外文文献翻译_JSP发展历史中英文

第一篇：外文文献翻译_JSP发展历史中英文

JSP的技术发展历史

作者： Kathy Sierra and Bert Bates 来源： Servlet&JSP Java Server Pages(JSP)是一种基于web的脚本编程技术，类似于网景公司的服务器端Java脚本语言—— server-side JavaScript(SSJS)和微软的Active Server Pages(ASP)。与SSJS和ASP相比，JSP具有更好的可扩展性，并且它不专属于任何一家厂商或某一特定的Web服务器。尽管JSP规范是由Sun公司制定的，但任何厂商都可以在自己的系统上实现JSP。

在Sun正式发布JSP(Java Server Pages)之后，这种新的Web应用开发技术很快引起了人们的关注。JSP为创建高度动态的Web应用提供了一个独特的开发环境。按照Sun的说法，JSP能够适应市场上包括Apache WebServer、IIS4.0在内的85%的服务器产品。

本文将介绍JSP相关的知识，以及JavaBean的相关内容，当然都是比较粗略的介绍其中的基本内容，仅仅起到抛砖引玉的作用，如果读者需要更详细的信息，请参考相应的JSP的书籍。

1.1 概述

JSP(Java Server Pages)是由Sun Microsystems公司倡导、许多公司参与一起建立的一种动态网页技术标准，其在动态网页的建设中有其强大而特别的功能。JSP与Microsoft的ASP技术非常相似。两者都提供在HTML代码中混合某种程序代码、由语言引擎解释执行程序代码的能力。下面我们简单的对它进行介绍。

JSP页面最终会转换成servlet。因而，从根本上，JSP页面能够执行的任何任务都可以用servlet来完成。然而，这种底层的等同性并不意味着servlet和JSP页面对于所有的情况都等同适用。问题不在于技术的能力，而是二者在便利性、生产率和可维护性上的不同。毕竟，在特定平台上能够用Java编程语言完成的事情，同样可以用汇编语言来完成，但是选择哪种语言依旧十分重要。和单独使用servlet相比，JSP提供下述好处：

1）JSP中HTML的编写与维护更为简单。JSP中可以使用常规的HTML：没有额外的反斜杠，没有额外的双引号，也没有暗含的Java语法。

2）能够使用标准的网站开发工具。即使是那些对JSP一无所知的HTML工具，我们也可以使用，因为它们会忽略JSP标签（JSP tags）。

3）可以对开发团队进行划分。Java程序员可以致力于动态代码。Web开发人员可以将经理集中在表示层（presentation layer）上。对于大型的项目，这种划分极为重要。依据开发团队的大小，及项目的复杂程度，可以对静态HTML和动态内容进行弱分离（weaker separation）和强分离（stronger separation）。

此处的讨论并不是说人们应该放弃使用servlet而仅仅使用JSP。事实上，几乎所有的项目都会同时用到这两种技术。在某些项目中，更适宜选用servlet，而针对项目中的某些请求，我们可能会在MVC构架下组合使用这两项技术。我们总是希望用适当的工具完成相对应的工作，仅仅是servlet并不一定能够胜任所有工作。

1.2 JSP的由来

Sun公司的JSP技术，使Web页面开发人员可以使用HTML或者XML标识来设计和格式化最终页面。使用JSP标识或者小脚本来生成页面上的动态内容(内容是根据请求来变化的)。

Java Servlet是JSP技术的基础，而且大型的Web应用程序的开发需要Java Servlet和JSP配合才能完成，Servlet这个名称源于Applet，现在国内的翻译方式很多，本书为了避免误会，决定直接采用Servlet而不做任何翻译，读者如果愿意，可以称之为“小服务程序”。Servlet其实和传统的CGI、ISAPI、NSAPI等Web程序开发工具的作用是相似的，在使用Java Servlet以后，用户不必再使用效率低下的CGI方式，也不必使用只能在某个固定Web服务器平台运行的API方式来动态生成Web页面。许多Web服务器都支持Servlet，即使不直接支持Servlet的Web服务器也可以通过附加的应用服务器和模块来支持Servlet。得益于Java的跨平台的特性，Servlet也是平台无关的，实际上，只要符合Java Servlet规范，Servlet是完全与平台无关且是与Web服务器无关的。由于Java Servlet内部是以线程方式提供服务，不必对于每个请求都启动一个进程，并且利用多线程机制可以同时为多个请求服务，因此Java Servlet效率非常高。

但Java Servlet也不是没有缺点，和传统的CGI、ISAPI、NSAPI方式相同，Java Servlet是利用输出HTML语句来实现动态网页的，如果用Java Servlet来开发整个网站，动态部分和静态页面的整合过程会非常难以实现。为了解决Java Servlet的这种缺点，SUN推出了JSP。

许多年前，Marty受到邀请,参加一个有关软件技术的小型研讨会.坐在Marty旁边的人是James Gosling---Java编程语言的发明者。隔几个位置,是来自华盛顿一家大型软件公司的高级经理。在讨论过程中,研讨会的主席提出了Jini的议题,这在当时是一项新的Java技术。主席向该经理询问他的想法.他回答说,虽然现在言之过早，但这看起来会是非常有前途的一项技术。他们会持续关注这项技术,如果这项技术变得流行起来,他们会遵循公司的“接受并扩充(embrace and extend)”的策略.此时, Gosling随意地插话说“你的意思其实就是不接受且不扩充(disgrace and distend)。”

在此, Gosling的抱怨显示出，他感到这个公司会从其他公司那里拿走技术,用于他们自己的目的.出人意料的是，形势已经完全不同。Java团队并没有发明这一思想----将页面设计成由静态HTML和用特殊标签标记的动态代码混合组成.。ColdFusion多年前就已经这样做了。甚至ASP(来自于前述经理所在公司的一项产品)都在JSP出现之前推广了这种方式。实际上,JSP不只采用了这种通用概念,它甚至使用许多和ASP相同的特殊标签。

JSP是建立在Java servlets模型之上的表达层技术，它使编写HTML变得更简单。像SSJS一样，它也允许你将静态HTML内容与服务器端脚本混合起来生成动态输出。JSP把Java作为默认的脚本语言，然而，就像ASP可以使用其他语言(如JavaScript和VBScript)一样，JSP规范也允许使用其他语言。

1.3 JSP的特点

按照脚本语言是服务于某一个子系统的语言这种论述，JSP应当被看作是一种脚本语言。然而，作为一种脚本语言，JSP又显得过于强大了，在JSP中几乎可以使用全部的Java类。

作为一种基于文本的、以显示为中心的开发技术，JSP提供了Java Servlet的所有好处，并且，当与一个JavaBeans类结合在一起时，JSP提供了一种使内容和显示逻辑分开的简单方式。分开内容

和显示逻辑的好处是，更新页面外观的人员不必懂得Java代码，而更新JavaBeans类的人员也不必是设计网页的行家里手，就可以用带JavaBeans类的JSP页面来定义Web模板，以建立一个由具有相似的外观的页面组成的网站。JavaBeans类完成数据提供，这样在模板中就没有Java代码，这意味着这些模板可以由一个HTML编写人员来维护。当然，也可以利用Java Servlet来控制网站的逻辑，通过Java Servlet调用JSP文件的方式来将网站的逻辑和内容分离。

一般来说，在实际的JSP引擎中，JSP页面在执行时是编译式，而不是解释式的。解释式的动态网页开发工具如ASP、PHP3等由于速度等原因已经满足不了当前大型电子商务应用的需要了，传统的开发技术都在向编译执行的方式改变，如ASP→ASP+；PHP3→PHP4。

在JSP规范书中，并没有明确要求JSP中的程序代码部分(称为Scriptlet)一定要用Java来写。实际上，有一些JSP引擎就是采用的其他脚本语言，如EMAC-Script、WebL等，但实际上这几种脚本语言也是构建在Java上面，编译为Servlet来实现的。按照JSP规范书写，和Java没有任何关系的Scriptlet也是可以的，不过，由于JSP的强大功能主要在于能和JavaBeans、Enterprise JavaBeans共同运转，所以即使是Scriptlet部分不使用Java，编译成的执行代码也应该是与Java相关的。

1.4 JSP的机制

要理解JSP怎样联合以上各种所提到的技术的优点，从而轻而易举地实现各种效果，用户必须首先了解“组件为中心的网页开发”和“页面为中心的网页开发”的区别。

SSJS和ASP都是在几年前推出的，那时网络还很年轻，没有人知道除了把所有的商务、数据和表达逻辑统统堆进原始网页中之外还有什么更好的解决方法。这种以页面为中心的模型容易学习并且得到相当快速的发展。然而，随着时间的推移，人们认识到这种方法不适于构建大型的、可升级的Web应用程序。在脚本环境中书写的表达逻辑被锁在页面内，只有通过剪切和粘贴才能被重用。表达逻辑通常和商务及数据逻辑混在一起，这使得当程序员试图改变一个应用程序的外观而不想破坏与之紧密结合的商务逻辑时，应用程序的维护就变得十分艰难。其事实上，企业中可重用组件的应用早已经很成熟，没有人愿意为它们的应用程序重写那些逻辑。HTML和图形设计师把它们的设计的实施工作交给了Web编写者，使他们不得不加倍工作—— 常常是手工编写，因为没有合适的工具可以把服务器端脚本与HTML内容结合起来。简而言之，随着Web应用程序的复杂性不断提升，以页面为中心的开发方式的局限性变得明显起来。

与此同时，人们一直在寻找建立Web应用程序的更好方法，组件在客户机/服务器领域流行起来。JavaBeans和ActiveX被“快速应用程序开发”(RAD)工具发行商推广给Java和Windows应用程序开发者用来快速开发复杂的程序。这些技术使某领域内的专家可以为本领域内的垂直应用编写组件，而开发者可以直接拿来使用而不必掌握这一领域的专门技术。

作为一种以组件为中心的开发平台，JSP出现了。它以JavaBeans和Enterprise JavaBeans(EJB)组件包含商务和数据逻辑的模型为基础，提供大量标签和一个脚本平台用来在HTML页中显示由JavaBeans产生或回送的内容。由于JSP的以组件为中心的性质，它可以被Java和非Java开发者同样使用。非Java开发者可以通过JSP的标签(Tags)来使用高级Java开发者创建的JavaBeans。Java开发者不仅可以创建和使用JavaBeans，还能在JSP页中使用Java语言来更精密地控制基于底层JavaBeans的表达逻辑。

现在来看看JSP是如何处理HTTP请求的。在基本请求模型中，一个请求直接被送到JSP页中。JSP代码控制着进行逻辑处理时与JavaBeans组件的交互，并在动态生成的、混合了静态HTML代码的HTML

页中显示结果。Beans 可以是JavaBeans 或EJB组件。另外，更加复杂的请求模型可看作从被请求页呼叫其他JSP页或Java Servlets。

JSP引擎实际上要把JSP标签、JSP页中的Java代码甚至连同静态HTML内容都转换为大块的Java代码。这些代码块被JSP引擎组织到用户看不到的Java Servlet中去，然后Servlet自动把它们编译成Java字节码。这样，当网站的访问者请求一个JSP页时，在它不知道的情况下，一个已经生成的、预编译过的Servlet实际上将完成所有的工作，非常隐蔽而又高效。因为Servlet是编译过的，所以网页中的JSP代码不需要在每次请求该页时被解释一遍。JSP引擎只需在Servlet代码最后被修改后编译一次，然后这个编译过的Servlet就可以被执行了。由于是JSP引擎自动生成并编译Servlet，不用程序员动手编译代码，所以JSP能带给你高效的性能和快速开发所需的灵活性。

和传统的CGI相比较，JSP有相当的优势。首先，在速度上，传统的CGI程序需要使用系统的标准输入输出设备来实现动态网页的生成，而JSP是直接和服务器相关联的。而且对于CGI来说，每一个访问就需要新增加一个进程来处理，进程不断地建立和销毁对于作为Web服务器的计算机将是不小的负担。其次，JSP是专门为Web开发而设计的，其目的是为了建立基于Web的应用程序，其中包含了一整套的规范和工具。使用JSP技术可以很方便地将一大堆JSP页面组合成为一个Web应用程序。

THE TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT HISTORY OF JSP By:Kathy Sierra and Bert Bates Source: Servlet&JSP The Java Server Pages(JSP)is a kind of according to web of the script plait distance technique, similar carries the script language of Java in the server of the Netscape company of server-side JavaScript(SSJS)and the Active Server Pages(ASP)of the Microsoft.JSP compares the SSJS and ASP to have better can expand sex, and it is no more exclusive than any factory or some one particular server of Web.Though the norm of JSP is to be draw up by the Sun company of, any factory can carry out the JSP on own system.The After Sun release the JSP(the Java Server Pages)formally, the this kind of new Web application development technique very quickly caused the people's concern.JSP provided a special development environment for the Web application that establishes the high dynamic state.According to the Sun parlance, the JSP can adapt to include the Apache WebServer, IIS4.0 on the market at inside of 85% server product.This chapter will introduce the related knowledge of JSP and Databases, and JavaBean related contents, is all certainly rougher introduction among them basic contents, say perhaps to is a Guide only, if the reader needs the more detailed information, pleasing the book of consult the homologous JSP.1.1 GENERALIZE The JSP(Java Server Pages)is from the company of Sun Microsystems initiate, the many companies the participate to the build up the together of the a kind the of dynamic the state web the page technique standard, the it have the it in the construction the of the dynamic state the web page the strong but the do not the especially of the function.JSP and the technique of ASP of the Microsoft is very alike.Both all provide the ability that mixes with a certain procedure code and is explain by the language engine to carry out the procedure code in the code of HTML.Underneath we are simple of carry on the introduction to it.JSP pages are translated into servlets.So, fundamentally, any task JSP pages can perform could also be accomplished by servlets.However, this underlying equivalence does not mean that servlets and JSP pages are equally appropriate in all scenarios.The issue is not the power of the technology, it is the convenience, productivity, and maintainability of one or the other.After all, anything you can do on a particular computer platform in the Java programming language you could also do in assembly language.But it still matters which you choose.JSP provides the following benefits over servlets alone: 1）It is easier to write and maintain the HTML.Your static code is ordinary HTML: no extra backslashes, no double quotes, and no lurking Java syntax.2）You can use standard Web-site development tools.Even HTML tools that know nothing about JSP can be used because they simply ignore the JSP tags.3）You can divide up your development team.The Java programmers can work on the dynamic code.The Web developers can concentrate on the presentation layer.On large projects, this division is very important.Depending on the size of your team and the complexity of your project, you can enforce a weaker or stronger separation between the static HTML and the dynamic content.Now, this discussion is not to say that you should stop using servlets and use only JSP instead.By no

means.Almost all projects will use both.For some requests in your project, you will use servlets.For others, you will use JSP.For still others, you will combine them with the MVC architecture.You want the appropriate tool for the job, and servlets, by themselves, do not complete your toolkit.1.2 SOURCE OF JSP

The technique of JSP of the company of Sun, making the page of Web develop the personnel can use the HTML perhaps marking of XML to design to turn the end page with format.Use the perhaps small script future life of marking of JSP becomes the dynamic state on the page contents.(the contents changes according to the claim of)The Java Servlet is a technical foundation of JSP, and the large Web applies the development of the procedure to need the Java Servlet to match with with the JSP and then can complete, this name of Servlet comes from the Applet, the local translation method of now is a lot of, this book in order not to misconstruction, decide the direct adoption Servlet but don't do any translation, if reader would like to, can call it as“ small service procedure”.The Servlet is similar to traditional CGI, ISAPI, NSAPI etc.Web procedure development the function of the tool in fact, at use the Java Servlet hereafter, the customer need not use again the lowly method of CGI of efficiency, also need not use only the ability come to born page of Web of dynamic state in the method of API that a certain fixed Web server terrace circulate.Many servers of Web all support the Servlet, even not support the Servlet server of Web directly and can also pass the additional applied server and the mold pieces to support the Servlet.Receive benefit in the characteristic of the Java cross-platform, the Servlet is also a terrace irrelevant, actually, as long as match the norm of Java Servlet, the Servlet is complete to have nothing to do with terrace and is to have nothing to do with server of Web.Because the Java Servlet is internal to provide the service by the line distance, need not start a progress to the each claimses, and make use of the multi-threading mechanism can at the same time for several claim service, therefore the efficiency of Java Servlet is very high.But the Java Servlet also is not to has no weakness, similar to traditional CGI, ISAPI, the NSAPI method, the Java Servlet is to make use of to output the HTML language sentence to carry out the dynamic state web page of, if develop the whole website with the Java Servlet, the integration process of the dynamic state part and the static state page is an evil-foreboding dream simply.For solving this kind of weakness of the Java Servlet, the SUN released the JSP.A number of years ago, Marty was invited to attend a small 20-person industry roundtable discussion on software technology.Sitting in the seat next to Marty was James Gosling, inventor of the Java programming language.Sitting several seats away was a high-level manager from a very large software company in Redmond, Washington.During the discussion, the moderator brought up the subject of Jini, which at that time was a new Java technology.The moderator asked the manager what he thought of it, and the manager responded that it was too early to tell, but that it seemed to be an excellent idea.He went on to say that they would keep an eye on it, and if it seemed to be catching on, they would follow his company's usual “embrace and extend” strategy.At this point, Gosling lightheartedly interjected “You mean disgrace and distend.”

Now, the grievance that Gosling was airing was that he felt that this company would take technology from other companies and suborn it for their own purposes.But guess what? The shoe is on the other foot here.The Java community did not invent the idea of designing pages as a mixture of static HTML and dynamic

code marked with special tags.For example, Cold Fusion did it years earlier.Even ASP(a product from the very software company of the aforementioned manager)popularized this approach before JSP came along and decided to jump on the bandwagon.In fact, JSP not only adopted the general idea, it even used many of the same special tags as ASP did.The JSP is an establishment at the model of Java servlets on of the expression layer technique, it makes the plait write the HTML to become more simple.Be like the SSJS, it also allows you carry the static state HTML contents and servers the script mix to put together the born dynamic state exportation.JSP the script language that the Java is the tacit approval, however, be like the ASP and can use other languages(such as JavaScript and VBScript), the norm of JSP also allows to use other languages.1.3JSP CHARACTERISTICS Is a service according to the script language in some one language of the statures system this kind of discuss, the JSP should be see make is a kind of script language.However, be a kind of script language, the JSP seemed to be too strong again, almost can use all Javas in the JSP.Be a kind of according to text originally of, take manifestation as the central development technique, the JSP provided all advantages of the Java Servlet, and, when combine with a JavaBeans together, providing a kind of make contents and manifestation that simple way that logic separate.Separate the contents and advantage of logical manifestations is, the personnel who renews the page external appearance need not know the code of Java, and renew the JavaBeans personnel also need not be design the web page of expert in hand, can use to take the page of JavaBeans JSP to define the template of Web, to build up a from have the alike external appearance of the website that page constitute.JavaBeans completes the data to provide, having no code of Java in the template thus, this means that these templates can be written the personnel by a HTML plait to support.Certainly, can also make use of the Java Servlet to control the logic of the website, adjust through the Java Servlet to use the way of the document of JSP to separate website of logic and contents.Generally speaking, in actual engine of JSP, the page of JSP is the edit and translate type while carry out, not explain the type of.Explain the dynamic state web page development tool of the type, such as ASP, PHP3 etc., because speed etc.reason, have already can't satisfy current the large electronic commerce needs appliedly, traditional development techniques are all at to edit and translate the executive way change, such as the ASP → ASP+;PHP3 → PHP4.In the JSP norm book, did not request the procedure in the JSP code part(be called the Scriptlet)and must write with the Java definitely.Actually, have some engines of JSP are adoptive other script languages such as the EMAC-Script, etc., but actually this a few script languages also are to set up on the Java, edit and translate for the Servlet to carry out of.Write according to the norm of JSP, have no Scriptlet of relation with Java also is can of, however, mainly lie in the ability and JavaBeans, the Enterprise JavaBeanses because of the JSP strong function to work together, so even is the Scriptlet part not to use the Java, edit and translate of performance code also should is related with Java.1.4JSP MECHANISM To comprehend the JSP how unite the technical advantage that above various speak of, come to carry out various result easily, the customer must understand the differentiation of“ the module develops for the web

page of the center” and“ the page develops for the web page of the center” first.The SSJS and ASP are all in several year ago to release, the network of that time is still very young, no one knows to still have in addition to making all business, datas and the expression logic enter the original web page entirely heap what better solve the method.This kind of model that take page as the center studies and gets the very fast development easily.However, along with change of time, the people know that this kind of method is unwell in set up large, the Web that can upgrade applies the procedure.The expression logic write in the script environment was lock in the page, only passing to shear to slice and glue to stick then can drive heavy use.Express the logic to usually mix together with business and the data logics, when this makes be the procedure member to try to change an external appearance that applies the procedure but do not want to break with its llied business logic, apply the procedure of maintenance be like to walk the similar difficulty on the eggshell.In fact in the business enterprise, heavy use the application of the module already through very mature, no one would like to rewrite those logics for their applied procedure.HTML and sketch the designer handed over to the implement work of their design the Web plait the one who write, make they have to double work-Usually is the handicraft plait to write, because have no fit tool and can carry the script and the HTML contents knot to the server to put together.Chien but speech, apply the complexity of the procedure along with the Web to promote continuously, the development method that take page as the center limits sex to become to get up obviously.At the same time, the people always at look for the better method of build up the Web application procedure, the module spreads in customer's machine/ server the realm.JavaBeans and ActiveX were published the company to expand to apply the procedure developer for Java and Windows to use to come to develop the complicated procedure quickly by“ the fast application procedure development”(RAD)tool.These techniques make the expert in the some realm be able to write the module for the perpendicular application plait in the skill area, but the developer can go fetch the usage directly but need not control the expertise of this realm.Be a kind of take module as the central development terrace, the JSP appeared.It with the JavaBeans and Enterprise JavaBeans(EJB)module includes the model of the business and the data logic for foundation, provide a great deal of label and a script terraces to use to come to show in the HTML page from the contents of JavaBeans creation or send a present in return.Because of the property that regards the module as the center of the JSP, it can drive Java and not the developer of Java uses equally.Not the developer of Java can pass the JSP label(Tags)to use the JavaBeans that the deluxe developer of Java establish.The developer of Java not only can establish and use the JavaBeans, but also can use the language of Java to come to control more accurately in the JSP page according to the expression logic of the first floor JavaBeans.See now how JSP is handle claim of HTTP.In basic claim model, a claim directly was send to JSP page in.The code of JSP controls to carry on hour of the logic processing and module of JavaBeanses' hand over with each other, and the manifestation result in dynamic state bornly, mixing with the HTML page of the static state HTML code.The Beans can be JavaBeans or module of EJBs.Moreover, the more complicated claim model can see make from is request other JSP pages of the page call sign or Java Servlets.The engine of JSP wants to chase the code of Java that the label of JSP, code of Java in the JSP page even all converts into the big piece together with the static state HTML contents actually.These codes piece was organized the Java Servlet that customer can not see to go to by the engine of JSP, then the Servlet edits and

translate them automatically byte code of Java.Thus, the visitant that is the website requests a JSP page, under the condition of it is not knowing, an already born, the Servlet actual full general that prepared to edit and translate completes all works, very concealment but again and efficiently.The Servlet is to edit and translate of, so the code of JSP in the web page does not need when the every time requests that page is explain.The engine of JSP need to be edit and translate after Servlet the code end is modify only once, then this Servlet that editted and translate can be carry out.The in view of the fact JSP engine auto is born to edit and translate the Servlet also, need not procedure member begins to edit and translate the code, so the JSP can bring vivid sex that function and fast developments need that you are efficiently.Compared with the traditional CGI, the JSP has the equal advantage.First, on the speed, the traditional procedure of CGI needs to use the standard importation of the system to output the equipments to carry out the dynamic state web page born, but the JSP is direct is mutually the connection with server.And say for the CGI, each interview needs to add to add a progress to handle, the progress build up and destroy by burning constantly and will be a not small burden for calculator of be the server of Web.The next in order, the JSP is specialized to develop but design for the Web of, its purpose is for building up according to the Web applied procedure, included the norm and the tool of a the whole set.Use the technique of JSP can combine a lot of JSP pages to become a Web application procedure very expediently.9

第二篇：中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

平设计任何时期平面设计可以参照一些艺术和专业学科侧重于视觉传达和介绍。采用多种方式相结合，创造和符号，图像和语句创建一个代表性的想法和信息。平面设计师可以使用印刷，视觉艺术和排版技术产生的最终结果。平面设计常常提到的进程，其中沟通是创造和产品设计。共同使用的平面设计包括杂志，广告，产品包装和网页设计。例如，可能包括产品包装的标志或其他艺术作品，举办文字和纯粹的设计元素，如形状和颜色统一件。组成的一个最重要的特点，尤其是平面设计在使用前现有材料或不同的元素。平面设计涵盖了人类历史上诸多领域，在此漫长的历史和在相对最近爆炸视觉传达中的第20和21世纪，人们有时是模糊的区别和重叠的广告艺术，平面设计和美术。毕竟，他们有着许多相同的内容，理论，原则，做法和语言，有时同样的客人或客户。广告艺术的最终目标是出售的商品和服务。在平面设计，“其实质是使以信息，形成以思想，言论和感觉的经验”。在唐朝（618-906）之间的第4和第7世纪的木块被切断打印纺织品和后重现佛典。阿藏印在868是已知最早的印刷书籍。在19世纪后期欧洲，尤其是在英国，平面设计开始以独立的运动从美术中分离出来。蒙德里安称为父亲的图形设计。他是一个很好的艺术家，但是他在现代广告中利用现代电网系统在广告、印刷和网络布局网格。于1849年，在大不列颠亨利科尔成为的主要力量之一在设计教育界，该国政府通告设计在杂志设计和制造的重要性。他组织了大型的展览作为庆祝现代工业技术和维多利亚式的设计。从1892年至1896年威廉•莫里斯凯尔姆斯科特出版社出版的书籍的一些最重要的平面设计产品和工艺美术运动，并提出了一个非常赚钱的商机就是出版伟大文本论的图书并以高价出售给富人。莫里斯证明了市场的存在使平面设计在他们自己拥有的权利，并帮助开拓者从生产和美术分离设计。这历史相对论是，然而，重要的，因为它为第一次重大的反应对于十九世纪的陈旧的平面设计。莫里斯的工作，以及与其他私营新闻运动，直接影响新艺术风格和间接负责20世纪初非专业性平面设计的事态发展。谁创造了最初的“平面设计”似乎存在争议。这被归因于英国的设计师和大学教授Richard Guyatt，但另一消息来源于20世纪初美国图书设计师William Addison Dwiggins。伦敦地铁的标志设计是爱德华约翰斯顿于1916年设计的一个经典的现代而且使用了系统字体设计。在20世纪20年代，苏联的建构主义应用于“智能生产”在不同领域的生产。个性化的运动艺术在 2 俄罗斯大革命是没有价值的，从而走向以创造物体的功利为目的。他们设计的建筑、剧院集、海报、面料、服装、家具、徽标、菜单等。Jan Tschichold 在他的1928年书中编纂了新的现代印刷原则，他后来否认他在这本书的法西斯主义哲学主张，但它仍然是非常有影响力。Tschichold，包豪斯印刷专家如赫伯特拜耳和拉斯洛莫霍伊一纳吉，和El Lissitzky 是平面设计之父都被我们今天所知。他们首创的生产技术和文体设备，主要用于整个二十世纪。随后的几年看到平面设计在现代风格获得广泛的接受和应用。第二次世界大战结束后，美国经济的建立更需要平面设计，主要是广告和包装等。移居国外的德国包豪斯设计学院于1937年到芝加哥带来了“大规模生产”极简到美国;引发野火的“现代”建筑和设计。值得注意的名称世纪中叶现代设计包括阿德里安Frutiger，设计师和Frutiger字体大学;保兰德，从20世纪30年代后期，直到他去世于1996年，采取的原则和适用包豪斯他们受欢迎的广告和标志设计，帮助创造一个独特的办法，美国的欧洲简约而成为一个主要的先驱。平面设计称为企业形象;约瑟夫米勒，罗克曼，设计的海报严重尚未获取1950年代和1960年代时代典型。从道路标志到技术图表，从备忘录到参考手册，增强了平面设计的知识转让。可读性增强了文字的视觉效果。设计还可以通过理念或有效的视觉传播帮助销售产品。将它应用到产品和公司识别系统的要素像标志、颜色和文字。连同这些被定义为品牌。品牌已日益成为重要的提供的服务范围，许多平面设计师，企业形象和条件往往是同时交替使用。教科书的目的是本科目，如地理、科学和数学。这些出版物已布局理论设计说明和图表。一个常见的例子，在使用图形，教育是图表人体解剖学。平面设计也适用于布局和格式的教育材料，使信息更容易和更容易理解的。平面设计是应用在娱乐行业的装饰，景观和视觉故事。其他的例子娱乐设计用途包括小说，漫画，电影中的开幕和闭幕，在舞台上节目的和道具的安排。这也包括艺术品在T恤衫的应用和其他物品的出售。从科学杂志报道，提出意见和事实往往是提高图形和深思熟虑的组成视觉信息-被称为信息的设计。报纸，杂志，博客，电视和电影纪录片，可以使用平面设计通知及娱乐。随着网络，信息与经验的交互设计的工具，Adobe和Flash正越来越多地被用来说明的背景新闻。一个平面设计项目可能涉及程式化和介绍现有的文字，或者事先存在的意向或图像开发的平面设计师。例如，一家报纸的故事始于记者和摄影记者，然后成为平面设计师的工作安排到一个合理的页面布局，并确定是否有任何其他图形元素应当要求。在一本杂志的文章或广告，往往是平面设计师或艺术总监将委员会摄影师或插图创建原始文件只是被纳入设计规划。现代设计的做法已经扩展到了现代的计算机，例如在使用所见的用户界面，通常被称为交互式设计，或多媒体设计。任何图形元素用于设计之前，图形元素必须是源于通过视觉艺术技能。这些图形通常（但并不总是）被设计师开发。视觉艺术的作品主要是视觉性的东西从使用传统的传播媒介、摄影或电脑产生的艺术。平面设计原则可以适用于每一个人的版画艺术元素，并最终组成。3 印刷术是艺术，工艺和技术型，修改类型字形，并安排类型的设计。类型字形（字符）的创建和修改使用各种说明方法。这项安排的类型是选择字体、大小、线长、主要的（行距）和文字的间距。刷术是由排字工机，排字，印刷工人，图形艺术家，艺术总监，工作者和办事员。直到数字时代，印刷成为一个专业的领域。数字化开辟了新的视觉设计师和用户。排版设计师平面设计的一部分，是在网页设计中是图形设计，处理安排风格（内容）的要素。从早期的照明网页手工复制书籍的中世纪和程序，以错综复杂的现代杂志和目录布局，适当的网页设计公司长期以来一直是考虑的印刷材料，与印刷媒体，内容通常包括类型（文字，图片（照片）偶尔发生持有者图形的内容，没有印刷油墨，如模具/激光切割，烫金压印或盲目压花。平面设计师常常专心研究于界面设计，如网页设计和软件设计，最终用户的交互性是一个设计考虑的布局或接口。视觉沟通技巧、互动沟通技巧与用户互动得相结合和在线品牌推广，平面设计师往往与软件开发和网络开发人员创建的外观和风格的网站或软件应用程序，来加强用户或网络网站的访问者互动体验。版画是在纸上，其他有机材料或者表面上印刷艺术品的过程。每一张不会被复制，但时最初的因为它不是一个复制的另一艺术作品，并在技术上称为留下深刻的印象。绘画或素描，另一方面，创造了独特的原始艺术品。版画是由一个单一的原始表面创造的，在技术上已经作为基质而被已知。常见的矩阵包括：金属板，通常是铜或锌的雕刻或蚀刻石料，用于光刻;块木刻的木材，油毡和织物板的丝网印刷。但也有许多其他种类，讨论如下：作品从一个单一的印刷板创造一个版本，在现代通常每个签署和编号，形成限量。打印也可编制成册，作为艺术家的书籍。一个单一的打印可能是产品的一种或多种技术。色彩学领域是如何在打印机上和显示器上用眼睛识别颜色和如何解释和组织这些色彩。眼睛的视网膜被两个被命名为视杆和视锥的感光体涵盖。视杆对光很敏感但是对颜色不是很敏感。视锥却与视杆恰恰相反。他们对光不太敏感，但是颜色可以被感知。随着科技的发展，人们越来越认识到环境问题日益严重，大气污染、森林破坏、水土流失、土地沙漠

化、水资源污染、大量物种灭绝、石油、天然气、煤等资源枯竭。作为工业设计师，应该有强烈的环境 保护意识，使得自己的设计建立在不破坏环境及节约自然资源的基础上。

其中，温室效应、臭氧层破坏和酸雨是当今全球性的三大环境问题。

温室效应就是大气变暖的效应其形成原因是太阳短波辐射可以透过大气射入地面，而地面增暖后放

出的长波辐射却被大气中的二氧化碳就像一层厚厚的玻璃，把地球变成了一个大暖房。甲烷、臭氧、氯、氟烃以及水汽等也对温室效应有所贡献。随着人口的急剧增加和工业的迅速发展，越来越多的二氧化碳 排入大气中；

又由于森林被大量砍伐，大气中原本应被森林吸收的二氧化碳没有被吸收，致使二氧化碳 逐渐增加，温室效应也不断增强。温室效应的后果十分严重，自然生态将随之发生重大变化，荒漠将扩

大，土地侵蚀加重，森林退向极地，旱涝灾害严重，雨量增加；温带冬天更湿、夏天更旱；热带也将变 得更湿，干热的亚热带变得更干旱，迫使原有水利工程重新调整。沿海将受到严重威胁。由于气温升高，两极冰块将融化，使海平面上升，将会淹没许多城市和港口。

臭氧层破坏现象引起科学界及整个国际社会的震动。美国的两位科学家 Monila 和 Rowland 指出，正是人为的活动造成了今天的臭氧洞。元凶就是现在所熟知的氟利昂和哈龙。

酸雨目前已成为一种范围广泛、跨越国界的大气污染现象。酸雨破坏土壤，使湖泊酸化，危害动植

物生长；刺激人的皮肤，诱发皮肤病，引起肺水肿、肺硬化；会腐蚀金属制品、油漆、皮革、纺织品和 含碳酸盐的建筑。

总而言之，人类生活的环境已经日益恶化。

而恶化的原因大部分属于人类本身的不良生活方式和不 尊重客观规律，急功近利，对于地球资源的使用没有科学的计划性，而且在设计、制造产品以及日常生

活中缺乏保护环境的意识，以至于自毁家园，其危害不仅于当代，而且严重影响了子孙后代的生存。

环境问题在很大程度上是由于人们的不良设计、生活方式造成的后果。于是给设计师们提出了一个

严肃的问题：作为设计师，应肩负起保护环境的历史重任！

工业在为人类创造大量物质财富的同时，也给世界带来了灾难。工业设计在为人类创造了现代生活

方式的同时，也加速了资源、能源的消耗，并对地球的生态平衡造成了巨大的破坏。

所以，作为工业设计师，建立环境意识体现了其道德和社会责任心。设计师必须对自己的设计负责，必须把人类的健康幸福，自然与人类的和谐共存作为设计中心遵循的原则。

设计师还必须掌握必要的材料、工艺、化工、制造等方面的知识，使得其设计不对环境造成危害而 成为可能。

“可持续发展设计” 这一概念的提出，对于人性的回归及世界真正意义上的发展具有划时代的意义。他体现了设计师的道德与责任，已成为 21 世纪设计发展的总趋势。从此，人类传统工业文明发展模式

转向现代生态文明发展模式。它是社会进步，经济增长，环境保护三者之间的协同。

可持续发展是人们应遵循的一种全新的伦理、道德和价值观念。其本质在于：充分利用现代科技，大力开发绿色资源，发展清洁生产，不断改善和优化生态环境，促使人与自然的和谐发展，人口、资源 和环境相互协调。

解决可持续反展问题是一个技术创新和行为模式转变的问题。

可持续发展战略是解决在不危害未来几代人的需求前提下，尽量满足当代人的需求的问题。实现目

前利益与长远利益的统一，为子孙后代留下发展空间。

目前可持续发展战略考虑的问题有：循环性、绿色能源、生态效率。

绿色设计源于人们对于现代技术文化所引起的环境及生态破坏的反思。绿色设计着眼于人与自然的

生态平衡关系，在设计过程的每一个决策中都充分考虑到环境效益，尽量减少对环境的破坏。

对工业设计师而言，绿色设计的核心是“ 3R ”，即“减少”（Reduce）、“再循环”(Recycle)和“再 利用”（Reuse)。不仅要尽量减少物质和能源的消耗、减少有害物质的排放，而且要使产品及零件能够 5 方便的分类回收，并再生循环或重新利用。

绿色设计不仅是一种技术层面的考虑，更重要的是一种观念 上的变革。

要求设计师放弃那种过分强调产品在外观上标新立异的做法，而将重点放在真正意义上的创 新上面，已一种更为负责的方法去创造产品的形态，用更简洁、长久的造型使产品尽可能地延长其使用 寿命。

从材料方面要考虑： 原材料的存量和可再生性，获取材料时的环境能源的消耗与污染，后续加工时

环境材料的易加工性，低能耗性、低污染性，报废时的可回收性。

从加工制造方面要考虑：加工制造阶段需要将污染减至最少，或将污染消灭在生产过程初始阶段。

从包装、运输、销售等方面要考虑：包装的环境性能、绿色包装，良好的可运输性、降低自重、减 少能耗，当地化生产及减少物流过程消耗。

从产品的使用阶段考虑： 使用中的能耗、资源消耗。

产品更新换代时环境性能的模块化、可重组性、产品的使用模式等因素。

从产品的报废阶段考虑：易拆卸性，便于分解和分类，材料可回收性和可再利用性，零部件可重组 性或移作它用等因素。

清洁的能源：如考虑太阳能、水电、风力的清洁燃料；清洁的材料，涉及低污染、无毒、易降解和 可回收性；清洁的制造过程，考虑低能耗、少排放的制造；清洁的产品，涉及使用中节能、环保、报废 后的回收。

零部件的再生利用湿可持续战略的有力措施。事实证明： 报废的产品拆卸后，经分析，其中材料在

改进设计后可重用和经翻新后可重用的比例可以提高。

比如：一辆报废车中，金属材料占 80 ％，其中，有色金属占 3 ％～ 4.7 ％。世界钢产量中的 45 ％是 由废钢铁生产出的。中国钢产量的 25 ％是由废钢铁生产的。

产品全生命周期管理是指从人对产品的需求开始，到产品淘汰报废的全部生命历程。其中包括产

品需求分析产品计划、概念设计、产品设计、数字化仿真、工艺准备、工艺规划、生产测试和质量监控、销售与分销、使用、维护与维修，以及报废与回收等主要阶段。将先进的管理理念和一流的信息技术有

机融入到现代企业的工业和商业运作中，从而使企业在数字经济时代能够有效地调整经营手段和管理方式，以发挥企业前所未有的竞争优势。帮助企业进行产品创新，赢得市场，并获得额外利润，以提高企业产品的价值。

GRAPHIC DESIGN The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and presentation.Various methods are used to create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages.A graphic designer may use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result.Graphic design often refers to both the process by which the communication is created and the products which are generated.Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements, product packaging and web design.For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece.Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.Graphic Design spans the history of humankind from the caves of Lascaux to the dazzling neons of Ginza.In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art.After all, they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same benefactor or client.In advertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services.In graphic design, “the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human experience.” During the Tang dynasty(618–906)between the 4th and 7th century A.D.wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts.A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book.In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate graphic design from fine art.Piet Mondrian is known as the father of graphic design.He was a fine artist, but his use of grids inspired the modern grid system used today in advertising, print and web layout.In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures.He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.From 1892 to 1896 William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement, and 2 made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium.Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art.The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its obsession with historical styles.This historicism was, however, important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design.Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general.Who originally coined the term “graphic design” appears to be in dispute.It has been attributed to Richard Guyatt, the British designer and academic, but another source suggests William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century The signage in the London Underground is a classic of the modern era and used a font designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production.The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes.They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc.Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography.He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential.Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and El Lissitzky are the fathers of graphic design as we know it today.They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century.The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application.A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging.The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a “mass-produced”minimalism to America;sparking a wild fire of “modern”architecture and design.Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger;Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity；and Josef Müller-Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1960s era.3 From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals, graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge.Readability is enhanced by improving the visual presentation of text.Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication.It is applied to products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, and text.Together these are defined as branding(see also advertising).Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongside corporate identity, and the terms are often used interchangeably.Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math.These publications have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams.A common example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of human anatomy.Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling.Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, opening credits and closing credits in film, and programs and props on stage.This could also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information-known as information design.Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform and entertain.With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer.For example, a newspaper story begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to organize the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be required.In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout.Contemporary design practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to as interactive design, or multimedia design.Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by means of visual art skills.These graphics are often(but not always)developed 4 by a graphic designer.Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media, to photography or computer generated art.Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element individually as well as to the final composition.Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type.Type glyphs(characters)are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques.The arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading(line spacing)and letter spacing.Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers.Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation.Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement and style treatment of elements(content)on a page.Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long been a consideration in printed material.With print media, elements usually consist of type(text), images(pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.Graphic designers are often involved in interface design, such as web design and software design when end user interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface.Combining visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create both the look and feel of a web site or software application and enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor.Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces.Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print.Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an impression.Painting or drawing, on the other hand, create a unique original piece of artwork.Prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix.Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching;stone, used for lithography;blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing.But there are many other kinds, discussed below.Works printed from a single

第三篇：关于现代工业机械手外文文献翻译@中英文翻译@外文翻译

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About Modenr Industrial Manipulayor Robot is a type of mechantronics equipment which synthesizes the last research achievement of engine and precision engine, micro-electronics and computer, automation control and drive, sensor and message dispose and artificial intelligence and so on.With the development of economic and the demand for automation control, robot technology is developed quickly and all types of the robots products are come into being.The practicality use of robot not only solves the problems which are difficult to operate for human being, but also advances the industrial automation program.Modern industrial robots are true marvels of engineering.A robot the size of a person can easily carry a load over one hundred pounds and move it very quickly with a repeatability of 0.006inches.Furthermore these robots can do that 24hours a day for years on end with no failures whatsoever.Though they are reprogrammable, in many applications they are programmed once and then repeat that exact same task for years.At present, the research and development of robot involves several kinds of technology and the robot system configuration is so complex that the cost at large is high which to a certain extent limit the robot abroad use.To development economic practicality and high reliability robot system will be value to robot social application and economy development.With he rapid progress with the control economy and expanding of the modern cities, the let of sewage is increasing quickly;with the development of modern technology and the enhancement of consciousness about environment reserve, more and more people realized the importance and urgent of sewage disposal.Active bacteria method is an effective technique for sewage disposal.The abundance requirement for lacunaris plastic makes it is a consequent for plastic producing with automation and high productivity.Therefore, it is very necessary to design a manipulator that can automatically fulfill the plastic holding.With the analysis of the problems in the design of the plastic

holding manipulator and synthesizing the robot research and development condition in recent years, a economic scheme is concluded on the basis of the analysis of mechanical configuration, transform system, drive device and control system and guided by the idea of the characteristic and complex of mechanical configuration, electronic, software and hardware.In this article, the mechanical configuration combines the character of direction coordinate which can improve the stability and operation flexibility of the system.The main function of the transmission mechanism is to transmit power to implement department and complete the necessary movement.In this transmission structure, the screw transmission mechanism transmits the rotary motion into linear motion.Worm gear can give vary transmission ratio.Both of the transmission mechanisms have a characteristic of compact structure.The design of drive system often is limited by the environment condition and the factor of cost and technical lever.The step motor can receive digital signal directly and has the ability to response outer environment immediately and has no accumulation error, which often is used in driving system.In this driving system, open-loop control system is composed of stepping motor, which can satisfy the demand not only for control precision but also for the target of economic and practicality.On this basis, the analysis of stepping motor in power calculating and style selecting is also given.The analysis of kinematics and dynamics for object holding manipulator is given in completing the design of mechanical structure and drive system.Current industrial approaches to robot arm control treat each joint of the robot arm as a simple joint servomechanism.The servomechanism approach models the varying dynamics of a manipulator inadequately because it neglects the motion and configuration of the whole arm mechanism.These changes in the parameters of the controlled system sometimes are significant enough to render conventional feedback control strategies ineffective.The result is reduced servo response speed and damping, limiting the precision and speed of the end-effecter and making it appropriate only for limited-precision tasks.Manipulators controlled in this manner move at slow speeds with unnecessary vibrations.Any significant performance gain in this and other areas of robot arm control require the consideration of more efficient dynamic models, sophisticated control approaches, and the use of dedicated computer architectures and parallel processing techniques.In the industrial production and other fields, people often endangered by such factors as high temperature, corrode, poisonous gas and so forth at work, which have increased labor intensity and even jeopardized the life sometimes.The corresponding problems are solved since the robot arm comes out.The arms can catch, put and carry objects, and its movements are flexible and diversified.It applies to medium and small-scale automated production in which production varieties can be switched.And it is widely used on soft automatic line.The robot arms are generally made by withstand high temperatures, resist corrosion of materials to adapt to the harsh environment.So they reduced the labor intensity of the workers significantly and raised work efficiency.The robot arm is an important component of industrial robot, and it can be called industrial robots on many occasions.Industrial robot is set machinery, electronics, control, computers, sensors, artificial intelligence and other advanced technologies in the integration of multidisciplinary important modern manufacturing equipment.Widely using industrial robots, not only can improve product quality and production, but also is of great significance for physical security protection, improvement of the environment for labor, reducing labor intensity, improvement of labor productivity, raw material consumption savings and lowering production costs.There are such mechanical components as ball footbridge, slides, air control mechanical hand and so on in the design.A programmable controller, a programming device, stepping motors, stepping motors drives, direct current motors, sensors, switch power supply, an electromagnetism valve and control desk are used in electrical connection.Robot is the automated production of a kind used in the process of crawling and moving piece features automatic device, which is mechanized and automated production process developed a new type of device.In recent years, as electronic technology, especially computer extensive use of robot development and production of hightech fields has become a rapidly developed a new technology, which further promoted the development of robot, allowing robot to better achieved with the combination of mechanization and automation.Robot can replace humans completed the risk of duplication of boring work, to reduce human labor intensity and improve labor productivity.Manipulator has been applied more and more widely, in the machinery industry, it can be used for parts assembly, work piece handling, loading and unloading, particularly in the automation of CNC machine tools, modular machine tools more commonly used.At present, the robot has developed into a FMS flexible manufacturing systems and flexible manufacturing cell in an important component of the FMC.The machine tool equipment and machinery in hand together constitute a flexible manufacturing system or a flexible manufacturing cell, it was adapted to small and medium volume production, you can save a huge amount of the work piece conveyor device, compact, and adaptable.When the work piece changes, flexible production system is very easy to change will help enterprises to continuously update the marketable variety, improve product quality, and better adapt to market competition.At present, China's industrial robot technology and its engineering application level and comparable to foreign countries there is a certain distance, application and industrialization of the size of the low level of robot research and development of a direct impact on raising the level of automation in China, from the economy, technical considerations are very necessary.Therefore, the study of mechanical hand design is very meaningful.关于现代工业机械手

机器人是典型的机电一体化装置，它综合运用了机械与精密机械、微电子与计算机、自动控制与驱动、传感器与信息处理以及人工智能等多学科的最新研究成果，随着经济技术的发展和各行各业对自动化程度要求的提高，机器人技术得到了迅速发展，出现了各种各样的机器人产品。现代工业机器人是人类真正的奇迹工程。一个像人那么大的机器人可以轻松地抬起超过一百磅并可以在误差0.006英寸内重复运动。更重要的是这些机器人可以每天24小时不停止地工作。在许多应用中他们是通过编程控制的，但是他们一旦编程一次，他们可以重复地做同一个工作许多年。机器人产品的实用化，既解决了许多单靠人力难以解决的实际问题，又促进了工业自动化的进程。

目前，由于机器人的研制和开发涉及多方面的技术，系统结构复杂，开发和研制的成本普遍较高，在某种程度上限制了该项技术的广泛应用，因此，研制经济型、实用化、高可靠性机器人系统具有广泛的社会现实意义和经济价值。由于我国经济建设和城市化的快速发展，城市污染排水放量增长很快，污水处理已经摆在了人们的议事日程上来。随着科学技术的发展和人类知识水平的提高，人们越来越认识到污水处理的重要性和迫切性，科学家和研究人员发现塑料制品在水中时用于污水处理的很有效地污泥菌群的附着体。塑料制品的大量需求，使得塑料制品生产的自动化和高效率要求成为经济发展的必然。本文结合塑料一次挤出成型机和塑料抓取机械手的研制过程中出现的问题，综述近几年机器人技术研究和发展的状况，在从分发挥机、电、软、硬件各自特点和优势互补的基础上，对物料抓取机械手整体机械结构、传动系统、驱动装置和控制系统进行了分析和设计，提出了一套经济型设计方案。采用直角坐标和关节坐标相结合的框架式机械结构形式，这种方式能够提高系统的稳定性和操作灵活性。传动装置的作用是将驱动元件的动力传递给机器人机械手相应的执行机构，以实现各种必要的运动，传动方式上采用结构紧凑、传动比答得蜗轮蜗杆传动和将旋转运动转换为直线运动的螺旋传动。机械手驱动系统的设计往往受到作业环境条件的限制，同时也要考虑价格因素的影响以及能够达到的技术水平。由于步进电机能都直接接收数字量，响应速度快而且工作可靠并无累计误差，常用作数字控制系统驱动机构的动力元件，因此，在驱动装置中采用由步进电机构成的环控制方式，这种方式技能满足控制精度的要求，又能达到经济型、实用化目的。

目前的工业机械臂控制将每一个机械臂的联合看做一个简单的联合伺服。伺服方法不能从分地模仿不同的动力学机械手，因为它忽略了机械手整体的运动和配置。这些控制系统的参数的变化有时是足够重要，以至于使常规的反馈控制方法失效。其结果是减少了伺服相应的速度和阻尼，限制了京都和最终效应的速度，使系统仅适用于有限精度的工作。机械手以这种方式控制速度降低而没有不必要的震动。任何在这一领域和其它领域的机械臂性能增益要求更有效率的动态模型、精密的控制方法、专门的计算机架构和并行处理技术。

在工业生产和其它领域内，由于工作的需要，人们经常受到高温、腐蚀及有毒气体等因素的危害，增加了工人的劳动强度，甚至于危及生命。自从机械手问世以来，相应的各种难题迎刃而解。机械手可在空间抓、放、搬运物体，动作灵活多样，适用于可变换生产品种的中、小批量自动化生产，广泛应用于柔性自动线。机械手一般由耐高温，抗腐蚀的材料制成，以适应现场恶劣环境，大大降低了工人的劳动强度，提高了工作效率。机械手是工业机器人的重要组成部分，在很多情况下它就可以称为工业机器人。工业机器人集机械、电子、控制、计算机、传感器、人工智能等多学科先进技术于一体化的现代制造业重要的自动化装备。广泛采用工业机器人，不仅可以提高产品的质量与产量，而且对保障人身安全，改善劳动环境，减轻劳动强度，提高劳动生产率，节约原材料消耗以及降低生产成本，有着十分重要的意义。

工业机械手是工业机器人的一个重要分支。它的特点是可通过编程来完成各种预期的作业任务，在构造和性能上兼有人和机器各自的优点，尤其体现了人的智能和适应性。机械手作业的准确性和各种环境中完成作业的能力，在国民经济各领域有着广阔的发展前景。随着工业自动化的发展, 出现了数控加工中心,它在减轻工人的劳动强度的同时, 大大提高了劳动生产率。但数控加工中常见的上下料工序, 通常仍采用人工操作或传统继电器控制的半自动化装置。前者费时费工、效率低;后者因设计复杂, 需较多继电器,接线繁杂, 易受车体振动干扰,而存在可靠性差、故障多、维修困难等问题。可编程序控制器PLC控制的上下料机械手控制系统动作简便、线路设计合理、具有较强的抗干扰能力, 保证了系统运行的可靠性,降低了维修率, 提高了工作效率。机械手技术涉及到力学、机械学、电气液压技术、自动控制技术、传感器技术和计算机技术等科学领域，是一门跨学科综合技术。

机械手主要由手部和运动机构组成。手部是用来抓持工件（或工具）的部件，根据被抓持物件的形状、尺寸、重量、材料和作业要求而有多种结构形式，如夹持型、托持型和吸附型等。运动机构，使手部完成各种转动（摆动）、移动或复合运动来实现规定的动作，改变被抓持物件的位置和姿势......机械手是在自动化生产过程中使用的一种具有抓取和移动工件功能的自动化装置，它是在机械化、自动化生产过程中发展起来的一种新型装置。近年来，随着电子技术特别是电子计算机的广泛应用，机器人的研制和生产已成为高技术领域内迅速发展起来的一门新兴技术，它更加促进了机械手的发展，使得机械手能更好地实现与机械化和自动化的有机结合。机械手能代替人类完成危险、重复枯燥的工作，减轻人类劳动强度，提高劳动生产力。机械手越来越广泛的得到了应用，在机械行业中它可用于零部件组装，加工工件的搬运、装卸，特别是在自动化数控机床、组合机床上使用更普遍。目前，机械手已发展成为柔性制造系统FMS和柔性制造单元FMC中一个重要组成部分。把机床设备和机械手共同构成一个柔性加工系统或柔性制造单元，它适应于中、小批量生产，可以节省庞大的工件输送装置，结构紧凑，而且适应性很强。当工件变更时，柔性生产系统很容易改变，有利于企业不断更新适销对路的品种，提高产品质量，更好地适应市场竞争的需要。而目前我国的工业机器人技术及其工程应用的水平和国外比还有一定的距离，应用规模和产业化水平低，机械手的研究和开发直接影响到我国自动化生产水平的提高，从经济上、技术上考虑都是十分必要的。因此，进行机械手的研究设计是非常有意义的。

第四篇：机器人外文翻译(文献翻译_中英文翻译)

外文翻译

外文资料：

Robots First, I explain the background robots, robot technology development.It should be said it is a common scientific and technological development of a comprehensive results, for the socio-economic development of a significant impact on a science and technology.It attributed the development of all countries in the Second World War to strengthen the economic input on strengthening the country's economic development.But they also demand the development of the productive forces the inevitable result of human development itself is the inevitable result then with the development of humanity, people constantly discuss the natural process, in understanding and reconstructing the natural process, people need to be able to liberate a slave.So this is the slave people to be able to replace the complex and engaged in heavy manual labor, People do not realize right up to the world's understanding and transformation of this technology as well as people in the development process of an objective need.Robots are three stages of development, in other words, we are accustomed to regarding robots are divided into three categories.is a first-generation robots, also known as teach-type robot, it is through a computer, to control over one of a mechanical degrees of freedom Through teaching and information stored procedures, working hours to read out information, and then issued a directive so the robot can repeat according to the people at that time said the results show this kind of movement again, For example, the car spot welding robots, only to put this spot welding process, after teaching, and it is always a repeat of a work It has the external environment is no perception that the force manipulation of the size of the work piece there does not exist, welding 0S It does not know, then this fact from the first generation robot, it will exist this shortcoming, it in the 20th century, the late 1970s, people started to study the second-generation robot, called Robot with the feeling that This feeling with the robot is similar in function of a certain feeling, for instance, force and touch, slipping, visual, hearing and who is analogous to that with all kinds of feelings, say in a robot grasping objects, In fact, it can be the size of feeling out, it can through visual, to be able to feel and identify its shape, size, color Grasping an egg, it adopted a acumen, aware of its power and the size of the slide.Third-generation robots, we were a robotics ideal pursued by the most advanced stage, called intelligent robots, So long as tell it what to do, not how to tell it to do, it will be able to complete the campaign, thinking and perception of this man-machine communication function and function Well, this current development or relative is in a smart part of the concept and meaning But the real significance of the integrity of this intelligent robot did not actually exist, but as we continued the development of science and technology, the concept of intelligent increasingly rich, it grows ever wider connotations.Now, I would like to briefly outline some of the industrial robot situation.So far, the industrial robot is the most mature and widely used category of a robot, now the world's total sales of 1.1 million Taiwan, which is the 1999 statistics, however, 1.1 million in Taiwan have been using the equipment is 75 million, this volume is not small.Overall, the Japanese industrial robots in this one, is the first of the robots to become the Kingdom, the United States have developed rapidly.Newly installed in several areas of Taiwan, which already exceeds Japan, China has only just begun to enter the stage of industrialization, has developed a variety of industrial robot prototype and small batch has been used in production.Spot welding robot is the auto production line, improve production efficiency and raise the quality of welding car, reduce the labor intensity of a robot.It is characterized by two pairs of robots for spot welding of steel plate, bearing a great need for the welding tongs, general in dozens of kilograms or more, then its speed in meters per second a 5-2 meter of such high-speed movement.So it is generally five to six degrees of freedom, load 30 to 120 kilograms, the great space, probably expected that the work of a spherical space, a high velocity, the concept of freedom, that is to say, Movement is relatively independent of the number of components, the equivalent of our body, waist is a rotary degree of freedom We have to be able to hold his arm, Arm can be bent, then this three degrees of freedom, Meanwhile there is a wrist posture adjustment to the use of the three autonomy, the general robot has six degrees of freedom.We will be able to space the three locations, three postures, the robot fully achieved, and of course we have less than six degrees of freedom.Have more than six degrees of freedom robot, in different occasions the need to configure.The second category of service robots, with the development of industrialization, especially in the past decade, Robot development in the areas of application are continuously expanding, and now a very important characteristic, as we all know, Robot has gradually shifted from manufacturing to non-manufacturing and service industries, we are talking about the car manufacturer belonging to the manufacturing industry, However, the services sector including cleaning, refueling, rescue, rescue, relief, etc.These belong to the non-manufacturing industries and service industries, so here is compared with the industrial robot, it is a very important difference.It is primarily a mobile platform, it can move to sports, there are some arms operate, also installed some as a force sensor and visual sensors, ultrasonic ranging sensors, etc.It’s surrounding environment for the conduct of identification, to determine its campaign to complete some work, this is service robot’s one of the basic characteristics.For example, domestic robot is mainly embodied in the example of some of the carpets and flooring it to the regular cleaning and vacuuming.The robot it is very meaningful, it has sensors, it can furniture and people can identify, It automatically according to a law put to the ground under the road all cleaned up.This is also the home of some robot performance.The medical robots, nearly five years of relatively rapid development of new application areas.If people in the course of an operation, doctors surgery, is a fatigue, and the other manually operated accuracy is limited.Some universities in Germany, which, facing the spine, lumbar disc disease, the identification, can automatically use the robot-aided positioning, operation and surgery Like the United States have been more than 1,000 cases of human eyeball robot surgery, the robot, also including remote-controlled approach, the right of such gastrointestinal surgery, we see on the television inside.a manipulator, about the thickness fingers such a manipulator, inserted through the abdominal viscera, people on the screen operating the machines hand, it also used the method of laser lesion laser treatment, this is the case, people would not have a very big damage to the human body.In reality, this right as a human liberation is a very good robots, medical robots it is very complex, while it is fully automated to complete all the work, there are difficulties, and generally are people to participate.This is America, the development of such a surgery Lin Bai an example, through the screen, through a remote control operator to control another manipulator, through the realization of the right abdominal surgery A few years ago our country the exhibition, the United States has been successful in achieving the right to the heart valve surgery and bypass surgery.This robot has in the area, caused a great sensation, but also, AESOP's surgical robot, In fact, it through some equipment to some of the lesions inspections, through a manipulator can be achieved on some parts of the operation Also including remotely operated manipulator, and many doctors are able to participate in the robot under surgery Robot doctor to include doctors with pliers, tweezers or a knife to replace the nurses, while lighting automatically to the doctor's movements linked, the doctor hands off, lighting went off, This is very good, a doctor's assistant.Robot is mankind's right-hand man;friendly coexistence can be a reliable friend.In future, we will see and there will be a robot space inside, as a mutual aide and friend.Robots will create the jobs issue.We believe that there would not be a “robot appointment of workers being laid off” situation, because people with the development of society, In fact the people from the heavy physical and dangerous environment liberated, so that people have a better position to work, to create a better spiritual wealth and cultural wealth.译文资料：

机器人

首先我介绍一下机器人产生的背景，机器人技术的发展，它应该说是一个科学技术发展共同的一个综合性的结果，同时，为社会经济发展产生了一个重大影响的一门科学技术，它的发展归功于在第二次世界大战中各国加强了经济的投入，就加强了本国的经济的发展。另一方面它也是生产力发展的需求的必然结果，也是人类自身发展的必然结果，那么随着人类的发展，人们在不断探讨自然过程中，在认识和改造自然过程中，需要能够解放人的一种奴隶。那么这种奴隶就是代替人们去能够从事复杂和繁重的体力劳动，实现人们对不可达世界的认识和改造，这也是人们在科技发展过程中的一个客观需要。

机器人有三个发展阶段，那么也就是说，我们习惯于把机器人分成三类，一种是第一代机器人，那么也叫示教再现型机器人，它是通过一个计算机，来控制一个多自由度的一个机械，通过示教存储程序和信息，工作时把信息读取出来，然后发出指令，这样的话机器人可以重复的根据人当时示教的结果，再现出这种动作，比方说汽车的点焊机器人，它只要把这个点焊的过程示教完以后，它总是重复这样一种工作，它对于外界的环境没有感知，这个力操作力的大小，这个工件存在不存在，焊的好与坏，它并不知道，那么实际上这种从第一代机器人，也就存在它这种缺陷，因此，在20世纪70年代后期，人们开始研究第二代机器人，叫带感觉的机器人，这种带感觉的机器人是类似人在某种功能的感觉，比如说力觉、触觉、滑觉、视觉、听觉和人进行相类比，有了各种各样的感觉，比方说在机器人抓一个物体的时候，它实际上力的大小能感觉出来，它能够通过视觉，能够去感受和识别它的形状、大小、颜色。抓一个鸡蛋，它能通过一个触觉，知道它的力的大小和滑动的情况。第三代机器人，也是我们机器人学中一个理想的所追求的最高级的阶段，叫智能机器人，那么只要告诉它做什么，不用告诉它怎么去做，它就能完成运动，感知思维和人机通讯的这种功能和机能，那么这个目前的发展还是相对的只是在局部有这种智能的概念和含义，但真正完整意义的这种智能机器人实际上并没有存在，而只是随着我们不断的科学技术的发展，智能的概念越来越丰富，它内涵越来越宽。

下边我简单介绍一下工业机器人的一些情况。到目前为止，工业机器人是最成熟，应用最广泛的一类机器人，世界总量目前已经销售110万台，这是1999年的统计，但这110万台在已经进行装备使用的是75万台，这个量也是不小的。总体情况看，日本在工业机器人这一块，是首位的，成为机器人的王国，美国发展也很迅速，目前在新安装的台数方面，已经超过了日本，中国刚开始进入产业化的阶段，已经研制出多种工业机器人样机，已有小批量在生产中使用。

点焊机器人主要是针对汽车生产线，提高生产效率，提高汽车焊接的质量，降低工人的劳动强度的一种机器人。它的特点是通过机器人对两个钢板进行点焊的时候，需要承载一个很大的焊钳，一般在几十公斤以上，那么它的速度要求在每秒钟一米五到两米这样的高速运动，所以它一般来说有五到六个自由度，负载三十到一百二十公斤，工作的空间很大，大概有两米，这样一个球形的工作空间，运动速度也很高，那么自由度的概念，就是说，是相对独立运动的部件的个数，就相当于我们人体，腰是一个回转的自由度，我们大臂可以抬起来，小臂可以弯曲，那么这就三个自由度，同时腕部还有一个调整姿态来使用的三个自由度，所以一般的机器人有六个自由度，就能把空间的三个位置，三个姿态，机器人完全实现，当然也有小于六个自由度的，也有多于六个自由度的机器人，只是在不同的需要场合来配置。

第二类是服务机器人，随着工业化的发展，尤其近十年以来，机器人的发展的应用领域在不断拓宽，目前一个很重要的特征，大家都知道，机器人已经从制造业逐渐转向了非制造业和服务行业，刚才谈的汽车制造属于是制造业，但服务行业包括清洁、加油、救护、抢险、救灾这些等等，都属于非制造行业和服务行业，那么这里边跟工业机器人相比，它有一个很重要的不同，它主要是一个移动平台，它能够移动、去运动，上面有一些手臂进行操作，同时还装有一些像力觉传感器和视觉传感器、超声测距传感器等等。它对周边的环境进行识别，来判断它的运动，完成某种工作，这是服务机器人的基本的一个特点。

例如，家务机器人主要体现在像一些对地毯和地板定期的它能够进行清扫和吸尘，它这个机器人很有意思，它有传感器，它能够把家具和人能识别出来，它自动的按照一种规律，能根据路径把地面全部的清扫干净，这也是家务中一些机器人的表现。

那么医疗机器人，是近五年来发展比较迅速的一个新的应用领域。如果人手术的时候，医生来手术，一个是疲劳，另一个人手操作的精度还是有限的。在德国一些大学里面，面向人的脊椎，如腰间盘突出这种病，进行识别以后，能够自动地用机器人来辅助进行定位，进行操作和手术。像美国已经有一千多例机器人对人眼球进行手术，这样的机器人，还包括通过遥控操作的办法，实现对人的胃肠这种手术，大家在电视里边看到，一个机械手，大概有手指这样粗细的一个机械手，通过插入腹脏以后，人在屏幕上操作这个机器手，同时对它用激光的方法对病灶进行激光的治疗，这样的话，人就不用很大幅度地破坏人的身体，这实际对人的一种解放，是非常好一种机器人，医疗机器人它也很复杂，一方面它完全自动去完成各种工作，是有困难的，一般来说都是人来参与，这是美国开发的一个林白手术这样一个例子，人通过在屏幕上，通过一个遥控操作手来控制另一个机械手，实现通过对人的腹腔进行手术，前几年我们国家展览会上，美国已经成功的实现了对人的心脏瓣膜的手术和搭桥手术，这已经在机器人领域中，引起了很大的轰动，还包括，AESOP的这种外科手术机器人，它实际上通过一些仪器能够对人的一些病变进行检查，通过一个机械手就能够实现对人的某些部位进行手术，还包括遥操作机械手，以及多个医生可以在机器人共同参与下进行手术，包括机器人给大夫医生拿钳子、镊子或刀子来代替护士的工作，同时把照明能够自动的给医生的动作联系起来，医生的手到哪儿，照明就去哪儿，这样非常好的，一个医生的助手。

机器人是人类的得力助手，能友好相处的可靠朋友，将来我们会看到人和机器人会存在一个空间里边，成为一个互相的助手和朋友。机器人会不会产生饭碗的问题。我们相信不会出现“机器人上岗，工人下岗”的局面，因为人们随着社会的发展，实际上把人们从繁重的体力和危险的环境中解放出来，使人们有更好的岗位去工作，去创造更好的精神财富和文化财富。

第五篇：交通运输外文翻译外文文献

交通事故分析的可能性和局限性

S.Oppe 关键字：后果;目的;描述;限制;关注;事故分析;可能性

摘要：交通事故的统计数字，尤其国家一级的数据对监控和预测事故的发展，积极或消极检测事故的发展，以及对定义安全目标和评估工业安全特别有益。事故分析是应用非常有限的分析，是前瞻性分析和回顾性分析，能够对新开发的交通安全系统和特殊过程的安全措施进行评价。目前迫切需要一个将实时事故分析与研究相结合的行为。将自动检测和视频录制相结合的研究交通事故的科研论文会比较容易接受。这种类型的研究最终会对交通理念有个完善的认识。

1．简介

本文主要是基于个人的经验，研究有关交通安全、安全分析以及事故分析等在研究中的作用。由这些经验推导出的哲学思考就像通过研究和统计得出的实践观点。而这些调查数字已经在其他地方发表了。

在缺少直接观察的事故中，许多方法论问题的产生，导致不能直接测试对结果持续讨论。通过看事故视频来讨论是富有成效的。事实证明，用来解释事故的大部分有关信息就是事故中缺少的记录。深入研究还无法回忆起所有的必要的用来测试有关事故发生的假设数据。尤其是车-车相撞发生的车祸，这是在荷兰城市道路交叉口录制的视频，一辆从岔路驶来的汽车与主干路的汽车相撞，下列问题可以问：为什么汽车来自次干路上，突然加速后又几乎停止，撞上了在左侧主路的一辆汽车呢？为什么没有注意到正在驶来的车？是不是因为两车从右边驶来，司机因为前面的交叉为他们提供了可能性而斤斤计较？难道他向左看过，但他认为停在拐角处的绿色货车能让他停下来？当然，交通状况并不复杂。目前这个事故中没有骑自行车或行人在拥挤路口分散他的注意。如果停着的绿色车能够在五分钟内消失，这两辆车可能就不会相撞。在事故发生的相关条件下，几乎不可能观察下一个交通行为，因为交通事故是不可预见的。由于新的视频设备和自动检测事故设备的不断发展，如在收集数据方面不需要很高的成本就能变得越来越逼真。必要的增加数据类型也能更好的解释交通中存在的危险因素。关于事故分析的可能性和限制性的问题是不容易回答的，我们不能确切的分析交通事故。因为事故分析涵盖了每一个活动中的不同背景，并根据不同的信息来源范围来补充资料，特别是收集事故的数据，背景资料等，我们首先要看看在交通安全领域的活动周期然后再回答事故分析的可能性与限制。这些行为主要是与交通系统的安全管理有关，有些则是相关的研究活动。

应该用下面的步骤来加以区分： ——检测交通安全问题；

——描述问题和它的主要特征； ——分析其原因分析和改进建议； ——选择和执行安全措施； ——评价所采取的措施。

虽然这个周期可以由同一人或一群人做出来，而问题在每个阶段（政治/管理或科学）都有不同的背景。我们用事故分析来描述这一阶段。做这个决定是重要的。很多关于分析结果的方法的讨论由于忽视之间的区别而成为徒劳的。政治家或道路管理人员对道路的个别事故不是很留意。他们对事故的看法往往都是一视同仁，因为总的结果比整个事故中的每个人的因素重要。因此，每次事故看做一个个体，之间相互协调就会达成安全的结果。

研究人员研究事故发生时一连串事件中每个人的兴趣。希望从中得到关于每次事故的详细信息并能发现其发生的原因和有关的条件。政治家们希望只是因为细节决定行动。在最高一级事故总数减少。信息的主要来源是国家数据库及其统计学处理系统。对他来说，统计意外数字及其统计的波动来进行事故分析。这适用于事故分析中的交通安全领域。因此，我们将首先描述了事故的这些方面。2．事故的性质和它们的统计特性

事故基本概念是意外，不管是其发生的原因还是引起事故出现的过程。两个简单的假设通常是来描述交通事故的形成过程：

-事故发生的概率与以往发生的事故之间是独立；-事故发生在时间上是同性质的

如果这两个假设成立，那么事故是泊松分布。第一个假设与大多数的批判不符。事故是罕见的事件，因此不会受到以前事故的影响。在某些情况下，有一个直接的因果链（例如，大量的车开到一起）这一系列的事故被认为是一个个体事故但包含许多的车。这个假设并不适用于统计人员伤亡。伤亡人数往往与同一事故有关，因此，独立性假设不成立。第二个假设乍一看似乎不太容易理解。穿越空间或在不同地点发生的的事故同样具有可能性。然而，假设需要很长一段时间并且没有缓缴期。其性质是根据理论的假设。如果其短时间内能成立，那么它也适用于长时间，因为泊松分布变量的总和，即使他们的泊松率是不同的，但也属于泊松分布。对于这些时期的总和泊松率则等于为这些地方的泊松率的总和。假设与一个真正的情况相比较计数，无论是从一两个结果还是总情况来看都有一个基本情况比较符合。

例如，对比在一年中特定的一天例如下一天，下一个星期的一天发生的交通事故。如果条件是相同的（同一时间，交通情况相同，同样的天气条件等），那么由此产生的意外数字是相同的泊松过程的结果。这一假设可以通过估算进行测试的两个观测值的基础上（估计是两个值的平均值）的速度参数。概率理论能够

考虑到这两个观察值的平均，用于计算的平等假设的可能性。这是一个相当强大的统计过程。泊松假设是研究了很多次，来获得证据支持。它已经应用于许多情况，数的差异表明在安全性的差异然后确定是否发生意外。这一程序的主要目的是检测在安全分歧。这可能是一个时间上的差异，或不同的地方或不同的条件。这种差异可以指导改进的过程。由于主要关注的是，以减少意外的发生，这种分析可能导致对治疗中最有前途的领域。为这样一个测试应用程序的必要条件是，那意外的数字进行比较是大到足以证明存在的分歧。在许多地方情况下，一个应用程序是不可能的。事故黑点分析往往阻碍了这一限制，例如，如果应用这种测试，找出事故是否在特定的位置数是高于平均水平。该程序的描述，也可以使用，如果发生意外乃根据数的特点找到有前途的安全目标。不仅聚集，而且还与分类泊松假设成立，而意外数字可以相互测试的泊松假设的基础。这种测试是相当麻烦的，因为每个特定的情况下，每一个不同的泊松参数，即，对所有可能结果的概率必须计算应用测试。然后，泊松分布近似为正态分布，均值和方差等于泊松参数。一旦均值和方差的正态分布，给出了所有的测试可以改写了标准零均值和

方差的正态分布条件。没有任何更多的必要计算，但测试统计，需要利用表绘制。3.行车安全政策事故统计的应用

分析那些假设的基础上描述的测试程序的类型及其优点。这种应用最好的例子是为一个国家或地区进行超过一年的安全监测，用事故的总体数据（最终的特定类型，如死亡事故）与前几年的数据相比较。根据数年的事故序列，能够分析出它的发展趋势，并大致预测以后几年的事故数量。一旦建立了这样一种趋势，那么在误差范围内未来一年或几年都可以预见。从一个给定趋势的偏差也可以进行预测新的事件。最有名的是斯米德在1949年进行的分析。我们将讨论这个事故类型分析更详细的内容。

1、该测试应用推广到高阶分类。Foldvary和Lane（1974），在衡量强制佩戴安全带的效果，谁是最早应用于值的4路表高阶相互作用的总卡方分配的。

2、测试不局限于总体影响，但卡方值就可以分解模型内子假说。另外，在双向表，卡方总可以分解成零件表互动的作用。对1的优势。和2。比以前的情况是，这对许多相互关联的（子）表和相应的智广场卡方检验是由大量分析，取而代之的是一个一卡方的确切划分。

3、投入更多关注的是参数估计。例如，在卡方分割使人们有可能以测试有关行参数的线性或二次限制或趋势的不连续性。

4、分析的单位是从数到广义加权计数。这对于道路安全分析，那里一段时间，道路使用者的数量，地点或公里数的车辆往往是必要的修正有利。最后一个选项是没有发现在许多统计软件包。安徒生1977年给出了一个用于道路双向安全分析表的例子。工资保障运动的一个计算机程序。这一级没有说明事故原因分

析。它会尝试检测安全问题需要特别注意。所需的基本信息包括事故数字，来形容不安全总额，暴露的数据来计算风险，并找到一个高风险的情况下或（团体）道路使用者。

4.事故分析研究目的

交通安全的研究是有关的事故及其后果的发生。因此，人们可能会说，研究对象是意外。然而研究人员的兴趣较少集中在这个最后的结果本身，而是多在进程更多的结果（或不结果）的事故。因此，最好是把作为他的研究对象，在流量的重要事件。一个在交通意外的过程，结果是，该实际发生是由研究者未落观测研究的主要问题。

调查一宗交通意外，他将努力重建了间接来源的事件，如涉及的道路使用者，所提供的资料或目击者有关情况，车辆，道路和司机的特点。因此这不是科学独特的，也有一个间接的研究对象的研究更多的例子。但是，第二个困难是，该研究的对象不能被诱发。有系统的控制实验手段研究只对问题方面的可能，而不是问题本身。

间接观察和缺乏系统的控制组合使调查人员很难发现在什么情况下造成事故的因素。虽然研究人员主要是在事故处理领导有兴趣，他几乎完全信息的后果，它的产品，意外。此外，事故背景是复杂的。一般来说，可分为以下几个方面：

-考虑到交通系统，交通量和组成国家，道路使用者，他们的速度，天气条件下，路面情况，车辆，道路使用者和他们的相互作用的演习，意外可以或无法预防。

-由于发生事故，也对这样的速度和车辆质量的因素，大量的不同，碰撞角度，对道路使用者和他们的脆弱性，影响等位置的保护，伤害是严重或或多或少物质损失是多还是少可观。虽然这些方面不能独立研究从理论的角度看，它也从由此产生的结果的优势，区分交通情况有潜在危险的数字，是由有一个意外的可能性，在这种潜在的危险局势，给定一个特定事故。

这个概念框架是对风险的关于个别道路使用者，以及上级的决定控制器的决定制定的一般基础。在风险的数学公式，我们需要一个明确的概率空间的介绍，基本事件（的情况），可能导致事故组成，每个类型的事件的概率，最终收在一次事故中，最后的具体成果，损失，鉴于事故的类型。

另一种方法是看事故特征组合，然后找出关键因素。这种类型的事故分析是通过分析事故的共组或子群来开展。事故本身是一个研究的单位，但也要研究道路因素：道路位置，道路设计（如一个弯道）等。

原文出处：SWOV institute for road safety research Leidschendam（会议记录），记录者，S.Oppe.POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF ACCIDENT

ANALYSIS

S.Oppe Keyword：Consequences;purposes;describe;Limitations;concerned;Accident Analysis;possibilities Abstraet：Accident statistics, especially collected at a national level are particularly useful for the description, monitoring and prognosis of accident developments, the detection of positive and negative safety developments, the definition of safety targets and the(product)evaluation of long term and large scale safety measures.The application of accident analysis is strongly limited for problem analysis, prospective and retrospective safety analysis on newly developed traffic systems or safety measures, as well as for(process)evaluation of special short term and small scale safety measures.There is an urgent need for the analysis of accidents in real time, in combination with background behavioural research.Automatic incident detection, combined with video recording of accidents may soon result in financially acceptable research.This type of research may eventually lead to a better understanding of the concept of risk in traffic and to well-established theories.1.Introduction.This paper is primarily based on personal experience concerning traffic safety, safety research and the role of accidents analysis in this research.These experiences resulted in rather philosophical opinions as well as more practical viewpoints on research methodology and statistical analysis.A number of these findings are published already elsewhere.From this lack of direct observation of accidents, a number of methodological problems arise, leading to continuous discussions about the interpretation of findings that cannot be tested directly.For a fruitful discussion of these methodological problems it is very informative to look at a real accident on video.It then turns out that most of the relevant information used to explain the accident will be missing in the accident record.In-depth studies also cannot recollect all the data that is necessary in order to test hypotheses about the occurrence of the accident.For a particular car-car accident, that was recorded on video at an urban intersection in the Netherlands, between a car coming from a minor road, colliding with a car on the major road, the following questions could be asked:Why did the driver of the car coming from the minor road, suddenly accelerate after coming almost to a stop and hit the side of the car from the left at the main road? Why was the approaching car not noticed? Was it because the driver was preoccupied with the two cars coming from the right and the gap before them that offered him the possibility to cross? Did he look left before, but was his view possibly blocked by the green van parked at the corner? Certainly the traffic situation was not complicated.At the moment of the accident there were no 5

bicyclists or pedestrians present to distract his attention at the regularly overcrowded intersection.The parked green van disappeared within five minutes, the two other cars that may have been important left without a trace.It is hardly possible to observe traffic behaviour under the most relevant condition of an accident occurring, because accidents are very rare events, given the large number of trips.Given the new video equipment and the recent developments in automatic incident and accident detection, it becomes more and more realistic to collect such data at not too high costs.Additional to this type of data that is most essential for a good understanding of the risk increasing factors in traffic, it also important to look at normal traffic behaviour as a reference base.The question about the possibilities and limitations of accident analysis is not lightly answered.We cannot speak unambiguously about accident analysis.Accident analysis covers a whole range of activities, each originating from a different background and based on different sources of information: national data banks, additional information from other sources, specially collected accident data, behavioural background data etc.To answer the question about the possibilities and limitations, we first have to look at the cycle of activities in the area of traffic safety.Some of these activities are mainly concerned with the safety management of the traffic system, some others are primarily research activities.The following steps should be distinguished:description of the problem and its main characteristics;selection and implementation of safety measures;the probability of an accident to occur is independent from the occurrence of previous accidents;-the occurrence of accidents is homogeneous in time.If these two assumptions hold, then accidents are Poisson distributed.The first assumption does not meet much criticism.Accidents are rare events and therefore not easily influenced by previous accidents.In some cases where there is a direct causal chain(e.g., when a number of cars run into each other)the series of accidents may be regarded as one complicated accident with many cars involved.The assumption does not apply to casualties.Casualties are often related to the same accident and therefore the independency assumption does not hold.The second assumption seems less obvious at first sight.The occurrence of accidents through time or on different locations are not equally likely.However, the assumption need not hold over long time periods.It is a rather theoretical assumption in its nature.If it holds for short periods of time, then it also holds for long periods, because the sum of Poisson distributed variables, even if their Poisson rates are different, is also Poisson distributed.The Poisson rate for the sum of these periods is then equal to the sum of the Poisson rates for these parts.The assumption that really counts for a comparison of(composite)situations, is whether two outcomes from an aggregation of situations in time and/or space, have a comparable mix of basic situations.E.g., the comparison of the number of accidents on one particular day of the year, as compared to another day(the next day, or the same day of the next week etc.).If the conditions are assumed to be the same(same duration, same mix of traffic and situations, same weather conditions etc.)then the resulting numbers of accidents are the outcomes of the same Poisson process.This assumption can be tested by estimating the rate parameter on the basis of the two observed values(the estimate being the average of the two values).Probability theory can be used to compute the likelihood of the equality assumption, given the two observations and their mean.This statistical procedure is rather powerful.The Poisson assumption is investigated many times and turns out to be supported by a vast body of empirical evidence.It has been applied in numerous situations to find out whether differences in observed numbers of accidents suggest real differences in safety.The main purpose of this procedure is to detect differences in safety.This may be a difference over time, or between different places or between different conditions.Such differences may guide the process of improvement.Because the main concern is to reduce the 7

number of accidents, such an analysis may lead to the most promising areas for treatment.A necessary condition for the application of such a test is, that the numbers of accidents to be compared are large enough to show existing differences.In many local cases an application is not possible.Accident black-spot analysis is often hindered by this limitation, e.g., if such a test is applied to find out whether the number of accidents at a particular location is higher than average.The procedure described can also be used if the accidents are classified according to a number of characteristics to find promising safety targets.Not only with aggregation, but also with disaggregation the Poisson assumption holds, and the accident numbers can be tested against each other on the basis of the Poisson assumptions.Such a test is rather cumbersome, because for each particular case, i.e.for each different Poisson parameter, the probabilities for all possible outcomes must be computed to apply the test.In practice, this is not necessary when the numbers are large.Then the Poisson distribution can be approximated by a Normal distribution, with mean and variance equal to the Poisson parameter.Once the mean value and the variance of a Normal distribution are given, all tests can be rephrased in terms of the standard Normal distribution with zero mean and variance one.No computations are necessary any more, but test statistics can be drawn from tables.3.The use of accident statistics for traffic safety policy.The testing procedure described has its merits for those types of analysis that are based on the assumptions mentioned.The best example of such an application is the monitoring of safety for a country or region over a year, using the total number of accidents(eventually of a particular type, such as fatal accidents), in order to compare this number with the outcome of the year before.If sequences of accidents are given over several years, then trends in the developments can be detected and accident numbers predicted for following years.Once such a trend is established, then the value for the next year or years can be predicted, together with its error bounds.Deviations from a given trend can also be tested afterwards, and new actions planned.The most famous one is carried out by Smeed 1949.We will discuss this type of accident analysis in more detail later.1.The application of the Chi-square test for interaction is generalised to higher order classifications.Foldvary and Lane(1974), in measuring the effect of compulsory wearing of seat belts, were among the first who applied the partitioning of the total Chi-square in values for the higher order interactions of four-way tables.2.Tests are not restricted to overall effects, but Chi-square values can be decomposed regarding sub-hypotheses within the model.Also in the two-way table, the total Chisquare can be decomposed into interaction effects of part tables.The advantage of 1.and 2.over previous situations is, that large numbers of Chi-square tests on many interrelated(sub)tables and

corresponding Chi-squares were replaced by one analysis with an exact portioning of one Chi-square.3.More attention is put to parameter estimation.E.g., the partitioning of the Chi-square made it possible to test for linear or quadratic restraints on the row-parameters or for discontinuities in trends.4.The unit of analysis is generalised from counts to weighted counts.This is especially advantageous for road safety analyses, where corrections for period of time, number of road users, number of locations or number of vehicle kilometres is often necessary.The last option is not found in many statistical packages.Andersen 1977 gives an example for road safety analysis in a two-way table.A computer programme WPM, developed for this type of analysis of multi-way tables, is available at SWOV(see: De Leeuw and Oppe 1976).The accident analysis at this level is not explanatory.It tries to detect safety problems that need special attention.The basic information needed consists of accident numbers, to describe the total amount of unsafety, and exposure data to calculate risks and to find situations or(groups of)road users with a high level of risk.4.Accident analysis for research purposes.Traffic safety research is concerned with the occurrence of accidents and their consequences.Therefore, one might say that the object of research is the accident.The researchers interest however is less focused at this final outcome itself, but much more at the process that results(or does not result)in accidents.Therefore, it is better to regard the critical event in traffic as his object of study.One of the major problems in the study of the traffic process that results in accidents is, that the actual occurrence is hardly ever observed by the researcher.Investigating a traffic accident, he will try to reconstruct the event from indirect sources such as the information given by the road users involved, or by eye-witnesses, about the circumstances, the characteristics of the vehicles, the road and the drivers.As such this is not unique in science, there are more examples of an indirect study of the object of research.However, a second difficulty is, that the object of research cannot be evoked.Systematic research by means of controlled experiments is only possible for aspects of the problem, not for the problem itself.The combination of indirect observation and lack of systematic control make it very difficult for the investigator to detect which factors, under what circumstances cause an accident.Although the researcher is primarily interested in the process leading to accidents, he has almost exclusively information about the consequences, the product of it, the accident.Furthermore, the context of accidents is complicated.Generally speaking, the following aspects can be distinguished: Given an accident, also depending on a large number of factors, such as the speed and mass of vehicles, the collision angle, the protection of road users and their vulnerability, the location of impact etc., injuries are more or less severe or the material damage is more or less substantial.Although these aspects cannot be studied independently, from a theoretical point of view it has advantages to distinguish the number of situations in traffic that are potentially dangerous, from the probability of having an accident given such a potentially dangerous situation and also from the resulting outcome, given a particular accident.This conceptual framework is the general basis for the formulation of risk regarding the decisions of individual road users as well as the decisions of controllers at higher levels.In the mathematical formulation of risk we need an explicit description of our probability space, consisting of the elementary events(the situations)that may result in accidents, the probability for each type of event to end up in an accident, and finally the particular outcome, the loss, given that type of accident.A different approach is to look at combinations of accident characteristics, to find critical factors.This type of analysis may be carried out at the total group of accidents or at subgroups.The accident itself may be the unit of research, but also a road, a road location, a road design(e.g.a roundabout)etc.