming 3 精彩译文 亲爱的小宝，2008年4月1日，我将在家举行晚宴庆祝郭靖先生和黄红女士结为连理。你是我最好的朋友之一，非常高兴你能参加这次庆典分享我们的快乐。

庆典将在晚上7点开始，届时会举行结婚典礼。之后是晚宴，大概10点钟左右会举行一个小的音乐晚会，乐队将演奏巴赫和施特劳斯的一些作品。

如果4月1日你没有其它安排，很高兴并且期待着你的加入。您真诚的，李明

Top 6：祝贺信 高分热文

Dear Mr.John, Just a note to wish you a very happy new year.May the new year bring you joy, love and peace.My memory of you is one of the most delightful experience I have ever had.I would very much like to continue our friendship.As another year draws to close, it gives us great pleasure to say how much we have appreciated（感激）working with you over the past twelve months.We sincerely hope that our pleasant business relationship will continue for years to come.Our staff here join me in wishing you a very Merry Christmas and a Happy Prosperous New Year.Yours sincerely, Li Ming 3 精彩译文

尊敬的约翰先生，寄上简函一封，祝您新年快乐。愿新的一年为您带来幸福、友爱和平安。与您在一起的回忆是我一生中最愉快的经历之一，但愿我们的友谊长青。又一年即将结束，我们很高兴地看到过去一年我们之间的合作非常愉快。衷心希望我们之间融洽的业务关系在今后的日子里继续下去。

在此，我和公司的全体员工一道祝您圣诞愉快！新年快乐！生意兴隆！您真诚的，李明