第一篇：英语翻译论文
广州地铁英汉翻译考察
-------从中揭示的中英翻译问题
【摘要】当今有很多同学都觉得英语翻译很难，觉得很难去掌握，为了使大家更好的去掌握，本人从地铁英语入手，希望可以总结出对大家行之有效的策略。
[关键字] 考察 中英翻译 策略
今天在地铁里面进行英语翻译考察,获益良多,而且记录了里面的某些英语翻译以供研究.其实在地铁里面遇到的多数是一些比较短小的翻译,以下是本人遇到的一些小翻译。
Attention, please!The train is approaching请注意，列车正在进站.The train is bound for Sanyuanli.Don’t get over the yellow line.Please keep your things with you.不要越过黄线，保管好您的随身物品.Mind the gap.小心站台间隙。Lean on the door prohibited.禁止倚靠。Cation！Risk of pinching hand.当心夹手。
This door would not open with the light on.灯亮时此门不开。
Don’t enter or exit the train when there’s a flashing light or warning chime.灯亮铃响时请不要上下列车。
„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„
在地铁里面遇到的这些翻译，给我的第一感觉就是简洁明了，专业准确。好像我里面遇到的翻译：灯亮铃响时请不要上下列车。Don’t enter or exit the train when there’s a flashing light or warning chime.巧妙地引用了一个there’s就把整个翻译简化了，而且感觉还使整个翻译没有硬生生的，很符合英国人的讲话习惯，并没有“中化”。还有Please use the up/down stairs in the middle of the station to switch to Railway No.X.从站台中部 上/下 台阶,换乘 1/2 号线地铁。这个翻译是值得提一下的，因为里面出现了一个平时大家使用很容易错的up/down stairs。其实，如果要翻译厕所在上层的时候，就不能用up stairs了，因为upstairs指的是当你在平地的时候，说的上层。地铁是在地下,用above level或upper level更合适。
地铁上遇到的英文其实还蛮少的，如果不注意去发现的话更少之又少。想找长一点的文章翻译还蛮难得。以下是从一篇幅比较长的英文中摘抄的：Lift up the cover, remove the seal and press the button in emergency.No handling, pull off the handler--open the door.Any illegal operater shall be punished accordingly.(紧急时开盖，紧急是拉掉铅封，再按下按钮。请勿擅动，拉下手柄——开门。任何非法操作按规章进行处罚。)此翻译连接顺畅，如果按着中文翻译出来的话就要懂得很多短语的运用，尽量简化，因为这毕竟是一个标语嘛。最后的一个句子的accordingly=according to the rules，但是更少人知道用accordingly，觉得翻译这门学问不是一朝一夕练成的，还要多读一下英语文章多积累的。最后一个句子的被动语
态是在中英文翻译中经常运用的，避免了中式英语的出现。其实，以上提到的只是英文翻译中的一小点而已，中英对译不能简单地采用就词论词、就句子论句子的简单直译方法，而要求把词和句子放在篇章里去理解，还强调英语习惯用法、语感和翻译技巧的掌握。这样仅靠熟悉语法规则和孤立地背单词已远远不够了。
从地铁英语的翻译考察中可以看出我们在平时的英文翻译也会遇到同样的问题，这些问题本人总结如下---------语句形式上的复杂（包括了中文和英文的句子），理不清各部分的关系；语句内容涉及不了解或不熟悉的背景知识，或是语句涉及较深的、难以理解的思想内容，甚至会涉及不熟悉的翻译。而在“表达”上的难度有：对于英语的语句没有看懂；自身汉语综合能力存在问题，中译英时会夹杂中式英语。
（一）译文结构松散，中心层次不清，可读性差，不符合英语的表达习惯
比如，“根据规章，不允许随地扔垃圾。”有些人就会翻译成The rules don’t let us leave the rubbish everywhere.很多人以为只要字面上意思接近就行了，但真正忠实的译文是在不改变原文意思的基础上使行文流畅，具有可读性。
（二）译文语气平淡，缺少与原文相应的气势，有的虽形似，但实质上形近而神远
试看这样一句：“我们的朋友遍天下”，句子结构简单，用词也不深奥，许多人一般都能不假思索地把句子译为：“Our friends are all over the world.” 如果吃透原文，摆脱原有句架的限制，而把句子译成“We have friends all over the world”是否更能准确地反映出原有的气势?这是显而易见的。亚运的宣传语“Thrilling Games, Harmonious Asia”也是同样的道理。
那如何才能更好的翻译呢？本人在查阅许多资料后总结了以下几点：
（一）词义要确切、选词要贴切、用词要通俗易懂、简洁有力、选词要多样化。
例如：Lean on the door prohibited.中文是请勿倚靠门。这个句子就用prohibitted来修饰door就简单多了，而且也很符合英国人的习惯。“小记者”的翻译也是一样遵循这个原则，不遵循完全的直译，要学会变通为特teenager reporter.（二）如果是文章的话，就紧紧抓住文章的逻辑关系，透过语言的表层现象，深入到文章的深层结构，找出中心信息和外围信息。
例如，曾经记得高中老师讲解过一篇阅读，其中一道题有人把“the treatment of teachers is bad”当作是“教师待遇不好”的忠实译文，实际上是硬译、错译。因为英语中的treatment 一词并不等于汉语的“待遇”这个概念，两者语义范围也不一样，而且treatment作“待遇”讲时多有贬义，但原文根本没有贬低教师的意思，只是阐明“教师收入偏低”这一事实而已。可见，这句话如果改译为“teachers are poorly paid”则更简单，更恰当。
（三）多读文章，多体会。多了解西方文化，对自己的翻译有好处。
结论：要更好的掌握中英翻译，要多留心阅读这类体裁的文章，要多积累，多比较，尽量熟悉英语语言特点，并积累词汇。另外，还应注意汉译英在词性、句式和表达习惯上的特点，掌握丰富的变通手段，努力提高翻译能力才行。
参考文献
[1]刘季春 《实用翻译教程》[M].广州：中山大学出版社 2007，8 [2]范仲英.《实用翻译教程》[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社，1994,6
[3] 龚嵘，《英语流行话题阅读》[M].华东理工大学出版社2006,5 [4]杨素珍，《国外阅读理解研究概述》[M].《淮阴师专学报》1995,第四期
第二篇：英语翻译论文
食品安全的对策
2010年9月16日，美国食品药物管理局的调查人员抵达上海一家供应面粉、通心粉和婴儿米粉的厂家。联邦当局早就怀疑上海Chuangi食品有限公司的食品不卫生，他们生产的许多产品，比如汤料，被运往纽约港口，放在一些未知的食品之间并最终出现在美国的餐桌上。这也就是为什么FDA指派一个中国新办事处去突袭的原因。美国FDA调查员和一名翻译去了上海的几家上市公司，每次，都被门卫禁止进入或调查，他们甚至说他们没有货物运往纽约，当然，这是一个谎言。一个月之内，美国FDA签发了禁止从上海Chuangi公司进口的文件。
如果你觉得上面的故事还尚且差强人意，但是，你错了。美国每年都能收到很多关于进口食品不安全的警告，但是FDA检查到的却只是数千万进口食品的1%。这在一定程度上是因为资金的不足以及没有权威的机构鉴定。
然而今年1月份，情况发生了改变，奥巴马总统签署了食品安全现代化法案。该法案表示可能在70年内对国家食品安全进行最彻底的变革。新法让FDA对美国80%的食品消费进行监管，防止沙门氏菌等食源性疾病的爆发。这可不是一件小事：每年每6个美国人中就有1个（大约48亿）经由食物传播而生病，3000人死亡。新法大部分内容是关于国产食品的，大约占到美国人消费的85%，但最为有趣的地方是，新法将会花费大量的精力去监管越来越多的进口食品。在未来的几年内，FDA将花费将近140亿左右去聘请数百名员工或私人承包商去监管不断增多的外国食品进口供应商。
问题是，FDA能否监管全世界。一个世纪前，辛克莱写了一部《屠场》，一部开创性的书，书中恐怖地描述了如何用苏打去除腐烂的肉上的臭味，然后扔上免费午餐的餐桌。该书导致天然食品和药品法的颁布以及FDA的成立。（见2010年医学十大突破）
当然现在美国食品药品管理局已经是个庞大的机构。它管理着超过价值4660亿的食品，美国人每消费1美元就有25美分是由它管理的。然而进口食品的管理任务仍然是艰巨的，大部分原因在于全球化急剧的扩大了美国餐桌上的食品。在芝加哥、夏洛特、北卡罗来纳州、博伊西、爱达荷州等地方的普通超市里，像墨西哥干辣椒酱、蒸丸子、椰子汁等进口食品不再受限制。如果这样的话，美国大约有60%的新鲜水果和80%的海产品来源于国外进口。这些进口食品中的大部分来源于食品安全条例有争议的国家。迈克尔·泰勒，美国食品药物管理局食品副税务长，最近对一位上海的观众说，“全球化正在挑战食品安全，这个问题应该被重视。”
事实上，FDA一直在积极努力地关注进口食品，晚间电视新闻经常报导这方面就是证据：2008年三聚氰胺，一种常用于制造塑料的化合物，在中国婴幼儿配方奶粉中发现之后，FDA给予警告，并禁止进口此类食品。当年另外一个事件，美国流行病的爆发促使FDA开始调查从墨西哥进口的jalapeño和及Serrano辣椒粉如何导致沙门氏菌感染的。最后，FDA警告消费者不要购买这种辣椒粉。美国在一些比较远的城市像广州、孟买、墨西哥等设立办事处，甚至派了一个海鲜专家小组前往孟加拉国对他们的官员培训美国食品安全标准，这有部分是因为上述之类事件的曝光。
新法将会使这些努力更上一个台阶。首先，在接下来的几年里，美国将雇佣成千上百的员工去监视国外成千上万的食品机构。泰勒近来在上海说，“FDA不能任何时候都无处不在，尤其是涉及到进口食品出现问题的时候。”因此，FDA将聘请一个第三方机构，食品监管和认证的企业现在是朝阳企业。必维国际检验集团就是其中之一，它是一家法国企业，对美国的监管流程非常熟悉。它位于阿肯色州本顿维尔的沃尔玛总部对面，为这个零售业的霸主如何使他们的商品符合美国安全标准提供建议。该公司已就越南虾与FDA进行认证测试。帕特里克·百丽，Veritas的食品业务开发经理，就新法说：“它将提供更多的就业机会，投资更多的实验，对我们的工作有一个推动作用。”
新法实施过程中可能会受到资金和政治这两个因素的影响。国会共和党人已经建议把美国食品药品管理局的预算削减至2.2亿美元。格鲁吉亚共和党人，国会议员杰克金斯敦认为食源性疾病的减少说明现行制度是有效的，他说：“食品安全具有高度优先权，但是，资金是有限。”
因为参议院仍然在民主党的掌控下，这种说法很难付诸于实际行动，也不可能削弱有奥巴马政府和庞大的食品集团作为支撑的新法的实施。但是新法的拥护者们害怕在未来的两到4年内，如果共和党人掌控两会，FDA的预算将会缩减。公共兴趣科学中心的食品安全负责人卡罗琳·史密斯·德瓦女士说，“认为食品安全固然很好，但是需要一种方式去证明它。如果接触污染的食品，他们自己也会有危险，共和党人将会独自承担风险。”
与此同时，中国上海Chuangi公司并没有做诸如测试有问题植物这样实质性的行为。ＦＤＡ检察员也将会再度检查它。如果没有足够的资金，他们是否愿意回来检查值得怀疑。
宝宝夜晚经常哭泣可能预示着将来的一些行为问题
新生儿在前几个月里半夜哭醒是很正常的，但是这种行为在一年之后还继续的话，就有可能意味将来会出现某些行为问题。这是欧洲的一些研究人员在研究近24个专家认为是可控行为的问题之后的发现，这些问题包括：失眠，不停的哭，挑食等。《小儿疾病文献》中有报导称：在上学时，那些三个月后还一直半夜哭醒的小孩得多动症、抑郁症、好斗、品行障碍的几率是普通小孩的两倍。
最常见的行为问题包括：自我控制不足、烦躁、适应性差。英国华威大学发展心理学Dieter Wolke教授，这篇文章的另外一个作者，称他们发现婴儿期的可控行为与品行障碍、多动症之间有着很大的联系。这些是儿童在管束时出现的注意力不集中、发火、自控力不足的表现。
Wolke教授称婴儿期的这些不停哭和挑食行为对后来的这些行为问题到底是怎样产生影响的，目前还没有明显的数据显示，但是这之间存在着很大的联系。首先，半夜哭醒仅仅是自我控制行为缺乏的初步迹象，每一个婴儿都会一晚上醒好几次，然后哭，但是大多数都会自己停止哭泣，然后继续睡觉。因为他们知道这就够了，爸妈不会每一次他们哭泣时都能来到。如果婴儿已经有行为障碍了，他们就不会学会自控，所以他们在一年之后仍然会一直哭泣。
此外，Wolke教授说，有些婴儿有由于遗传方面的因素更易产生行为障碍，具体地说，专家已经在多巴胺中识别出一种控制人的心情、情绪以及运动功能的基因。它可能导致婴儿对行为障碍更为敏感。
婴儿或者他们的父母中有一个对于这些行为会印象深刻，要么婴儿，要么是他们的父母。因为婴儿不停的哭泣和挑食，父母不得不去做些什么，而不是让他们的宝宝在那哭泣。如果当宝宝半夜哭醒时，父母们进来哄他们，摇他们，给他们喂奶或者其他其他方式转移他们的注意力，而不是让宝宝们自己学会平静下来，然后睡觉。当这些小孩长大时，他们会发现他们比较难控制自己的行为或情绪，包括侵犯或者怒火。
当然，我们清楚地知道，这些结果并不暗示着那些爱哭，老是半夜醒，挑食的小孩长大后就一定有行为问题。Wolke教授说，大约有20%的小孩会有行为问题，通常情况下超过三个月的新生儿一般都有固定的睡眠和饮食习惯，而且没有那么频繁的哭闹，但不会也不可能停止哭闹。
不过，即使你的宝宝在这20%之内，也并不意味着你的宝宝将来一定有行为问题。最近研究成果表明，如果家长能尽早地觉察到这些可控行为的信号，他们将会在问题变得更加严重时采取一定的措施来帮助宝宝学会自我控制。
不要每一次宝宝哭了就跑过去抱起他，父母固定在某一时间点让宝宝睡觉，这样可以让宝宝睡得更香，更舒适。在宝宝即将入睡时，可以让宝宝一个人呆着，这样可能对宝宝的入睡有帮助，也会鼓励他们自己解决如何防止瞌睡。
Wolke教授是第一个承认为了证明这些干扰行为对儿童时期的行为障碍有影响还有很多的工作需要做。但是，根据我们所发现的这些关系，如果宝宝能够更早的自己学会停止哭泣或者入睡，我们将会在对孩童时期的其他行为问题上有更广泛的公众影响。
如果情况属实，这肯定会帮助成千上万的家长和他们的孩子——不只是为了孩子头几个月有个好的睡眠，也是对他们整个一生都有帮助的。
镇压乌干达步走抗议活动
在反对党领导人Kizza Besigye第三次竞选乌干达总统失败后，今年2月份，他对政府滥用职权的咆哮声已经显得徒劳无力了。反对派的示威，比如上个月在坎帕拉的Kiseka市场上举行的抗议选举中出现一边倒的问题时仅有几十名的支持者。因此，当贝西杰在民主变革论坛上宣布他和其他反对派领导人将步行上班，以抗议燃料和食品价格飞涨时并没有多少人在意。
谁也没有想到乌干达的安全部队会在4月11日全副武装对反对派的第一支游行队伍发射催泪瓦斯并将反对派领导人拖上警车。
公众对政府的高压手段瞬间感到愤怒了，4月14日，贝西杰被枪伤后站在坎帕拉医院外，手被包扎并吊在脖子上的图片到处可见。然后步走活动一下子蔓延到全国四个城市.但是到周五，抗议活动已经演变成暴力活动。游行者之间的冲突，抗议者与警察之间的冲突已经导致5人死亡——其中包括一名被安全部队射击头部和脸颊的2岁小孩——几十人受伤，成百人被捕。
穆塞韦尼，乌干达总统，在1986年率领前反政府武装推翻布什米尔顿奥博特，声明绝不对反动政府妥协。但是他炫耀武力，迄今为止，只会对公众一系列不满产生更坏的效果。这些不满包括：日益增加的失业率，腐败，无谓的政府开支等。
在据报道国库已经衰竭后，穆塞韦尼总统的竞选连任估计已耗资3.5亿美元，并且还有一个补充预算需要买单。他领导的政府已经在战斗机上花了7.4亿美元，在下个月他的入职宣誓仪式上估计至少要130万美元，国内的通货膨胀率已经由6%飙升至11%。
现在，政府对贝西杰支持者的残酷镇压，破坏穆塞韦尼作为解放者和和平缔造者的形象，并且对于乌干达在国内和国际的声望有很坏的影响。捐助国都谴责乌干达过度使用武力，国内媒体也质疑穆塞韦尼将引导乌干达走向何方。
因为68%的选票，2月份，他的任期将延长至30年，穆塞韦尼——因民粹主义而闻名——有时却对市民关心的问题答非所问，甚至发表一些荒诞的言论。对于从1月份开始上涨50%的燃料价格，上周他说，“我只是号召民众节约使用，不要开车去酒吧之类的。”对于近来食品价格不断上涨，他说这样是为了农民的利益。上周，还还对他家乡记者说：“我能预见自己因为治理国家，尤其是军队而获得诺贝尔和平奖。”
在他执政乌干达的25年里，乌干达迎来了前所未有的稳定和自由舒展的经济发展。去年贫困人口已经从1992年的56％降至25％，对于捐助者的依赖也降至25%左右。在防治艾滋病方面也在非洲是佼佼者，而且政府准备开发2亿桶储量的油田，这将增加一倍的财政收入。然而，基础设施趋于崩溃，教育和医疗卫生事业也不尽人意。为了收买潜在的政治对手，穆塞韦尼增加了许多新的行政地区。乌干达，一个32万人口的国家，已经是非洲行政单位最多的国家，在世界排名第四。根据国际货币基金组织显示，乌干达人均国内生产总值只有$ 509，人民仍然生活在水深火热之中。
在2月大选前，穆塞韦尼在他的连任竞选和宣传资料上声称，他将做一些历史上没人做到的——成为一个统领国家发展四分之一世纪的代言人。但是乌干达坑坑洼洼的首都暗示着稳定的代理人最终成为稳定的威胁者。贝西杰在几个星期前反对总统时还靠边站，现在很巧妙的将一种放大政府武力使用的和平的、经济的、环保的步走活动与这种担忧结合在一起。
上周四，贝西杰拒绝以非法集会的罪名保释，他和另外一个反对派领袖Norbert Mao一起押往离坎帕拉约60英里的纳卡松戈拉监狱。穆塞韦尼意识到，在他的前任混乱统治下的乌干达人不会在恐怖的镇压下回归到政治分离的自然状态。但是被催泪瓦斯窒息的儿童，残酷的杀戮，打着绷带被扔在门后面的这些画面远远比武力的震撼更强。
第三篇：英语翻译论文
桂林航天工业高等专科学校
英文翻译
专业：通信技术
姓名： 卢侨生
学号：200704120124
指导教师：嵇建波
****年**月**日
Modern mobile communication technology In now highly the informationization society, the information and the correspondence have become the modern society “the life”.The information exchange mainly relies on the computer correspondence, but corresponds takes the transmission method, with the sensing technology, the computer technology fuses mutually, has become in the 21st century the international society and the world economic development powerful engine.In order to of adapt the time request, the new generation of mobile communication technology seasonable and lives, the new generation of mobile communication technology is the people said that third generation's core characteristic is the wide band addressing turns on non-gap roaming between the rigid network and numerous different communications system's, gains the multimedia communication services.Along with the time progress, the technical innovation, people's life request's enhancement, the mobile communication technology renewal speed is quite astonishing, almost every other ten year mobile communication technology has a transformation update, from the 1980s “the mobile phone” to present's 3G handset, during has had two mobile communication technology transformation, transits from 1G AMPS to 2G GSM, from GSM to IMT-2000(i.e.3G technology).Knows modern on me the mobile communication technology to have the following several aspect important technology:
1.wideband modulation and multiple access technique
The wireless high speed data transmission cannot only depend on the frequency spectrum constantly the expansion, should be higher than the present number magnitude at least in the frequency spectrum efficiency, may use three technologies in the physical level, namely OFDM, UWB and free time modulation code.OFDM with other encoding method's union, nimbly OFDM and TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, SDMA combines the multiple access technique.In the 1960s the OFDM multi-channel data transmission has succeeded uses in Kineplex and the Kathryn high frequency military channels.OFDM has used in 1.6 Mbit/s high bit rate digital subscriber line(HDSL), 6 Mbit/s asymmetrical digital subscriber line(ADSL), 100 Mbit/s really high speed figure subscriber's line(VDSL), digital audio frequency broadcast and digital video broadcast and so on.OFDM applies on 5 GHz provides 54 Mbit/s wireless local network IEEE 802.11 a and IEEE 802.11g, high performance this region network Hiper LAN/2 and ETSI-BRAN, but also takes metropolitan area network IEEE 802.16 and the integrated service digit broadcast(ISDB-T)the standard.Compares with the single load frequency modulation system service pattern, the OFDM modulation service pattern needs to solve the relatively big peak even power ratio(PAPR, Peak to Average Power Ratio)and to the frequency shifting and the phase noise sensitive question.High speed mobile communication's another request is under the wide noise bandwidth, must demodulate the signal-to-noise ratio to reduce as far as possible, thus increases the cover area.May adopt the anti-fading the full start power control and the pilot frequency auxiliary fast track demodulation technology, like the frequency range anti-fading's Rake receive and the track technology, the OFDMA technology which declines from the time domain and the frequency range resistance time and the frequency selectivity, the link auto-adapted technology, the union coding technique.2.frequency spectrum use factor lift technique
The fundamental research pointed out: In the independent Rayleigh scattering channel, the data rate and the antenna several tenth linear relationships, the capacity may reach Shannon 90%.Is launching and the receiving end may obtain the capacity and the frequency spectrum efficiency gain by the multi-antenna development channel space.The MIMO technology mainly includes the spatial multiplying and the space diversity technology, concurrent or the salvo same information enhances the transmission reliability on the independent channel.Receives and dispatches the bilateral space diversity is the high-capacity wireless communication system uses one of technical.Bell Lab free time's opposite angle BLAST(D-BLAST)capacity increase to receive and dispatch the bilateral smallest antenna number in administrative levels the function.The cross time domain which and the air zone expansion signal constitutes using MIMO may also resist the multi-diameter disturbance.V-BLAST system when indoor 24~34 dB, the frequency spectrum use factor is 20~40 bit/s/Hz.But launches and the receiving end uses 16 antennas, when 30 dB, the frequency spectrum use factor increases to 60~70 bit/s/Hz.The smart antenna automatic tracking needs the signal and the 2 auto-adapted free time processing algorithm, produces the dimensional orientation wave beam using the antenna array, causes the main wave beam alignment subscriber signal direction of arrival through the digital signal processing technology, the side lobe or zero falls the alignment unwanted signal direction of arrival.The auto-adapted array antennas(AAA, Adaptive Array Antennas)disturbs the counter-balance balancer(ICE, Interference Canceling Equalizer)to be possible to reduce disturbs and cuts the emissive power.3.software radio technology
The software radio technology is in the hardware platform through the software edition by a terminal implementation different system in many kinds of communication services.It uses the digital signal processing language description telecommunication part, downloads the digital signal processing hardware by the software routine(DSPH, Digital Signal Pocessing Hardware).By has the general opening wireless structure(OWA, Open Wireless Architecture), compatible many kinds of patterns between many kinds of technical standards seamless cut.UWB is also called the pulse to be radio, the modulation uses the pulse width in the nanosecond level fast rise and the drop pulse, the pulse cover frequency spectrum from the cocurrent to the lucky hertz, does not need in the radio frequency which the convention narrow band frequency modulation needs to transform, after pulse formation, may deliver directly to the antenna launch.4.software radio technology
The software radio technology is in the hardware platform through the software edition by a terminal implementation different system in many kinds of communication services.It uses the digital signal processing language description telecommunication part, downloads the digital signal processing hardware by the software routine(DSPH, Digital Signal Pocessing Hardware).By has the general opening wireless structure(OWA, Open Wireless Architecture), compatible many kinds of patterns between many kinds of technical standards seamless cut.5.network security and QoS
QoS divides into wireless and the wired side two parts, wireless side's QoS involves the radio resource management and the dispatch, the admission 3 control and the mobility management and so on, the mobility management mainly includes the terminal mobility, individual mobility and service mobility.Wired side's QoS involves based on the IP diffSer discrimination service and the RSVP end-to-end resources reservation mechanism.Mechanism maps the wireless side IP diffSer IP the QoS.Network security including network turning on security, core network security, application security, safety mechanism visibility and configurable.In the above modern mobile communication key technologies's foundation, has had the land honeycomb mobile communication, the satellite communication as well as the wireless Internet communication, these mailing address caused the correspondence appearance to have the huge change, used the digital technique the modern wireless communication already to permeate the national economy each domain and people's daily life, for this reason, we needed to care that its trend of development, hoped it developed toward more and more convenient people's life's direction, will let now us have a look at the modern mobile communication the future trend of development.modern mobile communication technological development seven new tendencies : First, mobility management already from terminal management to individual management and intelligent management development
Second, network already from synchronized digital circuit to asynchronous digital grouping and asynchronous transfer mode(ATM)development;
the three, software's developments actuated from the algorithm to the procedure-oriented and face the goal tendency development;the four, information processing have developed from the voice to the data and the image;
five, wireless frequency spectrum processing already from narrow band simulation to the narrow band CDMA development;
the six, computers have developed from central processing to the distributional server and intellectualized processing;
the seven, semiconductor devices have developed from each chip 16,000,000,000,000 /150MHz speed VLSI to 0.5 /350MHz speed VLSI and 2,000,000,000,000,000 /550MHz speed VLSI.Bandwidth Efficient Baseband Multi-Modulator Abstract-The High Rate 4 Baseband Multi-Modulator(HRBM)ASIC is being developed to provide High-Speed Bandwidth Efficient Modulations to NASA missions.Bandwidth efficiencies from 2.0 bits/symbol/Hz to 2.75 bits/symbol/Hz are selectable from three CCSDS modulations: Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying(GMSK), Filter Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying(Filtered-OQSK)and 8-Phase Shift Keying Trellis Coded Modulation(8-PSK TCM).An FPGA version of the HRBM is developed first to verify the individual modulation designs and characterize timing and performance issues involved with digital baseband modulation synthesis.A Finite Input Response(FIR)filter is included to provided baseband pulse shaping to reduce out-of-band spectral emissions.This is filter is programmable and can be tailored to meet system requirements.The ASIC is targeted to provide up to 600 Mbps throughput and will provide serial as well as parallel input.This paper provides an overview of the technology development and current status.INTRODUCTION
Confronted with increasing over utilization of radio frequency(RF)spectrum, the Space Frequency Coordination Group(SFCG)imposed a spectral mask(Recommendation 21-2 [1])for missions operating in the S-and X-bands.It’s goal is to prevent adjacent inadvertent RF interference and to promote efficient spectral use of the RF spectrum.Armed with this mandate, the CCSDS panel 1E group, RF and Modulation Systems, developed a set of recommendations(2.4.17A, 2.4.17B, and 2.4.18 [2])consistent with the SFCG mask for bandwidth efficiency.These modulation techniques range from Quadrature Phase Shift Keying(QPSK)-type modulations, i.e.GMSK, Filtered-OQPSK, Shaped-OQPSK(S-OQPSK), Feher QPSK-Type B(FQPSK-B)and also higher-order coded modulations, i.e.8-PSK TCM at 2.0, 2.25, 2.5, and 2.75 bits/symbol/Hz(a general reference for the principles of these modulations can be found in [4], and for performance and implementation information look in [3, 6]).The main concept behind the selection of the CCSDS modulations is the idea of pulse shaping the modulated waveform to reduce sideband emissions.There are two methods for pulse shaping the modulated waveform: 1.RF filtering after the transmitter power amplifier or 2.baseband filtering prior to RF modulation before the power amplifier.The HRBM utilizes the latter approach with the advantage that the pulse shaping can be digitally synthesized with finite impulse response 5(FIR)filtering.This allows for flexibility as practically any filter design can be implemented by reprogramming the tap coefficients of the FIR.The HRBM is developed to allow digital synthesis of a subset of the CCSDS modulation schemes as well as the inclusion of other non-CCSDS schemes(i.e.8-PSK, 16-QAM, and BPSK)that could be used in other frequency bands.Under this tendency's guidance, the mobile service rapid development, it satisfied the people in any time, any place to carry on the correspondence with any individual the desire.The mobile communication realizes in the future the ideal person-to-person communication service way that must be taken.In the information support technology, the market competition and under the demand combined action, the mobile communication technology's development is progresses by leaps and bounds, presents the following several general trends: 1)network service digitization, grouping;2)networking wide band;3)networking intellectualization;4)higher frequency band;5)more effective use frequency;6)each kind of network tends the fusion.The understanding, grasps these tendencies has the vital practical significance to the mobile communication operator and the equipment manufacturer.现代移动通信
在当今高度信息化的社会，信息和通信已成为现代社会的“命脉”。信息的交流主要依赖于计算机通信，而通信作为传输手段，与传感技术、计算机技术相互融合，已成为21世纪国际社会和世界经济发展的强大动力。为了适应时代的要求，新的一代移动通信技术应时而生，新的一代移动通信技术即人们称之第三代的核心特征是宽带寻址接入到固定网和众多不同通信系统间的无隙缝漫游，获取多媒体通信业务。
随着时代的进步、科技的创新、人们的生活要求的提高，移动通信技术更新换代速度相当惊人，差不多每隔十年移动通信技术就发生一次变革性换代，从上个世纪80年代的“大哥大”到现在的3G手机，其间发生了两次移动通信技术的变革，从1G的AMPS过渡到2G的GSM，从GSM到IMT-2000（即3G技术）。就我所知现代的移动通信技术有以下几方面的重要技术：
1.宽带调制和多址技术
无线高速数据传输不能一味仅靠频谱的扩展，应在频谱效率上至少高于目前一个数量级，可在物理层采用三项技术，即OFDM、UWB和空时调制编码。OFDM与其他编码方式的结合，灵活把OFDM与TDMA、FDMA、CDMA、SDMA组合成多址技术。20世纪60年代OFDM的多路数据传输已成功用于Kineplex和Kathryn高频军事通信系统。OFDM已用于1.6 Mbit/s高比特率数字用户线（HDSL），6 Mbit/s不对称数字用户线（ADSL），100 Mbit/s甚高速数字用户线（VDSL），数字音频广播和数字视频广播等。OFDM应用于5 GHz上提供54 Mbit/s无线本地网IEEE 802.11 a和IEEE 802.11g，高性能本地域网络Hiper LAN/2和ETSI-BRAN，还作为城域网IEEE 802.16和集成业务数字广播（ISDB-T）标准。与单载频调制制式相比，OFDM调制制式要解决相对大的峰均功率比（PAPR，Peak to Average Power Ratio）和对频率位移和相位噪声敏感的问题。
高速移动通信的另一要求是在宽噪声带宽下，所需解调信噪比应尽可能降低，从而增加覆盖面积。可采取抗衰落的快速发射功率控制和导频辅助快速跟踪相干解调技术，如频域抗衰落的Rake接收和跟踪技术，从时域和频域抵抗时间和频率选择性衰落的OFDMA技术，链路自适应技术，联合编码技术。
2.频谱利用率提升技术
理论研究指出：在独立Rayleigh散射信道中，数据速率与天线数成线性关系，容量可达Shannon的90%。在发射和接收端以多天线开发信道空间可取得容量和频谱效率的增益。MIMO技术主要包括空间复用和空间分集技术，在独立信道上并发或连发相同信息来提高传输可靠性。
收发双方的空间分集是高容量无线通信系统采用技术之一。贝尔实验室分层次空时的对角BLAST（D-BLAST）容量的增加为收发双方最小天线数的函数。利用MIMO所构成的跨时域和空域的扩展信号还可以抵抗多径干扰。V-BLAST系统在室内24～34 dB时，频谱利用率为20～40 bit/s/Hz。而发射和接收端均采用16天线，在30 dB时，频谱利用率增至60～70 bit/s/Hz。
智能天线自动跟踪所需信号和自适应空时处理算法，利用天线阵产生空间定向波束，通过数字信号处理技术使主波束对准用户信号到达方向，旁瓣或零陷对准干扰信号到达方向。自适应阵列天线（AAA，Adaptive Array Antennas）中干扰抵消均衡器（ICE，Interference Canceling Equalizer）可减少干扰和降低发射功率。
3.软件无线电技术
软件无线电技术是在硬件平台上通过软件编辑以一个终端实施不同系统中多种通信业务。它用数字信号处理语言描述电信元件，以软件程序下载成数字信号处理硬件（DSPH，Digital Signal Pocessing Hardware）。以具有通用开放无线结构（OWA，Open Wireless Architecture），兼容多种模式在多种技术标准之间无缝切换。
UWB也称为脉冲无线电，调制采用脉冲宽度在纳秒级的快速上升和下降脉冲，脉冲覆盖的频谱从直流至吉赫兹，不需常规窄带调制所需的射频上变换，脉 7 冲成型后可直接送至天线发射。
4.软件无线电技术
软件无线电技术是在硬件平台上通过软件编辑以一个终端实施不同系统中多种通信业务。它用数字信号处理语言描述电信元件，以软件程序下载成数字信号处理硬件（DSPH，Digital Signal Pocessing Hardware）。以具有通用开放无线结构（OWA，Open Wireless Architecture），兼容多种模式在多种技术标准之间无缝切换。
5.网络安全和QoS QoS分为无线和有线侧两部分，无线侧的QoS涉及无线资源管理和调度，接纳控制和移动性管理等，移动性管理主要包括终端移动性，个人移动性和业务移动性。有线侧的QoS涉及基于IP diffSer的区分业务和RSVP的端到端资源预留机制。把IP diffSer的IP QoS机制映射到无线侧。网络安全包括网络接入安全，核心网安全，应用安全，安全机制可见性与可配置性。
在上述现代移动通信关键技术的基础上，产生了陆地蜂窝移动通信、卫星通信以及无线因特网通信技术，这些通信方式使通信面貌发生了巨大的变化，采用数字技术的现代无线通信已经渗入国民经济的各个领域和人们的日常生活，为此，我们需要关心它的发展趋势，希望它朝着越来越方便人们的生活的方向发展，现在就让我们来看看现代移动通信的未来发展趋势吧。
现代移动通信技术发展的七个新趋势:
一、移动管理已从终端管理向个人管理和智能管理发展
二、网络已从同步的数字电路向异步的数字分组和异步传递方式(ATM)发展;
三、软件的开发已从算法驱动到面向过程和面向目标的趋势发展;
四、信息处理已从话音发展到数据和图像;
五、无线频谱的处理已从窄带模拟向窄带CDMA发展;
六、计算机已从集中式处理发展到分布式服务器和智能化处理;
七、半导体器件已从每芯片16兆门/150MHz速率的VLSI发展到0.5千兆门/350MHz速率的VLSI和2千兆门 /550MHz速率的 VLSI。
带宽效率的多基带调制抽象率高的多基带调制(hrbm)芯片正在开发提供高速带宽是否有效调制航天任务。带宽效率由2.0比特/符号/赫兹至2.75比特/符号/赫兹都是选择从三个CCSDS标准调制方式；高斯最小移键控-荷兰(GMSK的)，滤波器抵消正交相移键控(费尔-197b)并且高阶编码调制，即8云芝中药为2.0，2.25，2.5，2.75比特/符号/赫兹(一般参考的原则，这些调制可以发现[4]为执行和实施情况的资料看,在[ 3,6 ])，主体理念，选用的调制CCSDS标准的构思,塑造脉冲调制波型减少边排放。一般有两种方法，为脉冲调制波形： 1.射频滤波后发射机功放。2.基带滤波之前射频调制前的功率放大器。该hrbm利用后者的方法有一定的优越性，脉冲整形，可以用数码合成有限冲激响应(FIR)滤波器，这就允许灵活性，实用性的补充要求任何滤波器的设计，可以通过实施重整塔系数的杉木。hrbm的发展,使数字频率合成器的一个子的CCSDS标准调制以及在兔子的其他非CCSDS标准计划(即8角，16比特，编码)，可以用在其他的频带。
在这种趋势的引导下，移动通信业务迅猛发展，它满足了人们在任何时间、任何地点与任何个人进行通信的愿望。移动通信是实现未来理想的个人通信服务的必由之路。在信息支撑技术、市场竞争和需求的共同作用下，移动通信技术的发展更是突飞猛进，呈现出以下几大趋势：1)网络业务数据化、分组化；2)网络技术宽带化；3)网络技术智能化；4)更高的频段；5)更有效利用频率；6)各种网络趋于融合。了解、掌握这些趋势对移动通信运营商和设备制造商均具有重要的现实意义。
第四篇：英语翻译论文
引言
当今社会随着对外交流的不断扩大，国际商务往来也在向纵深方向发展，作为主要交流形式之一的商务英语信函也越来越受到人们的广泛关注。作为联系客商的工具，一则好的商务信函一般都很注重礼貌的传达，只有这样才能获得对方的好感。商务英语信函作为一种具有特定商务语境的书面语言形式，礼貌的表现和应用十分显著。
日常生活中，礼貌无时不在、无处不在，并且在社会关系中发挥着重大的调节作用。礼貌是人类文明的标志，是人类社会活动的一条重要准绳。礼貌的定义
中国现代汉语中的“礼貌”源于古代的“礼”。据《说文解字》注：“礼，履也。所以事神致福也。从示，从丰。”由此看出，“礼”的本义是“事神致福”，是一种祭祀行为[1]。然而，现代意义上的“礼貌”与古代的“礼”有着很大的差别。根据邹金宏《礼仪》的解释:礼貌，是指人与人之间和谐相处的意念和行为，是言谈举止对别人尊重与友好的体现[2]。如“礼貌语言”、“礼貌待人”等便是关于言语行为，待人接物等行为的某种规范。
英语中的礼貌研究可以追溯到15至17世纪，《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》（第六版）中对polite（礼貌的）这个词是这样定义的：having or showing that one has good manners and consideration for other people[3].由此可以看出无论是汉语还是英语当中的礼貌，“尊敬”、“敬意”都是其基本要素之一。商务英语信函的礼貌原则
礼貌是从一个“您为重”的角度考虑问题。礼貌原则是在商务英语写作中最需要重视的基本原则。20世纪80年代，英国语言学家Leech在“合作原则”的基础上，从修辞学、语体学的角度出发，提出了著名的“礼貌原则[5]”。这一原则又可细分为赞誉准则、得体准则、一致准则三大类。
[4]3.1 赞誉准则
赞誉准则就是要多赞美对方，不要吝啬对别人的赞美，减少最好避免对对方 的贬低。这里的赞美是有讲究的，尽量要做到适度赞美，过度的赞美就是虚情假意了，我们要让对方感觉到的是真诚而不是虚情假意。
3.2 得体准则
得体准则简单的说就是在适合的场合说该说的话，做该做的事，减少表达有损于对方的观点。尽量站在对方的利益角度思考问题，宁可自己吃亏也要尽量让对方多受益，这样才会让对方感受到你的真诚度，取得对方的好感，从而增加合作的机会。
3.3 一致准则
一致准则是指减少自己与别人在观点上的不一致，尽量使自己的思维往对方的观点上靠。这样做是为了减少双方的分歧，尽量增加双方的一致性，使整个合作的过程变得轻松愉快，增加以后合作的机会。
简言之，礼貌原则的核心内容就是尽量使自己吃亏，而使别人获益，以便取得对方好感，使交易顺利进行，并使自己从中获得更大的利益。商务英语信函中的礼貌表现
4.1 商务英语信函中的积极礼貌表现
积极礼貌表现就是说话人在合作过程中要表现的积极主动点、礼貌点，而不是用消极、被动的态度做事。特别是在合作的前期阶段，积极礼貌会让听话人觉得合作者非常乐意和自己合作，可以使听话人在还没有完成交易前或在还没有交易时就有一种成就的快感，感觉到自己的价值观得到认同。但我们在使用过程中一定要谨慎，如果使用不好就会产生负面效果。在商务英语信函的写作中，做到积极礼貌表现，首先要学会赞美别人，并且是恰如其分的赞美。再者就是要避免和对方产生正面冲突，把一切不和的因素转化为委婉的建议。笔者在大二时所学的《外贸函电》第六单元第八十一页的信函中就运用了积极礼貌表现。如：
We are pleased to inform you that your first shipment turns out to the entire satisfaction of our users.此句翻译为我们很高兴告知您，我方用户对你方第一批货物非常满意。很显然是对对方货物的赞美，其实隐形中是对对方的赞美，对对方的肯定，使对方感觉到自我价值的实现。
再看第二例：
We find both the price and quality of your products satisfactory to our clients and are pleased to give you an order for the following items.此句翻译为我方用户对贵方产品的质量和价格都十分满意，现附上订单一份，订购如下产品。这一句开头和第一例表达的意思是一样的，都是对对方货物的肯定，“and”后面的句子是下订单，这样讲就会让对方觉得说话人特别想和和自己合作，在还没有合作前就会有一种成就感，这样说话者就比较成功了。
4.2 商务英语信函中的间接礼貌表现
间接礼貌表现就是用比较委婉的方式做事，最后还是达到一样的说话人所期待的效果。这是在说话人考虑会危及对方面子的情况下采用的方式。为了不让自己和对方没台阶下，给对方也给自己留有余地，这样的情况多半会在还盘时出现。《外贸函电》第五单元第五十七页的回盘中就采用了间接礼貌表现。如：
Regrettably, we are unable to accept your offer as your prices are too high.In fact we want to enter into business relations with you, but your price is too high for us to pay.这里“regrettably”很委婉的表达了自己的想法，传递一个信息给对方，让对方感觉就是我们很愿意和贵方合作，但心有余力不足，这样给双方一个台阶下，对方很有可能会再降价，既达到了说话人所期待的结果，又不会让彼此太尴尬。
4.3 商务英语信函中的直接礼貌表现
直接礼貌表现是说话人不需要道歉或说一些客气话，直接开门见山的做某事，不过前提是：说话人与听话人有很多共同之处或者是关系比较好的合作者。因此，在使用的过程中必须注意对方和自己的关系，如果关系很好，使用时就不必太注意形式。但如果关系一般或是初次合作，就千万要注意自己的话语。《外贸函电》第五单元第五十六页中的还盘中直接礼貌表现就表达的恰到好处。如：
We have some regular orders at hand.If you are interested in our products, please place your order as soon as possible.如果合作双方关系很好，使用此句就十分适合，就不用太注意一些形式上的话语，但如果是关系一般或是初次合作，就会让听话者认为对方并不是很乐意和自己合作，或者让听话 者产生一种对方在强迫自己的错觉。所以在使用直接礼貌表现时要特别注意。商务英语信函中的礼貌策略
5.1积极礼貌策略
采用积极礼貌策略，主要是遵守赞誉原则，结合积极礼貌表现，突出对他人的赞美和对自身适当的贬损，这里对自己适当的贬损主要是为了让对方觉得自己比别人强，满足对方自我价值的实现。特别是在信函主体部分的开始和结尾处使用积极礼貌策略，显得特别关注对方，对对方能力上的肯定，突出对方受惠，让对方感到写信人的友好。
商务英语信函的第一段对于确立商务伙伴关系至关重要。友好的开始能够引起对方的积极响应，为下文的磋商打下良好的基础。第一段应该从表示感谢或自谦的句子开始，《外贸函电》一书中出现了许多类似的句子，如第三单元建立商务关系的第二十九页有这样的句子：
Thank you for your letter of 28th May „
We acknowledge with thanks, receipt of your letter of May 25„这些句子很简单，说的通俗一点就是一些客气话，但又绝非可有可无，很多失败的业务往来的问题往往就出在对这些“客气话”的不用或误用上。
在文章的结尾处需要再次表示尊重，并且提出期望和祝愿，突显写信人的真诚，提出将来合作的愿望。用积极友好的消息结尾，这样才能在更大程度上保持良好的商务伙伴关系。外贸函电一书第三单元第二十九页出现这样的句子：
We are looking forward to your favorable and prompt reply.此句意为静候佳音，简短的几个字却能透露出说话人希望合作的急切心情。
5.2 间接礼貌策略
使用间接礼貌策略，遵守得体原则，结合间接礼貌表现，突出对方受益，自己受损。当说话人所说的内容损及听话人时，话语越间接，供听话人选择的余地越大，话语就显得越礼貌。当说话人所说的内容惠及听话人时，在向对方提出要求或批评时，应该体现为对方着想，使用间接性的语言，给对方留有选择的余地。提出对方受惠，自己受损，显示说话者对听话者的尊重。5.2.1使用疑问句、条件句或虚拟语气 使用疑问句型。疑问句型可以通过询问别人的意愿，去表达一种请求，隐藏了威胁对方利益的因素，给听话人留面子，会让听话人觉得说话人在和他们商量，自己占有主导权。又如《外贸函电》第四单元第四十二页的句子：
Will you please quote us the lowest price CIF Pusan, inclusive of 5% commission, stating the earliest date of shipment and terms of payment.此句表达了说话人对听话人的一种请求、一种愿望,在征求对方的同意，间接的表现出说话人对听话人的尊重和重视，自然而然的就会让听话人觉得说话人很礼貌。
条件句和虚拟语气则表达一种假设的前提，语气其实是很具弹性的，使得其建议具有试探的性质，给对方一种选择的余地，去掉了威胁对方面子的成分，从而使得语气变得友好，而且最后也能达到预期的效果。如《外贸函电》第四单元第四十三页的询盘中写的句子：
Should your price be found competitive and delivery date acceptable ,we intend to place a large order with you.此句使用虚拟语气可以使语气具有很强的间接性，给对方留有一定的选择余地或希望得到对方的允许或关照，维护对方的虚荣心。5.2.2.使用非人称化手段
在向对方提出要求或拒绝对方要求时，使用间接礼貌策略中的非人称化手段（it 作形式主语、被动语态等），强调问题或要求的客观性，淡化行为主体，可以避免以“你”作为主语，以保护听话者的自我价值，从而让对方觉得是自己在受益。如《外贸函电》第三单元第三十八页中这样写道：
It would help us greatly if you could send us statistics on your sales.再如第十二单元第一百五十七页谈及支付方式时：
Payment should be made by an irrevocable and confirmed letter of credit.这两句都是使用了间接礼貌策略的人称化手段，间接的要求对方做某事，虽然最终的结果和明确要求对方做事时的一样，却比直接要求对方有礼貌的多，让听话人觉得很舒心，自然就会增加合作的机会。
5.3 直接礼貌策略
使用直接礼貌策略，遵守一致原则，结合直接礼貌表现，缩小自身和他人之 间的分歧，突出一致性。5.3.1使用积极乐观的表达方式
积极乐观的态度可以显示说话人的慷慨、真诚和主动，让听众感觉到对方对自己的信任和友好，从而引起积极的反应，增加合作的机会。如外贸函电一书第四单元第五十三页的句子：
We assure you of our full cooperation with you at all time.很简单的一句，意思就是承诺对方建立永久的合作关系，直截了当的显示了说话人积极、主动、自信的态度，让听众看了就觉得很轻松。5.3.2话语积极肯定，避免消极否定
使用消极的语言直接否定或拒绝对方的要求会威胁到对方的面子，使得双方很尴尬，所以要尽量用积极肯定的语言让对方主要看到共同关注的积极结果，而不是双方的分歧。尽量适度的吹捧对方，让双方都有一个积极的心态做事，从而能够在非常轻松友好的情况下达到交易的目的。如《外贸函电》第六单元第六十八页的信函中提到：
As to our credit and financial standing, we refer you to Midland Bank, United Kingdom.此句反映了说话人对自己资信情况的肯定，积极主动的要求对方去指定的银行，虽然很直接，但不缺乏礼貌，反而会让对方感觉到说话人的真诚。
结论
因为不同的文化背景，在跨文化商务交流中所导致的文化障碍时有发生。中西方的文化有着很多的差异，文化差异是一种客观存在、是历史上形成的东西。面对复杂的国际环境,跨国商务活动一定要适应当地文化,遵守国际商务合作契约和交际礼仪,了解不同文化背景的经营者或合作者的心理,充分尊重和理解当地文化。我们在商务活动中, 不是一种文化支配另一种文化, 而是双方一起去创造另一种超越原来的文化而服务于双方文化。如果能注意到这些文化差异，能合理的运用创造出来的这种文化，并能有意识地求同存异、互相尊重，就能促进商务活动的顺利开展，达到双赢的局面。
致谢
本文是在我的指导老师杨伟雪老师和钱枫老师的亲切关怀和悉心指导下完成的。两位老师都特别认真，他们对事情认真严肃的态度，让我觉得很紧张，但更多的是敬佩和欣赏，这种精神深深地吸引着我，激励着我。从课题的选择、正文的修改到论文的最终完成，两位老师都始终给予我细心的指导和不懈的支持。在本次论文设计过程中，钱枫老师对该论文从选题、构思到最后定稿的各个环节给予细心指引与教导,使我得以最终完成毕业论文设计。在此，谨向两位老师致以衷心的感谢和崇高的敬意！最后，我要向百忙之中抽时间对本文进行审阅、评议和参与本人论文答辩的各位老师表示感谢。
参考文献
[1]许慎.说文解字[M].北京：中国书店出版社.1998第1版：32 [2]邹金宏.礼仪[M].广东：广东经济出版社.1998第1版：6 [3]霍恩比.牛津高阶英汉双解词典[M].北京：商务印书馆.2002第6版:1325 [4]陈楚君.礼貌原则在商务英语信函中的运用[J].重庆工商大学学报,2008,(3)[5]Leech, G,N.Principles of Politeness[J].淮阴师范学院学报哲学社会科学版,2002,(3)[6]杨燕.商务英语信函中的礼貌表现[J].重庆交通大学学报,2009,(6)[7]杨柳.外贸英语信函写作中的运用[J].宿州教育学院学报,2007,(8)[8]黄东梅.商业信函中的礼貌策略[J].西南民族大学学报,2004,(12)
[9]郑卫、汪文格.礼貌与商务英语信函中礼貌的表现[J].云梦学刊,2002,(23)
第五篇：英语翻译论文
The Influence to Translation from the Perspectives of
Cultural Background and Thought Style
Abstract …………………………………………………..………………………..……Ⅱ 1.Introduction ………..……………………………………………………………..…..1 2.The specific analysis of the influence to translation from the perspectives
of cultural background and thought style ………..…………………………..…2.1 From the perspective of cultural background…………………………………..….2
2.1.1 The translation of idioms…………………………………………………….3
2.1.2 The translation of enigmatic sayings ………………………………………..4 2.1.3 The translation of allusions …………………………………………………6 2.2 From the perspective of thought style………………….………………….……....7 2.2.1 Chinese emphasis on perception and intuition, and western emphasis on reasoning and logic……….……….………..………… ………….......7 2.2.2 Different ways of expression determined by different thought styles …........8 2.2.3 Chinese belief in integration and western belief in individuality………........9 3.Solutions ……………………………………..……………………………....…...….10 3.1 To the problems caused by different cultural backgrounds………………….……10 3.2 To the problems brought about by different thought styles………………….……12 4.Conclusion ………………………………………………………………..……..…...12 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………..….......14 Research experience…………………………………………………....…...15 Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….…….....…16
I
The Influence to Translation from the Perspectives of
Cultural Background and Thought Style
Abstract: Despite the fact that the world is becoming a global village, translation remains a major way for languages and cultures to interact and influence each other.It is generally accepted that translation, not as a separate entity, blooms into flower under such circumstances like culture, societal functions, politics and power relations.Translation should be the reappearance of the original work.In other words, the image, the artistic effect, and the meaning of the original works should all be successfully delivered in the translated version.But there exist some factors that make it impossible to produce excellent translations.Among the factors that affect translation, different cultural backgrounds and different thought styles are the most influential ones and idioms, enigmatic sayings and allusions are the most culturally specific expressions that cause great difficulties for translators.Thought style is the factor that affects the composition of a sentence, a paragraph, or an article, and even the understanding of them.Because of Chinese emphasis on perception and intuition, Chinese characters are pictographic;and because westerners are reasonable and logical, objectivity is the main property of English vocabulary.Some unsuccessful translations resulting from different cultural backgrounds and different thought styles are easy to be found in translated works which is hard for target readers to understand.The aim of this paper is to analyze the elements of cultural background and thought style that affect translation , and then to provide some good methods to overcome these difficulties.Through analyzing these barriers, it can be concluded that, to produce good translated versions, a well awareness of different culture backgrounds, a good command of different thought styles, and an adoption of proper translation methods are needed.In this paper, English-Chinese translation will be the example to be discussed.Key Words:
translation;cultural background;thought style;translation method
摘要：尽管全世界渐渐成为一个地球村，翻译仍然是语言和文化之间交流互动，相互影响的主要方式之一。翻译，并不是一个单一的个体，它只有在文化，社会职能，政治和权力关系的情境下进行才能开枝散叶，这一点已普遍为人们所接受。翻译应该是原著
II 的重现，也就是原著的字面意思与其意象和艺术性的完美传达。在影响翻译的因素中，文化背景的不同以及思维方式的不同影响最深。在文化因素中，影响最大的是成语、歇后语以及典故。它们最具有文化特色，给译者带来很大麻烦。思维方式是影响写作句子、段落、文章的因素，也是影响对它们理解的因素。因为中国人重感性与直觉，所以汉语词汇较形象；而因为西方人重推理与逻辑，英语词汇的表意较具有客观性。一些由文化背景或思维方式不同引起的失败翻译随处可见，它们让读者难以理解。这篇论文旨在通过对文化因素以及思维方式影响翻译的探讨，进而提出一些翻译方法，以解决这些问题。通过对这两种因素的研究与分析，发现要做好翻译，我们就必须对不同文化深入了解，对不同文化背景下的思维方式精通掌握，而且还要适当选择翻译方法。在本篇论文中，英汉翻译将作为例子进行讨论。
关键词：翻译；文化背景；思维方式；翻译方法
III
The Influence to Translation from the Perspectives of
Cultural Background and Thought Style
1.Introduction Eugene A.Nida‟s definition of translation is : “Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message , first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” It‟s a replacement of textual material in one language〔SL〕by equivalent textual material in another language〔TL〕.The translator must strive for equivalence rather than identity.In a sense, this is just another way of emphasizing the reproducing of the message rather than the conservation of the form of the utterance.Meanwhile, Newmark points out that only by combining both semantic and communicative translation, can we achieve the goal of keeping the „spirit‟ of the original.Semantic translation requires the translator retain the aesthetic value of the original, trying his best to keep the linguistic feature and characteristic style of the author.According to semantic translation, the translator should always retain the semantic and syntactic structures of the original.Many translation examples are hard for a native Chinese to understand though it‟s both grammatically and semantically right.Why sometimes we cannot get the right meaning from the original type? The problem lies in the improper choice of translation method.Translation should be the reappearance of the original version.In other words, the image and the artistic effect of the original version should all be successfully delivered, not just the meaning of the words in each sentence.There are many factors that affect understanding and translation, and the most influential factors are cultural background and thought style differences.This paper attempts to analyze these two factors.The first is cultural background difference.Language is produced and developed in pace with the production and the development of human culture.The differences of the development in different areas produce various idioms, enigmatic sayings and allusions which are broadly used in their languages.Only a thorough awareness of different cultural
backgrounds of both languages can well serve to produce qualified translated versions.The second is thought style difference and it determined different ways of expression.Easterners emphasize perception and intuition, while westerners are rather reasonable and logical;Chinese people stress ideas while Westerners stress forms, which will affect their respective ways of expression—hypostasis of the latter and the parataxis of the former;furthermore, Chinese people believe in integration while the westerners believe that the individual is the most important.What we can do for the translation is to know the difference and the culture of the two countries well and to make a great translated version.2.The specific analysis of the influence to translation from the perspectives of cultural background and thought style 2.1 From the perspective of cultural background Culture has always been the factor that affects translation most.Different countries develop their specific cultures in the process of history.Language is the embodiment of culture, and in dealing with the translation of the original version, what is most important? It is the culture.Consequently, good management of culture is one of the key points in doing translation.And in culture, idioms, enigmatic sayings and allusions are the most culturally specific expressions that cause great difficulties for translators.the word-for-word translation of the original version are possibly a wrong delivery of the image and the artistic effect of the original version.Furthermore, different cultural backgrounds make language users choose different subjects in describing the same thing because it can completely and accurately deliver the message to different people in different place.Culture has sharp nationality ,different cultures will naturally present different cultural forms.The cultural differences reflected to language is called linguistic difference.Cultural differences and thought style difference between Chinese and Western will cause certain effects.To really master English translation methods and skills, not only on the surface meaning of English words, it is more important to understand the foreign community, culture, historical background , customs and habits, understanding the cultural differences.To study the differences between languages from the perspective of cultural differences, can effectively hold the immanent connection between languages.2.1.1 The translation of idioms An idiom is “a phrase or a sentence whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of its individual words, and which must be learnt as a whole unit”.It is produced, always in a historical story, in which some of the words or expressions are taken out to be used, spread and delivered to our modern society.Then idiom is bound to be one of the products of historical culture, and very culturally specific, and to some degree, untranslatable.The following examples aim at finding out some proper methods to overcome the difficulties in idiom translation.Example：鹬蚌相争
If we translate it word-for-word ,then it will be “A snipe and a clam locked in combat”, foreigners cannot understand the real meaning, what does it mean? What does people want to express when they use this idiom? In fact, only Chinese people know ,there followed by a “profit”.There is a historical story: Long long a ago , there were seven countries in China.Seven countries always fought with each other or attacked one of them to get the right and area.At that time, Zhao ducal against Yan, Sue thought Zhao and Yan fought endlessly, and Qin must get the profit, so it is to say if two parties fight, a third party will benefit, when we translate, in order to easily understand ,we can do :two dogs strive for a bone ,and a third runs away with it.The idiom of the source for the translation is every important.If you want to translate well and truly, at least , you should know where is the source and the background story, not just literal meanings.2.1.2 The translation of enigmatic sayings
An enigmatic saying is “a two parts allegorical saying of which the first part, always
stated, is descriptive, while the second part, some times unstated, carries the massage”.The use of enigmatic sayings is a phenomenon only appears in China, and it is peculiar to Chinese culture.It has in it so many things which are closely related to Chinese culture.If not properly handled, the translated version may not be understood by target readers.As we often mention that “三个臭皮匠，顶过一个诸葛亮”，if we translate the literal meaning as “ three cobblers equal Zuge Liang, the mastermind ”, may the foreign people can not know it well.We have read a lot of stories about Zuge Liang, and very familiar with him, but westerner may even not know who is he and also do not know why Zuge Liang get together with stooges.If use the literal translation method, it is difficult to deliver the rich historical and cultural information, therefore, only know the background well and translate a way which is more easy to let the foreign people know.So it can be translated like “ Two heads are better than one “.Enigmatic saying also contains a farmer‟s proverbs, such as “ 清明前后，栽瓜种豆 ”.Cobile security prepaid phonelanted beans.In Western countries, Tomb-sweeping Day is not existed, if do not explain clearly , they also don‟t know what holiday it is.Thus the weather in Chinese and Western has a big difference, all these elements can cause direct or indirect influence.But if both westerners and easterners can understand the translated version by using general knowledge, we can use literal translation, because enigmatic sayings also need image and the artistic effect of the original version.In sum, different translation methods adapt to different enigmatic sayings.2.1.3.The translation of allusions An allusion is defined as “an implied or indirect reference to something assumed to be known, such as an historical event or personage, a well-known quotation from literature, or a famous work of art”.“牛郎织女”
“牛郎织女” is a very beautiful eternal love story : the east of the Milky Way lived a beautiful girl called Vega, who is the daughter of the Emperor.She worked very hard on the loom woven and make beautiful clothes, hardly have time to dress up herself.God have
mercy on her life alone, allow her to marry a cowboy who lived on the west of the Milky Way.But after Vega married , she waste the textile work.God was so angry, ordered her back to the east side to work and let them meet with each other once a year.Annual autumn of seventh days, we always see crow heads bald, it is because the gigolo knit a meet, uses the crows do bridge and walk over from their head.Nowadays many Westerners know the romantic love story.It is compared to be apart of lovers.The translation between different languages is a one big obstacle of translation and culture is one of the symptoms among them.Culture and language are closely related, not from the culture background of the language system, but not without the use of language reflects the culture.Therefore , due to cultural differences translation problem are inevitable.But under the environment of the international development, ethnic culture infiltrate each other, the cultural differences are gradually being reduced.The unique language of different countries are gradually tends assimilation, words from outside have been accepted by the local people.The effect of cultural difference on translation is desalting due to globalization further communication.2.2 From the perspective of thought style
2.2.1 Chinese emphasis on perception and intuition, and western emphasis on reasoning and logic Because of Chinese emphasis on perception and intuition, Chinese characters are pictographic;and because westerners are rather reasonable and logical, objectivity is the main property of English vocabulary.Chinese characters are full of images.For example, Chinese character “刀” resembles the image of a knife;“伞”(umbrella), the image of an open umbrella;“日”(sun)and “月”(moon), the image of the sun and moon in the sky, etc.When comparing Chinese character with English vocabulary, it is easy to find that the former is direct and full of images，while the later is objective and functional, without considering the image of a word.Furthermore, Chinese people like using concrete things to symbolize the abstract things.For example, in “兵败如山”, Chinese people use “如山” to indicate the tendency of being defeated: nothing can resist and nothing can halt it, just like a falling mountain;“蚕食” is
used in Chinese to indicate the aggression is gradually done but never pulled back, just like the silkworms are eating the leaves.These two examples are very good examples to show concrete things symbolizing abstract meanings.In dealing with these translations, we should translate its intended meaning.This kind of translation makes loses in image, but it is understandable.For some of this kind of words, we can translate literally, but it should be based on the understanding of the translated version by using general knowledge.If it can be literally translated without affecting target readers‟ understanding, it is the best one.2.2.2 Different ways of expression determined by different thought styles Because of different thought styles of western people and Chinese people, there exists a distinct difference between English and Chinese ways of expression.For example, say hello, Chinese like to ask “ do you eat? “ to show his regard, while the foreign people do not know it for real, maybe they will think you want to invite them to dinner instead of thinking it is just a greeting like “how are u”.Chinese people very modest , they always use “ 鄙人，犬子” or some words like that to instead of themselves, because modest it trade as a virtue, but not the Westerners think so.For example, when we be praised, we will say : 惭愧； 不敢当；哪里哪里；岂敢，maybe at this time, a foreign people will ask why, because the answer to the praise only one, that is “thank you”.On the eyes of Westerners , Chinese modesty is lack of confidence.For praise, Britain and the United States were frankly accepted and acknowledgments politely.We should pay attention to language and cultural differences when we do translations, unable to translate word-for-word, or it will be ”where where(哪里哪里)”，the kind of Chinese style English jokes.Another case: Did you enjoy your class time？(老师您辛苦了)In China, the greet from students will let teachers pleased, but in British and American culture, the greeting is regarded as the negative of teacher‟s ability, very impolite.The specific circumstances, the traditional way of Chinese translation is different from the translation when it is translated into English.We should exchange and learning the thinking way of English and trying to avoid Chinglish translation.To sum up, a good consideration of the differences between English hypostasis and
Chinese parataxis is the foundation of translation.In translation from English to Chinese, after analyzing the property of hypostasis, we can produce paratactic Chinese version, while in translation from Chinese to English, after analyzing the property of parataxis, we can produce hypotactic English version.2.2.3 Chinese belief in integration and western belief in individuality
Chinese focus on the whole, used to one thought : make all to one.Oriental emphasizes holistic and comprehensive, Westerners emphasizes individuality.This can be seen manifestation of traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine.Traditional Chinese medicine always make points on the whole, through the basic judging like “望，闻，问，切”.However , western medicine like anatomy, it focuses on the local only.Because of different thought styles, there is a difference in indicating things: the meanings of English words are concrete and specific, while that of Chinese characters are general.For example, when a Chinese say “车来了”, “车” here may refer to “bus”(公共汽车), “truck”(卡车), “taxi”(出租车), “coach”(长途公共汽车), “car”(轿车), or “minibus”(面包车).Through this we can easily observe that Chinese language is so ambiguous.The concrete and specific feature leads to the numerousness and complexity of English vocabulary.We have to remember them one by one, accurately and broadly, so that we can use it as we want, and produce precisely translated versions.3.Solutions 3.1 To the problems caused by different cultural backgrounds A.Learn the cultures of both languages It is not very easy for a person to live in the environment of two languages.Limit exists for both Chinese learning English and westerners learning Chinese, because of the single language environment they are in.But if we want to do good translation, we have to try our best to learn broadly and deeply the cultures of both languages.Culture comes from history and history has been recorded in books, so reading more books is one of the best ways to
learn different cultures.Moreover, culture comes from classical legend and folk tells, so communication with foreigners, travel to foreign countries, and joining summer camp in western countries are all good ways to learn cultures of other countries.Only after one can handle the cultures of both languages well, can one translate well.B.Adopt proper translation methods There are many translation methods, such as literal translation method, free translation method, transliteration, change of the function of words, etc.There isn‟t a perfect translation method, but a proper one in one circumstance.Because literal translation, free translation, transliteration are mostly used, more details about them will be followed.Literal translation refers to the translation that “the SL(source language)grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL(target language)equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context.As a pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved”(Newmark, 2001: 46).The advantage of it is the relatively perfect delivery of the meaning of the words and image of the original;the disadvantage is the difficulty in understanding caused by the cultural default of different nations.Free translation is the translation which “reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original.Usually it‟s a paraphrase much longer than the original, a so-called „intralingual translation‟, often prolix and pretentious”(Newmark, 2001: 46).Take the translation of the sentence “He is a horse” for example, it should be translated into “他跑得很快”.Here, if we translate it into “他是一匹马”, one is easy to misunderstand it as an obscene sentence.Only if we can translate the essence of it, can the readers really understand the meaning.“Transliteration is that, in order to deliver the main function of the language, the translation is done to reserve the pronunciation of the original language in the target language”(陈宏薇，1998：95).The translation of the brand “Coca-Cola” into “可口可乐” can be judged as a perfect translation.For Chinese pronunciation, the pronunciation of “可口可乐” is very close to that of the brand “Coca-Cola”;for the meaning, in China it means
that it tastes well and it is enjoyable, and the translated version expresses faithfully the meaning, the effect, and the pronunciation.3.2 To the problems brought about by different thought styles A.Learn more words and know how to use them “If a passage is a great building, words should be the bricks of it”(余光中.2002: 105).So it is necessary to learn more words to guarantee the comprehension.As an English learner, one should build up our vocabulary, and learn how to use it and become a good translator.B.Develop the ability of understanding both languages Translation is based on the understanding of the original version, so comprehensive ability is of great importance.Because of the differences of thought styles, the ways of composing sentences, paragraphs, and passages are different, and then the language produced is of great difference.So the ability of understanding the two languages is indispensable for a translator.“Practice makes perfect”.No matter how good you are at choosing proper methods, producing good translation is impossible if you refuse to practice it.4.Conclusion Through the above analysis of the translation examples and the research good methods of translation, we can see, not only should we consider the meaning of the words of the original, but also we should consider the following two factors: cultural backgrounds, and thought styles of different nations.Only a good awareness of the culture backgrounds of both languages can well serve to produce qualified translated works.Easterners, especially Chinese people, emphasize holistic and comprehensive, while westerners are rather reasonable and logical;Chinese people stress ideas while Westerners stress forms;Chinese people believe in integration while the westerners believe that the individual is the most important.Different cultural backgrounds call for our careful handling of cultures of the two nations.Through practice, we can strengthen our understanding and expressing abilities, and produce good translated versions.After all, only when our translation completely consider about the cultural backgrounds
and thought styles of different nations, together with the proper translation methods, can we well deliver the original version with excellent translated version produced.Bibliography
[1] 陈宏薇.汉英翻译基础[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，1998.[2] 陈文伯.英汉成语对比与翻译[M].北京：世界书城出版社，2005.[3] 霍恩比(Hornby).牛津高阶英汉双解词典[M].北京：商务印书馆，2002.[4] 贾文波.应用翻译功能论[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版社，2004.[5] 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京：高等教育出版社，1993.[6] 陆乃圣.英汉差异与翻译[M].上海：华东化工学院出版社，1993.[7] 余光中.余光中谈翻译[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版社，2002.Research experience
The thesis talks about the barriers that affect English-Chinese translation from the perspectives of cultural background and thought style.Translation is a difficult task.In order to provide thesis readers with a better understanding of the translation methods and guarantee a proper adoption of translation methods when they are doing translation, some examples and corresponding analyses have to be included in the thesis.So it is necessary for me to spend much time on data collection and in considering how to organize my thesis.Through the writing of this thesis, I have obtained more knowledge about the differences of Chinese and English, and the causes of them, which can make me recognize how I should use learning strategies to learn English culture and other knowledge well in the future.Moreover, through analyzing these factors and difficulties, I have learned some good translation methods and known how to use them.Acknowledgements
Firstly, great thanks will be given to our institute for giving me this chance to do some attempts to analyze these two barriers to English-Chinese translation.Then, I will thank all the teachers and friends who have helped me to get ideas in writing this thesis.And great thanks should be given to Xihua University Library for providing me with valuable data.The most special thanks will be given to Ms Li Xinxin for her carefulness in helping me to finish this paper.She is a responsible teacher.Without these above assistances, I could not finish this paper, so I want to thank them again.
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