食品安全外文文献翻译(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)5篇

第一篇：食品安全外文文献翻译(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)

w 论食品供应链管理和食品质量安全

上世纪90年代以来,供应链管理已成为学术界和实业界关注的热门话题,特别是供应链管理成功地应用于IBM、P&G、DELL 等公司的经营管理以后,食品和农产品行业也纷纷效仿并借助供应链管理这一工具来提高自身的竞争力。1996年,Zuurbier等学者在一般供应链的基础上，首次提出了食品供应链概念，并认为食品供应链管理是农产品和食品生产销售等组织,为了降低食品和农产品物流成本、提高其质量安全和物流服务水平而进行的垂直一体化运作模式。如今,在美国、英国、加拿大和荷兰等农业生产较为发达的国家,这一管理模式已经广为应用,并逐渐成为当今学术研究的重点课题。

对食品供应链管理的研究大致经历了三个阶段：第一阶段为商流管理阶段，研究范围包括农产品和食品加工企业的产出到消费者消费前的商流阶段，其研究内容通常被包含在营销范畴内；第二阶段为集成物流管理阶段，农产品的物流管理从市场营销中分离出来，且向上游扩展到农产品和食品生产企业的生产加工过程，强调生产应以市场需求为导向和对整个物流环节的成本控制；第三阶段为供应链一体化管理阶段，研究范围进一步向上游延伸到农产品的最上游企业(如种子供应商等)，延伸的目的是为了跟踪和追溯农产品食品质量安全问题，以便快速和有效地发现并解决问题。本文介绍了不同食品供应链的生产物流系统特点，并对食品供应链与食品质量安全管理的发展进行了分析和探讨。

一．食品供应链管理的产生原因

近年来，食品供应链的产生和发展是人们对食品消费的要求不断提高的必然结果。具体而言，产生的原因主要有：(1)消费者对食品和农产品的新鲜度要求越来越高，并要求食品和农产品交货期、生产期越短越好。(2)消费者对食品和农产品的质量要求也越来越高，迫使食品生产企业实行食品供应链管理，以保证稳定的上游原料供应和下游的销售渠道畅通。(3)消费者对食品的质量安全也越来越关注。为了满足消费者对食品和农产品在种类和数量上的要求，企业不断寻求和研发新技术，而新技术和新方法的过度使用(如杀虫剂、激素、抗生素和转

w 基因技术等)，在满足了消费者需求的同时，也不可避免地对人体产生了危害从而引起食品质量安全问题。这是因为市场中买卖双方信息不对称,消费者在购买食品或农产品时，不了解产品的卫生、环保和安全信息。因此，企业有必要在生产过程的各个环节对产品进行检验和检测并及时向消费者披露这些信息。(4)食品和农产品企业迫于政府、相关社会组织和消费者的要求和压力，不得不按食品供应链来进行运作。例如，欧盟管理法规第178号规定，从2004年起在欧盟范围内销售的所有食品，都要实行食品供应链跟踪与追溯；同样在美国，食品与药品管理局规定，在美国国内外从事食品生产、加工和包装等的部门以及相关组织，在2003年12月12日前要向食品与药品管理局进行登记，以便进行食品安全跟踪与追溯，未登记者就不许从事食品生产和销售。由此可见，食品供应链管理是在市场内在动力和政府外在压力的情况下促成的。

二．食品供应链生产物流系统

食品供应链的形成是与其物流系统的内容不断变化密切相关的,特别是在食品和农产品生产物流系统不断演变的情况下,为人们创建高效率的食品供应链管理范式提供了基础。根据食品和农产品物流的发展阶段,典型的食品供应链可划分为哑铃型、T型、对称型和混合型四种类型。

1.哑铃型食品供应链。这种类型的食品供应链严格来说是一种准供应链。它的特点是供应链较短,连接位于两端的交易主体很多,而中间链节少且交易主体也较少，呈现为哑铃型。由于上游生产者拥有的技术条件较差、产量低和品种少，故上游聚集了为数众多的农产品生产者；同时，由于产品生产地离市场较近且只提供单一农产品，也又使得链中参与交易的主体大多为农产品生产者，他们在市场上进行直接交易，而少有联系生产者和消费者之间的中间商，因此，种植业者直接将食品和农产品销售给消费者。在发展中国家,特别是靠近城镇地区的蔬菜供应,一般都采用这种类型的供应链。

2.T型食品供应链。这种类型的食品供应链一般适用于食品和农产品的生产地和销售地相距较远，消费需求差异较大的情况。由于农产品易腐烂，农产品生产者不可能直接销售自己的产品,需要通过必要的中间商提供服务,如第三方物流、农产品深加工商和批发商等所提供的相应服务。这种类型的供应链，上游聚

w 集了较多的农产品生产者,而在中游环节对产地生产情况比较了解,又在销售地占有一定渠道优势的销售商却较少。因此,T型食品供应链的上游种植业者众多,而中下游中间商和销售商较少且集中,供应链的形状呈现为 T型。与哑铃型食品供应链相比,它的链条较长,食品和农产品的销售表现为间接性和增值服务性。这种类型的食品供应链在中国较为普遍，在中国农业产业化不发达的地区,由于缺乏一端连接上游农户，另一端联结销售市场、专门从事农产品加工的龙头企业以及相应的中间环节，农产品生产往往和市场需求相脱节。因此T型食品供应链由于中间环节缺位和低水平的物流运作，易出现上游农户盲目生产而下游农产品销售困难的现象。

3.对称型食品供应链。随着新兴销售业态的出现,销售渠道日益被大型专业市场和超市所垄断,农产品和食品的传统销售形式也被超市所取代,而且这种趋势越来越明显,同时由于技术水平的提高,农产品生产也趋向于由少数种植商集约经营。Boselie.D通过对泰国皇家阿荷生鲜超市食品供应链管理的调查发现,曼谷有50%的食品和农产品是在大型超市(如7-

11、皇家阿荷、家乐福、Sainsburry和TESCO)售出的。这些大型超市为了满足市场对农产品品质一致性和供应稳定性的要求，对供应商进行了严格的筛选。因此，皇家阿荷生鲜超市实施食品供应链管理后，将供应商从原来的250家减少为60家左右，使物流系统更加高效和简洁。随着上游农产品供应商数目的锐减和超市连锁店的不断扩张，这种食品供应链的上游供应商与下游超市连锁店的数目呈现对称增长之态势。在发达国家及物流发展较为成熟的大城市里，这种食品供应链经常表现为集中采购、统一流通配送和减少不增值的物流环节,以实现节约成本的精益物流战略。

4.混合型食品供应链。随着市场食品和农产品消费需求的多样化，食品和农产品加工的比重也在逐步提高。据有关统计表明，美国2002年度未加工和加工蔬菜的比例为15%和85%；水果为30%和70%。其他国家的情况也大致如此。大型超市为了适应消费需求的显著变化，将原先由独立企业从事的专业化生产的增值环节进行“内部化”，专门建立大型加工及配送中心，对农产品进行清洗、分类、深度加工、包装和配送等增值业务，同时通过在大型加工中心实施HACCP和GMP加工质量和卫生安全认证，来保证食品和农产品的品质安全。这个环节是前述三个食品供应链中所没有的，这是大型超市和连锁店对市场需求作出快速反

w 应的结果。随着上游供应商实力和优势的增强，加工中心的部分功能，如清洗、分类和深度加工等环节又向供应商回流，使得加工中心的重点放在处理和不断扩大的农产品数量和种类业务上。因此，这种食品供应链是一种综合型、多品种、大批量和多频次的混合型供应链体系。这种食品供应链更关注消费者的满意度，通过加工中心来对市场需求作出快速反应，并实时对农产品和食品进行“量身定制”和深度加工，以实现不同于精益物流的灵捷物流战略。

三．食品供应链跟踪与食品质量安全

近年来，由于食品供应链合作的重点由原来的保证供货质量逐步转向加强食品和农产品的质量安全，如疯牛病、口蹄疫和转基因食品等的出现。农产品和食品质量安全的跟踪离不开食品供应链管理，因此基于质量安全的食品供应链跟踪成了食品供应链管理的重点和难点。Golan.E等通过对美国生鲜农产品、谷类和油菜以及牛肉制品的调查研究发现，三者经食品供应链跟踪后，在食品质量安全方面出现了很大的差异。而分析这些差异，他们又发现三种农产品食品供应链管理的共性，即存在三种驱动力。这也是企业实施食品供应链管理时需要分析考察的问题：

1.有利于食品和农产品差别化营销，以提高食品和农产品的销量。通过那些细小的或不能直接发现的食品质量安全的特性，可区别不同类型的农产品和食品。因为在食品和农产品市场上不仅存在大量单一的谷类和肉类产品，而且也有根据消费者不同的偏好和口味量身定制的食品。有些农产品和食品的质量可能容易判别，而另一些则不容易直接判别，甚至在消费之后也不能马上发现其质量问题。例如，转基因食用油，如未进行标识，消费者就很难判别食用油是否由非转基因大豆加工而成。因此，对农产品和食品的安全质量和品质进行细分，是差别化营销的必要前提。

2.有利于农产品和食品质量安全的跟踪，减少食品和农产品召回成本。许多企业已利用食品供应链跟踪系统，来最大限度地减少食品安全体系缺陷可能造成的潜在损失。供应商通常有着很强的经济驱动性，当发现食品有安全隐患和质量问题时，他们往往会采取措施，避免食品质量安全问题给企业自身或品牌带来负面的影响。基于食品供应链的跟踪能帮助企业缩短确认和清理有问题食品的时

w 间，为此，国外许多企业将相关标识信息揭示在食品包装上，以便利消费者的识别和认定。例如，在美国大多数要求召回的食品和农产品都被公布在美国农业部食品安全和检验服务的官方网站上，以便消费者根据食品包装的标识信息来判定有问题的食品和农产品。有些企业则通过使用先进RSS条码系统和EAN/UCC全球统一标识系统，更为具体地揭示食品供应链的标识信息，如每种产品的种子、施肥、使用抗生素的情况、生产时间、生产线、生产地、生产所使用的技术和生产次序，等等。因此某种产品一旦出现问题，这些标识信息将能够发挥很大的作用。

目前，欧盟已经采用EAN/UCC系统，成功地开展了对牛肉、蔬菜等食品追踪的研究。通过采用EAN/UCC-128条码符号、GLN(全球位置码)可以对食品供应链全过程中的产品及其属性信息和参与方信息等进行有效的标识。在对食品跟踪与追溯时，要求供应链中的每一道加工环节，不仅要对自己所加工完成的产品进行标识，还要采集所需加工的食品原料上的已有标识信息，并将其全部信息标识在加工完成的产品上，以备下一道加工环节或消费者使用，从而有效地解决了供应链各环节之间的联系比较脆弱、实施跟踪和追溯难度大的问题，也为企业减少因缺乏明确信息而将混在优质食品中的劣质食品连同优质食品一同处理的可能性。

3.有利于提高和改善供应方的物流管理。对于企业来说，管理生产物流和跟踪相关零售信息(如条形码)，能帮助企业了解其食品供应链的物流流出状况，以便对供应链上游物流的流入进行有效管理。特别是有些企业采用了基于质量安全的食品供应链的高新技术追溯系统，如农场主使用电子耳标识和相关数据收集卡来跟踪食品和农产品的免疫记录、健康记录和饲养记录等。这些食品供应链的信息也能使食品或农产品在市场上获得与其质量相符的价格。

然而，对所有食品和农产品都实施食品供应链的质量安全跟踪是没有必要的。Van Weele根据市场对农产品和食品信息的需求，确定食品供应链信息跟踪的宽度、深度和精度。同理，企业对食品供应链信息跟踪的宽度、深度和精度也反映出其对基于质量安全的食品供应链的成本和收益的一种综合取向。因为信息跟踪的宽度、深度和精度决定着企业整合食品供应链的投入和成本。只有当收益大于成本时，企业所选择的宽度、深度和精度才是实施供应链质量安全跟踪的动力和保证。

w Discussion on food supply chain management and food quality and safety

Since the 1990s, supply chain management has become the academic and business circles hot topic, especially in supply chain management successfully applied to IBM, P & G, DELL, etc.after the company's management, food and agricultural industries have followed suit and Supply chain management with a tool to improve their competitiveness.1996, Zuurbier and other scholars in general, on the basis of the supply chain, first proposed the concept of the food supply chain, and that the food supply chain management of agricultural and food production and marketing organization, food and agricultural products in order to reduce logistics costs and improve its quality and safety and logistics service level and for vertical integration mode of operation.Now, in the U.S., UK, Canada and the Netherlands and other more developed countries, agricultural production, this management model has been widely used, and gradually become the focus of academic research project.The food supply chain management research has gone through three stages: the first stage of the business flow management phase, the study of agricultural products and food processing enterprises, including the output of consumer spending to business before the flow phase, the content of their research is often included In the marketing context;the second stage of integrated logistics management phase, agricultural marketing, logistics management separate from, and to extend to the upstream producers of agricultural and food production process, emphasizing the production should be based on market demand and cost control throughout the supply chain;the third stage of supply chain integration management phase, the study extends further upstream to the most upstream agricultural enterprises(such as seed suppliers, etc.), the purpose is to extend the tracking and tracing of food quality and safety of

w agricultural products issues in order to quickly and effectively identify and solve problems.This article describes the production of different food supply chain logistics system characteristics, and the food supply chain management with the development of food quality and safety are analyzed and discussed.One.Food causes of supply chain management In recent years, the food supply chain, production and development of people's increasing demands for food consumption, the inevitable result.Specifically, the causes are:(1)the consumer fresh food and agricultural products have become increasingly demanding and require delivery of food and agricultural products, the production period as short as possible.(2)consumers of food and agricultural products quality requirements have become more sophisticated, forcing food manufacturers to implement the food supply chain management to ensure a stable supply of raw materials upstream and downstream sales channels.(3)food quality and safety of consumers are increasingly concerned about.In order to meet consumer demand for food and agricultural products in the type and quantity requirements, companies continue to seek and develop new technologies, and new technologies and new methods of excessive use(such as pesticides, hormones, antibiotics and genetically modified technology, etc.)to meet the consumer demand, but also inevitably produced a hazard causing human food quality and safety issues.This is because buyers and sellers in the market information asymmetry, consumers in the purchase of food or agricultural products, the products do not understand the health, environmental and safety information.Therefore, enterprises need in all aspects of the production process inspection and testing of products and timely disclosure of information to consumers.(4)food and agricultural companies forced the government, Relevant social

w organizations and consumer demands and pressure to press the food supply chain to operate.For example, EU regulations No.178, as from 2004 in all EU-wide sales of food, must be implemented to track and trace food supply chain;the same in the United States Food and Drug Administration regulations in the United States and abroad engaged in food production, processing and packaging departments and related organizations in the December 12, 2003 to register the Food and Drug Administration for food safety tracking and tracing, on the allowed unregistered persons engaged in food production and sales.Thus, the food supply chain management is inherent in the market dynamics and the external pressure the government to promote the case.Two.Food supply chain, production logistics system The formation of the food supply chain logistics system with the changing content of closely related, particularly in the food and agricultural production logistics system evolving situation, for people to create a highly efficient food supply chain management paradigm provides the basis.According to food and agricultural products logistics stage of development, typical of the food supply chain can be divided into dumbbell-shaped, T-, symmetric and mixed four types.1．dumbbell food supply chain.This type of food supply chain is a quasi-strict supply chain.It is characterized by a shorter supply chain, connecting the main lot located at both ends of the transaction, while the middle of the main chain are few and fewer transactions, showing the dumbbell type.Upstream producers have poor technical conditions, production is low and less variety, it gathered a large number of upstream agricultural producers;the same time, products from the market to close and only a single farm, it also makes the chain in Most of the main trading agricultural producers, their direct trading in the market, and little

w contact between producers and consumers, middlemen, so growers sell directly to consumers food and agricultural products.In developing countries, especially near urban areas, the supply of vegetables, generally using this type of supply chain.2.T type of food supply chain.This type of food supply chains are generally applicable to food and agricultural production and sales of land to the far distance, consumer demand quite different situation.As perishable agricultural products, agricultural producers can not sell their products directly, through intermediaries to provide the necessary services, such as third-party logistics, agricultural processors and wholesalers provide appropriate services.This type of supply chain, upstream gathered more producers, and in the middle part of a better understanding of the origin of production, but also in the sales channels to occupy a certain advantage, but fewer vendors.Therefore, T-food supply chain and many growers, brokers and sellers and less downstream and concentrated, showing the shape of the supply chain for the T-type.And dumbbell-shaped compared to the food supply chain, which chain is longer, the sales performance of food and agricultural products and value-added services for the indirect nature.This type of food supply chains more common in China, China's agriculture industry in less developed regions, due to lack of upstream farmers to connect one end, other end of the link sales market, specializing in the processing of agricultural products among leading enterprises and the corresponding part of agricultural production often out of line with market demand.Therefore, T-middle part of the food supply chain as a low level of absence and logistics operation, prone to upstream farmers and downstream production of agricultural products sold blindly difficult phenomenon.3．symmetric food supply chain.With the emergence of new sales formats, distribution channels are increasingly large-scale professional market

w and supermarket monopoly, the traditional sales of agricultural products and food forms have been replaced by supermarkets, and this trend is more and more obvious, and because of its technological level of agricultural products production also tends to intensive management by a few growers.Boselie.D Ahe by the Royal Thai supermarket fresh food supply chain management survey found that 50% of Bangkok's food and agricultural products in large supermarkets(such as 7-11, Royal Ahe, Carrefour, Sainsburry and TESCO)sold of.These large supermarkets in order to meet the market for agricultural products, quality consistency and supply stability requirements, the supplier of a rigorous screening.Therefore, the implementation of the Royal Ahe supermarket fresh food supply chain management, will be vendors from the original 250 was reduced to about 60, so that the logistics system more efficient and concise.With the upper reaches of the sharp drop in the number of suppliers of agricultural products and the continuous expansion of the supermarket chain, this food supply chain, upstream suppliers and downstream number of supermarket chains showed symmetrical growth trend.Logistics development in developed and more mature cities, this has been expressed in the food supply chain, centralized purchasing, reduce non-uniform flow distribution and value-added logistics sectors, in order to achieve cost savings of lean logistics strategy.4．mixed food supply chain.With consumer demand for food and agricultural products market diversification, the proportion of food and agricultural processing has gradually improved.According to the statistics that the United States in 2002 raw and processed vegetables for 15% and 85%;fruit of 30% and 70%.Other countries also generally the case.Large supermarkets in order to meet consumer demand significant changes to the original by an independent enterprise engaged in specialized production of value-added aspects of “internal” and

w specifically the establishment of large-scale processing and distribution center for agricultural products for cleaning, sorting, in-depth processing, packaging and distribution and other value-added services, through the implementation of HACCP in a large processing center and GMP certification process quality and health and safety, to ensure the quality of food and agricultural safety.The link is above three does not have the food supply chain, which is large supermarkets and chain stores to respond quickly to market demands results.With upstream suppliers to enhance the strength and advantages of the processing center part of the function, such as cleaning, sorting and depth of processing and other sectors Youxiang supplier back, making the processing center focused on the processing of agricultural products and expanding the number and type of business.Therefore, this food supply chain is a comprehensive, multi-species, multi-frequency high-volume and mix of supply chain system.This food supply chain are more concerned about customer satisfaction, through the processing centers to respond quickly to market demand, and real-time on agricultural products and foodstuffs “tailored” and depth of processing, in order to achieve different from the lean agile logistics logistics strategy.Three.Food supply chain tracking and food quality and safety In recent years, the focus of the food supply chain collaboration to ensure delivery of quality from the gradual move to reinforce the quality and safety of food and agricultural products, such as BSE, foot and mouth disease and the emergence of genetically modified foods.Agricultural products and food quality and safety of track without food supply chain management, so based on quality and safety of the food supply chain to track the food supply chain management has become important and difficult.Golan.E by the United States and other fresh produce, meat products，w cereals and oilseed rape, and survey findings, three by the food supply chain tracking, food quality and safety in that there are great differences.The analysis of these differences, they also found that three agricultural products common food supply chain management, that there are three driving forces.This is also the corporate implementation of the food supply chain management requires analysis examines the question: 1．will help differentiate the marketing of food and agricultural products to improve food and agricultural sales.Through those small or can not be directly found in food quality and safety features, can distinguish between different types of agricultural products and food.Because in the food and agricultural products on the market not only in large single grains and meat products, but also based on consumer preferences and tastes of different tailor-made food.Some agricultural products and food quality may be easier to distinguish, while others are not easy to directly determine, even after the consumer can not immediately find its quality.For example, transgenic edible oil, if not identified, the consumer it is difficult to determine whether the oil processed from non-genetically modified soybeans.Therefore, the quality of agricultural products and food safety and quality of the segmentation is a necessary prerequisite for differentiated marketing.2.is conducive to quality and safety of agricultural products and food tracking, reducing the cost of food and agricultural products recall.Many companies have used the food supply chain tracking systems to minimize food safety system deficiencies may result in potential losses.Suppliers often have a strong economy driven, when discovered food safety hazards and quality problems are, they tend to take measures to avoid food quality and safety issues to the companies themselves, or have a negative impact on the brand.Based on the food supply chain tracking can help businesses identify and reduce the time to clean up the food in question, for many

w foreign companies to reveal identifying information related to food packaging, to facilitate the identification of consumers and identified.For example, in the United States requested the recall of most food and agricultural products have been released in the United States Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service's official website for consumers based on food packaging, identification information to determine the question of food and agricultural products.Some companies are using advanced RSS bar code system and EAN / UCC Global unified identification system, more specifically reveal the identity of the food supply chain information, such as the product of each seed, fertilizer, use of antibiotics, production time, production lines, production , the production technology used and the production order, and so on.Therefore, a product if there are problems, these identification information will be able to play a significant role.Currently, the EU has adopted EAN / UCC system, successfully carried out on beef, vegetables and other food tracking research.By using EAN/UCC-128 bar code symbol, GLN(Global Location Number)to the food supply chain and the whole process of product attribute information and participants information for effective identification.Tracking and traceability in the food, the requirements of the supply chain process in every aspect, not only to complete the processing of their products for identification, but also to collect the necessary processing of food materials has been on the identification information, and all information identified in the processing of finished products, to prepare for the next part of a process or consumer use, in order to effectively solve the supply chain link between the weak, difficult to track and trace the problem, but also for companies to reduce by lack of clear information and good food will be mixed in with the poor quality of food processing with the possibility of high-quality food.w 3．will help enhance and improve the supply side of logistics management.For businesses, the management of production logistics and track-related retail information(such as bar code), to help businesses understand their food supply chain, logistics and outflow conditions for the supply chain for effective management of logistics flows.In particular, some businesses have adopted based on the quality and safety of the food supply chain of high-tech tracking system, such as farmers use electronic ear identification cards and related data collection to track the immunization records of food and agricultural products, health records and breeding records.The food supply chain information can also make food or agricultural products in the market for its consistent quality and price.However, the implementation of all food and agricultural products quality and safety of the food supply chain tracking is not necessary.Van Weele, according to market information on agricultural and food needs of the food supply chain information to determine the track width, depth and accuracy.Similarly, companies in the food supply chain information to track width, depth and accuracy also reflects on the quality and safety of its food supply chain costs and benefits of an integrated approach.Because the information track width, depth and accuracy of a determinant of business investment in the food supply chain integration and cost.Only when the benefits outweigh the costs, the firm chosen width, depth and accuracy is the implementation of supply chain quality and safety of track power and assurance.

第二篇：室内设计中英文翻译【适用于毕业论文外文翻译】

毕业设计英文资料翻译

Translation of the English Documents for Graduation Design

课题名称

院（系）专 业 姓 名 学 号 起讫日期 指导教师

2011 年 02 月 20 日

Interior Design

Susan Yelavich

Interior design embraces not only the decoration and furnishing of space, but also considerations of space planning, lighting, and programmatic issues pertaining to user behaviors, ranging from specific issues of accessibility to the nature of the activities to be conducted in the space.The hallmark of interior design today is a new elasticity in typologies, seen most dramatically in the domestication of commercial and public spaces.Interior design encompasses both the programmatic planning and physical treatment of interior space: the projection of its use and the nature of its furnishings and surfaces, that is, walls, floors, and ceilings.Interior design is distinguished from interior decoration in the scope of its purview.Decorators are primarily concerned with the selection of furnishings, while designers integrate the discrete elements of décor into programmatic concerns of space and use.Interior designers generally practice collaboratively with architects on the interiors of spaces built from the ground up, but they also work independently, particularly in the case of renovations.There is also a strong history of architect-designed interiors, rooted in the concept of Gesamtkunstwerk, the total work of art, that came out of the Arts & Crafts movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.It is no accident that its strongest proponents(from Frank Lloyd Wright to Mies van der Rohe)extended their practices to include the realm of interiors during the nascency of the interior-design profession.Indeed, it was a defensive measure taken by architects who viewed formal intervention by an interior decorator or designer as a threat to the integrity of their aesthetic.Today, apart from strict modernists like Richard Meier who place a premium on homogeneity, architects who take on the role of interior designer(and their numbers are growing)are more likely to be eclectic in philosophy and practice, paralleling the twenty-first century's valorization of plurality.Nonetheless, the bias against interior designers and the realm

of the interior itself continues to persist.Critical discussions of the interior have been hampered by its popular perception as a container of ephemera.Furthermore, conventional views of the interior have been fraught with biases: class biases related to centuries-old associations with tradesmen and gender biases related to the depiction of the decorating profession as primarily the domain of women and gay men.As a result, the credibility of the interior as an expression of cultural values has been seriously impaired.However, the conditions and the light in which culture-at-large is understood are changing under the impact of globalization.The distinctions between “high” culture and “low” culture are dissipating in a more tolerant climate that encourages the cross-fertilization between the two poles.Likewise, there are more frequent instances of productive borrowings among architecture, design, and decoration, once considered exclusive domains.And while the fields of architecture, interior design, and interior decoration still have different educational protocols and different concentrations of emphasis, they are showing a greater mutuality of interest.Another way to think of this emergent synthesis is to substitute the triad of “architecture, interior design, and decoration” with “modernity, technology, and history.” One of the hallmarks of the postmodern era is a heightened awareness of the role of the past in shaping the present.In the interior, this manifests itself in a renewed interest in ornament, in evidence of craft and materiality, and in spatial complexities, all running parallel to the ongoing project of modernity.Even more significantly, there is a new elasticity in typologies.Today, the traditional typologies of the interior—house, loft, office, restaurant, and so on—strain to control their borders.Evidence of programmatic convergences can clearly be seen in public and commercial spaces that aspire to be both more user-friendly and consumer-conscious.Growing numbers of private hospitals(in competition for patients)employ amenities and form languages inspired by luxury spas;at the same time, many gyms and health clubs are adopting the clinical mien of medical facilities to convince their clients of the value of their services.The same relaxation of interior protocols can be seen in offices that co-opt the informal, live-work ethic of the artist's loft, and in hotels that use the language(and contents)of galleries.Similarly, increasing numbers of grocery stores and bookstores include spaces and furniture for eating and socializing.Likewise, there is a new comfort with stylistic convergences in interiors that appropriate and recombine disparate quotations from design history.These are exemplified in spaces such as Rem Koolhaas' Casa da Musica(2005)in Porto, Portugal(with its inventive use of traditional Portuguese tiles), and Herzog & de Meuron's Walker Art Center(2005)in Minneapolis, Minnesota(where stylized acanthus-leaf patterns are used to mark gallery entrances).These interiors make an art out of hybridism.They do not simply mix and match period furnishings and styles, but refilter them through a contemporary lens.Another hallmark of the contemporary interior is the overt incorporation of narrative.Tightly themed environments persist in retail spaces such as Ralph Lauren's clothing stores and in entertainment spaces like Las Vegas casinos.However, a more playful and less linear approach to narrative is increasingly common.Of all the typologies of the interior, the residence has been least affected by change, apart from ephemeral trends such as outdoor kitchens and palatial bathrooms.However, the narrative of the residence dominates interior design at large.It has become the catalyst for rethinking a host of spaces once firmly isolated from it, ranging from the secretary's cubicle, to the nurse's station, to the librarian's reading room.Considerations such as the accommodation of personal accessories in the work space, the use of color in hospitals, and the provision of couches in libraries are increasingly common, to cite just three examples.The domestication of such environments(with curtains and wallpaper, among other residential elements)provides more comfort, more reassurance, and more pleasure to domains formerly defined by institutional prohibitions and social exclusions.Unquestionably, these changes in public and commercial spaces are indebted to the liberation movements of the late 1960s.The battles fought against barriers of race, class, gender, and physical ability laid the groundwork for a larger climate of hospitality and accommodation.It is also possible to detect a wholly other agenda in the popularity of the residential model.The introduction of domestic amenities into commercial spaces, such as recreation spaces in office interiors, can also be construed as part of a wider attempt to put a more acceptable face on the workings of free-market capitalism.In this view, interior design dons the mask of entertainment.There is nothing new about the charade.Every interior is fundamentally a stage set.Nor is it particularly insidious—as long as the conceit is transparent.Danger surfaces，however, when illusion becomes delusion—when design overcompensates for the realities of illness with patronizing sentiment, or when offices become surrogate apartments because of the relentless demands of a round-the-clock economy.In these instances, design relinquishes its potential to transform daily life in favor of what amounts to little more than a facile re-branding of space.Another force is driving the domestication of the interior and that is the enlarged public awareness of design and designers.There is a growing popular demand for design as amenity and status symbol, stimulated by the proliferation of shelter magazines, television shows devoted to home decorating, and the advertising campaigns of commercial entities such as Target and Ikea.In the Western world, prosperity, combined with the appetite of the media, has all but fetishized the interior, yielding yet another reflection of the narcissism of a consumer-driven society.On the one hand, there are positive, democratic outcomes of the growing public profile of design that can be seen in the rise of do-it-yourself web sites and enterprises like Home Depot that emphasize self-reliance.It can also be argued, more generally, that the reconsideration of beauty implicit in the valorization of design is an ameliorating social phenomenon by virtue of its propensity to inspire improvement.On the other hand, the popularization of interior design through personas such as Philippe Starck, Martha Stewart, and Barbara Barry has encouraged a superficial understanding of the interior that is more focused on objects than it is on behaviors and interactions among objects.For all the recent explosion of interest in interior design, it remains, however, a fundamentally conservative arena of design, rooted as it is in notions of enclosure, security, and comfort.This perception has been exacerbated by the growth of specialized practices focused, for example, on healthcare and hospitality.While such firms offer deep knowledge of the psychology, mechanics, and economies of particular environments, they also perpetuate distinctions that hinder a more integral approach to the interior as an extension of architecture and even the landscape outside.One notable exception is the growth of design and architecture firms accruing expertise in sustainable materials and their applications to the interior.At the same time that design firms are identifying themselves with sustainability and promoting themselves as environmentalists, a movement is building to incorporate environmental responsibility within normative practice.Over the past four decades, efforts have intensified to professionalize the field of interior design and to accord it a status equal to that of architecture.In the US and Canada the Council for Interior Design Accreditation, formerly known as FIDER, reviews interior design education programs at colleges and universities to regulate standards of practice.Furthermore, the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design(ICSID)embraces interior design within its purview, defining it as part of “intellectual profession, and not simply a trade or a service for enterprises.”

Yet, the education of interior designers remains tremendously variable, with no uniformity of pedagogy.Hence, interior design continues to be perceived as an arena open to the specialist and the amateur.This perception is indicative of both the relatively short history of the profession itself and the broader cultural forces of inclusion and interactivity that mark a global society.原文来源：

Board of International Research in Design，Design Dictionary Perspectives on Design Terminology，Birkhäuser Verlag AG 2008

第三篇：中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

平设计任何时期平面设计可以参照一些艺术和专业学科侧重于视觉传达和介绍。采用多种方式相结合，创造和符号，图像和语句创建一个代表性的想法和信息。平面设计师可以使用印刷，视觉艺术和排版技术产生的最终结果。平面设计常常提到的进程，其中沟通是创造和产品设计。共同使用的平面设计包括杂志，广告，产品包装和网页设计。例如，可能包括产品包装的标志或其他艺术作品，举办文字和纯粹的设计元素，如形状和颜色统一件。组成的一个最重要的特点，尤其是平面设计在使用前现有材料或不同的元素。平面设计涵盖了人类历史上诸多领域，在此漫长的历史和在相对最近爆炸视觉传达中的第20和21世纪，人们有时是模糊的区别和重叠的广告艺术，平面设计和美术。毕竟，他们有着许多相同的内容，理论，原则，做法和语言，有时同样的客人或客户。广告艺术的最终目标是出售的商品和服务。在平面设计，“其实质是使以信息，形成以思想，言论和感觉的经验”。在唐朝（618-906）之间的第4和第7世纪的木块被切断打印纺织品和后重现佛典。阿藏印在868是已知最早的印刷书籍。在19世纪后期欧洲，尤其是在英国，平面设计开始以独立的运动从美术中分离出来。蒙德里安称为父亲的图形设计。他是一个很好的艺术家，但是他在现代广告中利用现代电网系统在广告、印刷和网络布局网格。于1849年，在大不列颠亨利科尔成为的主要力量之一在设计教育界，该国政府通告设计在杂志设计和制造的重要性。他组织了大型的展览作为庆祝现代工业技术和维多利亚式的设计。从1892年至1896年威廉•莫里斯凯尔姆斯科特出版社出版的书籍的一些最重要的平面设计产品和工艺美术运动，并提出了一个非常赚钱的商机就是出版伟大文本论的图书并以高价出售给富人。莫里斯证明了市场的存在使平面设计在他们自己拥有的权利，并帮助开拓者从生产和美术分离设计。这历史相对论是，然而，重要的，因为它为第一次重大的反应对于十九世纪的陈旧的平面设计。莫里斯的工作，以及与其他私营新闻运动，直接影响新艺术风格和间接负责20世纪初非专业性平面设计的事态发展。谁创造了最初的“平面设计”似乎存在争议。这被归因于英国的设计师和大学教授Richard Guyatt，但另一消息来源于20世纪初美国图书设计师William Addison Dwiggins。伦敦地铁的标志设计是爱德华约翰斯顿于1916年设计的一个经典的现代而且使用了系统字体设计。在20世纪20年代，苏联的建构主义应用于“智能生产”在不同领域的生产。个性化的运动艺术在 2 俄罗斯大革命是没有价值的，从而走向以创造物体的功利为目的。他们设计的建筑、剧院集、海报、面料、服装、家具、徽标、菜单等。Jan Tschichold 在他的1928年书中编纂了新的现代印刷原则，他后来否认他在这本书的法西斯主义哲学主张，但它仍然是非常有影响力。Tschichold，包豪斯印刷专家如赫伯特拜耳和拉斯洛莫霍伊一纳吉，和El Lissitzky 是平面设计之父都被我们今天所知。他们首创的生产技术和文体设备，主要用于整个二十世纪。随后的几年看到平面设计在现代风格获得广泛的接受和应用。第二次世界大战结束后，美国经济的建立更需要平面设计，主要是广告和包装等。移居国外的德国包豪斯设计学院于1937年到芝加哥带来了“大规模生产”极简到美国;引发野火的“现代”建筑和设计。值得注意的名称世纪中叶现代设计包括阿德里安Frutiger，设计师和Frutiger字体大学;保兰德，从20世纪30年代后期，直到他去世于1996年，采取的原则和适用包豪斯他们受欢迎的广告和标志设计，帮助创造一个独特的办法，美国的欧洲简约而成为一个主要的先驱。平面设计称为企业形象;约瑟夫米勒，罗克曼，设计的海报严重尚未获取1950年代和1960年代时代典型。从道路标志到技术图表，从备忘录到参考手册，增强了平面设计的知识转让。可读性增强了文字的视觉效果。设计还可以通过理念或有效的视觉传播帮助销售产品。将它应用到产品和公司识别系统的要素像标志、颜色和文字。连同这些被定义为品牌。品牌已日益成为重要的提供的服务范围，许多平面设计师，企业形象和条件往往是同时交替使用。教科书的目的是本科目，如地理、科学和数学。这些出版物已布局理论设计说明和图表。一个常见的例子，在使用图形，教育是图表人体解剖学。平面设计也适用于布局和格式的教育材料，使信息更容易和更容易理解的。平面设计是应用在娱乐行业的装饰，景观和视觉故事。其他的例子娱乐设计用途包括小说，漫画，电影中的开幕和闭幕，在舞台上节目的和道具的安排。这也包括艺术品在T恤衫的应用和其他物品的出售。从科学杂志报道，提出意见和事实往往是提高图形和深思熟虑的组成视觉信息-被称为信息的设计。报纸，杂志，博客，电视和电影纪录片，可以使用平面设计通知及娱乐。随着网络，信息与经验的交互设计的工具，Adobe和Flash正越来越多地被用来说明的背景新闻。一个平面设计项目可能涉及程式化和介绍现有的文字，或者事先存在的意向或图像开发的平面设计师。例如，一家报纸的故事始于记者和摄影记者，然后成为平面设计师的工作安排到一个合理的页面布局，并确定是否有任何其他图形元素应当要求。在一本杂志的文章或广告，往往是平面设计师或艺术总监将委员会摄影师或插图创建原始文件只是被纳入设计规划。现代设计的做法已经扩展到了现代的计算机，例如在使用所见的用户界面，通常被称为交互式设计，或多媒体设计。任何图形元素用于设计之前，图形元素必须是源于通过视觉艺术技能。这些图形通常（但并不总是）被设计师开发。视觉艺术的作品主要是视觉性的东西从使用传统的传播媒介、摄影或电脑产生的艺术。平面设计原则可以适用于每一个人的版画艺术元素，并最终组成。3 印刷术是艺术，工艺和技术型，修改类型字形，并安排类型的设计。类型字形（字符）的创建和修改使用各种说明方法。这项安排的类型是选择字体、大小、线长、主要的（行距）和文字的间距。刷术是由排字工机，排字，印刷工人，图形艺术家，艺术总监，工作者和办事员。直到数字时代，印刷成为一个专业的领域。数字化开辟了新的视觉设计师和用户。排版设计师平面设计的一部分，是在网页设计中是图形设计，处理安排风格（内容）的要素。从早期的照明网页手工复制书籍的中世纪和程序，以错综复杂的现代杂志和目录布局，适当的网页设计公司长期以来一直是考虑的印刷材料，与印刷媒体，内容通常包括类型（文字，图片（照片）偶尔发生持有者图形的内容，没有印刷油墨，如模具/激光切割，烫金压印或盲目压花。平面设计师常常专心研究于界面设计，如网页设计和软件设计，最终用户的交互性是一个设计考虑的布局或接口。视觉沟通技巧、互动沟通技巧与用户互动得相结合和在线品牌推广，平面设计师往往与软件开发和网络开发人员创建的外观和风格的网站或软件应用程序，来加强用户或网络网站的访问者互动体验。版画是在纸上，其他有机材料或者表面上印刷艺术品的过程。每一张不会被复制，但时最初的因为它不是一个复制的另一艺术作品，并在技术上称为留下深刻的印象。绘画或素描，另一方面，创造了独特的原始艺术品。版画是由一个单一的原始表面创造的，在技术上已经作为基质而被已知。常见的矩阵包括：金属板，通常是铜或锌的雕刻或蚀刻石料，用于光刻;块木刻的木材，油毡和织物板的丝网印刷。但也有许多其他种类，讨论如下：作品从一个单一的印刷板创造一个版本，在现代通常每个签署和编号，形成限量。打印也可编制成册，作为艺术家的书籍。一个单一的打印可能是产品的一种或多种技术。色彩学领域是如何在打印机上和显示器上用眼睛识别颜色和如何解释和组织这些色彩。眼睛的视网膜被两个被命名为视杆和视锥的感光体涵盖。视杆对光很敏感但是对颜色不是很敏感。视锥却与视杆恰恰相反。他们对光不太敏感，但是颜色可以被感知。随着科技的发展，人们越来越认识到环境问题日益严重，大气污染、森林破坏、水土流失、土地沙漠

化、水资源污染、大量物种灭绝、石油、天然气、煤等资源枯竭。作为工业设计师，应该有强烈的环境 保护意识，使得自己的设计建立在不破坏环境及节约自然资源的基础上。

其中，温室效应、臭氧层破坏和酸雨是当今全球性的三大环境问题。

温室效应就是大气变暖的效应其形成原因是太阳短波辐射可以透过大气射入地面，而地面增暖后放

出的长波辐射却被大气中的二氧化碳就像一层厚厚的玻璃，把地球变成了一个大暖房。甲烷、臭氧、氯、氟烃以及水汽等也对温室效应有所贡献。随着人口的急剧增加和工业的迅速发展，越来越多的二氧化碳 排入大气中；

又由于森林被大量砍伐，大气中原本应被森林吸收的二氧化碳没有被吸收，致使二氧化碳 逐渐增加，温室效应也不断增强。温室效应的后果十分严重，自然生态将随之发生重大变化，荒漠将扩

大，土地侵蚀加重，森林退向极地，旱涝灾害严重，雨量增加；温带冬天更湿、夏天更旱；热带也将变 得更湿，干热的亚热带变得更干旱，迫使原有水利工程重新调整。沿海将受到严重威胁。由于气温升高，两极冰块将融化，使海平面上升，将会淹没许多城市和港口。

臭氧层破坏现象引起科学界及整个国际社会的震动。美国的两位科学家 Monila 和 Rowland 指出，正是人为的活动造成了今天的臭氧洞。元凶就是现在所熟知的氟利昂和哈龙。

酸雨目前已成为一种范围广泛、跨越国界的大气污染现象。酸雨破坏土壤，使湖泊酸化，危害动植

物生长；刺激人的皮肤，诱发皮肤病，引起肺水肿、肺硬化；会腐蚀金属制品、油漆、皮革、纺织品和 含碳酸盐的建筑。

总而言之，人类生活的环境已经日益恶化。

而恶化的原因大部分属于人类本身的不良生活方式和不 尊重客观规律，急功近利，对于地球资源的使用没有科学的计划性，而且在设计、制造产品以及日常生

活中缺乏保护环境的意识，以至于自毁家园，其危害不仅于当代，而且严重影响了子孙后代的生存。

环境问题在很大程度上是由于人们的不良设计、生活方式造成的后果。于是给设计师们提出了一个

严肃的问题：作为设计师，应肩负起保护环境的历史重任！

工业在为人类创造大量物质财富的同时，也给世界带来了灾难。工业设计在为人类创造了现代生活

方式的同时，也加速了资源、能源的消耗，并对地球的生态平衡造成了巨大的破坏。

所以，作为工业设计师，建立环境意识体现了其道德和社会责任心。设计师必须对自己的设计负责，必须把人类的健康幸福，自然与人类的和谐共存作为设计中心遵循的原则。

设计师还必须掌握必要的材料、工艺、化工、制造等方面的知识，使得其设计不对环境造成危害而 成为可能。

“可持续发展设计” 这一概念的提出，对于人性的回归及世界真正意义上的发展具有划时代的意义。他体现了设计师的道德与责任，已成为 21 世纪设计发展的总趋势。从此，人类传统工业文明发展模式

转向现代生态文明发展模式。它是社会进步，经济增长，环境保护三者之间的协同。

可持续发展是人们应遵循的一种全新的伦理、道德和价值观念。其本质在于：充分利用现代科技，大力开发绿色资源，发展清洁生产，不断改善和优化生态环境，促使人与自然的和谐发展，人口、资源 和环境相互协调。

解决可持续反展问题是一个技术创新和行为模式转变的问题。

可持续发展战略是解决在不危害未来几代人的需求前提下，尽量满足当代人的需求的问题。实现目

前利益与长远利益的统一，为子孙后代留下发展空间。

目前可持续发展战略考虑的问题有：循环性、绿色能源、生态效率。

绿色设计源于人们对于现代技术文化所引起的环境及生态破坏的反思。绿色设计着眼于人与自然的

生态平衡关系，在设计过程的每一个决策中都充分考虑到环境效益，尽量减少对环境的破坏。

对工业设计师而言，绿色设计的核心是“ 3R ”，即“减少”（Reduce）、“再循环”(Recycle)和“再 利用”（Reuse)。不仅要尽量减少物质和能源的消耗、减少有害物质的排放，而且要使产品及零件能够 5 方便的分类回收，并再生循环或重新利用。

绿色设计不仅是一种技术层面的考虑，更重要的是一种观念 上的变革。

要求设计师放弃那种过分强调产品在外观上标新立异的做法，而将重点放在真正意义上的创 新上面，已一种更为负责的方法去创造产品的形态，用更简洁、长久的造型使产品尽可能地延长其使用 寿命。

从材料方面要考虑： 原材料的存量和可再生性，获取材料时的环境能源的消耗与污染，后续加工时

环境材料的易加工性，低能耗性、低污染性，报废时的可回收性。

从加工制造方面要考虑：加工制造阶段需要将污染减至最少，或将污染消灭在生产过程初始阶段。

从包装、运输、销售等方面要考虑：包装的环境性能、绿色包装，良好的可运输性、降低自重、减 少能耗，当地化生产及减少物流过程消耗。

从产品的使用阶段考虑： 使用中的能耗、资源消耗。

产品更新换代时环境性能的模块化、可重组性、产品的使用模式等因素。

从产品的报废阶段考虑：易拆卸性，便于分解和分类，材料可回收性和可再利用性，零部件可重组 性或移作它用等因素。

清洁的能源：如考虑太阳能、水电、风力的清洁燃料；清洁的材料，涉及低污染、无毒、易降解和 可回收性；清洁的制造过程，考虑低能耗、少排放的制造；清洁的产品，涉及使用中节能、环保、报废 后的回收。

零部件的再生利用湿可持续战略的有力措施。事实证明： 报废的产品拆卸后，经分析，其中材料在

改进设计后可重用和经翻新后可重用的比例可以提高。

比如：一辆报废车中，金属材料占 80 ％，其中，有色金属占 3 ％～ 4.7 ％。世界钢产量中的 45 ％是 由废钢铁生产出的。中国钢产量的 25 ％是由废钢铁生产的。

产品全生命周期管理是指从人对产品的需求开始，到产品淘汰报废的全部生命历程。其中包括产

品需求分析产品计划、概念设计、产品设计、数字化仿真、工艺准备、工艺规划、生产测试和质量监控、销售与分销、使用、维护与维修，以及报废与回收等主要阶段。将先进的管理理念和一流的信息技术有

机融入到现代企业的工业和商业运作中，从而使企业在数字经济时代能够有效地调整经营手段和管理方式，以发挥企业前所未有的竞争优势。帮助企业进行产品创新，赢得市场，并获得额外利润，以提高企业产品的价值。

GRAPHIC DESIGN The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and presentation.Various methods are used to create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages.A graphic designer may use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result.Graphic design often refers to both the process by which the communication is created and the products which are generated.Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements, product packaging and web design.For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece.Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.Graphic Design spans the history of humankind from the caves of Lascaux to the dazzling neons of Ginza.In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art.After all, they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same benefactor or client.In advertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services.In graphic design, “the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human experience.” During the Tang dynasty(618–906)between the 4th and 7th century A.D.wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts.A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book.In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate graphic design from fine art.Piet Mondrian is known as the father of graphic design.He was a fine artist, but his use of grids inspired the modern grid system used today in advertising, print and web layout.In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures.He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.From 1892 to 1896 William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement, and 2 made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium.Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art.The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its obsession with historical styles.This historicism was, however, important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design.Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general.Who originally coined the term “graphic design” appears to be in dispute.It has been attributed to Richard Guyatt, the British designer and academic, but another source suggests William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century The signage in the London Underground is a classic of the modern era and used a font designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production.The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes.They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc.Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography.He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential.Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and El Lissitzky are the fathers of graphic design as we know it today.They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century.The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application.A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging.The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a “mass-produced”minimalism to America;sparking a wild fire of “modern”architecture and design.Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger;Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity；and Josef Müller-Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1960s era.3 From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals, graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge.Readability is enhanced by improving the visual presentation of text.Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication.It is applied to products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, and text.Together these are defined as branding(see also advertising).Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongside corporate identity, and the terms are often used interchangeably.Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math.These publications have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams.A common example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of human anatomy.Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling.Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, opening credits and closing credits in film, and programs and props on stage.This could also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information-known as information design.Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform and entertain.With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer.For example, a newspaper story begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to organize the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be required.In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout.Contemporary design practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to as interactive design, or multimedia design.Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by means of visual art skills.These graphics are often(but not always)developed 4 by a graphic designer.Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media, to photography or computer generated art.Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element individually as well as to the final composition.Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type.Type glyphs(characters)are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques.The arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading(line spacing)and letter spacing.Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers.Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation.Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement and style treatment of elements(content)on a page.Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long been a consideration in printed material.With print media, elements usually consist of type(text), images(pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.Graphic designers are often involved in interface design, such as web design and software design when end user interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface.Combining visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create both the look and feel of a web site or software application and enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor.Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces.Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print.Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an impression.Painting or drawing, on the other hand, create a unique original piece of artwork.Prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix.Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching;stone, used for lithography;blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing.But there are many other kinds, discussed below.Works printed from a single

第四篇：超声波测距毕业论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

超声波测距毕业论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

超声波测距 中英文对照资料外文翻译 超声测距系统设计 原文出处：传感器文摘 布拉福德:1993年 第13页摘要：超声测距技术在工业现场、车辆导航、水声工程等领域都具有广泛的应用价值，目前已应用于物位测量、机器人自动导航以及空气中与水下的目标探测、识别、定位等场合。因此，深入研究超声的测距理论和方法具有重要的实践意义。为了进一步提高测距的精确度，满足工程人员对测量精度、测距量程和测距仪使用的要求，本文研制了一套基于单片机的便携式超声测距系统。关键词：超声波，测距仪，单片机

1、前言 随着科技的发展，人们生活水平的提高，城市发展建设加快，城市给排水系统也有较大发展，其状况不断改善。但是，由于历史原因合成时间住的许多不可预见因素，城市给排水系统，特别是排水系统往往落后于城市建设。因此，经常出现开挖已经建设好的建筑设施来改造排水系统的现象。城市污水给人们带来了困扰，因此箱涵的排污疏通对大城市给排水系统污水处理，人们生活舒适显得非常重要。而设计研制箱涵排水疏通移动机器人的自动控制系统，保证机器人在箱涵中自由排污疏通，是箱涵排污疏通机器人的设计研制的核心部分。控制系统核心部分就是超声波测距仪的研制。因此，设计好的超声波测距仪就显得非常重要了。

2、超声波测距原理2.1 压电式超声波发生器原理 毕业设计（论文）英文翻译 压电式超声波发生器实际上是利用压电晶体的谐振来工作的。超声波发生器内部结构，它有两个压电晶片和一个共振板。当它的两极外加脉冲信号，其频率等于压电晶片的固有振荡频率时，压电晶片将会发生共振，并带动共振板振动，便产生超声波。反之，如果两电极间未外加电压，当共振板接收到超声波 时，将压迫压电晶片作振动，将机械能转换为电信号，这时它就成为超声波接收器了。测量脉冲到达时间的传统方法是以拥有固定参数的接收信号开端为基础的。这个界限恰恰选于噪音水平之上，然而脉冲到达时间被定义为脉冲信号刚好超过界限的第一时刻。一个物体的脉冲强度很大程度上取决于这个物体的自然属性尺寸还有它与传感器的距离。进一步说，从脉冲起始点到刚好超过界限之间的时间段随着脉冲的强度而改变。结果，一种错误便出现了——两个拥有不同强度的脉冲在不同时间超过界限却在同一时间到达。强度较强的脉冲会比强度较弱的脉冲超过界限的时间早点，因此我们会认为强度较强的脉冲属于较近的物体。2.2 超声波测距原理 超声波发射器向某一方向发射超声波，在发射时刻的同时开始计时，超声波在空气中传播，途中碰到障碍物就立即返回来，超声波接收器收到反射波就立即停止计时。超声波在空气中的传播速度为 340m/s，根据计时器记录的时间 t，就可以计算出发射点距障碍物的距离s，即：s340t/

23、超声波测距系统的电路设计 系统的特点是利用单片机控制超声波的发射和对超声波自发射至接收往返时间的计时，单片机选用 C51，经济易用，且片内有 4K 的 ROM，便于编程。电路原理图如图 1 所示。‐1‐毕业设计（论文）英文翻译 图 1 电路原理图 ‐2‐ 毕业设计（论文）英文翻译3.1 40kHz 脉冲的产生与超声波发射 测距系统中的超声波传感器采用 UCM40 的压电陶瓷传感器，它的工作电压是40kHz 的脉冲信号，这由单片机执行下面程序来产生。puzel： mov 14h 12h；超声波发射持续 200mshere： cpl p1.0 ； 输出 40kHz 方波 nop ； nop ； nop ； djnz 14h，here； ret 前方测距电路的输入端接单片机 P1.0 端口，单片机执行上面的程序后，在 P1.0端口输出一个 40kHz 的脉冲信号，经过三极管 T 放大，驱动超声波发射头 UCM40T，发出 40kHz 的脉冲超声波，且持续发射 200ms。右侧和左侧测 距电路的输入端分别接 P1.1 和 P1.2 端口，工作原理与前方测距电路相同。3.2 超声波的接收与处理 接收头采用与发射头配对的 UCM40R，将超声波调制脉冲变为交变电压信号，经 IC2运算放大器 IC1A 和 IC1B 两极放大后加至 IC2。是带有锁 定环的音频译码集成块LM567，内部的压控振荡器的中心频率 f01/1.1R8C3，电容 C4 决定其锁定带宽。调节 R8 在发射的载频上，则 LM567 输入信号大于 25mV，输出端 8 脚由高电平跃变为低电平，作为中断请求信号，送至单片机处理.前方测距电路的输出端接单片机 INT0 端口，中断优先级最高，左、右测距电路的输出通过与门 IC3A 的输出接单片机 INT1 端口，同时单片机 P1.3 和 P1.4 接到 IC3A的输入端，中断源的识别由程序查询来处理，中断优先级为先右后左。部分源程序如下：receive1：push psw push acc clr ex1； 关外部中断 1 jnb p1.1right；P1.1 引脚为 0转至右测距电路中断服务程序 ‐3‐ 毕业设计（论文）英文翻译 jnb p1.2left；P1.2 引脚为 0转至左测距电路中断服务程序return： SETB EX1； 开外部中断 1 pop acc pop psw retiright：...； 右测距电路中断服务程序入口 ajmp returnleft：...； 左测距电路中断服务程序入口 ajmp return3.3 计算超声波传播时间 在启动发射电路的同时启动单片机内部的定时器 T0，利用定时器的计数功能记录超声波发射的时间和收到反射波的时间。当收到超声波反射波时，接收电路 输出端产生一个负跳变，在 INT0 或 INT1 端产生一个中断请求信号，单片机响应外部中断请求，执行外部中断服务子程序，读取时间差，计算距离。其部分源程序如下：RECEIVE0： PUSH PSW PUSH ACC CLR EX0 ； 关外部中断 0 MOV R7 TH0 ； 读取时间值 MOV R6 TL0 CLR C MOV A R6 SUBB A 0BBH； 计算时间差 MOV 31H A ； 存储结果 MOV A R7 SUBB A 3CH MOV 30H A SETB EX0 ； 开外部中断 0 POP ACC ‐4‐ 毕业设计（论文）英文翻译 POP PSW RETI对于一个平坦的目标，距离测量包括两个阶段:粗糙的测量和精细测量。第一步：脉冲的传送产生一种简单的超声波。第二步：根据公式改变回波放大器的获得量直到回拨被检测到。第三步：检测两种回波的振幅与过零时间。第四步：设置回波放大器的所得来规格输出，假定是 3 伏。通过脉冲的周期设置下一 个脉冲。根据第二部的数据设定时间窗。第五步：发射两串脉冲产生干扰波。测量过零时间与回波的振幅。如果逆向发生在回 波中，决定要不通过在低气压插入振幅。第六步：通过公式计算距离 y。

4、超声波测距系统的软件设计 软件分为两部分，主程序和中断服务程序。主程序完成初始化工作、各路超声波发射和接收顺序的控制。定时中断服务子程序完成三方向超声波的轮流发射，外部中断服务子程序主要完成时间值的读取、距离计算、结果的输出等工作。

5、结论 对所要求测量范围 30cm200cm 内的平面物体做了多次测量发现，其最大误差为0.5cm，且重复性好。可见基于单片机设计的超声波测距系统具有硬件结构简单、工作可靠、测量误差小等特点。因此，它不仅可用于移动机器人，还可用在其它检测系统中。思考：至于为什么接收不用晶体管做放大电路呢，因为放大倍数搞不好，集成放大电路，还带自动电平增益控制，放大倍数为 76dB，中心频率是 38k 到 40k，刚好是超声波传感器的谐振频率。‐5‐ 毕业设计（论文）英文翻译 参考文献1.Fox J.D.Khuri-Yakub B.T.and Kino G.S.quotHigh Frequency Acoustic WaveMeasurement in Airquot in Proceedings of IEEE 1983 Ultrasonic Symposium October 31-2November 1983 Atlanta GA pp.581-4.2.Martin Abreu J.M.Ceres R.and Freire T.quotUltrasonic Ranging: Envelope AnalysisGives Improved Accuracyquot Sensor Review Vol.12 No.1 1992 pp.17-21.3.Parrilla M.Anaya J.J.and Fritsch C.quotDigital Signal Processing Techniques for HighAccuracy Ultrasonic Range Measurementsquot IEEE Transactions: Instrumentation andMeasurement Vol.40 No.4 August 1991 pp.759-63.4.Canali C.Cicco G.D.Mortem B.Prudenziati M.and Taron A.quotA TemperatureCompensated Ultrasonic Sensor Operating in Air for Distance and ProximityMeasurementquot IEEE Transaction on Industry Electronics Vol.IE-29 No.4 1982 pp.336-41.‐6‐ 毕业设计（论文）英文翻译 Ultrasonic ranging system design Publicationtitle: Sensor Review.Bradford: 1993.Vol.13ABSTRACT：Ultrasonic ranging technology has wide using worth in many fields，such as the industriallocale，vehicle navigation and sonar engineering．Now it has been used in level measurement，self-guided autonomous vehicles fieldwork robots automotive navigation，air and underwater targetdetection，identification，location and so on．So there is an important practicing meaning to learn theranging theory and ways deeply.To improve the precision of the ultrasonic ranging system in hand，satisfy the request of the engineering personnel for the ranging precision，the bound and the usage，aportable ultrasonic ranging system based on the single chip processor was developed．Keywords：Ultrasound r，Ranging System，Single Chip Processor1.Introductive With the development of science and technology the improvement of peoplesstandard of living speeding up the development and construction of the city.urbandrainage system have greatly developed their situation is constantly improving.Howeverdue to historical reasons many unpredictable factors in the synthesis of her time the citydrainage system.In particular drainage system often lags behind urban construction.Therefore there are often good building excavation has been building facilities to upgradethe drainage system phenomenon.It brought to the city sewage and it is clear to the citysewage and drainage culvert in the sewage treatment system.comfort is very important topeoples lives.Mobile robots designed to clear the drainage culvert and the automaticcontrol system Free sewage culvert clear guarantee robot the robot is designed to clear theculvert sewage to the core.Control System is the core component of the development ofultrasonic range finder.Therefore it is very important to design a good ultrasonic rangefinder.2.A principle of ultrasonic distance measurement ‐7‐ 毕业设计（论文）英文翻译2.1 The principle of piezoelectric ultrasonic generator Piezoelectric ultrasonic generator is the use of piezoelectric crystal resonators to work.Ultrasonic generator the internal structure as shown it has two piezoelectric chip and aresonance plate.When its two plus pulse signal the frequency equal to the intrinsicpiezoelectric oscillation frequency chip the chip will happen piezoelectric resonance andpromote the development of plate vibration resonance ultrasound is generated.Converselyif the two are not inter-electrode voltage when the board received ultrasonic resonance itwill be for vibration suppression of piezoelectric chip the mechanical energy is convertedto electrical signals then it becomes the ultrasonic receiver.The traditional way to determine the moment of the echos arrival is based onthresholding the received signal with a fixed reference.The threshold is chosen well abovethe noise level whereas the moment of arrival of an echo is defined as the first moment theecho signal surpasses that threshold.The intensity of an echo reflecting from an objectstrongly depends on the objects nature size and distance from the sensor.Further the timeinterval from the echos starting point to the moment when it surpasses the thresholdchanges with the intensity of the echo.As a consequence a considerable error may occurEven two echoes with different intensities arriving exactly at the same time will surpass thethreshold at different moments.The stronger one will surpass the threshold earlier than theweaker so it will be considered as belonging to a nearer object.2.2The principle of ultrasonic distance measurement Ultrasonic transmitter in a direction to launch ultrasound in the moment to launch thebeginning of time at the same time the spread of ultrasound in the air obstacles on his wayto return immediately the ultrasonic reflected wave received by the receiver immediatelystop the clock.Ultrasound in the air as the propagation velocity of 340m / s according tothe timer records the time t we can calculate the distance between the launch distancebarrier s that is: s 340t / 23.Ultrasonic Ranging System for the Second Circuit Design ‐8‐ 毕业设计（论文）英文翻译 System is characterized by single-chip microcomputer to control the use of ultrasonictransmitter and ultrasonic receiver since the launch from time to time single-chip selectionof 8751 economic-to-use and the chip has 4K of ROM to facilitate programming.Circuitschematic diagram shown in Figure 2.Figure 1 circuit principle diagram ‐9‐ 毕业设计（论文）英文翻译3.1 40 kHz ultrasonic pulse generated with the launch Ranging system using the ultrasonic sensor of piezoelectric ceramic sensors UCM40its operating voltage of the pulse signal is 40kHz which by the single-chip implementationof the following procedures to generate.puzel: mov 14h 12h ultrasonic firing continued 200mshere: cpl p1.0 output 40kHz square wave nop nop nop djnz 14h here ret Ranging in front of single-chip termination circuit P1.0 input port single chipimplementation of the above procedure the P1.0 port in a 40kHz pulse output signal afteramplification transistor T the drive to launch the first ultrasonic UCM40T issued 40kHzultrasonic pulse and the continued launch of 200ms.Ranging the right and the left side ofthe circuit respectively then input port P1.1 and P1.2 the working principle and circuit infront of the same location.3.2 Reception and processing of ultrasonic Used to receive the first launch of the first pair UCM40R the ultrasonic pulsemodulation signal into an alternating voltage the op-amp amplification IC1A and afterpolarization IC1B to IC2.IC2 is locked loop with audio decoder chip LM567 internalvoltage-controlled oscillator center frequency of f0 1/1.1R8C3 capacitor C4 determinetheir target bandwidth.R8-conditioning in the launch of the carrier frequency on theLM567 input signal is greater than 25mV the output from the high jump 8 feet into alow-level as interrupt request signals to the single-chip processing.Ranging in front of single-chip termination circuit output port INT0 interrupt thehighest priority right or left location of the output circuit with output gate IC3A accessINT1 port single-chip while single-chip P1.3 and P1.4 received input IC3A interrupted ‐10‐ 毕业设计（论文）英文翻译by the process to identify the source of inquiry to deal with interrupt priority level for thefirst left right after.Part of the source code is as follows:receive1: push psw push acc clr ex1 related external interrupt 1 jnb p1.1 right P1.1 pin to 0 ranging from right to interrupt serviceroutine circuit jnb p1.2 left P1.2 pin to 0 to the left ranging circuit interruptservice routinereturn: SETB EX1 open external interrupt 1 pop acc pop psw retiright:...right location entrance circuit interrupt service routine Ajmp Returnleft:...left Ranging entrance circuit interrupt service routine Ajmp Return3.3 The calculation of ultrasonic propagation time When you start firing at the same time start the single-chip circuitry within the timerT0 the use of timer counting function records the time and the launch of ultrasonicreflected wave received time.When you receive the ultrasonic reflected wave the receivercircuit outputs a negative jump in the end of INT0 or INT1 interrupt request generates asignal single-chip microcomputer in response to external interrupt request theimplementation of the external interrupt service subroutine read the time differencecalculating the distance.Some of its source code is as follows:RECEIVE0: PUSH PSW PUSH ACC CLR EX0 related external interrupt 0.

第五篇：毕业论文外文翻译

经济增速放缓对中国银行业的影响显现 Lagging Indicators: China's Banks and the Slowdown

摘要: Chinese banks' net income surged to record highs last year, defying the slowing growth on the world's second-largest economy.Is it indicating that banks are resilient to the economic downturn?Not nec...Chinese banks' net income surged to record highs last year, defying the slowing growth on the world's second-largest economy.Is it indicating that banks are resilient to the economic downturn?

Not necessarily.The banks have a tendency to be lagging indicators.Only after a certain amount of time has passed will China's macro situation show up on the bottom line.Take, for example, bad loans.They're finally growing, incrementally, after years of declining.Industrial & Commercial Bank of China Ltd., the nation's largest bank by assets, saw its

nonperforming loans rise by 3.82 billion yuan(about $606 million)in the fourth quarter;China Construction Bank Corp., the No.2 bank on the mainland, reported a 6.27 billion yuan rise in such loans.Bank of China Ltd.'s bad loans in the fourth quarter rose 1.39 billion yuan.(In China, nonperforming loans are those that have at least a 30% chance of turning sour.)

Smaller banks also saw some increases in bad loans.China Minsheng Banking Corp., the

country's largest non-state-owned bank, posted a rise of 200 million yuan in nonperforming loans in 2011.Such loans at Industrial Bank Co.grew by 99 million yuan last year.More tellingly, data from the Chinese banking regulator showed that the nonperforming loan ratio in the nation's banking sector edged up 0.1 percentage point in the fourth quarter from the third quarter, the first rise in the past six years.The regulator didn't give a reason, but the earnings reports from Chinese banks this week offered some cues: The property market might be the culprit.China Construction Bank said among the total, its nonperforming loans related to the real estate sector surged 20% over the same period.Minsheng Bank said the nonperforming ratio of its real estate financing businesses was 1.72%, well above its overall bad loan ratio of 0.63%.Home prices have been under pressure for about two years, but it's only now do we see a sign of it in banks' statements.The question is whether investors see a few more problem numbers down the road.In three years starting 2009, banks in China issued a total of 25 trillion yuan of

renminbi-denominated loans, with roughly 40% of the lending going to government-initiated infrastructure projects and the property sector.'The second quarter of this year will be one of the peak seasons for the repayment of property loans and local government borrowings.With a slowing economy, we can expect that higher nonperforming loans are on the cards,' GF Securities analyst Mu Hua said in a recent note.According to Noah Wealth Management, a Chinese financial service company, a total of 117.25 billion yuan of property trust products will be due this year, well above the 47.05 billion yuan last year, putting huge pressure on property developers' cash flows.Besides property, analysts say local government borrowings will present a bigger challenge to banks.Banking executives have estimated that a third of China's 10.7 trillion yuan government debt will be due this year and the next.Standard & Poor's analyst Liao Qiang said he believes Beijing will likely give some regulatory forbearance to local government debt to prevent a surge in banks' bad loans.'Nevertheless, property developers and manufacturers in industries with a supply glut will continue to face policy-induced refinancing uncertainties from time to time,' he said.Monday in Hong Kong, China Construction Bank Chairman Wang Hongzhang said he's optimistic about the bank's asset quality, given China's economic growth is likely to remain solid.'Nonperforming loan levels are controllable.Even though they are higher than before, the amount is small and [the rise] is likely to be temporary,' he said.Agence France-Presse/Getty Images

中资银行净利润去年创下新高，似乎并没有受到中国这一世界第二大经济体经济增速放缓的影响。这是否意味着，银行业可以免受经济下行的影响呢？

未必。

银行业的反应往往有一定的滞后性。只有在一段时期后，中国宏观经济形势的影响才会在银行的营收中有所体现。

以不良贷款为例。在下降趋势持续了几年之后，不良贷款的比例终于开始上升，虽然涨幅不大。按资产总量计算，中国最大的银行中国工商银行(Industrial & Commercial Bank of China Ltd.)的不良贷款去年第四季度增加了人民币38.2亿元（约合6.06亿美元），中国第二大银行中国建设银行(China Construction Bank Corp.)的不良贷款增加了人民币62.7亿元。中国银行(Bank of China Ltd.)的不良贷款在第四季度增加了13.9亿元。（在中国，不良贷款指的是变成坏账的几率在30%以上的贷款。）

规模较小银行的不良贷款水平也在增长。中国最大的非国有银行中国民生银行(China

Minsheng Banking Corp.)2011年不良贷款增加了人民币2亿元。兴业银行(Industrial Bank Co.)的不良贷款去年增加了人民币9,900万元。

更能说明这一问题的是，中国银监会的数据显示，中国银行业的不良贷款比例在第四季度较第三季度上升了0.1个百分点，这是该比例过去六年来首次上升。

银监会没有给出原因，但是中资银行本周发布的年报提供了一些线索：房地产市场可能是罪魁祸首。

中国建设银行表示，在该银行的所有不良贷款中，与房地产业有关的不良贷款同比上涨了20%。民生银行说，其房地产融资业务的不良贷款比例为1.72%，大大超过了其0.63%的总体不良贷款比例。

两年来住房价格一直在承受压力，但直到现在我们才在银行的年报中看到了相关迹象。问题是，投资者是否看到了更多问题数据出现的可能性。

从2009年到2011年这三年里，中资银行共发放了25万亿元以人民币计价的贷款，其中约有40%的贷款流向了政府主导的基建项目和楼市。

今年的第二季度将是房地产贷款和地方政府借贷的还款高峰期。广发证券(GF Securities Co.)分析师沐华在最近的一份报告中说，由于经济减速，我们预计可能出现更多的不良贷款。

中国的金融服务公司诺亚财富投资管理有限公司(Noah Private Wealth Management, 简称：诺亚财富)说，共有1,172.5亿元的房地产信托产品将会在今年到期，高于去年的470.5亿元，这给房地产开发商的现金流造成了巨大压力。

分析人士说，除了房地产，地方政府借的贷款将为银行带来更大的挑战。据一些银行高管估计，中国10.7万亿元的政府贷款中，有三分之一将在今明两年到期。

标准普尔(Standard & Poor)的分析师廖强说，中国中央政府可能会给予地方政府债务一定的宽限，以防不良贷款激增。他说，尽管如此，房地产开发商以及供应过剩行业的制造企业仍会不时地面临由政策引发的再融资不确定性。

中国建设银行董事长王洪章周一在香港说，考虑到中国经济很可能继续保持稳定增长，他对该银行的资产质量持乐观态度。他说，不良贷款的水平是可控的。即使是比以往有所增加，总量还是很小，而且增长很可能也是暂时的。