土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译13、15、17、18单元

第一篇：土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译13、15、17、18单元

Unit 13 第十三单元

Survey 测量

教学目标

了解测量的内容、方法、范围和原理 了解常用的测量类型

熟悉各种测量方法和类型的词汇 熟悉科技类文献的常用句型

熟悉map、chart、plot、construction、draw的含义；so far、heretofore、by far的含义；have to do with、be referred to、be related to的含义；compatible with、pertain to、application to 的含义；；layout、staking out 的含义；construction的不同含义。

Surveying has to do with（与..有关）the determination of the relative spatial location（相对空间位置）of points on or near the surface of the earth.It is the art（技术）of measuring horizontal and vertical distance between objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements（角测量法和线性测量法）.测量是关于确定地球表面上或接近地球表面的点的相对空间位置。它是测量物体之间水平与垂直距离、测量线条之间夹角、确定线条方向以及通过预先确定角测量法和线性测量法来建立点的技术。

Accompanying the actual measurement（度量）of survey are mathematical calculations.Distance, angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas, and volumes are thus determined from data of survey.Also, much of the information of the survey is portrayed graphically（图示描述）by the construction of maps, profiles（纵剖面图）, cross sections（横剖面图）, and diagrams(图表）.数学计算伴随着测量中的实际量度。根据测量数据就可确定距离、角度、方向、位置、标高、面积以及体积。而且，测量中的很多信息是通过绘制地图、纵横剖面图和图表，以图示形式被描述。

The equipment available and methods applicable for measurement and calculation have changed tremendously in the past decade.Aerial photogrammetry（航空摄影测量）, satellite observation, remote sensing, inertial surveying（惯性测量）, and electronic distance measurement（电子测距）laser techniques are examples of modern systems（现代方法）utilized to collect data usable in the surveying process.The relatively easy access to（利用）electronic computers of all size（各种容量）facilitates the rigorous（精确的）processing and storage（处理和储存）of large volumes of data.对测量和计算，可利用的设备和可应用的方法在过去十年中已经发生了惊人的变化。航空摄影测量、人造卫星观测、遥感、惯性测量以及电子测距激光技术是现代方法中的例子，被用来收集测量过程中可使用的数据。较容易地利用各种容量的电子计算机有助于精确地处理和储存大量的数据。

With the development of these modern data acquisitions（收集）and processing systems, the duties of the surveyor have expanded beyond（超出）the traditional tasks of the field（现场）work of taking measurements and the office work of computing and drawing.Surveying is required not only for conventional construction engineering projects（项目）, mapping, and property（地籍）surveys, but is also used increasingly by other physical sciences, such as geology（地质学）and geophysics（地球物理学）;biology, including agriculture, forestry, grasslands（草原）, and wildlife（野生动植物）;hydrology（水文地理学）and oceanography（海洋学）;and geography, including human and cultural resources（人文资源）.随着现代数据收集和处理系统的发展，测量员的职责已经超出了传统的现场进行测量和室内进行计算和制图的任务。不仅一般的建筑工程项目、绘制地图、地籍测量需要测量，而且也越来越多地用于其他的自然科学，如地质学和地球物理学；生物学，包括农业、林业、草原和野生动植物；水文地理学和海洋学；以及地理学，包括人文资源。The tasks in these physical science operations（活动）need to be redefined to include design of the surveying procedure（程序）and selection of equipment appropriate for the project;acquisition of data in the field or by way of remote station;reduction（整理）or analysis of data in the office or in the filed;storage of data in a form compatible with（适合于）feature retrieval（特征检索）;preparation（整理）of maps or other displays in the graphical（绘图）(including photographic摄影)or numerical form needed for the purpose of survey;and setting of monument（界标）and boundaries in the field as well as control for construction layout（施工放样）.Performance of these tasks requires a familiarity with the uses of surveying, knowledge of fundamentals of the surveying process（方法）, and knowledge of various means by which data can be prepared for presentation.这些自然科学活动的任务需要重新定义，包括设计测量程序和选择适合该项目的设备；在现场或通过远距离的测站收集数据；在室内或现场整理或分析数据；以适合于特征检索的形式储存数据；以测量所需的绘图（包括摄影）或数字形式整理地图或其他显示；在现场设置界标和边界并控制施工放样。这些任务的实施需要熟悉测量的使用、测量方法的基本原理的知识以及数据准备表达的不同方法的知识。

The earliest surveys known were for the purpose of establishing（确定）the boundaries of land, and such surveys are still important work of many surveyors.最早了解的测量是用来确定土地的边界，这样的测量仍然是很多测量员的重要工作。Every construction project of any magnitude（规模）is based to some degree upon measurements taken during the progress（发展）of a survey and is constructed about lines and points established by the surveyor.Aside from land surveys, practically all surveys of a private nature（私营性质）and most of those conducted by public agencies（公共机构）are of assistance in the conception（规划）, design, and execution（施工）of engineering works.在测量的发展过程中，任意规模的每个建筑项目在某种程度上都是根据所采用的测量方法，然后绘制由测量员确定的线和点。除了土地测量外，实际上所有私营性质的测量和大多数由公共机构经营的测量都对工程的规划、设计和施工有帮助。

For many years the government, and in some instances（在某些情况下）the individual states, have conducted surveys over large areas for a variety of purposes.The principal work so far（迄今为止）accomplished consists of the fixing（确定）of national and state boundaries;the charting（绘制）of coastlines（海岸线）and navigable（适于航行的）streams and lakes;the precise location（定位）of definite reference points（固定基准点）throughout the country;the collection of valuable facts（论据）concerning the earth’s magnetism（磁力）at widely scattered stations;establishment（建立）and observation of a greater network of gravity station（重力站）throughout the world;the establishment and operation（运转）of tidal and water level（潮位和水位）station;the extension（扩充）hydrographic（与水文地理学有关）and oceanographic（与海洋学有关）charting and mapping（绘制）into the approximately three-fourths of the world which is essentially（本来）unmapped;and the extension of topographic（地形的）mapping of the land（陆地）surfaces of the earth.很多年来，政府以及在某些情况下各个州已经对大量的各种用途的区域进行了测量。迄今为止，已经完成的主要工作包括确定了国家和州的边界线；绘出了海岸线和适于航行的河流和湖泊；精确定位了遍及全国的固定基准点；收集了遍布各个分散测站的关于地球磁力的有价值的论据；建立和观测了遍布世界的较大网络的重力站；建立和运转了潮位和水位站；扩充绘制了本来未绘制的约3/4的世界范围内与水文地理学和海洋学有关的图表和地图；扩充绘制了地球表面陆地的地形图。

Observations of a worldwide net of satellite triangulation stations（三角测量卫星观测站）were made during the decade 1964-1974.Results of the computations have been completed by 1985.They allow（有助于）determination of the shape of the earth from one to two orders of magnitude（数量级）better than has heretofore（迄今为止）been known.Consequently, surveys of global extent（全球范围）have been performed and will become common in the future.在1964到1974年的十年间建立了全世界网络的三角测量的卫星观测站。到1985年已经完成了计算结果。它们有助于更精确地确定地球的形状，其精度要比迄今为止所知的高出一到两个数量级。因此，已经进行了全球范围的测量，这在将来成为平常事。

Thus surveys are divided into three classes:(a)those for the primary purpose of establishing the boundaries of land,(b)those providing information necessary for the construction of public or private works, and(c)those of large extent and high precision conducted by the government and to some extent by the states.There is no hard and fast line of demarcation（严格的界线）between surveys of one class and those of another（不同类型）regarding the methods employed, results obtained, or the use of the data of the survey.因此，测量被分为三类：（a）主要用于确定土地边界的测量；（b）为公共或私人工程的建造提供必要信息的测量；（c）由政府以及在某种程度上由州进行的大范围和高精度的测量。不同类型的测量在采用的方法、取得的成果或测量数据的使用方面没有严格的界线。

Different types of surveying undertake（承担）the tasks of three classes.Geodetic surveying（大地测量）is employed in the third class, which takes into account the true shape of the earth.Surveys making use of the principles of geodesy（测地学）are of high precision and generally extend（遍布）over large areas.Where the area involved is not great, as for a state, the required precision may be obtained by assuming that the earth is a perfect sphere（球体）.Where the area is large, as for a country, the true spheroidal（椭球体）shape of the earth is considered.Surveys of the latter character have been conducted primarily through the agencies of governments.In the United States such surveys have been conducted principally by the U.S.National Geodetic Survey.Geodetic surveys have also been conducted by the Great Lake Survey, the Mississippi River Commission, several boundary commissions, and others.不同类型的测量承担着这三类任务。大地测量被用于第三类的任务，它考虑了地球的实际形状。利用测地学原理的测量具有很高的精度，且通常遍布很大的范围。对包含的范围不大如一个州时，则可通过假定地球完全是个球体可以得到所需的精度。对范围较大如一个国家时，则要考虑地球实际的椭球体形状。对后者特征的测量主要通过政府机构进行。在美国这样的测量主要由美国国家大地测量局进行。大地测量也已由大湖勘测局、密西西比河委员会、一些边界线委员会以及其他机构进行。

Though relatively few engineers and surveyors are employed full time in geodetic work（测量工作）, the data of the various geodetic surveys are of great importance in that they furnish（提供）precise points of reference to which the multitude of（大量）surveys of lower precision may be tied（连接）.For each state, a system of plane coordinates（平面坐标系统）has been devised（建立）, to which all points in the state can be referred without an error of more than one part in 10 000 in distance or direction arising from the difference（差异）between the reference surface and the actual mean surface of the earth.尽管较少的工程师和测量员专职从事测量工作，但是各种大地测量的数据很重要，它们提供了精确的基准点，大量较低精度的测量可与其联测。每个州都已建立了一个平面坐标系统，州内各点均可以参考这一坐标系统，基准面与实际的地球平均面之差所引起的距离或方位的误差不会大于1/10000。

That type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected, is generally defined as plane surveying.With regard to horizontal distances and directions, a level line（水平线）is considered as mathematically straight, the direction of the plumb line（铅垂线）is considered to be same at all points within the limits of the survey, and angles are considered to be plane angles.By far（到目前为止）the greater number of all surveys are of（属于）this type.In general the surveys necessary for the works of human beings are plane survey.The shape of the earth must be taken into consideration only in surveys of precision covering（涉及）large areas.认为地球的平均面是一个平面或忽略椭球体形状的测量通常定义为平面测量。关于水平距离和方向，水平线在数学意义上被认为是直的，铅垂线的方向在测量限制范围内的所有点上被认为是相同的，而角度被认为是平面角。到目前为止，大多数的测量都属于这种类型。通常对人类工程必需的测量是平面测量。地球的形状只在涉及大范围的精确测量时才被考虑。The operation（工作）of determining elevation is usually considered as a division（一部分）of plane surveying.Elevations are referred to（与..有关）a spheroidal surface, a tangent at any point in the surface being normal to（垂直于）the plumb line at that point.The curved surface of reference, usually mean sea level（平均海平面）, is called a “datum” or curiously and incorrectly, a “datum plane”.The procedure ordinarily used in determining elevations automatically takes into account the curvature（曲率）of the earth, and elevation referred to the curved surface of reference are secured（获得）without extra effort on the part of the surveyor.In this procedure, the curvature of the earth’s surface can not be neglected even for very rough（粗略的）values of elevations.确定标高的工作通常被认为是平面测量的一部分。标高和椭球体表面有关，该表面上任意一点的切线垂直于该点的铅垂线。通常是平均海平面的参考曲面被称为“基准面”，或奇怪地、不恰当地称为“基准平面”。通常用来确定标高的方法自动考虑了地球的曲率，而关于参考曲面的标高，测量员没有额外的费力就可获得。在该方法中，地球表面的曲率不能被忽略，即使对非常粗略的标高值。

Here a brief description of the various types of surveys will be given.Most of them employ plane rather than geodetic techniques.这里将给出一个关于不同测量类型的简短描述。它们中多数采用平面技术而不是大地测量技术。

Land surveys are the oldest type of survey and have been performed since earliest recorded history.They are plane surveys made for locating property lines（地籍线）, subdividing land into smaller parts（分割土地）, determining land areas and any other information involving the transfer of land from one owner to another（土地产权转移）.These surveys are also called property surveys, boundary surveys, or cadastral surveys.土地测量是最老的测量类型，自从最早有历史记载以来就已有之。它们属于平面测量方法，用以定位地籍线、分割土地、确定土地面积以及其他包括土地产权转移在内的信息。这些测量也称为地籍测量、边界测量或地产测量。

Topographic surveys（地形测量）are made for locating objects and measuring the relief（地貌）, roughness（粗糙度）, or three-dimensional variations of the earth’s surface.Detailed information is obtained pertaining to（关于）elevations as well as to the locations of man-made and natural features（人工和自然地物）(buildings, roads, streams, and so on)and the entire information is plotted on maps(called topographic maps).地形测量用以定位物体以及测出地球表面的地貌、粗糙度或三向空间的变化。在得到了关于人工和自然地物（建筑物、道路、河流等）的标高和位置的详细信息后，将全部的信息绘在地图上（称为地形图）。Route surveys（路线测量）involve the determination of the relief and the location of natural and artificial objects along a proposed（拟定的）route for a highway, railroad, canal, power line（输电线）, or other utility（应用）.They may further involve the location or staking out（放样）of the facility and the calculation of earthwork quantities（土方工程量）.路线测量包括确定自然和人工的物体如公路、铁路、运河、输电线或其他应用沿着拟定路线的地貌和位置。它们可进一步包括设施的定位或放样，并计算土方工程量。

City survey are made within a given municipality for the purpose of laying out（定位）streets, planning（布置）sewer systems（排水系统）, preparing maps, and so on.When the term is used, it usually brings to mind（使人想起）topographic surveys in or near a city for the purpose of planning urban expansions or improvements.城市测量是在一个特定的城市范围内用以定位街道、布置排水系统以及制作地图等。当采用该术语时，它通常使人想起在一个城市中或城市边进行的地形测量，用以规划城市的扩张和改进。

Construction surveys are made for purposes of locating structures and providing required elevation points during their construction.They are needed to control（指导）every type of construction project.建筑测量用以确定建筑的位置，并在施工期间提供所需的标高点。它们被需要用来指导每种建筑工程。

Hydrographic surveys（水文测量）pertain to（适合）lakes, streams, and other bodies of water（水域）.Shore lines（海岸线）are charted, shapes of areas beneath water surface are determined, water flow（水流量）of streams is estimated, and other information needed relative to（相对于）navigation, flood control（防洪）, development of water resources, and so on, is obtained.These surveys are usually made by a governmental agency.When hydrographic and topographic surveying are combined the resulting surveys are sometimes called cartographic survey（地图制图测量）.水文测量适合于湖泊、河流以及其他水域。绘出海岸线、确定水面下区域的形状、估计河流的水流量以及得到其他相对于航海、防洪、水资源发展等所需要的信息。这些测量通常由政府机构进行。当水文测量与地形测量结合起来形成的测量有时称为地图制图测量。

Marine surveys（海洋测量）are related to hydrographic surveys but they are thought to cover a broader area.They include the surveying necessary for offshore platforms（近海平台）, the science of navigation, theory of tides（潮汐学说）as well as the preparation of hydrographic maps and charts（海图）.海洋测量与水文测量有关，但被认为包含更广泛的区域。它们包括近海平台、航海科学、潮汐学说以及制作水文图和海图所必需的测量。

Mine surveys（矿井测量）are made to obtain the relative positions and elevations of underground shafts（矿井）, geological formations（地质组成）, and so on and to determine quantities and establish lines and grades for work to be done.矿井测量用以获得地下矿井的相对位置和标高、地质组成等，并确定将要进行的工作的数量、路线和等级。

Forestry and geological surveys（林地和地质测量）are probably much more common than the average（一般的）layman realizes（了解）.Foresters（林务员）use surveying for boundary locations, timber cruising, topography, etc.Similarly, surveying has much application in the preparation of geological maps（地质图）.林地和地质测量可能比一般的非专业人员所了解的普遍的多。林务员进行边界位置测量、森林勘测测量、地形测量等。类似的，测量在制作地质图时有很多应用。Photogrammetric surveys（摄影测量）are those in which photographs(generally aerial)are used in conjunction with（加上）limited（有限的）ground surveys(used to establish or locate certain control points visible from the air).Photogrammetry is extremely valuable because of the speed with which it can be applied, the economy, the application to（适用于）areas difficult to access（达到）, the great detail provided, etc.Its uses are becoming more extensive each year.摄影测量是利用照片（通常是空中的）加上有限的地面测量进行的测量（用以确定从空中能看见的某些控制点的位置）。摄影测量非常有价值，因为这种测量速度快、经济、适用于难以到达的地区以及提供大量的详细资料等。它的使用一年比一年广泛。

In the decades to come there will undoubtedly be the other special types of surveying which will develop.Surveyors might very well（极有可能）have to establish boundaries under the ocean, in the Arctic and Antarctic, and even on the moon and other planets.Great skill and judgment by the surveying profession（测量业）will undoubtedly be required to handle these tasks.在今后的几十年里，毫无疑问会有其他特殊类型的测量将逐步发展。测量员极有可能不得不在海洋下、在北极和南极、甚至在月球和其他行星上确定边界。毫无疑问测量业将需要很多的技能和判断来处理这些任务。

Unit 15 第十五单元

Soil Mechanics 土力学 教学目标

了解土的颗粒尺寸

熟悉土壤类型及其力学和物理性能的词汇

熟悉科技类文献的常用句型

熟悉frictional、cohesive的不同含义；drop、lower、sink、settle的不同含义。

Grain size（颗粒尺寸）is the basis of soil mechanics, since it is this which decides whether a soil is frictional（有摩阻力的）or cohesive（有粘结力的）, a sand or a clay（粘土）.Starting with the largest sizes, boulders（漂石）are larger than 10 cm, cobbles（卵石）are from 5 cm to 10 cm, gravel（砾石）or ballast（碎石）is from about 5 cm to 5 mm, grit（粗砂）is from about 5 mm to 2 mm, sand is from 2 mm to 0.06 mm.All these soils are frictional, being coarse（粗糙的）and thus non-cohesive.Their stability depends on their internal friction.For the cohesive or non-frictional soils the two main internationally accepted size limits（范围）are: silt（淤泥）from 0.02 mm to 0.002 mm, and clay for all finer material.There are, of course, many silty clays（粉质粘土）and clayey silts（粘质粉土）.土力学的基础是颗粒尺寸，因为是它决定了土壤是有摩阻力的还是有粘结力的，是砂还是粘土。从最大的尺寸开始，漂石大于10cm，卵石在5cm到10 cm之间，砾石或碎石约在5cm到5mm之间，粗砂约在5mm到2mm之间，砂在2mm到0.06mm 之间。所有这些土壤都是有摩阻力的，是粗糙的，因而是没有粘结力的。它们的稳定性依赖于内摩擦力。对于有粘结力或无摩擦力的土壤，国际上能接受的两个主要的尺寸范围是：淤泥在0.01mm到0.002mm，而粘土为所有较细的材料。当然还有很多粉质粘土和粘质粉土。Every large civil engineering job starts with a soil mechanics survey（地基勘测）in its early stage.The first visit on foot（踏勘）will show whether the site might be suitable, in other words, whether money should be spent on sending soil-sampling equipment out to it.The soil samples and the laboratory results obtained from the triaxial test, shear test and so on will show at what depth the soil is likely to be strong enough to take the required load.For a masonry or steel structure, this is where soil mechanics survey will end, having rarely cost more than 2 percent of the structure cost.每一项大的土木工程任务在它的早期阶段是从地基勘测开始的。通过最初的踏勘显示该场地是否适合，换句话说，是否应该花一定的费用运送土壤取样设备至现场。土壤样本以及根据三向试验、剪切试验等所获得的实验室结果将显示在哪个深度上土壤可能足够坚固，能承受所需的荷载。对砌体或钢结构来说，其地基勘察将到此结束，所需费用很少超过结构费用的2%。

Generally, the strength of a soil increases with depth.But it can happen that it becomes weaker with depth.Therefore, in choosing the foundation pressure（地基压力）and level（深度）for this sort of soil, a knowledge of soil mechanics is essential, since this will give an idea of（对..有所了解）the likely settlements.通常，土的强度随深度而增加。但会发生强度随深度变弱的情况。因此，在选择这种土的地基压力和深度时，土力学的知识是必要的，因为这将对可能的沉降有所了解。There are, however, several other causes of settlement apart from consolidation（固结）due to load.These causes are incalculable（不可计算的）and must be carefully guarded against（预防）.They include frost（霜冻）action, chemical change in the soil, underground erosion（侵蚀）by flowing water, reduction of the ground water level, nearby construction of tunnels（隧道）or vibrating machinery（机械）such as vehicles.但是，除了荷载引起的固结外，还有其他一些沉降的原因。这些原因是不可计算的，必须小心预防。它们包括霜冻作用、土壤中的化学变化、流水引起的地下侵蚀、地下水位的减少、附近隧道的施工或者振动的机械如车辆。

Static load can cause elastic(temporary)or plastic（permanent）settlement, consolidation settlement being permanent.However, when plastic flow（塑性流）is mentioned in English, it generally means the failure of a soil by overload in shear.Consolidation settlement occurs mainly in clays or silts.静荷载会引起弹性（暂时的）或塑性（永久的）的沉降，其中固结沉降是永久的。但是，在英语中提到塑性流，它通常意味着超载引起土壤的剪切失效。固结沉降主要发生在粘土或淤泥中。

From dynamic load alone the commonest settlements are found in sands or gravels, caused by traffic or other vibration, pile driving（打桩）or other earth shocks（冲击）.A drop（降低）in the ground water level will often cause the soil to shrink and a rise may cause expansion（膨胀）of the soil.Ground water is lowered by the drainage（排水）which can be caused by any deep excavation（深开挖）.The shrinkage which can occur with drying（干燥）is well shown by the clay underlying Mexico City, a volcanic ash.After seven weeks drying this clay shrinks to 6.4 percent of its initial volume.It is an unusual clay with the very high voids ratio（孔隙比）of 93.6 / 6.4 = 14.6.在砂或砾石中发现了仅由动荷载如交通或其他振动，打桩或其他土地冲击引起的最普通的沉降。地下水位的下降常常引起土壤的收缩，上升可能引起土壤的膨胀。由任何深开挖引起的排水可导致地下水位的降低。干燥引起的收缩可通过墨西哥城下的粘土即火山灰来很好地说明。在七个星期的干燥后，该粘土比它的初始体积收缩了6.4%。它是一种与众不同的粘土，具有很高的孔隙比，为93.6/6.4=14.6。

Underground erosion is the removal of solids（固体颗粒的流失）, usually fines（细颗粒）, from the soil by the flow of underground water.The solids can be removed as solids（固态）or in solution（溶解状态）, though only a few rocks are soluble enough（充分溶解）to be removed in this way.Rock salt（岩盐）is the commonest example of a soluble rock.Potassium salts（钾盐）also are soluble.地下侵蚀是由于地下水的流动引起的固体颗粒通常是细颗粒从土壤中流失。固体颗粒能在固态或溶解状态时流失，尽管只有一些岩石能以这种形式充分溶解后流失。岩盐是可溶解的岩石中最普通的例子。钾盐也是可溶解的。

The permeability（渗透性）of a soil is important for calculations of underground flow（地下潜流）, for example of oil or water to a well, or of water into a trench（排水沟）dug for a foundation, or of water through an earth dam（土坝）.Of the loose soils which can be dug with spade（铲）, clays are the least permeable, silts slightly more（稍大）, sands yet more（更大）, and gravels even more.In other words, the permeability is in direct proportion to（与..成正比）the grain size of the soil.土壤的渗透性对计算地下潜流是重要的，例如计算井中的石油或水，或计算为基础开挖的排水沟中的水，或计算通过土坝的水。在可用铲开挖的疏松土壤中，粘土的渗透能力是最小的，淤泥稍微大一些，砂更大一些，砾石甚至还要大。换句话说，渗透性与土壤的颗粒尺寸成正比。

When a well is being pumped（抽水）, the water flows towards（流向）it from every direction and the ground water surface(water table地下水位)around it sinks.As the distance from the well increases, the water table is lowered rather less, so that around the well it becomes shaped like a funnel（漏斗形）, though it is usually called a cone of depression（降落锥体）.当井在抽水时，水从每个方向流向井中，在它周围的地下水表面（地下水位）便下沉。随着离开井的距离的增加，地下水位降低得相当少，以致井的周围变成漏斗形，但它通常称为降落锥体。

Unit 17 第十七单元

Tendering Procedure 招投标 教学目标

了解招投标过程

了解项目策略的确定与投标预审程序 熟悉招投标过程中的专业词汇

熟悉科技类文献中的常用句型 熟悉in accordance with、in connection with、in compliance with的不同含义；cover、comprise、contain的含义；anticipated、intended、envisaged、prospective的用法；tender的不同含义。This document presents（介绍）a systematic approach for tendering and awarding of contracts（签订合同）for international construction projects.It is intended to assist the employer / engineer to receive sound competitive tenders（公开投标）in accordance with the tender（招标）documents so that they can be quickly and efficiently assessed.At the same time, an effort has been made to provide the opportunity and incentive（鼓励）to contractors to respond easily to invitations to tender for（投标）projects which they are qualified to implement.It is hoped that the adoption of this procedure will minimize tendering costs and ensure that all tenderers receive a fair and equal（公正与公平）opportunity to submit（提交）their offers（建议）on a reasonable and comparable（同等的）basis.Introduction 本文介绍了国际间的建筑工程的招投标和签订合同的系统方法。它用以帮助雇主/工程师收到合理的、与招标文件一致的公开投标，从而对它们进行快速和有效地评估。同时，努力地给予承包商机会和鼓励，使他们顺利地接受邀请而对他们有资格履行的工程进行投标。希望采用这种方法将使招投标的费用最小，并确保所有的投标者在合理和同等的基础上能获得公正与公平的机会来提交他们的建议。

介绍

Establishment of Procurement Method and Form of Tendering In the context（上下文）of this document the word “project’ covers all the stages from the initial idea to construct a given physical asset（有形资产）to the final taking-over（接收）by the employer of the completed work.建立获取投标的方法和形式 在本篇的上下文中，“项目”一词包括了从最初建造一个特定的有形资产的构思到最后雇主接收已完工程的全部阶段。

Project Strategy 项目策略

Projects may be organized and implemented in accordance with different strategies.Which strategy is best suited for the purpose depends on, for example, the nature and complexity of the project, the access to finance（融资渠道）, life cycle（生命周期）costs of the projects, the technical and administrative capability of the employer and the general political and economic environment.项目可以根据不同的策略进行组织和实施。何种策略最适合于项目的目标，依赖于如项目的性质和复杂性、融资渠道、项目的生命周期费用、雇主的技术和管理能力以及总的政治与经济环境。

The project strategy defines（规定）the way in which the project will be implemented, determines the role of each party involved and, where appropriate（适当处）, specifies（指定）the way the project will operate.To a large degree contractual relationship（合同关系）between the parties and their individual rights, duties and risks are thereby also determined by the project strategy.项目策略规定了项目实施的途径，确定了有关各方的任务，并在适当处指定了项目运作的方法。因此，在很大程度上双方的合同关系以及各自的权利、义务和风险也由项目的策略来确定。

At the implementation stage of a project, tendering serves as a method to ensure that the work is procured（获得）at competitive terms（条件）.在项目的执行阶段，投标作为一种确保在竞争的条件下获得该项工作的方法。The choice of strategy is a major（较重要的）decision which has far-reaching consequences（深远意义）.Once a strategy has been settled it is of great importance that it be followed（遵循）throughout the implementation of the project.Lack of（没有）strict adherence（遵守）to the strategy may lead to flaws in the procurement process（获取过程）, resulting in claims（索赔）, disputes（争端）and extra cost for all concerned.策略的选择是具有深远意义的较重要的决定。一旦定下策略，它即具有非常重要的意义，应在整个项目的执行过程中被遵循。没有严格遵守该策略可能导致获取过程中的缺陷，导致索赔、争端以及所有有关的额外费用。

Any part of a project which can be covered by a separate contract may in principle（通常）be made subject to（根据）tendering.一份单独合同所包含的项目中的任何一部分通常都可以根据投标进行。

As soon as the project strategy has been decided, the employer, assisted by his engineer, should establish procurement methods and forms of tendering to be used in the project.一旦确定项目策略，雇主应该在工程师的帮助下建立用于该项目的获取投标的方法和形式。

The procurement methods and forms of tendering are established by determining:

（1）The parts of the project for which tenders are to

be sought（试图获得）;

（2）The conditions of contract to be adopted;

（3）The award criteria;and

（4）The tendering procedure.通过确定下列内容来建立获取投标的方法和形式：

（1）试图获得投标的项目部分；

（2）采用的合同条件；

（3）授予合同的标准；

（4）投标过程。

Once these basic preconditions（前提）have been determined and agreed between the employer and his engineer, the planning of when and how the tendering can be carried out may commence.一旦这些基本的前提被确定并在雇主和工程师之间协商一致，则何时和如何进行投标的计划便可开始。If, for unforeseen（无法预料的）reasons, changes in principle and form have to be made at a later stage in the project the implications（含意）of such changes have to be considered and assessed carefully.由于无法预料的原因，如果在项目的后期不得不发生原则和形式上的变化，则必须小心考虑并估计这些变化的含意。

Preparation of Programmes The tendering procedure, as described in this document, implies that certain activities have to be carried out in connection with（连同）each part of the project for which a separate tender is to be called（招标）.计划的准备 正如本文所描述的，投标过程意味着某些活动必须连同项目的各个部分一起进行，而该项目是进行单独招标的。

It is important that these activities are carried out in a systematic and timely（适时的）manner.They should therefore be planned carefully and incorporated in（并入）the programme for the project.这些活动应该系统和适时地进行，这点很重要。因此，它们应该被仔细地计划，且并入项目的计划中。

Normally, preliminary overall programme covering all major activities of the project is prepared in the initial stage of the project.As a minimum（作为最低要求）, such programme should comprise the main phases of the project, that is:

-Project definition-Tendering procedure-Design-Construction-Taking-over and should establish all milestones of significance in connection with（与..有关的）each phase.通常在项目的初期准备好初步的、包括项目所有主要活动的总体计划。作为最低要求，该计划应包含项目的主要阶段，即：

—项目定义

—投标过程

—设计

—施工

—接管

并且应该设立与各个阶段有关的所有的重要的里程碑。

Calling tenders for a given part of the project should be carried out in compliance with（按照）the overall programme.对特定项目部分的招标应该按照总体计划进行。

In order to ensure this compliance（一致性）, detailed programmes should be made for implementing the tendering procedure for each part of the project.As a minimum, these programmes should specify duration（持续时间）and deadlines（最终期限）for the following activities in connection with each potential contract.-Preparation of tender documents

-Preparation of prequalification（预审）document-Prequalification of tenderers-Obtaining tenders-Opening of tenders-Evaluation of tenders-Award of contract 为了确保一致性，应该对履行项目各个部分的投标过程作详细的计划。作为最低要求，这些计划应该规定下列与各个潜在合同有关的活动的持续时间和最终期限。

—准备投标文件

—准备预审文件 —投标人的预审 —获得投标 —开标 —评标

—签定合同

Time should be allowed（留出）in each programme for the employer to make necessary decisions and give required approvals（批准）.在每一项计划中应该留给雇主一定的时间，以使他作出必要的决定，并给出所需的批准。Further information about content and scope of each of these activities is given in the following section of this document.关于每一项活动的内容和范围的进一步信息，在本文后面的章节中给出。

Prepration of Prequalification Documents General: Prequalification is recommended to ensure that tenders are sought only from contractors whom the employer / engineer has already established（确定）as having the requisite（必要的）resources and experience to perform the intended（预期）work satisfactorily.预审文件的准备 一般：预审被建议用来确保投标只从那些雇主/工程师已经确定的、具有必要的资源和经验从而能圆满地完成预期工作的承包商中去寻找。Prequalification of Tenderers 投标人的资格预审

The aim of prequalification is to establish a list of capable（有可能的）firms whilst（同时）ensuring that a proper level of competition is safeguarded（维护）.To achieve these objectives and to give added（更多的）encouragement for contractors to respond to invitations to tender（招标）, no more than seven organizations should be prequalified unless the rules of the employer or financing institution otherwise dictate（另外规定）.预审的目的是为了确定有可能的公司名单，同时确保维护适当的竞争水平。为了达到这些目的，并给予承包商更多的鼓励，使他们响应招标，预审应该不超过七个组织，除非雇主或贷款机构的规则另有规定。

Prequalification Document Prequalification documents should give information about the project, the tendering procedure and the prequalification procedure.They should also specify what data is required from contractors wishing to prequalify.预审文件 预审文件应该提供关于项目、投标过程和预审过程的信息。它们也应该规定来自承包商的哪些数据是需要的，并希望预审。

The documents are prepared by the employer / engineer and will normally include the following:-Letter of invitation to prequalify-Information about the prequalification procedure-Project information-Prequalification application

该文件由雇主/工程师准备，且通常将包括下列内容：

—预审的邀请信 —预审过程的信息 —项目信息 —预审申请

-Name and address of the employer-Name and address of the engineer-Location of the project-Description（类型）of the project and scope of work The documents should include inter alia（尤其）the following:

included in the contract-Anticipated（预期的）programme, indicating the

tender period（周期）, contract award date，design/construction/ commissioning（试运转）periods

and any other key dates-Conditions of contract to be used-Criteria for evaluation of tenders-Criteria for prequalification-Details（详细资料）of any work intended to be

undertaken by nominated subcontractor(s)（指定分

包商）

-Anticipated sources of finance(including any

requirement for contractor financing筹措资金)-Payment arrangements envisaged（预期的）

(including currencies)-Any financial guarantees to be given by contractors-Whether price escalation arrangements（涨价计划）

will be included-Language and law of the contract-Any aspect of the intended work which is

unusual and would（可能）thus have a bearing on

（对..有影响）the contractors obligations（职责）

-Charges for（收..费）purchase of tender documents，if applicable 该文件尤其应该包括下列内容：

—雇主的姓名和地址 —工程师的姓名和地址

—项目的地点

—合同中包括的项目类型和工作范围

—预期的计划，指出投标的周期、合同签定日期、设计/

施工/试运转周期以及其他关键的日期

—合同采用的条件 —评标标准

—预审标准

—打算由指定的分包商承担的工作的详细资料 —预期的财政来源（包括需要承包商筹措的资金）—预期的支付安排（包括货币）—承包商提供的财政保证 —是否包括涨价的计划 —合同语言和规则

—预期工作中与众不同的方面，因而可能会影响到承包商

的职责

—如果合适，对购买投标文件的收费 Applicants should also be advised of（告知）:-The policy of the employer concerning domestic preference（国内

优惠）

-The attitude of the employer to joint ventures（联合体）.It is

recommended that Joint ventures should be allowed to prequalify

but that the subsequent formation of Joint ventures from amongst（从..中）prequalified organizations should be controlled as this

reduces the breadth（范围）of competition.A prequalified

organization should be allowed to strengthen its capability（实

力）by the subsequent incorporation, during

the tender period，of non-prequalified firm(s), subject to the approval of the employer.-The number of copies of prequalification applications to be

submitted.-The name, address and latest date（截止时间）for receipt of

submissions（提交物）, including any particular instructions for

labeling（标注）.-The language to be used for the submissions-The currency to be used for presenting（提供）financial

information（报告）.申请者也应该被告知下列情况：

—雇主有关国内的优惠政策。

—雇主对联合体的态度。建议应该允许预审联合体，但是随后从预审过的组织中形成的联合体应该加以

控制，因为这将缩小竞争的范围。应该允许预审过的组织在投标期间，通过随后与未预审的公司的联

合来加强他们的实力，以易于获得雇主的认可。

—递交预审申请的复印件的数量。—名称、地址、接受提交物的截止时间，包括特别标

注的说明。

—提交物所使用的语言。

—提供的财务报告所使用的货币。

Invitation to Prequalify The employer/engineer should publish a notice（发布通告）of inviting interested contractors to apply for prequalification documents, stating（声明）that tender（招标）documents will be issued only to（发给）a limited number（少数的）of companies/joint ventures selected by the employer/engineer as having the necessary qualifications（条件）to perform the work satisfactorily.预审邀请 雇主/工程师应该发布通告邀请有兴趣的承包商来申请预审文件，声明招标文件仅发给由雇主/工程师选择的、具备圆满完成该工作的必要条件的少数公司/联合体。The notice should be published in appropriate newspapers and journals to give sufficient publicity（宣传）according to the particular circumstances of the project.The notice may also be issued to financing institution representatives, if relevant, and to government agencies responsible for foreign trade（外贸）so that the international community（团体）receives timely notification of the proposed project and instructions on how to apply.根据该项目的特定环境，通告应发表在适当的报纸和杂志上以给予足够的宣传。如果有关联，通告也可以发给贷款机构的代表，以及负责外贸的政府机构，使国际团体能及时地收到被提议项目的通告和如何申请的说明。

The notice should be reasonably brief and where feasible contain:

-Name of the employer.-Name of the engineer.-Location of the project.-Description of the project and scope of work.-Source of finance.-Anticipated programme(i.e.award of contract，completion and any other key dates).-Planned dates for issue of tender（招标）documents

and submission of tenders（标书）.-Instructions for applying for prequalification documents.-Date by（到..时为止）which applications（申请表）to

prequalify must be submitted.-Minimum qualification requirements（限制条件）and any particular aspects which could be of concern（至关

重要）to prospective（预期的）tenderers.通告应该适当地简短，可能包括：

—雇主名称

—工程师名称 —项目地点

—项目类型与工作范围 —资金来源

—预期计划（即签定合同的日期、完工日期以及其它

的关键日期）

—招标文件发布和标书递交的计划日期 —申请预审文件的说明。

—预审申请表必须递交的截止日期。

—最低的限制条件以及对预期的投标人至关重要的特

殊情况。

Issue and Submission of Prequalification Documents On（一旦）receipt of requests from contractors, the employer/engineer should issue the prequalification document.预审文件的发布与递交 一旦收到承包商的请求，雇主/工程师应该发给预审文件。The letter of invitation to prequalify should state（说明）how the application is to be packaged and sent.邀请预审的信件中应该说明申请书将如何包装和送交。

The employer/engineer should acknowledge（确认）receipt of the completed prequalification applications from the contractors.雇主/工程师应该对收到来自承包商的已完的预审申请书加以确认。

Analysis of Prequalification Applications The employer/engineer should evaluate the prequalification applications to identify（确定）those companies/joint ventures whom they consider to be suitably qualified(条件合适）and experienced to undertake the project.预审申请书的分析 雇主/工程师应该对预审申请书进行评价，以确定被他们认为是条件合适并有经验承担该项目的公司/联合体。

The evaluations should determine, for each company or joint venture:-Structure and organization.-Experience in both the type of work and the country

or region in which it is to be undertaken.-Available resources, in terms of（在..方面）

management capability, technical staff, construction

and fabrication facilities, maintenance and training

facilities, or other relevant factors.-Quality assurance procedures（措施）and

environmental policy.-Extent to which any work would be likely to be

subcontracted.-Financial stability and resources necessary to execute

the project.-General suitability, taking into account any potential

language difficulties.-Litigation（诉讼）or arbitration（仲裁）history.对每个公司或联合体，评价时应该确定：

—结构与组织

—对即将承担的工作类型以及工作所在的国家或地区

的经验 —在管理能力、技术人员、建造和安装设施、维修和

培训设施或其它相关的因素方面可利用的资源

—质量保证措施和环境政策 —有可能被分包的工作范围

—完成项目必须的财政稳定性和资金来源 —一般的适应性，考虑可能的语言困难 —诉讼或仲裁史

Selection of Tenderers If the resulting list, after those firms who were found unsuitable have been excluded, exceeds six potential tenderers and there are no special regulations or conditions imposed on（影响）the employer, the selection procedure should be continued to eliminate the less well-qualified（不太适合）in order to arrive at no more than six.选择投标人 在那些被发现不适合的公司被排除以后，如果作为结果的名单超过了六个可能的投标者，且没有影响雇主的特别规则或条件，则应该继续进行选择的过程来排除不太适合的，以便获得不超过六个的投标者。

Notification of Applicants When the list of the selected tenderers has been prepared, successful applicants should be notified and requested to confirm（确认）their intention to submit a tender.This should ensure, as far as possible, an adequate number of competitive tenders.If a potential tenderer wishes to drop out（放弃）at this stage, the next best-placed should be invited and asked to confirm as above.Following this, all applicants should be notified of the list of selected tenderers without giving explanation for the decisions.通知申请者 当挑选的投标者的名单准备好时，应该通知成功的申请者，并要求确认他们递交标书的意向。应该尽可能地确保有足够数量的竞争性投标。如果在这个阶段有潜在的投标者想要放弃，则应该邀请下一个名次最列前的公司，并要求其确认上面所说的内容。接着将挑选的投标者的名单通知所有的申请者，而对该决定不作解释。

Unit 18 第十八单元

Building Construction

建筑施工 教学目标

了解各类承包商和承包过程 了解承包过程中各方的关系 熟悉建筑施工中的专业词汇

熟悉科技类文献中的常用句型

熟悉be subject to 的不同含义；several 的不同含义；be engaged with、be engaged by的不同含义；address、cite、argue的用法；Given..的用法；specification的不同含义。

The construction industry consists of numerous types of projects to include residential units, commercial institutions and industrial projects, and heavy and highway projects（市政项目）.One means of classifying（分类）construction contractors is to identify（确定）the firms consistent with the type of work they perform;i.e., a residential contractor, a building or commercial contractor, or a heavy and highway contractor.建筑业由很多类型的工程项目组成，包括住宅单元、商业机构和工业项目以及市政项目。划分工程承包商类型的一种方法是确定该公司与他们所履行的工作类型是一致的；即住宅承包商，建筑或商业承包商，或市政承包商。Construction Contractors

工程承包商

(page 243)While（虽然）the purpose of this handbook addresses（针对..而写）the building/commercial contractor, it is helpful in understanding the characteristics of the building/commercial contractor, to contrast the characteristics of the firm to（将..与..形成对照）those of the residential and/or heavy and highway contractor.虽然本手册的目的是针对建筑/商业承包商而写的，但它在理解建筑/商业承包商的特征时，有助于将公司的特征与住宅承包商和/或市政承包商的特征形成对照。

As pointed out there is the advantage of less sensitivity to the economy for the firm that has skills and performs each of the three types of work.On the other hand, it is not possible for every firm to involve itself in（陷于）the three types of construction work in that（因为）the physical（自然科学的）and management skills required differ for the three types of work.Obviously, not every firm can or should strive（努力）to possess all the skills required to enable its performing each of the three types of work.正如所指出的，有着一定技术、并履行这三种工作的公司具有对经济不太敏感的优势。另一方面，每个公司不可能将其自身陷于三种施工工作，因为三种工作所需的自然科学和管理技术是不同的。显而易见，不是每一个公司都能够或应该努力拥有所有所需的技术，使其能够履行三种工作。

Residential Contractor The decision to specialize in（专攻）residential, commercial, or heavy and highway construction should recognize the unique characteristics of each of the three types of work.Residential construction is characterized by（表现为..的特征）severe cycles in volume（数量）.The residential contractor is subject to（受..的支配）the policies of the government.Due in major part to changes in the government’s fiscal and monetary policies（财政和货币政策）, new residential housing（住宅建设）starts may approach（接近）two million units one year and one million the next.Variations in starts from one year to the next and from one season to the next often create unique management problems for the residential contractor.His available cash（可用现金）through stack volume（堆积，可引申为建设）periods can make the difference（区别对待）between a continuing firm and a bankrupt firm.住宅承包商 决定专攻住宅建设、商业建设还是市政建设时，应该承认这三种工作各自独特的特性。住宅建设表现为数量上严重循环的特征。住宅承包商受政府政策的支配。主要由于政府财政和货币政策的变化，新的住宅建设的启动可能这一年接近两百万套，下一年一百万套。启动时，从这一年到下一年、从这一季到下一季的变化常常引起住宅承包商独特的管理问题。在整个建设期间，他的可用现金允许在继续运作的公司和破产的公司之间区别对待。Residential contractors have the advantages of being able to operate on a low volume in that they normally have relatively low overhead（企业管理费用）versus the building or heavy and highway contractors.Whereas the building or heavy and highway contractor must compete against above average-sized contractors, each having relatively sound（合理的）management practices（经验）, the residential contractor compete against much smaller firms who normally have less sophisticated（完善）management skills.This is not to say that the residential contractor does not have competition, the opposite is in fact true.However, the size of the average competitor and the management skills of the average competitor allow the residential contractor to actually operate out of his house（脱离其机构）as a one-man show（独角戏）.Because of this, the number of residential contractors is numerous, often leading to excessive competition, low profit margins（利润率）, and bankruptcies.住宅承包商具有能够少量运作的优势，因为他们相对于建筑承包商或市政承包商来说，具有相对低的企业管理费用。住宅承包商与小得多的公司竞争，那些小公司通常有着不太完善的管理技术，而建筑承包商或市政承包商必须与超出一般规模的承包商竞争，那些承包商都具有相对合理的管理经验。这不是说住宅承包商没有竞争，事实上正好相反。但是，一般竞争者的规模和管理技术实际上允许住宅承包商脱离其机构独自运作。因此，住宅承包商的数量众多，常常引起过多的竞争、低的利润率以及破产。

Heavy and Highway Contractor Several differences exist between the building contractor and the heavy and highway contractor.For one, the building contractor is normally less dependent on the need for expensive equipment than is the heavy and highway contractor.Because of its high investment in equipment, the main management task for the heavy and highway contractor centers on（集中）the ability to effectively utilize equipment and to minimize idle equipment（闲置设备）time.On the other hand, the building contractor is more dependent on the use of labor.Its management needs center on effective personnel management（人事管理）and the ability to control the many materials that flow to the commercial building construction project.市政承包商 在建筑承包商和市政承包商之间存在一些区别。一方面是建筑承包商通常比市政承包商更少依赖于昂贵设备的需要。由于对设备的高额投资，市政承包商的主要管理任务集中在能够有效地利用设备，并使闲置设备的时间最小。另一方面，建筑承包商更依赖于劳动力的使用。其管理要求集中在有效的人事管理以及能够控制流向商业建筑施工项目的大量材料。

The heavy and highway contracting firm tends to be less subject to（遭受）bankruptcy than the residential contractor or the commercial building contractor.Perhaps this is due in part（部分地）to the fact that heavy and highway work(sometimes categorized as（归类为）public-works construction)tends to be more stable as to profit margin earned.In additional, because of the high equipment investment needed to operate, the heavy and highway contractor tends to be a large firm with a relatively sound financial structure（财务结构）.Several of these differences in the types of firms are summarized in Fig.18-2 and 18-3.市政承包公司往往比住宅承包商或商业建筑承包商更少遭受破产。这可能部分是由于市政工程（有时归类为公共工程建设）往往在赚取的利润率上更稳定。而且，由于需要高额的设备投资进行运作，市政承包商往往是一个大型的公司，具有相对合理的财务结构。不同类型公司中的这些区别总结在图18-2和图18-3中。

General v.Subcontractor Within the classifications of residential, building, and heavy and highway contractors is a class of（一类）contractors referred to as specialty contractors or subcontractors.These types of firms continue to be founded by craftsmen（工匠）and highly skilled（非常熟练的）individuals（个体）.Typically（一般）, the subcontractors are small as to the number of employees and its volume of work.Subcontractors normally have relatively low overhead but are highly dependent on labor and labor productivity.Competition tends to be high and profit margins vary depending on the type of speciality work performed.Unlike the general contractor, the subcontractor is normally responsible for his own work.As such（同样地）the management skills needed to coordinate（协调）the skills of several（不同的）labor crafts（工艺）or flows（流通）of several types of materials are not vital to the subcontractor’s profit on a project or its financial stability.What is needed is an ability to perform a highly skilled type of work and to be able to obtain high productivity while carrying out the work.总承包商与分包商 在住宅承包商、建筑承包商和市政承包商的分类范围中，有一类承包商称为专业承包商或分包商。这类公司不断地由工匠和非常熟练的个体创办。分包商在雇员数量和工作量方面一般是小规模的。分包商通常具有相对低的企业管理费用，但是高度依赖于劳动力和劳动生产力。竞争往往是激烈的，利润率随进行的专业工作的类型而变化。不象总承包商，分包商通常只负责其自己的工作。同样地，为协调不同劳动工艺的技能或不同种类的材料的流通所需的管理技能对分包商的项目利润或其财务稳定性不是至关重要的。分包商所需要的是能够非常熟练地履行某类工作以及在进行该项工作时能够获得高的生产力。The building or commercial contractor is normally engaged as a prime contractor（总承包商）directly with（打交道）the project owner.The contractor has responsibility for delivering the completed construction project to（移交）the project owner.In effect（实际上）the contract it signs（签署）places the firm in a role of independent contractor.In this process, specialty contractors are typically engaged（雇佣）by the contractors serving as subcontractors.The General Contracting Process

总承包过程

The General Contracting Process

总承包过程(page 249)The building or commercial contractor serving（适合于）the role outlined above is referred to as the general contractor for the project.The process itself is commonly referred to as the general contracting process.The process is illustrated in Fig.18-4.适合于上面所描述的角色的建筑或商业承包商称为项目总承包商。该过程本身通常称为总承包过程。该过程如图18-4所示。

The majority of building construction contracts are let（签定）using the general contracting process(note: the next chapter addresses（提出）an alternative process).Advocates（提倡者）of the general contracting process point to several reasons for their preference for the general contracting process.Project owners cite（列举）the fact that by means of soliciting bids（招标）on one single contract for their entire project via（通过）the single general contract, they are able to secure the most competitive(i.e., lowest)price for the proposed project.Some project owners also argue（指出）that another advantage of this process is the fact that they, as the project owner, only have to deal with（与..打交道）a single contractor instead of having to contract and deal with individual specialty contractors.大多数建筑施工合同采用总承包的方法被签定（注意，下一章节提出另一种可选择的方法）。总承包方法的提倡者对他们偏爱该方法指出了几个理由。项目的业主列举了这样一个事实，即通过采用单独总承包的方式对他们整个项目进行单独承包的招标，他们能获得被提议项目最有竞争性（即最低）的价格。一些项目业主也指出该方法的另一个优势，即作为业主，他们只须与单个承包商打交道而不必与各个专业承包商签定合同并打交道。

The general contractor himself may favor（偏爱）the process relative to another process(e.g., construction management)in that the potential for substantial（很多）profits exists if the contractor performs efficiently.The general contract typically signs a lump-sum contract（总价合同）for its services.If the firm is able to construct the project for less than the contract amount（承包价）, the entire difference（差额）becomes profit for the firm.Naturally, the competitive bidding（竞标）process limits the amount of profit that a firm can realize.However, given the documentation that as much as 50% of all on-site time is non-productive, the potential for that profits associated with eliminating or even reducing this non-productive time is substantial.It is this potential profit that the general contractor seeks.In effect the general contractor takes on（承受）a lump-sum contract risk as a means of seeking a large profit.Naturally it also follows（必然是）that while having a potential for a significant profit on a job, the possibility of a significant dollar（财富）loss also exists.相对于另一个方法（比如施工管理），总承包商自身可能偏爱该方法（总承包），因为如果承包商有效地完成任务，就会有很多潜在利润。总承包对它的服务一般签署总价合同。如果公司能以少于承包价建造该项目，全部的差价就成为公司的利润。自然，竞标过程限制了公司能实现的利润值。但是，据文献记载多达一半的现场时间是无生产效益的，则消除或甚至减少该无生产效益的时间带来的潜在利润是很大的。这正是总承包商寻求的潜在利润。实际上，总承包商以承受总价合同的风险作为寻求巨大利润的方法。自然，当一项工作具有巨大的潜在利润时，它也必然存在巨大财富损失的可能。

The architect/engineer designer illustrated as part of the project team in Fig.18-4 may also argue（表明）in favor of the general contracting process.In particular the architect/engineer designer may cite the benefit of only having to write contract documents for a single contractor rather than write contract documents for a series of multiple specialty contracts.In addition most designers would likely favor administering a single construction contract rather than multiple contracts.如图18-4 中所示的建筑师/工程师设计人员，其作为项目组的一部分可能也表明喜欢总承包的方法。特别是建筑师/工程师设计人员可能列举了只须为单个承包商而不是一系列的多个专业合同书写合同文件的好处。而且，多数设计师可能喜欢管理单个施工合同而不是多个合同。

Independent of（与..无关）the project owner, the designer, or the general contractor, an independent party（独立方）might argue（认为）that the general contracting process enhances efficiency, technological change（科技进步）and free trade.Each and every bidder（投标人）in the general-contracting process has an equal opportunity to be low（低价）bidder for the owner’s project.Given the competitive bidding process, it can be argued（表明）that the contractor will seek out efficient means of performing construction methods to include seeking new technology and cost-control means.Given this fact, it follows that the general contracting process promotes a more cost-effective construction industry（建筑业）.与项目业主、设计师或总承包商无关的某一独立方可能认为总承包方法提高了效率、增进了科技进步和自由贸易。在总承包方法中每个投标人具有同等的机会成为业主项目的低价投标人。通过竞标过程可以表明，承包商将寻找有效的方法进行施工，包括寻求新的技术和费用控制的方法。鉴于这个事实，则总承包方法必然促进了一个成本更有效的建筑业。As an alternative（另一选择）to the competitive bidding procedure, the potential owner or his architect/engineer may negotiate with（与..协商）a contractor for building the project.This contractor is usually chosen because of his skill, his reasonable price, and his dependability（可靠性）.In order to assure himself of work in a negotiated contract environment, the construction contractor must maintain a respectable reputation（不错的信誉）with potential construction project owners.作为竞标方式的另一种选择，可能的业主或他的建筑师/工程师可以与承包商协商来建造该项目。该承包商通常由于其技能、合理的价格以及可靠性而被选择。为了确保其自身在一个议标合同的环境下工作，工程承包商必须同可能的工程项目的业主保持不错的信誉。Negotiated Contracts

议标合同

(page 252)Negotiated contracts often have the advantage of producing better coordination（配合）between the owner, the architect/engineer, and the contractor.This improved（改进的）coordination often results in less construction delay time, better project quality, and savings in money for the owner.议标合同常常具有在业主、建筑师/工程师和承包商之间形成较好配合的优势。改进的配合常常导致较少的施工拖延时间、较高的项目质量以及业主资金的节约。

By using a negotiated contract, construction on a project may actually start before the completion of the plans(设计)and specifications（合同条款）.In this case, the owner signs a letter of intent（意向书）with the contractor.This letter of intent assures the contractor that he will be paid for his services, even though the final contract for the project has not been signed, owing to the lack of（没有）the finalization（最后决定）of the plans and specifications.The contractor is paid for his costs plus a negotiated fixed fee or percentage of the project’s costs.通过采用议标合同，项目的施工实际上可以在设计和合同条款完成之前开始。在这种情况下，业主与承包商签署一份意向书。该意向书确保承包商将对他的服务获得支付，即使由于没有最后定下设计和合同条款，项目的最后合同还未签定。承包商获得其付出的成本加上一个协商的固定费用或项目成本的某个百分比。

Arguments（观点）against negotiated contracts include higher contract prices and a lack of contractor incentive（鼓励）in finding new construction methods to do the job for a lower cost.The argument of higher owner project cost is debatable（有争议的）;i.e., competitive contract owner costs must include advertising and lettering（发信函）cost.In addition, the owner is more apt to（易于）get an irresponsible（不可靠的）contractor in a competitive bidding procedure versus a negotiated contract procedure.Negotiated contracts are gaining popularity（普及）in the construction industry.However, the competitive bidding procedure remains the rule（统治）in awarding construction contracts.反对议标合同的观点包括较高的合同价格，并缺乏鼓励承包商寻找新的施工方法从而以较低的费用进行工作。业主较高的项目费用的观点是有争议的；即业主竞争性合同的费用必须包括登广告和发信函的费用。而且，竞标方式相对于议标合同方式，业主更易于获得不可靠的承包商。议标合同在建筑业获得了普及。但是，在签定施工合同时竞标方式依然处于统治地位。

A single contractor will seldom construct an entire project for the project owner.This might only occur on a small project, such as a home owner hiring a contractor to pour a driveway（车道）.In this book, the construction project is meant to imply a somewhat large project;i.e., several（一些）trades（交易）or skills are required for the building of the project.Projects such as home building, industrial construction, highway construction, and dams require several（不同的）types of contracting skills.Owing in part to the restricted size（有限的规模）of contracting firms and the unfeasibility of overexpanding（过分扩张的不可能性）, the average construction contractor is usually restricted to a few skills or types of work which he can perform.As a result, projects which require several（各种）different types of labor trades（手艺）or skills will have several contractors.Contractor Responsibility to Owner 承包商对业主的职责

单个承包商很少建造项目业主全部的工程。这只可能发生在小项目，如住宅业主雇佣一个承包商浇灌一条车道。在本篇中，建筑项目意味着一个稍大的项目；即项目的建造需要一些交易或技能。诸如住宅建设、工业建设、公路建设以及水坝的项目需要不同类型的承包技能。部分是由于承包公司有限的规模以及不可能过分扩张，一般的 工程承包商通常被限制于其能履行的一些技术或工作类型上。因此，需要各种不同类型的劳动手艺或技能的项目必须有不同的承包商。

In a normal contract, the owner will select a general contractor(either by a competitive bidding procedure or by negotiation).This general contractor will usually perform some of the actual project construction, but not all of it.Some states（规定）require that on their public construction projects, the general contractor perform, at least, a defined percentage（规定的比例）of the actual construction.This is done with the intent of facilitating better overall project coordination between the project’s contractors.In the normal contract, the general contractor is given the responsibility of the entire project.On the other hand, the owner can hire a so-called（通常所说的）construction manager（工程项目经理）who recommends a need and a design, supervise the overall project(including financing), and coordinates the project’s contractors.Such an arrangement is referred to as a management contract or as construction management.在一般的合同中，业主会选择一个总承包商（通过竞标方式或商议）。总承包商通常会履行实际项目施工的一部分，但不是全部。有些规定要求对公共建设项目，总承包商至少应履行实际建设的规定比例。这样做是为了更好地促进整个项目在项目承包商之间的配合。在一般的合同中，总承包商对整个项目负责。另一方面，业主可以雇佣通常所说的工程项目经理，他会建议某个需要和某个设计，监督整个项目（包括筹措资金），并配合项目的承包商。这样的安排称为管理合同或施工管理。

In the general contracting process, the project designer and general contractor each typically sign contracts directly with the project owner.However, whereas the designer contract with the project owner is typically an agency contract, the general contractor is engaged by the project owner via all independent contractor agreement（协议）.在总承包过程中，项目设计师和总承包商一般各自直接与项目的业主签定合同。但是，总承包商通过所有独立的承包商协议而受项目业主的雇佣，而设计师与项目业主的合同一般是代理合同。Designer – General Contractor Relationship 设计师与总承包商的关系

In the general contracting process set out（展示）in Fig.18-4, the general contractor and the project designer have no direct contract relationship.However, given the fact that the designer serves as the project owner’s agent, one might argue（认为）that the designer has the contract rights of the project owner and thus has an indirect contract relationship with the general contractor.在图18-4中所展示的总承包过程中，总承包商与项目设计师没有直接的合同关系。但是鉴于设计师作为项目业主的代理人，可以认为设计师拥有项目业主的合同权，这样与总承包商有着间接的合同关系。

In actuality the designer does not direct（指导）the actions of the general contractor and vice versa（反之亦然）.In fact, the designer typically goes out of its way（特意）not to direct the general contractor because the designer does not want to take on the liability（责任）for the general contractor’s actions or performance.For example, the designer’s on-site project representative does not attempt to advise the general contractor’s subcontractors directly or（否则）the designer may subsequently be subject to legal damages（法律赔偿金）.实际上，设计师不指导总承包商的活动，反之亦然。事实上，设计师一般不特意指导总承包商，因为设计师不想对总承包商的活动或行动承担责任。例如，设计师的现场项目代表不会试图直接建议总承包商的分包商，否则设计师可能随后易遭受法律赔偿金。While（尽管）the project designer does no “direct” the general contractor, the designer does have project administration-contract duties.In particular, the architect/engineer designer must “observe” the put-in-place（恰当的）construction of the contractor to determine that the work is compatible with the contract specifications.The designer must also aid the general contractor in the interpretation of the contract documents to include the drawings and specifications（说明）.It is also the designer’s duty to pass judgment on（评定）the amount of work completed by the contractor and to approve（核准）owner progress payments（分期付款）to the contractor.尽管项目设计师不“指导”总承包商，但设计师确实具有项目管理合同的职责。特别是，建筑师/工程师设计人员必须“观察”承包商恰当的施工，以确定该项工作与合同条款的一致性。设计师也必须帮助总承包商解释合同文件，包括图纸和说明。评定承包商已完的工作量和核准业主对承包商的分期付款也是设计师的职责。Given this somewhat “policing” role（管制角色）of the project designer in regard to the general contractor, on occasion（有时）there has been somewhat of an adverse（敌对）relationship between the designer and general contractor.This potential adverse relationship aids neither the project owner, the designer, nor the contractor.A spirit of cooperation is necessary between all these entities（实体）in the general contracting process to enable a project to be built on a time-and-cost budget and to satisfy the quality standards set out（列出）in the specifications.鉴于项目设计师对于总承包商有点“管制”的角色，设计师与承包商之间有时有一些敌对的关系。这种潜在的敌对关系既无助于项目业主、设计师，也无助于承包商。在总承包过程中所有的实体之间的合作精神是必须的，使项目能在预算的时间和费用下被建造，并且满足合同条款中列出的质量标准。

Whether the owner of a project is an individual, a company, or a government agency, the owner is responsible for the definition（解释）of the project and establishment of the budget to finance it.Upon becoming interested in a potential project, the owner usually employs an architect to plan（规划）overall designs;others require an engineer to determine the most economical and safe design.In addition, many projects require the services of both an architect and an engineer.Projects designed solely（完全地）by architects are referred to as building construction（建筑构造）projects, whereas products designed solely by engineers are referred to as engineering construction（工程建设）projects.From this point on, the individual or company the owner hires to design his project will be referred to as the architect/engineer.Owner – Architect/Engineer Relationship 业主-建筑师/工程师的关系

无论项目的业主是个人、公司还是政府机构，业主负责解释项目和确定预算以筹集资金。一旦对某一潜在的项目感兴趣，业主通常雇佣一位建筑师规划整个设计；其余的需要一位工程师来确定最经济和最安全的设计。而且，很多项目需要建筑师和工程师两方的服务。完全由建筑师设计的项目称为建筑构造项目，而完全由工程师设计的成果称为工程建设项目。从这点上看，业主雇佣的、为其设计项目的个体或公司将称为建筑师/工程师。

The architect/engineer is responsible for the drawings and specifications for the owner’s projects and for supervision of construction of the project.The owner usually pays the architect/engineer on an hourly basis, a fee as a percentage of the total cost, or on a fixed fee basis.The architect/engineer is most commonly（常见）chosen through negotiation rather than through a competitive bidding process.Some large projects do have a competitive bidding procedure to determine the architect/engineer.However, it is much more common for a potential project owner to seek out（找到）an architect/engineer on the basis of his past performances（业绩）.The reputation of an architect/engineer is an extremely important attribute（品质）when he is seeking work with（与..合作）potential project owners.建筑师/工程师负责业主项目的图纸和说明，以及负责监督项目的施工。业主通常给建筑师/工程师的工资以每小时、总费用的一个百分比费用或固定的费用来支付。选择建筑师/工程师最常见的是通过协商而不是通过竞标过程。一些大型的项目确实通过竞标过程来确定建筑师/工程师。但是，对潜在的项目业主，更常见的是根据其过去的业绩找到建筑师/工程师。当建筑师/工程师在寻找与潜在的项目业主一起合作时，其信誉是一项非常重要的品质。Although in most cases the construction project owner, the architect/engineer, and the contractor are three separate（独立）individuals or firms, some projects will have the architect/engineer internal to（属于）the owner’s company or organization.Many large corporation（公司）(e.g., Procter and Gamble宝洁)design and supervise their own construction projects.In such instances, the owner and architect/engineer become one and the same（同一个）individual or company.虽然工程项目的业主，建筑师/工程师，以及承包商在绝大多数情况下是三个独立的个体或公司，但是某些项目的建筑师/工程师属于业主的公司或机构的。许多大型公司（如宝洁）自己设计并监督他们的工程项目。在这种情形下，业主和建筑师/工程师成为同一个个体或公司。作业练习

通过一篇Reading Material的学习，进一步了解工程管理（CM）中所涉及的内容。

第二篇：制药工程专业英语9单元课文翻译

Thoughout recorded纵观历史记载，细菌感染的人口定期付出沉重的收费。鼠疫菌的“黑死病”鼠疫的1347-1351期间，估计有25万人在亚洲和欧洲死亡。美国公共卫生服务统计为1910年和1920年的节目，在这个早在本世纪结核病死亡每1000名美国居民中的一个。即使在今天，主要是在发展中国家，结核分枝杆菌仍然是主要死亡原因由于在单染性病，全世界每年杀害超过三百万

Such 整个脊椎动物进化过程中的这种不懈的微生物攻击，挑起了一个令人惊讶的复杂的保护性免疫系统的进化。随着人类的外观，最终到达一个物种可以设法协助先天和后天免疫系统，避免感染。通过利用微生物的抗原成分（疫苗和马血清抗毒素的产生），然后微生物次生代谢产物（抗生素），已成为人类善于预防和治疗许多以前致命的微生物疾病。

Within在短短的几十年，抗感染药药典的可用性突然提供了人类的潜力，以提高他们的生存前景下不断微生物拦河坝规避自然的经过时间考验的，活的或死的进化范式。那些以前会屈服于成员现在可以存活时间较长的疫苗和抗生素的帮助助剂-抗感染免疫系统一起工作。实际上，人类对这些助剂的就业可以作为例证在他们的免疫防御系统的自我做作的演变看。

Once当爵士亚历山大·弗莱明发现青霉素的效用已经证明，从发掘出的天然来源的其他抗生素乱舞紧随其后。其中一些被证明适用于治疗疾病，通常经过化学改性，以提高天然化合物的效力，安全性或药代动力学

Alpha

For对于大多数在过去50年中，看来，医学获得了强大的手上的细菌病。某些制药厂和研发机构决定减少对抗生素的发现成果，因为它的出现，医生的抗菌军火库是充足。但疾病的性质已经证明并非如此。

The在多种抗生素耐药病原体的发病率迅速升级现在提高全球非常严重的问题。这种发展突出了强大的进化能力的细菌种群的选择压力下的抗生素治疗。

Resistance抗药性问题被视为与革兰氏阴性（例如大肠杆菌）和革兰氏阳性菌（如金黄色葡萄球菌），但目前关注的最后一组的病原体。肺炎链球菌是呼吸道革兰氏阳性病原体，仅在美国一年的40000人死亡负责。，现在在许多国家，耐青霉素肺炎链球菌感染的患病率迅速上升。最糟的情况之一是在匈牙利，其中70％，从1988-1989年测试的儿童肺炎链球菌菌株对青霉素耐药

Bacteria细菌已经进化无数花招挫败抗生素的行动, 他们停用抗生素水解，酰化，磷酸化，或者核苷酸化反应；改变抗生素的目标站点或减少细胞内药物浓度降低细胞膜的通透性和/或积极抽水细胞的药物。with通过分子生物学和生物化学技术，这些耐药机制的认识提高，药物化学家一直试图绕过一些阻力问题提供目标。

A predominant针对内酰胺类药物的主要耐药机制（如青霉素），涉及内酰胺环的酶裂解。While虽然药物甲氧苯青霉素的开发，因为在1961年，短短两年后，药物首先到了广泛使用。MRSA菌株进化，使他们有一个额外的药物靶蛋白参与细胞壁合成，并改变这种蛋白具有非常低的亲和力几乎所有内酰胺。在一些医院，TO更的是，大多数MRSA菌株也有许多其他类抗生素

耐药，糖万古霉素的异常。Now现在世界各地，MRSA菌株日本很成问题（60％的金黄色葡萄球菌菌株MRSA），以及西班牙，法国，意大利和美国，与发病率大于30％

A particularly一个特别令人不安的里程碑是1988年耐万古霉素肠球菌（VRE）的出现。some一些抗万古霉素肠球菌现在不回应任何可用抗生素。肠球菌已成为最经常遇到的第二医院获得性病原体分离。抗万古霉素产生，因为1D-丙氨酸-e-乳酸渣（其中万古霉素结合知之甚少）已被通常在涉及细菌的细胞墙1五肽前体的终点，D-丙氨酸-e-丙氨酸残基取代合成There 在抗万古霉素肠球菌糖肽类如万古霉素抗性基因，将自然转移到金黄色葡萄球菌，已经实验证明可行威廉高贵圣托马斯医院，伦敦现在有一个极大的关注。作为万古霉素是治疗MRSA感染这种致命的病原体，抗万古霉素的自然预期收购不得已的药物会导致发人深省的回报预先抗生素治疗失败的时代，应该没有备用的有效疗法可用

Conclusions结论

人类使用抗生素迅速加快了人类和细菌之间的动态演化的相互作用。The新制剂，最近在多药耐药的革兰氏阳性细菌感染的迅速崛起，全世界敲响了一个响亮的电气警笛需要新的，有效的治疗方法，这里可以提供翻新阿森纳的医生。

The discovery细菌通过基因组学研究新的药物靶标，以及改善我们了解细菌耐药性机制的发现，按住发现多药耐药细菌感染治疗的新手段的承诺。给予足够的时间，细菌会最终是能够开发任何新的抗菌剂的阻力。这些药物可以通过一种新的机制攻击病原体有可能降低快速耐药性的发展的倾向。

第三篇：专业英语第八章课文翻译1

Chiguo

Chapter 8

Section 1 Coal-Fired Power Plants

燃煤发电站

第一段：

在化石燃料发电厂中，煤，石油或者天然气在燃烧室中燃烧，燃烧产生高温的水，然后转换成水蒸气，高温的水蒸气将驱动汽轮机，汽轮机与发电机机械地连接在一起。图8.1展示了一个典型的图表示意图。发电厂的运行用一下简洁的语言概述。从仓库取出煤块放入粉煤机（或者磨粉机）中粉碎，然后与预热的空气混合，最后充入燃烧室中燃烧。燃烧室包含一个复杂的管道，抽上的水灌输到一个叫锅炉的设备中，锅炉里面水的温度逐渐上升直至它们成为水蒸气。

水蒸气被送至汽轮机中，与此同时，燃烧的废气（烟道气体）通过物理和静电除尘装置除掉99%以上的固体颗粒（灰尘）在通过烟囱或烟囱体排放出去之前。

第二段：

刚刚描述的单元，是输入煤粉，空气和水输出水蒸气的单元，这几个方面的系统被统称为蒸汽发电机组，或燃烧室，或者蒸汽发生器。当考虑根据是燃烧过程的时候常用“燃烧室”这个术语，同时当考虑因素是水汽循环时，“蒸汽发生器”这个术语被更频繁的使用。水蒸气的3500磅/平方英寸的典型气压和华氏零下1050度的条件，是通过控制和停止（关闭）汽轮机阀门来提供的。整齐的热能转化为水轮机的机械能。从排气机中排出的蒸汽在热交换器中成为冷凝器中冷却形成水，再次被泵抽回锅炉里。通过调节蒸汽的流量变化来控制涡轮发电机的输出。截止阀具有保护作用，它通常是完全开放的，但可以“跳闸”关闭，以防止汽轮机发电机组超速，使电力输出突然下贱（由于断路器的行动）和控制阀不关闭。

第三段：

图8-1表明的是一个单阶段汽轮机，但在实际中一个更加复杂的多级排列被使用以便能实现相对较高的热效率。一个典型的多级排列如图8-2所示。它包括四个有着不同蒸汽气压的汽轮机机械地耦合串联在一起。用常规的概述就是高压蒸汽来自锅炉然后进入高压汽轮机。在之前离开高压汽轮机的水蒸气回到锅炉（再热器）地区，然后送往中压汽轮机。离开中压汽轮机后的蒸汽（在较低的压力和多消耗条件）移动是指向低压汽轮机的。来自低压汽轮机的废汽在冷凝器中冷却并重新给水，然后加热（与涡轮机中提取的蒸汽一起）接着用泵送返锅炉。

第四段：

燃煤发电厂的净效率通常低于40%（也就是说煤的化学能转变为电能的效率低于40%）。尽管与30%左右的工业平均值相比这个数字有一定的优势，但依旧有60%以上的化石燃料能转化成废热！为了使效率增长和节约一次能源，热电联供系统被长期使用，且可以同时生产电能和蒸汽(或者热水)供给给工业或室内。在这样的系统中，总能量利用率已经高达60%至65%。

第五段：

使用火力发电厂对其影响的是：目前的煤炭开采和运输的安全与危害，还有其他社会成本的问题。

火力发电厂影响环境问题是其燃烧燃料产生的一些化学产物：包括“酸雨”和“温室效应”

概述：

本文着重介绍了火力发电站的基本工作原理。运用图解说明的方式详细地介绍了单级汽轮机和多级汽轮机的基本结构和各部件间协调工作的过程。最后总结了火力发电站能源的利用率问题，以及如何提升能源利用率的措施。在文末作者说明了燃煤废气废渣对环境造成的影响。

Summarize The test emphasizes the basic work principle of introduction the thermal power station generator used the way of illustrated manual table to introduce the basic structure of single-stage turbine and multi-stage turbine and multi-stage turbine，and each parts moderates the process of work.Finally It sums up the met efficiency of a coal-fire plant as well as the measure to prove energy efficiency.At the end of the text, writer show us that how the waste gas and waste slag damage the ecological environment.选择题答案：A B B A A 1翻译：在一个燃煤发电机中，静电除尘器是用来消除燃烧时产生的（A固体）颗粒 蒸汽的热能是通过汽轮机来转换成（B 机械能）的 3.燃煤发电机的净效率通常低于 B

4在热电联产系统中，整体能量效率的提高是通过 B(为客户提供热能)来实现的 5.当水蒸气离开高压汽轮机后便返回到 A（锅炉）中，然后流转到中压汽轮机中

第四篇：工程专业英语课文翻译

合同规定，影响现金流量，的承建商必须认识到，实现对某一特定项目的现金流量，将取决于在一定程度上按照合同的约定。的时间收到的收入，这是尤其如此，因此，它是重要的合同文件进行仔细检查，以充分了解合约条款将影响现金流的项目。考虑几乎在每一个项目上的一些项目将被讨论。付款时间表：该类型的合同规定的付款时间表的一般性质。单价合同，投标本身的各种收费项目中列举。收费项目的列表给出了一个清晰的信息需要进行一个现金流analysis.Of的特别兴趣项目，具体包括收费项目或明确排除的薪酬项目。对于exrample，动员可以是一个大的成本项目的承包商，在项目的早期发生。一个人可以许可动员的薪酬项目，仅仅是为了防止承包商承担一个大的负现金流，在项目的早期，有些业主支付的动员与等量的规定，被分配到复员。有些业主sirrtply不支付动员，声称不提高项目本身的价值仅仅存在几件装备或一些临时建筑物。其他项目，并不总是要在合同中的项目包括的模板，scaffoldinig，和支撑。这些物品可能是必不可少的交付项目，但不这样做，对自己带来任何价值的项目。例如，如果模板拆除混凝土浇筑前，没有任何价值被添加到项目中。承包商会，当然，必须支付这些项目。为了报销，承办商必须简单地分配这些成本在一些时尚的其他收费项目。的分布可能是“一刀切”的费用可转移到一定的工资项目，可能会产生更有利的承包商的现金流。这种分配的成本必须小心。

第五篇：土木工程专业英语

水力学 hydraulics水泥 cement桁架 truss 沥青 bitumen混凝土 concrete强度 strength 非线性 nonlinear桩 pile刚性 rigid隧道 tunnel砾石 gravel柱子 column力 force

位移 displacement线性的 linear砂浆 mortar弹性 elastic塑性 plastic沉降 settlement 弯矩 moment扭矩 torque剪力 shear

正应力 normal stress路面 pavement

钢筋混凝土 reinforced concrete抗拉强度 tensile strength抗压强度 compressive strength 土木工程 civil engineering岩体力学 rock mass mechanics粒径 grain diameter 容许应力 allowable stress土力学 soil mechanics斜拉桥 cable stayed bridge 悬索桥 suspension bridge中性面 neutral plane水灰比 water-cement ratio 民用建筑 civil architecture地质成因 geologic origin临界截面 choking section

岩土工程 geotechnical engineering屈服点 yield point

横截面(transverse)cross section 安全系数 safety factor抗剪强度 shear strength反复试验 trial and error

预应力混凝土 priestessed concrete先张法 pretensioning concrete 后张法 post-tensioning concrete 土质勘测 soil investiagation

在这两种应力中，前者是压应力，后者是拉应力。These two kinds of stress, the former is a compressive stress, which is the tensile stress.许多情况下可能会指派土木工程师参与其他项目的工作。In many cases, civil

engineers may be assigned to engaged in the work of other projects.需要强调数学、力学、计算机技术在土木工程应用中的重要性。It should be stressed that mathematics, mechanics and computer applications in civil engineering is importance.钢材和混凝土是桥梁建筑的基本材料，混凝土的主要缺点是抗拉强度很低。Basic

materials are steel and concrete bridge construction, the main disadvantage is the low tensile strength of concrete.混凝土的抗压强度是水泥、骨料、水及混合料中所含的各种添加剂的用量所控制。它们主要用于大型水坝，在大坝中它们能减少水泥硬化时释放出的热量。They are mainly used for large dams;dams in the heat they can reduce cement hardening release.They are mainly used for large dams, the dam in which they can reduce hardening of the cement when the heat release.水力学 hydraulics水泥 cement桁架 truss 沥青 bitumen混凝土 concrete强度 strength 非线性 nonlinear桩 pile刚性 rigid隧道 tunnel砾石 gravel柱子 column力 force

位移 displacement线性的 linear砂浆 mortar弹性 elastic塑性 plastic沉降 settlement 弯矩 moment扭矩 torque剪力 shear

正应力 normal stress路面 pavement

钢筋混凝土 reinforced concrete抗拉强度 tensile strength抗压强度 compressive strength 土木工程 civil engineering岩体力学 rock mass mechanics粒径 grain diameter 容许应力 allowable stress土力学 soil mechanics斜拉桥 cable stayed bridge 悬索桥 suspension bridge中性面 neutral plane水灰比 water-cement ratio 民用建筑 civil architecture地质成因 geologic origin临界截面 choking section

岩土工程 geotechnical engineering屈服点 yield point

横截面(transverse)cross section 安全系数 safety factor抗剪强度 shear strength反复试验 trial and error

预应力混凝土 priestessed concrete先张法 pretensioning concrete 后张法 post-tensioning concrete 土质勘测 soil investiagation

在这两种应力中，前者是压应力，后者是拉应力。These two kinds of stress, the former is a compressive stress, which is the tensile stress.许多情况下可能会指派土木工程师参与其他项目的工作。In many cases, civil

engineers may be assigned to engaged in the work of other projects.需要强调数学、力学、计算机技术在土木工程应用中的重要性。It should be stressed that mathematics, mechanics and computer applications in civil engineering is importance.钢材和混凝土是桥梁建筑的基本材料，混凝土的主要缺点是抗拉强度很低。Basic

materials are steel and concrete bridge construction, the main disadvantage is the low tensile strength of concrete.混凝土的抗压强度是水泥、骨料、水及混合料中所含的各种添加剂的用量所控制。它们主要用于大型水坝，在大坝中它们能减少水泥硬化时释放出的热量。They are mainly used for large dams;dams in the heat they can reduce cement hardening release.They are mainly used for large dams, the dam in which they can reduce hardening of the cement when the heat release.水力学 hydraulics水泥 cement桁架 truss 沥青 bitumen混凝土 concrete强度 strength 非线性 nonlinear桩 pile刚性 rigid隧道 tunnel砾石 gravel柱子 column力 force

位移 displacement线性的 linear砂浆 mortar弹性 elastic塑性 plastic沉降 settlement 弯矩 moment扭矩 torque剪力 shear

正应力 normal stress路面 pavement

钢筋混凝土 reinforced concrete抗拉强度 tensile strength抗压强度 compressive strength 土木工程 civil engineering岩体力学 rock mass mechanics粒径 grain diameter 容许应力 allowable stress土力学 soil mechanics斜拉桥 cable stayed bridge 悬索桥 suspension bridge中性面 neutral plane水灰比 water-cement ratio 民用建筑 civil architecture地质成因 geologic origin临界截面 choking section

岩土工程 geotechnical engineering屈服点 yield point

横截面(transverse)cross section 安全系数 safety factor抗剪强度 shear strength反复试验 trial and error

预应力混凝土 priestessed concrete先张法 pretensioning concrete 后张法 post-tensioning concrete 土质勘测 soil investiagation

在这两种应力中，前者是压应力，后者是拉应力。These two kinds of stress, the former is a compressive stress, which is the tensile stress.许多情况下可能会指派土木工程师参与其他项目的工作。In many cases, civil

engineers may be assigned to engaged in the work of other projects.需要强调数学、力学、计算机技术在土木工程应用中的重要性。It should be stressed that mathematics, mechanics and computer applications in civil engineering is importance.钢材和混凝土是桥梁建筑的基本材料，混凝土的主要缺点是抗拉强度很低。Basic

materials are steel and concrete bridge construction, the main disadvantage is the low tensile strength of concrete.混凝土的抗压强度是水泥、骨料、水及混合料中所含的各种添加剂的用量所控制。它们主要用于大型水坝，在大坝中它们能减少水泥硬化时释放出的热量。They are mainly used for large dams;dams in the heat they can reduce cement hardening release.They are mainly used for large dams, the dam in which they can reduce hardening of the cement when the heat release.