第一篇：新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结
一、定义
1.语言学Linguistics
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General Linguistics
The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design Features
It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性
Productivity多产性
Duality双重性
Displacement移位性
Cultural transmission文化传递
⑴arbitrariness
There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it
makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity
Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶Duality
Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷Displacement
Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmission
Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system.this showed that language is culturally transmitted.not by instinct.animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力Competence
Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance
Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics
The study of language change through time.a diachronic study of
language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue
The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole
The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性Prescriptive
It aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性Descriptive
A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点
1.language is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
2.几种观点和现象的提出者：
⑴瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure F.de Saussure:Langue和parole的区别
⑵U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky美国语言学家N.Chomsky
in1950针对Saussure‘s langue&parole提出Competence和performance ⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家
Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.⑷U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美国语言学家Charles Hockett 提出了语言的识别特征design features
3.the word ‘language‘ preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。
4.in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts.5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so it's hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once.判断题
6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。
三、问答题
1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study? Phonetics----it‘s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it‘s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‘s languages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It‘s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.Semantics---It‘s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2.why do we say language is arbitrary?
Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object
is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it‘s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.A typical example to illustrate the ‗arbitrariness‘ of language is ‗a rose by any other name would smell as sweet‘.3.what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。
traditional grammar is prescriptive.it is based on‘ high‘ written language.传统语法是规定性的，研究‗高级‘书面语。
4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why
Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language.unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings? Speech enjoys for the following reasons: ⑴Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.⑵A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in
writing.⑶speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.6.how is Saussure‘s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky‘s ?
Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language.their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study
Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6.the distinction between langue and parole?
⑴langue is abstract, relatively stable ⑵parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation.1/ What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.(普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）
The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.（音系学）
The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.（形态学）
The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）
The study of meaning in language is called semantics.（语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.（语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）
The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）
The study of applications(as the recovery of speech ability)is generally known as applied linguistics.（应用语言学）But in a narrow sense，applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics,（人类语言学）neurological linguistics,（神经语言学）mathematical linguistics,（数字语言学）and computational linguistics.（计算机语言学）
3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的几对基本概念
Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写
If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar.Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is ―correct‖ or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语
Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form.Reasons are: 1.Speech precedes writing;2.There are still many languages that have only the spoken form;3.In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语
The Swiss linguist F.de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study.He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用 Proposed by American linguist N.Chomsky in the late 1950‘s.He defines competence as the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.Chapter Two Phonology
一、定义
1.宽式音标Broad transcription
The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.2.窄式音标Narrow transcription
The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.3.清音Voiceless
When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.4.浊音Voicing
Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.5.元音Vowel
The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.6.辅音Consonants
The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.7.音位Phoneme
The basic unit in phonology, it‘s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.8.音位变体Allophones
Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.9.音素phone
A phonetic unit or segment.it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it‘s a speech sound we use when speaking a language.10.最小对立对Minimal pair
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.11.超切分特征Suprasegmental
The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features.the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.12.互补分布complementary distribution
P35
Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary
distribution.13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of language
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。
14.爆破音stops
When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]
二、知识点
1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.2.of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.3.Phonetic 组成
⑴Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学longest established, mostly developed
⑵Auditory
phonetics 听觉语音学
⑶Acoustic
phonetics 声学语音学
4.articulatoryApparatus /Organs of Speech
Pharyngeal cavity– 咽腔
Oral...–
口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here
Nasal …– 鼻腔
5.The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound[j];the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d].7.nasal consonants: [m] / [n] / [η]
9.A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.10.Sequential rules例子
If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:
⑴the first phoneme must be /s/
⑵the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ ⑶the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w
11.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone;Rise-fall tone
三、问答题
1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound?
Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。
听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。
声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。
2.how are the English consonants classified?
By place of articulation and By manner of articulation
3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why?
语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?
Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning.4.what‘s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit.Phoneme---a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?
Minimal pair—two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.除了出现在同一位臵的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个
语音组合.Minimal set—a group of sound combinations with the above feature.一组具有上述特征的语音组合.By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?
Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.7.explain the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule.有序规则Sequential rules
Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.同化规则Assimilation rules
The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by‘ copying ‘a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.省略规则Deletion rule
It‘s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.Chapter Three Morphology
一、定义
1.词素Morpheme
The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.2.自由词素Free Morpheme
Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.3.黏着词素Bound morphemes
Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.4.词根Root
Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.5.词缀Affix
The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.6.曲折词缀inflectional affixes
The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.7.派生词缀Derivational affixes
The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.8.词干Stem
A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added.a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.9.形态学规则Morphological rules
They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word.10.前缀Prefix
Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes ‗be-‗ and ‗en(m)-‗
11.后缀Suffix
Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization.二、知识点
Inflectional morphology 1.Morphology
Derivational morphology
Free morphemes
Morphemes
Root
Bound morphemes
Inflectional affixes
Affixes
Prefix
Derivational affixes
2.some words maybe said to contain a root morpheme.Suffix
4.Compound features:
⑴orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between.⑵Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.⑶semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its component
Chapter Four
Syntax
一、定义
1.句子sentence
A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.2.语言运用Linguistic competence
The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.3.谓语Predicate
The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.4.定式子句Finite Clause
A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone.5.从属子句Embedded Clause(E C)
In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C.6.主要子句Matrix Clause
In a complexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.7.层次结构Hierarchical structure
The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.8.语法关系Grammatical relations
The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence.9.句法类型Syntactic category
A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object.10.表层结构S-structure
A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.11.深层结构D-structure
A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.12.普遍语法General grammar
A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language.13.移动α 规则Move α
A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.14.句法移位Syntactic movement
Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position.15.转换原则Transformation rules
Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.16.X标杆理论X-bar theory
A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format :X‖→（Spec）X(Compl).一种泛指的、高度抽象的图示，它把所有的词组结构规则概括为一种程式
X‖→（Spec）X(Compl)
a:
X‖
b: X‖
Spec X‘
Spec
X‘
X‘
X compl
X
complement
NP ‘the student who likes linguistics‘ consists of Det, N and S with Det being the Specifier ,N the head, S the complement.NP(…)有冠词、名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语，名词是核心词，子句是补足语。
二、知识点
1.syntax这个单词源于Greek,本义是arrangement.2.我们把syntax的学习看作 a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence.3.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge.4.判断题：the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number ,and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.5.判断题:A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood.一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动或事件。
6.句子的分类
simple sentence
Types of sentences
coordinate or compound sentence
Complex sentence
简单句---It consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.并列句合成句-It contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as ―but‖, ‖and‖.ect.复合句—It contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.复合句的特点：
⑴An embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause
⑵Most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a Subordinator, such as ‖that‖
⑶An embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.子句是一个语法单位，大部分子句要带一个被称为从属连词的引导词，如果子句作为秒年第秒年句单独存在，它可能不是一个合乎规范的句子，除非改变他的形式。
7.when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence
are produced one after another in a sequence.8.The hierarchical nature of sentence structure句子结构层次特点
sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase NP or verb phrase VP, grouped together.9.The points at which the tree braches at various levels are called Branching
nodes分叉点
10.In addition to the use of structural tree diagrams, linguists may show the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets and subscript labels.11.句法类型
Major …主要词类open ,can add new words
Lexical category
名、动、形、副词N,V,Adj,Adv
Syntactic
Minor… 次要词类close, words are fixed Categories
限定、助动、介、代、连、叹Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj,Int
Phrasal category
Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word(called a lexical category)or a phrase(called phrasal category)that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence.12.短语类型
Noun Phrase
NP
Phrasal
Verb Phrase
VP
Categories
Preposition Phrase PP
Adjective Phrase
AP
13.The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each moun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb, in many cases, grammatical relations refer virtually to ‘who‘ does ‘what ‘to ‘whom‘.14.we usually refer to the grammatical relations as subject of and direct object of.15.Combinational rules must be small in number so as not to create extra burdens on the human memory.also these rules must be powerful enough to yield all the possible sentences, and rule out the impossible ones 组合规则一定不能太多，以免给人的记忆带来过多的负担，用这些规则必须能组合出所有可能的句子，而排除不可能的句子。
16.rules an generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.It captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence.循环性体现了语言中的句子能有更多的成分，使说话者能在同一句子中重复一些句法成分。
17.移位类型
Syntactic
NP-movement=t‘s involving the movement of a noun
phrase.Movement
名词短语的移位
WH-movement=It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.陈述变疑问句
AUX-…=the movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence initial position.助动词移位到句首的移位
18.普遍语法的广义原则
General Principles of Universal Grammar: Case Condition和Adjacency Condition
格条件---a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned by V or P to the object position, or by AUX to the subject position.名词词组必须有格，宾语的格是由动词或介词决定，而主语的格由助动词决定。
相邻条件—a case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other,it explains why no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object.格分派者和格接受者要相邻。这解释了为什么任何别的词组类不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。
19.Universal Grammar is believed to contain a parameter with the valves增and减set on the Adjacency condition.with English-type languages，the Adjacency Parameter is set to the增 value, while for French-type language, the parameter is set to减value.三、问答题
1.Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences.⑴the tower on the hill collapsed in the wind ⑵Mary promised John to see the doctor.Chapter 5
Semantics
一、定义
1.命名论The naming theory
The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.2.意念论The conceptualist view
It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to;rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.语境论Conceptualism
It‘s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.4.行为主义论Behaviorism
It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the‖ situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer‖.this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.5.意义Sense
It‘s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It‘s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it‘s abstract and de-contextualized.6.所指意义Reference
It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.7.同义词Synonymy
It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.8.多义词Polysemy
It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the
same one word may have more than one meaning.9.同音(形)异义Homonymy
It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.10.同音异义Homophones
It refers to two words are identical in sound.e.g.rain/reign.11.同形异义Homographs
It refers to two words are identical in form.e.g.tear v./tear n.12.上下义关系Hyponymy
It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.13.反义词Antonymy
It‘s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.14.成分分析法Componential Analysis----分析词汇抽象意义
It‘s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.15.述谓结构分析Predication Analysis
由British Linguist G.Leech提
出
It‘s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis.Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect.通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。
16.先设前提Presupposition
It‘s a semantic relationship or logical connection.A presupposes B.17.蕴涵Entailment
Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.A: Mark married a blonde heiress.B: Mark married a blonde.二、知识点
1.Major views of meaning study:
The naming Theory-----希腊Scholar Plato
The conceptualism-----观点代表人是John Firth,但Bloomfield阐述更有说服力
The Conceptualist view----Ogden和Richards用classic semantic triangle of
significance
The Behaviorism-----英国Bloomfield提出，使用了Jack和 Jill故
事阐明
The naming theory的局限性: ⑴It‘s only applicable to Nouns only.⑵Within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that don‘t exist in the real world.sense 2.Lexical meaning
reference 3.主要的意义关系
Synonymy;Antonymy;Hyponymy;Polysemy;homonymy
4.(1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects
Synonyms
(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style
分类
(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning
(4)Semantically different synonyms 例子：
(1)British English Lift
Luggage Lorry
Petrol
Flat
windscreen torch
American English Elevator Baggage Truck
Gasoline Apartment windshield flashlight
(2)kick the bucket=pop off=die=pass away=decease
5.Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality.6.some synonyms differ in their collocation.例子: Accuse….of
charge….with
rebuke….for
sour milk
Rotten tomatoes addled eggs
rancid bacon or butter 7.a polysemic word, i.e, a word with several meaning, is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word.complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.8.According naming theory words are just names or labels for things.9.Every utterance occurs in a particular spatiotemporal situation, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance ,the speaker and the hearer, the action they are performing at the time, the various objects and event existed in the situation.10.the contextulist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield, who drew on behaviourist psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.Homophones—when two words are identical in sound
Rain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace;leak/leek
Homonymy Homographs—when two words are identical in spelling
分类
Bow v./bow n.tear v./ tear n lead v./lead n.Complete homonyms—when two words are identical in both spelling
and sound.例子Fast adj./ fast v.scale n./scale v.12.(1)Gradable antonyms分级反义词(a matter of degree)
例hot-warm-cold
Antonym(2)Complementary antonyms互补反义词a matter of degree between
分类
two extremes例子
Alive—dead;
male—female;
(3)Relational opposites关系反义词(中间可以加成分，如上、中、下)
father-son;teacher-pupil;doctor-patient;buy-sell;above-below
13.句子间的意义关系sense relation between sentences X is synonymous with Y.X entails Y.X presupposes Y.X is a contradiction.X is semantically anomalous.14.Analysis of meaning意义的分析
子 Old—middle-aged—young;
(1)Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning对词汇成分的分析
(2)Predication analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaning对句子意义的分析
(1)is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called Semantic features.一个单词的意义可以分析为称作语义特征的意义。
This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features.这一方法和把一个音位分析成更小的叫作区别性特征的方法类似。
Plus and minimums signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent, these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters.One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.加减号用来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在或缺省，这些特征用大写字母来写。
15.the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components.Two aspects of Sentence meaning: grammatical and semantic meaning.16.Selectional restrictions---
Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules.17.In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication------
Predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.it applies to all forms of a sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative.Predication consists of Arguments and Predicates.述谓是句子基本单位，是对句子的抽象化，适用于包括陈述句、祈使句和疑问句。述谓由一个或数个论元和一个谓词组成。
An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence, a predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.论元是一个的逻辑的一个参与者，谓词是关于论元的陈述，或说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系。
18.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we classify the predications into two-place predication(has two arguments),one-place predication(has one argument),and no-place predication(has no argument).19.判断题：although predicate and argument are the same kind of unit in terms of their componential make-up, they have different roles in the whole predication.the predicate can be regarded as the main element, for it includes tense, modality, ect.it may also said to govern the arguments for it determines the number of nature of the arguments.20.The analysis of meaning is a highly abstract and complicated matter.三、问答题
1.how are sense and reference related?
Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it‘s abstract and de-contextualized.Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality.2.in what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？
In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features;it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that
distinguish different sounds.3.what‘s grammaticality? what might take a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?
什么是语法性？一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的?
Grammaticality---the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence.A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e.it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e.it may not make sense at all
Chapter 6
pragmatics 一、定义
1.语境Context
The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it‘s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.2.言语行为理论Speech act theory
It‘s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.it‘s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication.it aims to answer the question ‖what do we do when using language?‖
The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.3.叙述句Constatives
Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.;4.行为句Performatives
Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.5.言内行为Locutionary Act
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses.it‘s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.6.言外行为Illcotionary Act
An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker‘s intention it‘s the act performed in saying something.7.言后行为 Perlocutionary Act
Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.it‘s the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance.8.句子意义Sentence meaning
It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a
sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.9.话语意义Utterance meaning
It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered.10.合作原则Cooperative Principle
It‘s proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.11.会话含义Conversational implicatures
According to P.Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in th utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker‘s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP.话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。
二、知识点
1.语用学的几个重要的理论
⑴言语行为理论Speech act theory
由英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出
在此理论基础上John区分了定义了叙述句Constatives和行为句
performatives
在区分叙述句和行为句之后，他又定义了言内行为、言外行为和言后行为
例子：you have left the door wide open.Locutionary act:: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean.Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door.Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed.※在这三种行为中，语言学家对言外行为最感兴趣
cos this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker‘s intention, and in their study of language communication, linguists are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and also how his intention is recognized by the hearer.⑵会话原则CP 逻辑哲学家Paul Grice提出;
2.合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle
数量 the maxim of Quantity-----你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求
Make your contribution as informative as required;
Do not make your contribution more informative than is required
质量the maxim of Quality-----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话
Do not say what you believe to false.Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence 关系 the maxim of relation-----使你的话与话题相关be relevant 方式 the maxim of manner-----避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序
Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity;
Be brief/be orderly.3.六七十年代时，美国哲学语言学家John Searle对言外行为分成了5类
阐述性Representatives---to commit the speaker to something‘s being the
Case ,to the truth of what has been said.例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性，指令性Directives---are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do
something.例词:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening，ordering 是特有实例
承诺性Commissives---when speaking the speaker puts himself under
obligation.例词:promising, undertaking, vowing最典型
表达类Expressives---the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards
an existing state of affairs.例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating
宣告类Declarations---the successful performance of an act of this type brings
about the correspondence between what is said and reality.例句
I now declare the meeting open/I appoint you chairman of the committee/I fire you.这五类differ in their strength or force.4.Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.5.语境中听者与说话者shared knowledge is of two types:
The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world，including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.6.Sentence meaning与Utterance meaning的区别
Sentence meaning---abstract, decontextualized.Utterance meaning---concrete, contextualized it‘s based on sentence meaning, it‘s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。
7.While most utterances take the form of sentences ,i.e.most utterances are complete sentences
In terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some can‘t even be restored to complete sentences
Chapter 7
Historical linguistics
一、定义
1.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics
A term used in stead of historical linguistics to the study of language change at various points in time at various historical stage.2.元音大交替Great Vowel Shift
A series of systematic sound change in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system.3.词尾脱落Apocope
The deletion of a word-final vowel segment.4.插入音Epenthesis
The insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word.5.首字母缩略词Acronym
A word created by combining the initials of a number of words.6.混合法Blending
A process of forming a new word by combining parts of two other words.7.缩写词Abbreviation
A shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.8.略写词Clipping
A kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases.9.逆向构词法Back-formation
A process by which new words are formed by taking away he suffix of an existing word.10.语义扩大化Semantic broadening
The process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historical earlier denotation.缩小less general or inclusive
11.原始语Protolanguage
The original form of a language family which has ceased to exist.12.语系Family language
A group of historically related languages that have developed from a comon ancestral language.13.同源词Cognate
A word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to a word in another language because both languages have descended from a common source.14.语音同化Sound assimilation
The physiological effect of one sound on another.15.内部借用Internal borrowing
The application of a rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar by analogy to its earlier operation.16.派生法Derivation
It refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words.17.语义转换Semantic shift
It‘s a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former
meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning.18.语义细化Elaboration
Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.19.古英语Old English
Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxsons invaded b the British Isles from northern Europe.20.中世纪英语Middle English
in 1066
Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England under William.二、知识点
1.the historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence.2.Language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.3.Middle English had been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar.4.in old English, nearly half of the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative cases.5.one of the most obvious change in English is the systematic and regular change in the Vowel Change.6英语发展的三个历史时期及历史事件
Old English(449-1100):
Began with the invasion of the British Isles by English-speaking Anglo-
Saxons from Europe, ended with the arrival of Norman French invaders
historically known as the Norman Conquest.Middle English(1100-1500)
It‘s distinguished from the Old English period by the Norman Conquest.Shakespeare‘s plays and Milton‘s Poems 受欧洲文艺复兴运动影响最大。
Modern English(1500 up to now)
From the Modern English period as the result of the cultural influence
of the European renaissance movement.7.古英语和现代英语词的对比
Old English
Modern English Mann
man Wif
woman Cild
child Hus
house Mete
food Etan
eat
第二篇：简明语言学第一章总结
Chapter 1
ⅠThe things that I have learnt
① Linguistics: the scientific study of language.② The scope of linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, applied linguistics ect.③ Some important distinctions in linguistics: prescriptive vs.descriptive, synchronic vs.diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance.④ Traditional grammar: prescriptive;tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize the importance of the written words;forced languages into a Latin-based framework.⑤ Several different definitions of language, e.g.Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.(Sapir,1921)
⑥ Generally accepted definition: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.⑦ Design features of language(design features refer to the definition properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.): arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement, cultural transmission ect.⑧ Functions of language: phatic, directive, informative, interrogative, perforrnative, expressive and evocative.⑨ Saussure: the Swiss linguist in the early 20th century.⑩ Chomsky: the American linguist in the late 1950s.ⅡThe things that I am interested in.① The scope of linguistics, such as phonetics.② The differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar.③ Design features of language.ⅢThe things that I am confused
①the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure in the early 20thChomsky in the late 1950s.How to understand the red parts(the underline parts)
②How to understand the following words
Synchronic, diachronic, langue and parole
③The functions of language.I still can’t understand each function means what exactaly.
第三篇：语言学概论重点总结
语言学概论重点总结
一、名词解释（4*6=24）
1、孤立语：孤立语又称词根语，其特点是缺乏形态变化，语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示，汉语就是一种比较典型的孤立语。例如，“我喜欢他”中的“我”是主语，“他”是宾语，主要取决于词序。又如，“买菜”是述宾结构，“买的菜”是偏正结构，主要取决于虚词。汉语缺乏严格意义上的形态变化，一个名词性词语无论是充当句子的主语还是宾语，词性都不曾发生变化。除了汉语外，属孤立语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。
2、屈折语：屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折。内部屈折指通过词的语音交替（改变部分语音）来构成不同的语法形式，表示不同的语法意义；如阿拉伯语以固定的辅音框架表示语汇意义，以元音交替表示不同的语法意义。
外部屈折指通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。例如英语的book（书，单数）在后面加上词缀-s,就表示复数意义books(书，复数)。
屈折语的一个构型词缀可以同时表示几种语法意义，例如英语的-s在动词后面表示第三人称、单数、现在时、主动语态，如works.同样的语法意义，在不同的词里也可以用不同的词缀来表示，如俄语中性名词单数主格的词尾有-o(如neop钢笔)，-e（noπe田地）。
屈折语的词根和构型词缀结合得很紧，如果去掉构型词缀，词根往往就不能成词，如俄语nepo去掉词尾-o,nep-就不能独立使用。
印欧语系各语言以及阿拉伯语等，一般都属于屈折语，其中俄语和德语是最典型的屈折语。
3、音位：是某种语言中能区别语素或词的语音形式的最小语音单位，是依据语音的社会属性划分出来的语音类别。
音位本身并不含有任何意义。音位只有在和别的音位组合成高一层级的单位后才能负载意义。如单个的/k/和/ae/或/t/是没有什么意义的，但是他们组合成了[caet](cat)之后就有了“猫”的意义。因此，音位只有区别音形进而区别意义的作用，而没有表达意义的作用。
音位分析的目的是要把语言里数目繁多的语言归纳为数目有限的一套音位系统，分析音位的三基本原则是：对立、互补、语音相似。
音位可以分为音质音位和非音质音位两大类。一般把音素的音质角度分析归并出来的音位叫音质音位，因为它占有一个时段，所以又叫音段音位。除了音质以外，音高、音强、音长这些非音质形式也能区别词的语音形式，由这些韵律（音律）形式构成的音位叫非音质音位。又叫超音段音位。包括调位、重位、时位。
调位：主要由音高特征构成的音位叫调位，又叫声调。调位是汉藏语系诸语言中区别词的语言形式的重要手段之一。
重位：主要由音强特征构成的音位叫重位。重音在英语、俄语中是区别词的语音形式和词义的重要手段。构成重位的非音质特征是综合的。
时位：由音长特征构成的音位叫时位。长短音的区别主要表现在元音上，如广东话和许多少数民族语言里，时位都有区别词的语音形式和意义的作用。
4、语流音变就是指在连续的语流中某些语音成分受前后语音环境的影响而发生变化的现象。有时说话人由于种种原因调整语音的快慢、高低、强弱，也会造成语音的某种变化。
常见的语流音变现象有同化、异化、脱落、增音等几种类型。
5、概念意义：又称理性意义、指称意义等，反映人们对所指对象的区别性特征的概括性认识，如“单身汉”的概念意义就是“没有妻子或者没有跟妻子一起生活的男人”；“卖”的概念意义就是“用东西换钱”。它的作用是区别不同的事物现象，它反映所指对象的共同特征以及与其他事物现象的区别。
概念意义可分为若干小类，如通俗意义和专门意义，认知意义和指称意义。
通俗意义反映一般人对所指对象的一般性认识，往往只反映事物外在的非本质特征，比较肤浅、模糊。如“糖”和“盐”一般人只理解为产生甜味、咸味的调味品。
专门意义反映具备某种专门知识的人对所指对象的特殊认识，往往反映事物的本质特征，比较深刻、明确。如具备化学知识的人“糖”和“盐”的化学性质不同。
通俗意义在人们的日常生活中被广泛使用，专门意义一般只用于特定的学科领域。认知意义：反映概念的内涵，表示概念所指对象的区别性特征。
指称意义：反映概念的外延，表示所指对象的范围和类型。
如“人”的内涵是“能制造并使用工具进行劳动的高等动物”，外延是男女老少、古今中外所有的人。
6、评价意义：是词语所反映出来的说话人对所指对象的肯定或否定的感情态度。评价意义可以分为两种：一种是显性评价意义，一种是隐性评价意义。
显性评价意义，又称感情意义或感情色彩，反映说话人对所指对象的明显褒贬态度，大体上分为褒义和贬义的两种。凡是表示说话人所对所指对象的赞扬、喜爱、尊重、亲切等感情态度的，就是褒义，如“聪明”、“顽强”、“好走”。凡是表示说话人所对所指对象的压抑、厌恶、轻蔑、疏远等感情态度的，就是贬义。如“狡猾”、“顽固”。
隐性评价意义，又称含蓄意义或内涵意义，是指说话人对所指对象的委婉含蓄的评价，也反映人们对所指对象的非本质的偶有性质的主观认识。如“男人”常常意味着坚强、勇敢、有气度、有主见等。
7、间接语言行为：根据交际意图的实现方式的不同，可以把言语行为分为直接言语行为和间接言语行为。间接语言行为是指用一种行事行为的形式表示另一种行事行为。它可以分为两种：规约性间接言语行为和非规约性间接言语行为。
规约性言语行为，是指对“字面用意”作一般性推断而得出的间接言语行为，即根据句子的句法形式，按习惯可立即推断出间接的“言外之意”。
非规约性间接言语行为，是指依据交际双方共知的信息和所处的语境推断出来的间接语言行为。
8、预设触发语：预设往往是由话语中某些特定的词语引发出来的，这些引发预设的词语称为预设触发语。它包括
A、动词性预设触发语，主要包括叙实动词和变化动词。
B、副词性预设触发语，如“又”、“在”等，表示关联，预设存在着同类现象。
C、代词性预设触发语。疑问代词用于特指问句，一般疑问代词以外的部分为预设、例如“谁去北京？（预设：有人去北京）”。
D、领属性、限定性预设触发语。这种预设触发语预设存在某事物或状态。
二、分析题（4*8=32）
1、常见音素的描写方法。（P74）
2、义素分析法分析一组词。（P103）
3、述谓结构分析法分析一个句子。（P118）
4、直接成分分析法分析歧义句式。（P140）
5、句法变换法分析一组句子。（P145）
6、预设和预设触发语的分析。（P225）
7、间接言语行为的分析。（P207）
三、简答题（2*12=24）
1、语言层级及其特点。
语言系统是多层级系统，根据语言单位性质的不同可以分为两个大的层级：下层和上层。语言的下层是语言符号的形式层，即语音层，包括音位和音节；语言的上层是语音和语义结合的符号和符号组合层，包括语素、词和句子。语言层级有以下几个特点：
①从语言的下层到语言的上层是质的变化。下层语言单位有形式无意义，不是语言符号；上层语言单位既有形式又有意义，是语言符号和语言符号的组合。
②从下一级语言单位到上一级语言单位都是量的扩充。有限的音位可以构成成百上千的音节，再构成音素、词和句子。
③上一级语言单位都是由一个或者若干个下一级语言单位按一定的规则构成的，下一级语言单位都是上一级语言单位的构成部分。
2、语言和言语的区别和联系。
语言和言语既相互区别又密切联系、相互依存。主要区别在于：
① 语言是抽象的，言语是具体的。
② 语言是社会的，言语是个人的。
③ 语言实现成的，言语是临时的。
④ 语言是有限的，言语是无限的。
⑤ 语言是稳定的，言语是多变的。
主要联系在于：
①语言来自言语，依存于言语。语言系统是从具体的言语活动和言语作品中抽象概括出来的，没有言语就没有语言。
②语言制约着言语，指导人们进行言语实践。语言系统一旦形成，就成为人们进行言语交际的依据，语言系统是一套社会惯例，个人言语必须符合这个惯例。
3、句法变换的方式与作用。（一个句子为例）
不同的句型或句类之间有时可以相互变换，句法变换的基本方式有五种：省略（去掉句子的某些成分）、移位（改变词语的先后位置）、插入（在句式变换时添加某些词语）、代替（用代词替换某些词语）和复写（重复某些词语或词语的一部分）。
句法变换的作用主要有两个方面：一是用于语言教学，而是用于语言研究。语言教学中句法变换是学习一种语言的语法规则的一种有效手段；语言研究中句法变换是语法分析的一种有效手段。
4、语法形式的定义与分类。
语法形式是反映词语的组合规则和语法类别的形式标志，是表示语法意义的形式手段，又称语法手段。语法形式可分为显性和隐性两种。显性语法形式可以直接感知，主要包括语序、虚词、词缀、重叠等；隐性语法形式不能直接感知，但可以通过能否组合、替换、扩展、变换等方式分析抽象出来。下面是几种主要显性语法形式：
①
②
③
④
⑤
⑥
⑦ 词序，词语排列的先后顺序，是区别不同语法意义的重要语法形式； 辅助词，专门或主要表示语法意义的词，主要是虚词和助动词； 词缀，定位黏着语素，附在词根上派生词，或构成词的形态变化； 内部曲折，通过词的语音交替（改变部分语音）来构成不同的语法形式； 重叠，重复整个词或词的一部分的方式表示某种语法意义； 词调和重音； 异根式和零形式，异根式用不同的词根表示不同语法意义，零形式不改变词型
直接用原形表示不同语法意义。
四、考察你对语言现象的认识与看法。（20）
1、语言，是人们交流思想、表达感情、传播信息的工具，是人类最重要的交际工具。包括口头语言、书面语言和内心语言，其基本单位是词和句。语言是以语音为物质外壳、以词汇为建筑材料、以语法为结构规律而构成的体系。这个特征是独一无二的，其他社会现象没有。
2、语言是人们在社会劳动过程中，适应交流思想、传递信息的需要而产生的。语言同思维具有不可分割的联系。
3、语言是一种特殊的社会现象，它随着社会的产生而产生，也随着社会的发展而发展。语言的发展有自己的规律。随着社会实践的不断发展，人类思维能力的不断提高，语言的词汇必将日益丰富。
语言的本质是人们相互沟通的工具。语言的发展、新的语言现象的出现，正是适应人们在实践中的这种需求。可以说，语言现象就是一种特殊的人类活动的现象。新的语言现象就是随着社会的发展变化，这种特殊的人类活动的现象也随着发展变化的必然现象。社会已经和正在发生许多变化，而且还将有更多的变化。因此，新的语言现象无时而不存在。如果有一种语言长期没有“新的语言现象”出现，那么这种语言一定是极少被使用、正在日趋消失的语种。
这是新的语言现象出现的原因。但是，并非所有“新的语言现象”都具有积极意义。目前某些新的语言现象，譬如说网话、广告语，有许多不符合语言规范，是对传统语言文化的一种挑战，说严重些是对我国源远流长的语言文化的亵渎。对此，有人主张一味推崇以“促进”语言的发展；有人主张不予理睬，“顺其自然”；有人主张堵塞、遏制。我认为，一味积极甚至狂热地推崇只能助长某些“语言垃圾”随着新语言现象的出现而“满天飞”，非但不能促进语言的发展，反而造成更加严重的语言污染，阻止了健康语言的发展；“顺其自然”是一种消极措施，也不可取；堵塞、遏制手段却恐怕无济于事。正确的积极的措施是疏导——通过所有媒体总结、推荐、宣传那些新鲜的、正面的、形象的、生动的语言，包括外来语和群众在实践中创造出来的语言，同时分析、批判、抵制新出现的“语言垃圾”。这种疏导工作的导向作用不可低估。
第四篇：英语语言学总结
1.The fact that there is no logcial or intrinsic connection between a sound and a meaning is called what design feature of language?(Arbitrariness)
2.The actual use of language knowledge is called what by Chomsky?Performance
3.Any syllable can not be exempted from a what?
vowel
4.Free morphemes have two types, what are they?
Lexical morphemes and functional morphemes
5.Which two consonants are liquids?
[l][r]
6.Which vowel is rounded and open?
[o]
7.What is formalism in linguistics?
Formalism or formal linguisitics is the study of the abstract forms of languige and the internal relations.8.What is a minimal pair?
Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.9.What is a bound morpheme?
Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.10.What is langue?
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.11.Describe the sound features:
[g]:stop, velar
[m]:bilabial, nasal
[w]:bilabial,glide
[^]:central, unrounded, semi-open
[f]:labiodental, liquid, fricative
1.The study about the meanings is which branch of linguistics? Smantics
2.Suprasemental features include four, name two.Stress and intonation
3.Sounds that are produced with no obstruction of airstream are called what?
Voiceless sounds
4.Language is used to build or maintain social contact reflects which function?
Phatic function/communion
5.Name the two affricates.6.Which vowel is close, front and long?
[i:]
7.What is phonetics?
Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds.8.What is allomorph?
An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme.9.What is competence?
10.What is a derivation morpheme?
Derivation morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.11.Describe the sound features:
[b]:bilabial, stop
[k]:velar,stop
[f]:labiodental, fricative
[∫]:palatal, fricative
[a:]unrounded, back, long, open
1.The fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication reflects what design feature of language?
Specialization
2.The particular realization of langue is what?
3.Describe the syllable structure.V CV VC CVC CCVC VCC CCCVC CVCC CVCCC
4.Words formed from the first letters of a series of words and
pronounced as single words, what are they called?
Acronym
5.Voiced palatal fricative is which sound?
6.Which vowel is unrounded and back?[a:]
7.What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.8.What is syntagmatic relation?
Syntagmatic relation refers to the horizontal relationship between linguisitc elements, which form linear squences.9.What is a morpheme?
A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.10.What is derivation?0
Dereivation is a way of word formation, which is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.11.Describe the sound features:
[i:]:long, closed, front
[t]:alveolar, stop
[v]:labiodental, fricative
[l]:liquid,fricative
[h]:liquid, frictive, glottal
1.Who distinguishes Competence and Performance?
Noam Chosmsky
2.The vertical relation between linguistic elements is called what relation?
Paradigmatic relations.3.The two levels of language--sound and meaning make which design feature of language?
Duality
4.The phenomenon that one sound is influenced by neighboring sounds is called what?
Assimilation
5.The two semi-vowels are what?
[j] [w]
6.Which vowel is long, central?
7.What is a phoneme?
Phonemes are the phonological units of language.8.What is an inflectional morpheme?
9.What is synchronic linguistics?
Synchronic linguistics is the study of language at one particular time.10.What is a compound?
Building new words by putting two words together is called compound.11.Describe the sound features:
[p]:bilabial, stop, liquid
[v]:labioldental, fricative
[l]:alveolar, liquid
[n]:nasal, alveolar
[e]:semi-opened, front, short, unrounded
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第五篇：《英语语言学导论》课程总结
外国语系《英语语言学导论》课程建设总结
一、课程介绍
《语言学导论》是英语专业高年级的英语专业知识必修课程。教学目的在于使学生了解人类语言研究的丰富成果，提高其对语言的社会、人文、经济、科技以及个人修养等方面重要性的认识，培养语言意识，发展理性思维。有助于拓宽学生的思路和视野，全面提高学生的素质。教学内容主要包括：语言的性质、特征和功能；语言构造；语义研究；语言与社会、文化的关系；语用原则。语言学理论与语言教学的关系以及现代语言学流派作为选讲内容。开设在第6学期，3学时／周，总学时为54学时。
二、课程负责人 余泽标 副教授
三、教学队伍 余泽标 副教授 张安律 副教授 徐飞 讲师
四、教材及教学参考书目
1、胡壮麟，《语言学教程（修订版）》，北京大学出版社，2001年第1版。
2、戴伟栋，何兆熊，《简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社，2002年第1版。
3、王德春，《语言学概论》，上海外语教育出版社，2000年第1版。
4、胡壮麟，《语言学教程（修订版中译本）》，北京大学出版社，2002年第1版。
5、杨信彰，《语言学概论》，高等教育出版社，2005年第1版。
五、教学大纲
已制订有《语言学导论》课程教学大纲
六、教案（附后）
七、教学改革及效果
1、改革教学内容和手段，采用自制多媒体课件教学，重点突出与实际语言运用相关的内容，以利于学生接受和理解。
2、突破传统教学模式，把系统的语言理论与语言分析相结合，从根本上改变语言学教学枯燥无味的教学模式，有利地促使学生认识到了对语言学理论学习的必要性和重要性。
3、学习形式多样化，重在激发学生兴趣、扩展学生积极投入学习的空间、培养有效语言思维习惯。课堂学习既有准备充分的讲解又有启发思维的讨论，使学生既受到系统的专业训练又获得实际操作的技能。
八、建设规划
规划在2008年将该课程建设成为校级重点课程，同时加强教学内容和手段的改革，制作更完善的多媒体教学课件，提高教学效果。
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