室内设计中英文翻译【适用于毕业论文外文翻译】

第一篇：室内设计中英文翻译【适用于毕业论文外文翻译】

毕业设计英文资料翻译

Translation of the English Documents for Graduation Design

课题名称

院（系）专 业 姓 名 学 号 起讫日期 指导教师

2011 年 02 月 20 日

Interior Design

Susan Yelavich

Interior design embraces not only the decoration and furnishing of space, but also considerations of space planning, lighting, and programmatic issues pertaining to user behaviors, ranging from specific issues of accessibility to the nature of the activities to be conducted in the space.The hallmark of interior design today is a new elasticity in typologies, seen most dramatically in the domestication of commercial and public spaces.Interior design encompasses both the programmatic planning and physical treatment of interior space: the projection of its use and the nature of its furnishings and surfaces, that is, walls, floors, and ceilings.Interior design is distinguished from interior decoration in the scope of its purview.Decorators are primarily concerned with the selection of furnishings, while designers integrate the discrete elements of décor into programmatic concerns of space and use.Interior designers generally practice collaboratively with architects on the interiors of spaces built from the ground up, but they also work independently, particularly in the case of renovations.There is also a strong history of architect-designed interiors, rooted in the concept of Gesamtkunstwerk, the total work of art, that came out of the Arts & Crafts movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.It is no accident that its strongest proponents(from Frank Lloyd Wright to Mies van der Rohe)extended their practices to include the realm of interiors during the nascency of the interior-design profession.Indeed, it was a defensive measure taken by architects who viewed formal intervention by an interior decorator or designer as a threat to the integrity of their aesthetic.Today, apart from strict modernists like Richard Meier who place a premium on homogeneity, architects who take on the role of interior designer(and their numbers are growing)are more likely to be eclectic in philosophy and practice, paralleling the twenty-first century's valorization of plurality.Nonetheless, the bias against interior designers and the realm

of the interior itself continues to persist.Critical discussions of the interior have been hampered by its popular perception as a container of ephemera.Furthermore, conventional views of the interior have been fraught with biases: class biases related to centuries-old associations with tradesmen and gender biases related to the depiction of the decorating profession as primarily the domain of women and gay men.As a result, the credibility of the interior as an expression of cultural values has been seriously impaired.However, the conditions and the light in which culture-at-large is understood are changing under the impact of globalization.The distinctions between “high” culture and “low” culture are dissipating in a more tolerant climate that encourages the cross-fertilization between the two poles.Likewise, there are more frequent instances of productive borrowings among architecture, design, and decoration, once considered exclusive domains.And while the fields of architecture, interior design, and interior decoration still have different educational protocols and different concentrations of emphasis, they are showing a greater mutuality of interest.Another way to think of this emergent synthesis is to substitute the triad of “architecture, interior design, and decoration” with “modernity, technology, and history.” One of the hallmarks of the postmodern era is a heightened awareness of the role of the past in shaping the present.In the interior, this manifests itself in a renewed interest in ornament, in evidence of craft and materiality, and in spatial complexities, all running parallel to the ongoing project of modernity.Even more significantly, there is a new elasticity in typologies.Today, the traditional typologies of the interior—house, loft, office, restaurant, and so on—strain to control their borders.Evidence of programmatic convergences can clearly be seen in public and commercial spaces that aspire to be both more user-friendly and consumer-conscious.Growing numbers of private hospitals(in competition for patients)employ amenities and form languages inspired by luxury spas;at the same time, many gyms and health clubs are adopting the clinical mien of medical facilities to convince their clients of the value of their services.The same relaxation of interior protocols can be seen in offices that co-opt the informal, live-work ethic of the artist's loft, and in hotels that use the language(and contents)of galleries.Similarly, increasing numbers of grocery stores and bookstores include spaces and furniture for eating and socializing.Likewise, there is a new comfort with stylistic convergences in interiors that appropriate and recombine disparate quotations from design history.These are exemplified in spaces such as Rem Koolhaas' Casa da Musica(2005)in Porto, Portugal(with its inventive use of traditional Portuguese tiles), and Herzog & de Meuron's Walker Art Center(2005)in Minneapolis, Minnesota(where stylized acanthus-leaf patterns are used to mark gallery entrances).These interiors make an art out of hybridism.They do not simply mix and match period furnishings and styles, but refilter them through a contemporary lens.Another hallmark of the contemporary interior is the overt incorporation of narrative.Tightly themed environments persist in retail spaces such as Ralph Lauren's clothing stores and in entertainment spaces like Las Vegas casinos.However, a more playful and less linear approach to narrative is increasingly common.Of all the typologies of the interior, the residence has been least affected by change, apart from ephemeral trends such as outdoor kitchens and palatial bathrooms.However, the narrative of the residence dominates interior design at large.It has become the catalyst for rethinking a host of spaces once firmly isolated from it, ranging from the secretary's cubicle, to the nurse's station, to the librarian's reading room.Considerations such as the accommodation of personal accessories in the work space, the use of color in hospitals, and the provision of couches in libraries are increasingly common, to cite just three examples.The domestication of such environments(with curtains and wallpaper, among other residential elements)provides more comfort, more reassurance, and more pleasure to domains formerly defined by institutional prohibitions and social exclusions.Unquestionably, these changes in public and commercial spaces are indebted to the liberation movements of the late 1960s.The battles fought against barriers of race, class, gender, and physical ability laid the groundwork for a larger climate of hospitality and accommodation.It is also possible to detect a wholly other agenda in the popularity of the residential model.The introduction of domestic amenities into commercial spaces, such as recreation spaces in office interiors, can also be construed as part of a wider attempt to put a more acceptable face on the workings of free-market capitalism.In this view, interior design dons the mask of entertainment.There is nothing new about the charade.Every interior is fundamentally a stage set.Nor is it particularly insidious—as long as the conceit is transparent.Danger surfaces，however, when illusion becomes delusion—when design overcompensates for the realities of illness with patronizing sentiment, or when offices become surrogate apartments because of the relentless demands of a round-the-clock economy.In these instances, design relinquishes its potential to transform daily life in favor of what amounts to little more than a facile re-branding of space.Another force is driving the domestication of the interior and that is the enlarged public awareness of design and designers.There is a growing popular demand for design as amenity and status symbol, stimulated by the proliferation of shelter magazines, television shows devoted to home decorating, and the advertising campaigns of commercial entities such as Target and Ikea.In the Western world, prosperity, combined with the appetite of the media, has all but fetishized the interior, yielding yet another reflection of the narcissism of a consumer-driven society.On the one hand, there are positive, democratic outcomes of the growing public profile of design that can be seen in the rise of do-it-yourself web sites and enterprises like Home Depot that emphasize self-reliance.It can also be argued, more generally, that the reconsideration of beauty implicit in the valorization of design is an ameliorating social phenomenon by virtue of its propensity to inspire improvement.On the other hand, the popularization of interior design through personas such as Philippe Starck, Martha Stewart, and Barbara Barry has encouraged a superficial understanding of the interior that is more focused on objects than it is on behaviors and interactions among objects.For all the recent explosion of interest in interior design, it remains, however, a fundamentally conservative arena of design, rooted as it is in notions of enclosure, security, and comfort.This perception has been exacerbated by the growth of specialized practices focused, for example, on healthcare and hospitality.While such firms offer deep knowledge of the psychology, mechanics, and economies of particular environments, they also perpetuate distinctions that hinder a more integral approach to the interior as an extension of architecture and even the landscape outside.One notable exception is the growth of design and architecture firms accruing expertise in sustainable materials and their applications to the interior.At the same time that design firms are identifying themselves with sustainability and promoting themselves as environmentalists, a movement is building to incorporate environmental responsibility within normative practice.Over the past four decades, efforts have intensified to professionalize the field of interior design and to accord it a status equal to that of architecture.In the US and Canada the Council for Interior Design Accreditation, formerly known as FIDER, reviews interior design education programs at colleges and universities to regulate standards of practice.Furthermore, the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design(ICSID)embraces interior design within its purview, defining it as part of “intellectual profession, and not simply a trade or a service for enterprises.”

Yet, the education of interior designers remains tremendously variable, with no uniformity of pedagogy.Hence, interior design continues to be perceived as an arena open to the specialist and the amateur.This perception is indicative of both the relatively short history of the profession itself and the broader cultural forces of inclusion and interactivity that mark a global society.原文来源：

Board of International Research in Design，Design Dictionary Perspectives on Design Terminology，Birkhäuser Verlag AG 2008

第二篇：室内设计外文翻译

室内设计在环境上可持续的实践

摘要：本文旨在探讨在现代室内设计准则未保障环境可持续发展的前提下，室内设计师如何运用促使环境可持续的室内设计方案。为了给可持续室内设计的教育战略提供基础，本文研究环境可持续室内设计的实践。

关键词：可持续发展；可持续室内设计；室内设计实践

1引言

目前，室内设计师已经认识到可持续室内设计的重要性，开始着手解决环境问题。尽管一些室内设计师在设计中采用环保的解决方案，但研究、探讨在还未完成它的可持续发展设计准则时这些方案如何作为设计组件而适用。这一实践将为可持续发展的室内设计教育战略提供基础。室内设计教育工作者会鉴别不常用的可持续设计元件，发展提高对具体元件认识的教学方法，同时继续教育课程也可开发室内设计从业者。因此，本研究探讨环境可持续室内设计的实践。

1．1环境可持续室内设计

室内设计已被定义为创造性问题的解决过程：一个具有创造性、建设性行为的过程。它是一种有意识的思考过程，将学术知识与想象力结合在一起。其设计过程可以被看作是一系列的步骤或阶段顺序，既有传统的室内设计方法，也包括利用规划、原理图设计、设计开发、合同文件和合同管理等可持续室内设计，在设计完成之前，我们需要在各阶段都花心思。在传统室内设计准则中，室内设计师创造、发展、交流那些具有功能性和审美情趣的室内环境解决方案。室内设计师通过这个过程以求达到功能性质量的室内空间，并为人类的感官提供美学感受。在室内设计工程中，成本是做决定时另一重要的方面。然而，环境问题和支持环境可持续设计的需求已经纳入了传统室内设计准则的范围内。

研究表明在传统室内设计准则中，装潢材料主要根据客户的喜好、需求、美学和成本二选择，材料对环境的影响并未视为像其他选择标准同等重要。室内设计师在选择材料是往往根据制造商的销售资料而很少寻找相互矛盾的信息。许多室内设计师对材料性能影响环境的知识只有有限认识。对于设计的发展，环境问题在室内材料和产品的选择和说明中是尤为重要的。

能否实现可持续发展, 重视创造环境可持续发展的设计标准等因素是十分重要的，但这并不意味着可以忽视其他传统的室内设计标准。环境、经济和社会必须长期彼此保持平衡，可持续发展。尽管就像Firey所说，是什么构筑了可持续室内设计没有单方面的定义，但在环境、经济和社会中存在连续的权衡和谈判。因此，本文旨在将可持续室内设计定义为一种将所有系统和材料与整体效果相结合的室内设计，以求减少对环境和居住者的负面影响，增加建筑物对环境、经济和社会的积极作用。但是需指出目前环境问题在设计过程阶段还为有

重要影响。

2材料和方法

2．1研究和样本

通过一个以互联网为基础、全国范围的室内设计从业人员调查，来检查国家环境可持续发展的室内设计实践。本研究是针对专业室内设计机构即美国室内设计所的室内设计从业人员。美国室内设计所是全球室内设计师及室内设计行业的领先专业机构。美国室内设计所拥有超过四万名会员，由2万名室内设计师、学生和产业的合作伙伴组成。本研究样品从美国室内设计所的室内设计师（特别是其电子邮件地址是可行的设计师）中抽选。美国室内设计所中大约65%的室内设计师使用电子邮件。会员邮件列表并未包含个人或专业信息，考虑到反应率而确定样本的取样，此样本随机选择。

2．2调查内容

此次调查信息来自于同一时段，问卷共提出了35个问题，包括设计师的信息、环境可持续室内设计实践等。为了减低问卷的模糊率，初稿事先测试了20名室内设计从业人员，并根据结果修改问卷，同时最后结果将事先的统计排除在外。

调查问卷的格式采用封闭式的问题，也就是些众所周知的问题，要求受访者在研究员提供的方案中选择形式和尺度。问卷的开头是说明，下面分为两个部分。

第一部分是真实的多项选择题了解被访者的个人信息和专业证书。个人信息包括就业和实践的地区。第二部分集中在环境可持续发展的室内设计实践活动。这一部分的问题以能源、环境设计的领导阶层(LEED)绿色建筑等级系统和明尼苏达州的状态可持续发展建筑方针而发展。

2．3环境可持续室内设计

在建筑物使用期限内，最大限度地减少室内设计在环境系统的消极影响，增大其积极作用。

2．4室内环境质量

提供一个生理和心理健康的室内环境。

2．5室内材料

利用室内设计材料，减少资源浪费及其对环境的影响。室内环境质量报表包括九项特征，包括四项室内空气质量特征和五项人类幸福特征。

2.5.1室内空气质量

满足室内空气质量的最低要求；避免房屋使用者产生环境烟雾；防止在建设和改造过程中产生室内空气质量问题；指定环保的材料和家具。

2.5.2人类幸福

提供一个高水平的对制热、通风和照明的独立控制；提供适当的制热条件；通过引入阳光和景观，将室内空间和外部环境联系起来；提供适当的照明条件，并将这些条件通过节能的方法控制起来；提供适当的声学条件。

室内材料具有十四项基于生命周期的特征，包括三项减少输入、四项管理输出和七项生命周期设计的特征。

2.5.2.1减少输入

尽可能减少材料使用的数量；促进材料分解，以便循环和重复使用；详细说明新旧材料。

2.5.2.2管理输出

发展和执行一个管理废旧材料的计划；减少并循环利用废旧包裹；提供一个方便材料分类、收集和储存的区域。

2.5.2.3生命周期设计

详细说明循环利用的材料；详细说明当地制造的材料；详细说明可快速再生的材料；详细说明木质材料，以便对森林管理负责；详细说明持久、耐用的材料；详细说明可重复使用、循环利用和生物降解的材料；详细说明低生命周期影响的室内材料。

为了每份报表，要求受访者根据当前的规模把它评价为三大类，分类根据运用的频率，对设计师以及设计师所在公司起作用。

2．6 数据收集及分析

使用邮件或互联网调查是为了迅速覆盖更多的区域，他们通过可靠的网络管理工具回答管理报告。这个研究的电子邮件通过发放样品，再让他们到指定的网站来完成调查。为了获得高的反应率，将有三封邮件，一封初始邮件，两周时候将有第二封邮件，第三封邮件将作为提示完成问卷进行发送，最后使用描述性统计数据分析研究。此次统计分布在室内设计师的特点和环境可持续室内设计实践的中心趋向的频率和比例上。

3讨论

室内设计师认为环境可持续室内设计是重要的，但并不总是把它付诸实践。环境可持续室内设计将不被运用于室内设计工程中是有不同原因的。需要努力获取知识并将环境可持续室内设计应用于工程中将是很浪费时间和压力的项目计划。室内设计师可能会认为可持续室内设计需要额外的室内环境系统及材质，为此将会付出更高的代价。但是，如果顾客不要求或不熟悉这样的方法，结果将会不同，顾客将会被鼓励使用环境可持续室内设计解决方案。

这次调查研究显示，可持续室内材料在环境可持续室内设计组件上的运用比在室内环境质量上运用的更少。它同样表明室内设计师还未意识到环境问题已经关系到室内材料的整个生命周期。因此，提高对可持续室内设计重要性以及室内材料对整个生命周期影响的意识的教学方法对装潢材料类本科生和在继续教育课程的实践者都是十分必要的。

此次研究将会成为激励室内设计从业者去进行环境可持续室内设计实践的决定因素。研究表明，虽然室内设计师认为环境可持续室内设计十分重要，但是他在室内工程中的运用却没有达到认知的同等水平。决定为什么室内设计师有将环境特征运用到他们的设计世界的动

机的原因将会直接促进环境可持续发展的实践。虽然室内设计师已经意识到环境可持续室内设计的重要性，但是考虑到可持续室内设计的花费又使他们气馁。这项调查研究被设计成环境与经济研究可持续室内设计的统一体。可持续装潢材料，是一种不常见的环境可持续室内设计应用组件，通过绿色项目装潢材料的实例才能进行。如果这种实践的优势更加明显，环境可持续室内设计实践的特征也许才能更广泛地应用。这项研究工程被设计成用来考察和分析那些表明使用环境可持续室内设计方法底线的数据。

4结论

虽然室内设计师承认环境可持续设计的重要性，但它在室内设计工程中的应用并没有达到它重要性认知的同等水平。可持续装饰材料在环境可持续室内设计组件上的运用比在室内空气质量和人类幸福上运用的更少。在室内空气质量、环境烟草上的控制是最常见的应用特点，而低挥发材料的使用是最少的。随着系统可控性越来越少被使用，相对地，在人类幸福、获得日光和景观、有效的照明、适当的声学控制和热舒适性方面的应用越来越常见。在减少输入方面，减少材料的使用是最常见的应用特点；在管理输出方面，减少和处置危险废物是最常见的；在生命周期设计中，常见的是坚固耐用、本地材料。然而，建筑废物管理、低生命周期影响的材料是可持续室内设计最不常见的应用特点。

更多有关环境型、经济型和社会型可持续室内设计的研究，有助于进一步改良可持续设计的知识主体。了解国家环境可持续室内设计是十分重要的，这项研究已经为此作出一份贡献。

第三篇：食品安全外文文献翻译(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)

w 论食品供应链管理和食品质量安全

上世纪90年代以来,供应链管理已成为学术界和实业界关注的热门话题,特别是供应链管理成功地应用于IBM、P&G、DELL 等公司的经营管理以后,食品和农产品行业也纷纷效仿并借助供应链管理这一工具来提高自身的竞争力。1996年,Zuurbier等学者在一般供应链的基础上，首次提出了食品供应链概念，并认为食品供应链管理是农产品和食品生产销售等组织,为了降低食品和农产品物流成本、提高其质量安全和物流服务水平而进行的垂直一体化运作模式。如今,在美国、英国、加拿大和荷兰等农业生产较为发达的国家,这一管理模式已经广为应用,并逐渐成为当今学术研究的重点课题。

对食品供应链管理的研究大致经历了三个阶段：第一阶段为商流管理阶段，研究范围包括农产品和食品加工企业的产出到消费者消费前的商流阶段，其研究内容通常被包含在营销范畴内；第二阶段为集成物流管理阶段，农产品的物流管理从市场营销中分离出来，且向上游扩展到农产品和食品生产企业的生产加工过程，强调生产应以市场需求为导向和对整个物流环节的成本控制；第三阶段为供应链一体化管理阶段，研究范围进一步向上游延伸到农产品的最上游企业(如种子供应商等)，延伸的目的是为了跟踪和追溯农产品食品质量安全问题，以便快速和有效地发现并解决问题。本文介绍了不同食品供应链的生产物流系统特点，并对食品供应链与食品质量安全管理的发展进行了分析和探讨。

一．食品供应链管理的产生原因

近年来，食品供应链的产生和发展是人们对食品消费的要求不断提高的必然结果。具体而言，产生的原因主要有：(1)消费者对食品和农产品的新鲜度要求越来越高，并要求食品和农产品交货期、生产期越短越好。(2)消费者对食品和农产品的质量要求也越来越高，迫使食品生产企业实行食品供应链管理，以保证稳定的上游原料供应和下游的销售渠道畅通。(3)消费者对食品的质量安全也越来越关注。为了满足消费者对食品和农产品在种类和数量上的要求，企业不断寻求和研发新技术，而新技术和新方法的过度使用(如杀虫剂、激素、抗生素和转

w 基因技术等)，在满足了消费者需求的同时，也不可避免地对人体产生了危害从而引起食品质量安全问题。这是因为市场中买卖双方信息不对称,消费者在购买食品或农产品时，不了解产品的卫生、环保和安全信息。因此，企业有必要在生产过程的各个环节对产品进行检验和检测并及时向消费者披露这些信息。(4)食品和农产品企业迫于政府、相关社会组织和消费者的要求和压力，不得不按食品供应链来进行运作。例如，欧盟管理法规第178号规定，从2004年起在欧盟范围内销售的所有食品，都要实行食品供应链跟踪与追溯；同样在美国，食品与药品管理局规定，在美国国内外从事食品生产、加工和包装等的部门以及相关组织，在2003年12月12日前要向食品与药品管理局进行登记，以便进行食品安全跟踪与追溯，未登记者就不许从事食品生产和销售。由此可见，食品供应链管理是在市场内在动力和政府外在压力的情况下促成的。

二．食品供应链生产物流系统

食品供应链的形成是与其物流系统的内容不断变化密切相关的,特别是在食品和农产品生产物流系统不断演变的情况下,为人们创建高效率的食品供应链管理范式提供了基础。根据食品和农产品物流的发展阶段,典型的食品供应链可划分为哑铃型、T型、对称型和混合型四种类型。

1.哑铃型食品供应链。这种类型的食品供应链严格来说是一种准供应链。它的特点是供应链较短,连接位于两端的交易主体很多,而中间链节少且交易主体也较少，呈现为哑铃型。由于上游生产者拥有的技术条件较差、产量低和品种少，故上游聚集了为数众多的农产品生产者；同时，由于产品生产地离市场较近且只提供单一农产品，也又使得链中参与交易的主体大多为农产品生产者，他们在市场上进行直接交易，而少有联系生产者和消费者之间的中间商，因此，种植业者直接将食品和农产品销售给消费者。在发展中国家,特别是靠近城镇地区的蔬菜供应,一般都采用这种类型的供应链。

2.T型食品供应链。这种类型的食品供应链一般适用于食品和农产品的生产地和销售地相距较远，消费需求差异较大的情况。由于农产品易腐烂，农产品生产者不可能直接销售自己的产品,需要通过必要的中间商提供服务,如第三方物流、农产品深加工商和批发商等所提供的相应服务。这种类型的供应链，上游聚

w 集了较多的农产品生产者,而在中游环节对产地生产情况比较了解,又在销售地占有一定渠道优势的销售商却较少。因此,T型食品供应链的上游种植业者众多,而中下游中间商和销售商较少且集中,供应链的形状呈现为 T型。与哑铃型食品供应链相比,它的链条较长,食品和农产品的销售表现为间接性和增值服务性。这种类型的食品供应链在中国较为普遍，在中国农业产业化不发达的地区,由于缺乏一端连接上游农户，另一端联结销售市场、专门从事农产品加工的龙头企业以及相应的中间环节，农产品生产往往和市场需求相脱节。因此T型食品供应链由于中间环节缺位和低水平的物流运作，易出现上游农户盲目生产而下游农产品销售困难的现象。

3.对称型食品供应链。随着新兴销售业态的出现,销售渠道日益被大型专业市场和超市所垄断,农产品和食品的传统销售形式也被超市所取代,而且这种趋势越来越明显,同时由于技术水平的提高,农产品生产也趋向于由少数种植商集约经营。Boselie.D通过对泰国皇家阿荷生鲜超市食品供应链管理的调查发现,曼谷有50%的食品和农产品是在大型超市(如7-

11、皇家阿荷、家乐福、Sainsburry和TESCO)售出的。这些大型超市为了满足市场对农产品品质一致性和供应稳定性的要求，对供应商进行了严格的筛选。因此，皇家阿荷生鲜超市实施食品供应链管理后，将供应商从原来的250家减少为60家左右，使物流系统更加高效和简洁。随着上游农产品供应商数目的锐减和超市连锁店的不断扩张，这种食品供应链的上游供应商与下游超市连锁店的数目呈现对称增长之态势。在发达国家及物流发展较为成熟的大城市里，这种食品供应链经常表现为集中采购、统一流通配送和减少不增值的物流环节,以实现节约成本的精益物流战略。

4.混合型食品供应链。随着市场食品和农产品消费需求的多样化，食品和农产品加工的比重也在逐步提高。据有关统计表明，美国2002未加工和加工蔬菜的比例为15%和85%；水果为30%和70%。其他国家的情况也大致如此。大型超市为了适应消费需求的显著变化，将原先由独立企业从事的专业化生产的增值环节进行“内部化”，专门建立大型加工及配送中心，对农产品进行清洗、分类、深度加工、包装和配送等增值业务，同时通过在大型加工中心实施HACCP和GMP加工质量和卫生安全认证，来保证食品和农产品的品质安全。这个环节是前述三个食品供应链中所没有的，这是大型超市和连锁店对市场需求作出快速反

w 应的结果。随着上游供应商实力和优势的增强，加工中心的部分功能，如清洗、分类和深度加工等环节又向供应商回流，使得加工中心的重点放在处理和不断扩大的农产品数量和种类业务上。因此，这种食品供应链是一种综合型、多品种、大批量和多频次的混合型供应链体系。这种食品供应链更关注消费者的满意度，通过加工中心来对市场需求作出快速反应，并实时对农产品和食品进行“量身定制”和深度加工，以实现不同于精益物流的灵捷物流战略。

三．食品供应链跟踪与食品质量安全

近年来，由于食品供应链合作的重点由原来的保证供货质量逐步转向加强食品和农产品的质量安全，如疯牛病、口蹄疫和转基因食品等的出现。农产品和食品质量安全的跟踪离不开食品供应链管理，因此基于质量安全的食品供应链跟踪成了食品供应链管理的重点和难点。Golan.E等通过对美国生鲜农产品、谷类和油菜以及牛肉制品的调查研究发现，三者经食品供应链跟踪后，在食品质量安全方面出现了很大的差异。而分析这些差异，他们又发现三种农产品食品供应链管理的共性，即存在三种驱动力。这也是企业实施食品供应链管理时需要分析考察的问题：

1.有利于食品和农产品差别化营销，以提高食品和农产品的销量。通过那些细小的或不能直接发现的食品质量安全的特性，可区别不同类型的农产品和食品。因为在食品和农产品市场上不仅存在大量单一的谷类和肉类产品，而且也有根据消费者不同的偏好和口味量身定制的食品。有些农产品和食品的质量可能容易判别，而另一些则不容易直接判别，甚至在消费之后也不能马上发现其质量问题。例如，转基因食用油，如未进行标识，消费者就很难判别食用油是否由非转基因大豆加工而成。因此，对农产品和食品的安全质量和品质进行细分，是差别化营销的必要前提。

2.有利于农产品和食品质量安全的跟踪，减少食品和农产品召回成本。许多企业已利用食品供应链跟踪系统，来最大限度地减少食品安全体系缺陷可能造成的潜在损失。供应商通常有着很强的经济驱动性，当发现食品有安全隐患和质量问题时，他们往往会采取措施，避免食品质量安全问题给企业自身或品牌带来负面的影响。基于食品供应链的跟踪能帮助企业缩短确认和清理有问题食品的时

w 间，为此，国外许多企业将相关标识信息揭示在食品包装上，以便利消费者的识别和认定。例如，在美国大多数要求召回的食品和农产品都被公布在美国农业部食品安全和检验服务的官方网站上，以便消费者根据食品包装的标识信息来判定有问题的食品和农产品。有些企业则通过使用先进RSS条码系统和EAN/UCC全球统一标识系统，更为具体地揭示食品供应链的标识信息，如每种产品的种子、施肥、使用抗生素的情况、生产时间、生产线、生产地、生产所使用的技术和生产次序，等等。因此某种产品一旦出现问题，这些标识信息将能够发挥很大的作用。

目前，欧盟已经采用EAN/UCC系统，成功地开展了对牛肉、蔬菜等食品追踪的研究。通过采用EAN/UCC-128条码符号、GLN(全球位置码)可以对食品供应链全过程中的产品及其属性信息和参与方信息等进行有效的标识。在对食品跟踪与追溯时，要求供应链中的每一道加工环节，不仅要对自己所加工完成的产品进行标识，还要采集所需加工的食品原料上的已有标识信息，并将其全部信息标识在加工完成的产品上，以备下一道加工环节或消费者使用，从而有效地解决了供应链各环节之间的联系比较脆弱、实施跟踪和追溯难度大的问题，也为企业减少因缺乏明确信息而将混在优质食品中的劣质食品连同优质食品一同处理的可能性。

3.有利于提高和改善供应方的物流管理。对于企业来说，管理生产物流和跟踪相关零售信息(如条形码)，能帮助企业了解其食品供应链的物流流出状况，以便对供应链上游物流的流入进行有效管理。特别是有些企业采用了基于质量安全的食品供应链的高新技术追溯系统，如农场主使用电子耳标识和相关数据收集卡来跟踪食品和农产品的免疫记录、健康记录和饲养记录等。这些食品供应链的信息也能使食品或农产品在市场上获得与其质量相符的价格。

然而，对所有食品和农产品都实施食品供应链的质量安全跟踪是没有必要的。Van Weele根据市场对农产品和食品信息的需求，确定食品供应链信息跟踪的宽度、深度和精度。同理，企业对食品供应链信息跟踪的宽度、深度和精度也反映出其对基于质量安全的食品供应链的成本和收益的一种综合取向。因为信息跟踪的宽度、深度和精度决定着企业整合食品供应链的投入和成本。只有当收益大于成本时，企业所选择的宽度、深度和精度才是实施供应链质量安全跟踪的动力和保证。

w Discussion on food supply chain management and food quality and safety

Since the 1990s, supply chain management has become the academic and business circles hot topic, especially in supply chain management successfully applied to IBM, P & G, DELL, etc.after the company's management, food and agricultural industries have followed suit and Supply chain management with a tool to improve their competitiveness.1996, Zuurbier and other scholars in general, on the basis of the supply chain, first proposed the concept of the food supply chain, and that the food supply chain management of agricultural and food production and marketing organization, food and agricultural products in order to reduce logistics costs and improve its quality and safety and logistics service level and for vertical integration mode of operation.Now, in the U.S., UK, Canada and the Netherlands and other more developed countries, agricultural production, this management model has been widely used, and gradually become the focus of academic research project.The food supply chain management research has gone through three stages: the first stage of the business flow management phase, the study of agricultural products and food processing enterprises, including the output of consumer spending to business before the flow phase, the content of their research is often included In the marketing context;the second stage of integrated logistics management phase, agricultural marketing, logistics management separate from, and to extend to the upstream producers of agricultural and food production process, emphasizing the production should be based on market demand and cost control throughout the supply chain;the third stage of supply chain integration management phase, the study extends further upstream to the most upstream agricultural enterprises(such as seed suppliers, etc.), the purpose is to extend the tracking and tracing of food quality and safety of

w agricultural products issues in order to quickly and effectively identify and solve problems.This article describes the production of different food supply chain logistics system characteristics, and the food supply chain management with the development of food quality and safety are analyzed and discussed.One.Food causes of supply chain management In recent years, the food supply chain, production and development of people's increasing demands for food consumption, the inevitable result.Specifically, the causes are:(1)the consumer fresh food and agricultural products have become increasingly demanding and require delivery of food and agricultural products, the production period as short as possible.(2)consumers of food and agricultural products quality requirements have become more sophisticated, forcing food manufacturers to implement the food supply chain management to ensure a stable supply of raw materials upstream and downstream sales channels.(3)food quality and safety of consumers are increasingly concerned about.In order to meet consumer demand for food and agricultural products in the type and quantity requirements, companies continue to seek and develop new technologies, and new technologies and new methods of excessive use(such as pesticides, hormones, antibiotics and genetically modified technology, etc.)to meet the consumer demand, but also inevitably produced a hazard causing human food quality and safety issues.This is because buyers and sellers in the market information asymmetry, consumers in the purchase of food or agricultural products, the products do not understand the health, environmental and safety information.Therefore, enterprises need in all aspects of the production process inspection and testing of products and timely disclosure of information to consumers.(4)food and agricultural companies forced the government, Relevant social

w organizations and consumer demands and pressure to press the food supply chain to operate.For example, EU regulations No.178, as from 2004 in all EU-wide sales of food, must be implemented to track and trace food supply chain;the same in the United States Food and Drug Administration regulations in the United States and abroad engaged in food production, processing and packaging departments and related organizations in the December 12, 2003 to register the Food and Drug Administration for food safety tracking and tracing, on the allowed unregistered persons engaged in food production and sales.Thus, the food supply chain management is inherent in the market dynamics and the external pressure the government to promote the case.Two.Food supply chain, production logistics system The formation of the food supply chain logistics system with the changing content of closely related, particularly in the food and agricultural production logistics system evolving situation, for people to create a highly efficient food supply chain management paradigm provides the basis.According to food and agricultural products logistics stage of development, typical of the food supply chain can be divided into dumbbell-shaped, T-, symmetric and mixed four types.1．dumbbell food supply chain.This type of food supply chain is a quasi-strict supply chain.It is characterized by a shorter supply chain, connecting the main lot located at both ends of the transaction, while the middle of the main chain are few and fewer transactions, showing the dumbbell type.Upstream producers have poor technical conditions, production is low and less variety, it gathered a large number of upstream agricultural producers;the same time, products from the market to close and only a single farm, it also makes the chain in Most of the main trading agricultural producers, their direct trading in the market, and little

w contact between producers and consumers, middlemen, so growers sell directly to consumers food and agricultural products.In developing countries, especially near urban areas, the supply of vegetables, generally using this type of supply chain.2.T type of food supply chain.This type of food supply chains are generally applicable to food and agricultural production and sales of land to the far distance, consumer demand quite different situation.As perishable agricultural products, agricultural producers can not sell their products directly, through intermediaries to provide the necessary services, such as third-party logistics, agricultural processors and wholesalers provide appropriate services.This type of supply chain, upstream gathered more producers, and in the middle part of a better understanding of the origin of production, but also in the sales channels to occupy a certain advantage, but fewer vendors.Therefore, T-food supply chain and many growers, brokers and sellers and less downstream and concentrated, showing the shape of the supply chain for the T-type.And dumbbell-shaped compared to the food supply chain, which chain is longer, the sales performance of food and agricultural products and value-added services for the indirect nature.This type of food supply chains more common in China, China's agriculture industry in less developed regions, due to lack of upstream farmers to connect one end, other end of the link sales market, specializing in the processing of agricultural products among leading enterprises and the corresponding part of agricultural production often out of line with market demand.Therefore, T-middle part of the food supply chain as a low level of absence and logistics operation, prone to upstream farmers and downstream production of agricultural products sold blindly difficult phenomenon.3．symmetric food supply chain.With the emergence of new sales formats, distribution channels are increasingly large-scale professional market

w and supermarket monopoly, the traditional sales of agricultural products and food forms have been replaced by supermarkets, and this trend is more and more obvious, and because of its technological level of agricultural products production also tends to intensive management by a few growers.Boselie.D Ahe by the Royal Thai supermarket fresh food supply chain management survey found that 50% of Bangkok's food and agricultural products in large supermarkets(such as 7-11, Royal Ahe, Carrefour, Sainsburry and TESCO)sold of.These large supermarkets in order to meet the market for agricultural products, quality consistency and supply stability requirements, the supplier of a rigorous screening.Therefore, the implementation of the Royal Ahe supermarket fresh food supply chain management, will be vendors from the original 250 was reduced to about 60, so that the logistics system more efficient and concise.With the upper reaches of the sharp drop in the number of suppliers of agricultural products and the continuous expansion of the supermarket chain, this food supply chain, upstream suppliers and downstream number of supermarket chains showed symmetrical growth trend.Logistics development in developed and more mature cities, this has been expressed in the food supply chain, centralized purchasing, reduce non-uniform flow distribution and value-added logistics sectors, in order to achieve cost savings of lean logistics strategy.4．mixed food supply chain.With consumer demand for food and agricultural products market diversification, the proportion of food and agricultural processing has gradually improved.According to the statistics that the United States in 2002 raw and processed vegetables for 15% and 85%;fruit of 30% and 70%.Other countries also generally the case.Large supermarkets in order to meet consumer demand significant changes to the original by an independent enterprise engaged in specialized production of value-added aspects of “internal” and

w specifically the establishment of large-scale processing and distribution center for agricultural products for cleaning, sorting, in-depth processing, packaging and distribution and other value-added services, through the implementation of HACCP in a large processing center and GMP certification process quality and health and safety, to ensure the quality of food and agricultural safety.The link is above three does not have the food supply chain, which is large supermarkets and chain stores to respond quickly to market demands results.With upstream suppliers to enhance the strength and advantages of the processing center part of the function, such as cleaning, sorting and depth of processing and other sectors Youxiang supplier back, making the processing center focused on the processing of agricultural products and expanding the number and type of business.Therefore, this food supply chain is a comprehensive, multi-species, multi-frequency high-volume and mix of supply chain system.This food supply chain are more concerned about customer satisfaction, through the processing centers to respond quickly to market demand, and real-time on agricultural products and foodstuffs “tailored” and depth of processing, in order to achieve different from the lean agile logistics logistics strategy.Three.Food supply chain tracking and food quality and safety In recent years, the focus of the food supply chain collaboration to ensure delivery of quality from the gradual move to reinforce the quality and safety of food and agricultural products, such as BSE, foot and mouth disease and the emergence of genetically modified foods.Agricultural products and food quality and safety of track without food supply chain management, so based on quality and safety of the food supply chain to track the food supply chain management has become important and difficult.Golan.E by the United States and other fresh produce, meat products，w cereals and oilseed rape, and survey findings, three by the food supply chain tracking, food quality and safety in that there are great differences.The analysis of these differences, they also found that three agricultural products common food supply chain management, that there are three driving forces.This is also the corporate implementation of the food supply chain management requires analysis examines the question: 1．will help differentiate the marketing of food and agricultural products to improve food and agricultural sales.Through those small or can not be directly found in food quality and safety features, can distinguish between different types of agricultural products and food.Because in the food and agricultural products on the market not only in large single grains and meat products, but also based on consumer preferences and tastes of different tailor-made food.Some agricultural products and food quality may be easier to distinguish, while others are not easy to directly determine, even after the consumer can not immediately find its quality.For example, transgenic edible oil, if not identified, the consumer it is difficult to determine whether the oil processed from non-genetically modified soybeans.Therefore, the quality of agricultural products and food safety and quality of the segmentation is a necessary prerequisite for differentiated marketing.2.is conducive to quality and safety of agricultural products and food tracking, reducing the cost of food and agricultural products recall.Many companies have used the food supply chain tracking systems to minimize food safety system deficiencies may result in potential losses.Suppliers often have a strong economy driven, when discovered food safety hazards and quality problems are, they tend to take measures to avoid food quality and safety issues to the companies themselves, or have a negative impact on the brand.Based on the food supply chain tracking can help businesses identify and reduce the time to clean up the food in question, for many

w foreign companies to reveal identifying information related to food packaging, to facilitate the identification of consumers and identified.For example, in the United States requested the recall of most food and agricultural products have been released in the United States Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service's official website for consumers based on food packaging, identification information to determine the question of food and agricultural products.Some companies are using advanced RSS bar code system and EAN / UCC Global unified identification system, more specifically reveal the identity of the food supply chain information, such as the product of each seed, fertilizer, use of antibiotics, production time, production lines, production , the production technology used and the production order, and so on.Therefore, a product if there are problems, these identification information will be able to play a significant role.Currently, the EU has adopted EAN / UCC system, successfully carried out on beef, vegetables and other food tracking research.By using EAN/UCC-128 bar code symbol, GLN(Global Location Number)to the food supply chain and the whole process of product attribute information and participants information for effective identification.Tracking and traceability in the food, the requirements of the supply chain process in every aspect, not only to complete the processing of their products for identification, but also to collect the necessary processing of food materials has been on the identification information, and all information identified in the processing of finished products, to prepare for the next part of a process or consumer use, in order to effectively solve the supply chain link between the weak, difficult to track and trace the problem, but also for companies to reduce by lack of clear information and good food will be mixed in with the poor quality of food processing with the possibility of high-quality food.w 3．will help enhance and improve the supply side of logistics management.For businesses, the management of production logistics and track-related retail information(such as bar code), to help businesses understand their food supply chain, logistics and outflow conditions for the supply chain for effective management of logistics flows.In particular, some businesses have adopted based on the quality and safety of the food supply chain of high-tech tracking system, such as farmers use electronic ear identification cards and related data collection to track the immunization records of food and agricultural products, health records and breeding records.The food supply chain information can also make food or agricultural products in the market for its consistent quality and price.However, the implementation of all food and agricultural products quality and safety of the food supply chain tracking is not necessary.Van Weele, according to market information on agricultural and food needs of the food supply chain information to determine the track width, depth and accuracy.Similarly, companies in the food supply chain information to track width, depth and accuracy also reflects on the quality and safety of its food supply chain costs and benefits of an integrated approach.Because the information track width, depth and accuracy of a determinant of business investment in the food supply chain integration and cost.Only when the benefits outweigh the costs, the firm chosen width, depth and accuracy is the implementation of supply chain quality and safety of track power and assurance.

第四篇：毕业论文外文翻译

经济增速放缓对中国银行业的影响显现 Lagging Indicators: China's Banks and the Slowdown

摘要: Chinese banks' net income surged to record highs last year, defying the slowing growth on the world's second-largest economy.Is it indicating that banks are resilient to the economic downturn?Not nec...Chinese banks' net income surged to record highs last year, defying the slowing growth on the world's second-largest economy.Is it indicating that banks are resilient to the economic downturn?

Not necessarily.The banks have a tendency to be lagging indicators.Only after a certain amount of time has passed will China's macro situation show up on the bottom line.Take, for example, bad loans.They're finally growing, incrementally, after years of declining.Industrial & Commercial Bank of China Ltd., the nation's largest bank by assets, saw its

nonperforming loans rise by 3.82 billion yuan(about $606 million)in the fourth quarter;China Construction Bank Corp., the No.2 bank on the mainland, reported a 6.27 billion yuan rise in such loans.Bank of China Ltd.'s bad loans in the fourth quarter rose 1.39 billion yuan.(In China, nonperforming loans are those that have at least a 30% chance of turning sour.)

Smaller banks also saw some increases in bad loans.China Minsheng Banking Corp., the

country's largest non-state-owned bank, posted a rise of 200 million yuan in nonperforming loans in 2011.Such loans at Industrial Bank Co.grew by 99 million yuan last year.More tellingly, data from the Chinese banking regulator showed that the nonperforming loan ratio in the nation's banking sector edged up 0.1 percentage point in the fourth quarter from the third quarter, the first rise in the past six years.The regulator didn't give a reason, but the earnings reports from Chinese banks this week offered some cues: The property market might be the culprit.China Construction Bank said among the total, its nonperforming loans related to the real estate sector surged 20% over the same period.Minsheng Bank said the nonperforming ratio of its real estate financing businesses was 1.72%, well above its overall bad loan ratio of 0.63%.Home prices have been under pressure for about two years, but it's only now do we see a sign of it in banks' statements.The question is whether investors see a few more problem numbers down the road.In three years starting 2009, banks in China issued a total of 25 trillion yuan of

renminbi-denominated loans, with roughly 40% of the lending going to government-initiated infrastructure projects and the property sector.'The second quarter of this year will be one of the peak seasons for the repayment of property loans and local government borrowings.With a slowing economy, we can expect that higher nonperforming loans are on the cards,' GF Securities analyst Mu Hua said in a recent note.According to Noah Wealth Management, a Chinese financial service company, a total of 117.25 billion yuan of property trust products will be due this year, well above the 47.05 billion yuan last year, putting huge pressure on property developers' cash flows.Besides property, analysts say local government borrowings will present a bigger challenge to banks.Banking executives have estimated that a third of China's 10.7 trillion yuan government debt will be due this year and the next.Standard & Poor's analyst Liao Qiang said he believes Beijing will likely give some regulatory forbearance to local government debt to prevent a surge in banks' bad loans.'Nevertheless, property developers and manufacturers in industries with a supply glut will continue to face policy-induced refinancing uncertainties from time to time,' he said.Monday in Hong Kong, China Construction Bank Chairman Wang Hongzhang said he's optimistic about the bank's asset quality, given China's economic growth is likely to remain solid.'Nonperforming loan levels are controllable.Even though they are higher than before, the amount is small and [the rise] is likely to be temporary,' he said.Agence France-Presse/Getty Images

中资银行净利润去年创下新高，似乎并没有受到中国这一世界第二大经济体经济增速放缓的影响。这是否意味着，银行业可以免受经济下行的影响呢？

未必。

银行业的反应往往有一定的滞后性。只有在一段时期后，中国宏观经济形势的影响才会在银行的营收中有所体现。

以不良贷款为例。在下降趋势持续了几年之后，不良贷款的比例终于开始上升，虽然涨幅不大。按资产总量计算，中国最大的银行中国工商银行(Industrial & Commercial Bank of China Ltd.)的不良贷款去年第四季度增加了人民币38.2亿元（约合6.06亿美元），中国第二大银行中国建设银行(China Construction Bank Corp.)的不良贷款增加了人民币62.7亿元。中国银行(Bank of China Ltd.)的不良贷款在第四季度增加了13.9亿元。（在中国，不良贷款指的是变成坏账的几率在30%以上的贷款。）

规模较小银行的不良贷款水平也在增长。中国最大的非国有银行中国民生银行(China

Minsheng Banking Corp.)2011年不良贷款增加了人民币2亿元。兴业银行(Industrial Bank Co.)的不良贷款去年增加了人民币9,900万元。

更能说明这一问题的是，中国银监会的数据显示，中国银行业的不良贷款比例在第四季度较第三季度上升了0.1个百分点，这是该比例过去六年来首次上升。

银监会没有给出原因，但是中资银行本周发布的年报提供了一些线索：房地产市场可能是罪魁祸首。

中国建设银行表示，在该银行的所有不良贷款中，与房地产业有关的不良贷款同比上涨了20%。民生银行说，其房地产融资业务的不良贷款比例为1.72%，大大超过了其0.63%的总体不良贷款比例。

两年来住房价格一直在承受压力，但直到现在我们才在银行的年报中看到了相关迹象。问题是，投资者是否看到了更多问题数据出现的可能性。

从2009年到2011年这三年里，中资银行共发放了25万亿元以人民币计价的贷款，其中约有40%的贷款流向了政府主导的基建项目和楼市。

今年的第二季度将是房地产贷款和地方政府借贷的还款高峰期。广发证券(GF Securities Co.)分析师沐华在最近的一份报告中说，由于经济减速，我们预计可能出现更多的不良贷款。

中国的金融服务公司诺亚财富投资管理有限公司(Noah Private Wealth Management, 简称：诺亚财富)说，共有1,172.5亿元的房地产信托产品将会在今年到期，高于去年的470.5亿元，这给房地产开发商的现金流造成了巨大压力。

分析人士说，除了房地产，地方政府借的贷款将为银行带来更大的挑战。据一些银行高管估计，中国10.7万亿元的政府贷款中，有三分之一将在今明两年到期。

标准普尔(Standard & Poor)的分析师廖强说，中国中央政府可能会给予地方政府债务一定的宽限，以防不良贷款激增。他说，尽管如此，房地产开发商以及供应过剩行业的制造企业仍会不时地面临由政策引发的再融资不确定性。

中国建设银行董事长王洪章周一在香港说，考虑到中国经济很可能继续保持稳定增长，他对该银行的资产质量持乐观态度。他说，不良贷款的水平是可控的。即使是比以往有所增加，总量还是很小，而且增长很可能也是暂时的。

第五篇：毕业论文外文翻译

译文

组织为留住员工的激励理论以及它们的应用的研

究

为什么必须要留住关键性的雇员？

Fitz-enz（1997年）提出，公司每失去10个管理上和专业上的员工就会损失100美元。算上直接成本和间接成本，避免雇员流失的总成本，是其一年工资和福利的最小量，或两年的薪酬和福利的最大值。对于一个组织来说，失去任何一个关键的雇员都会产生严重的经济影响，特别是考虑到随雇员离去而丧失的知识。这些知识是可以用来满足顾客的需要和期望的。知识的管理是创造、捕捉的过程以及知识来提高组织绩效的进程。

此外，Toracco（2000年）指出，虽然现在知识已经被认为是一个组织最宝贵的资产，但是，大多数组织缺乏必要的保留和利用知识价值的配套制度。组织不能只站在消极的立场上去希望人们在这个组织内能够得到和利用那些已知的、可以接近的知识。相反，组织应该以寻求维持竞争优势为目的，迅速发展能充分利用知识价值的系统(Robinson & Stern, 1997;Stewart, 1997).。因此，这很容易看到失去了宝贵的员工的知识的巨大影响。

人力资本和知识管理的概念是，人们拥有的技能，经验和知识，因此对组织具有经济价值。这些技能，知识和经验代表了资本，因为它们提高了生产率(Snell and Dean, 1992)。人力资本理论假定某些劳动力更有生产力仅仅是因为越来越多的资源投资在劳动力培训上，相当于一台机器投入了更多的资源来提高生产率ller, 1982)。人力资本理论的一条基本原则是，如同任何商

业投资，“投资技能建设将更加有利可图，更有可能将要持续较长的时期，从而获得投资回报”(Mueller, 1982, p.94)。此外，留住对于实现充分的投资回报是非常重要的。人力资本理论还认为员工在一个组织的服务长度可以作为与职业相关的知识或能力的代表。一个人对与工作有关的知识或能力的了解，影响该人的工资，推销自己和工作的类型(Becker，1975； Hulin & Smith，1967； Katz，1978)。在一个组织里，关于工龄的理解可以与乌尔里希（1998）定义的智力资本承诺的组成部分联系起来。他的定义很简单“技能通过承诺而增加”(p.125)，智力资本的重要性等于知识，技能和每一个人在组织中的属性乘以他们愿意努力工作。在未来几年，个人对组织的承诺将得到更重要的承认，以及该组织需要创建一个有人会愿意留下来的环境(Harris, 2000)。组织将需要或创建一个智力资本环境下，知识的传播的发生将遍及整个组织，或继续通过工龄发展失去重要的个人知识。许多人认为这些深奥的知识将有助于满足客户的需求和期望，并在全球经济组织相互竞争的今天，创建和维持竞争优势。

作者：苏尼尔

国籍：美国

出处：《美国商业学术期刊》，2004年9月，第52-59页

原文

A Review of Employee Motivation Theories and their

Implications

for Employee Retention within Organizations

Why is it Necessary to Retain Critical Employees?

Fitz-enz(1997)stated that the average company loses approximately $1 million with every 10 managerial and professional employees who leave the organization.Combined with direct and indirect costs, the total cost of anexempt employee turnover is a minimum of one year’s pay and benefits, or a maximum of two years’ pay andbenefits.There is significant economic impact with an organization losing any of its critical employees, especially given the knowledge that is lost with the employee’s departure.This is the knowledge that is used to meet the needs knowledge to enhance organizational performance(Bassi, 1997).Furthermore, Toracco(2000)stated that although knowledge is now recognized as one of an organization’s most valuable assets most organizations lack the supportive systems required to retain and leverage the value of knowledge.Organizations cannot afford to take a passive stance toward knowledge management in the hopes that people are acquiring and using knowledge, and that sources of knowledge are known and accessed throughout the organization.Instead, organizations seeking to sustain competitive advantage have moved quickly to develop systems to leverage the value of knowledge for this purpose(Robinson & Stern, 1997;Stewart, 1997).Thus, it is easy to see the dramatic effect of losing employees who have

valuable knowledge.The concept of human capital and knowledge management is that people possess skills, experience and knowledge, and therefore have economic value to organizations.These skills, knowledge and experience represent capital because they enhance productivity(Snell and Dean, 1992).Human capital theory postulates that some labor is more productive than other labor simply because more resources have been invested into the training of that labor, in the same manner that a machine that has had more resources invested into it is apt to be more productive(Mueller, 1982).One of the basic tenets of human capital theory is that, like any business investment, an “investment in skill-building would be more profitable and more likely to be undertaken the longer the period over which returns from the investment can accrue”(Mueller, 1982, p.94).Again, employee retention is important in realizing a full return on investment.Human capital theory includes the length of service in the organization as a

proxy for job relevant knowledge or ability.A person’s job relevant knowledge or ability influences that person’s wage, promotional opportunity and/or type of job(Becker, 1975;Hulin & Smith, 1967;Katz, 1978).The understanding of length of service in an organization relates back to Ulrich’s(1998)component of commitment in his definition of intellectual capital.His definition was simply“competencemultiplied by commitment”(p.125), meaning intellectual capital equals the knowledge, skills, and attributes of each individual within an organization multiplied by their willingness to work hard.It will become significantly more important in the years ahead to recognize the commitment of individuals to an organization, as well as the organization’s need to create an environment in which one would be willing to stay(Harris,2000).Organizations will need to either create an intellectual capital environment where the transmission of knowledge takes place throughout the structure, or continue to lose important individual knowledge that has been developed through the length of service.This deep knowledge is what many believe will help to meet the needs and expectations of the customers and to create and sustain a competitive advantage within the global economy in which organizations are competing in today.Author： Sunil Ramlall

Nationnality：America

Originate from：The Journal of American Academy of Business，September 2004,P52-59