有关毕业论文外文参考资料的查找

第一篇：有关毕业论文外文参考资料的查找

有关毕业论文外文参考资料的查找

1、可尝试在以下网站搜索外文学术资料：

（1）google学术搜索http://scholar.google.cn/schhp?hl=zh-CN&as_sdt=2000

（2）本校图书馆外文网络资源（校园内登陆）http://lib.jit.edu.cn:88/NTPT-web/

2、关键词：

用英文关键词输入之前，可以考虑 1）打开思路，组合各种可能的、适当的、与论文相关的中文关键词；2）翻译成相关的英文，再在一些英文网站中确认你的英文翻译是适当的——注意不要用翻译器翻译。

举例来说，论文题目是《互联网时代高校管理机制的建构》，除了可以用“高校学生管理”、“互联网”作为中文关键词以外，还可以用“教育管理”、“大学教育”、“大学”、“教育”等相关的关键词查找资料；也可以尝试组合“互联网”、“教育管理”等词一起在上述网站搜索资料。

3、此外还可以去一些英文的新闻网站，或者去图书馆查阅CHINA DAILY等英文报纸，或者英文期刊、书籍等。看看有没有相关的新闻报道或文献资料，也许这些参考资料的获得需要长一点的时间，但是其实是很有参考价值的。

4、最后，一定不要忘记落实外文参考资料的准确出处（按参考文献格式要求标注）。

第二篇：毕业论文外文翻译

经济增速放缓对中国银行业的影响显现 Lagging Indicators: China's Banks and the Slowdown

摘要: Chinese banks' net income surged to record highs last year, defying the slowing growth on the world's second-largest economy.Is it indicating that banks are resilient to the economic downturn?Not nec...Chinese banks' net income surged to record highs last year, defying the slowing growth on the world's second-largest economy.Is it indicating that banks are resilient to the economic downturn?

Not necessarily.The banks have a tendency to be lagging indicators.Only after a certain amount of time has passed will China's macro situation show up on the bottom line.Take, for example, bad loans.They're finally growing, incrementally, after years of declining.Industrial & Commercial Bank of China Ltd., the nation's largest bank by assets, saw its

nonperforming loans rise by 3.82 billion yuan(about $606 million)in the fourth quarter;China Construction Bank Corp., the No.2 bank on the mainland, reported a 6.27 billion yuan rise in such loans.Bank of China Ltd.'s bad loans in the fourth quarter rose 1.39 billion yuan.(In China, nonperforming loans are those that have at least a 30% chance of turning sour.)

Smaller banks also saw some increases in bad loans.China Minsheng Banking Corp., the

country's largest non-state-owned bank, posted a rise of 200 million yuan in nonperforming loans in 2011.Such loans at Industrial Bank Co.grew by 99 million yuan last year.More tellingly, data from the Chinese banking regulator showed that the nonperforming loan ratio in the nation's banking sector edged up 0.1 percentage point in the fourth quarter from the third quarter, the first rise in the past six years.The regulator didn't give a reason, but the earnings reports from Chinese banks this week offered some cues: The property market might be the culprit.China Construction Bank said among the total, its nonperforming loans related to the real estate sector surged 20% over the same period.Minsheng Bank said the nonperforming ratio of its real estate financing businesses was 1.72%, well above its overall bad loan ratio of 0.63%.Home prices have been under pressure for about two years, but it's only now do we see a sign of it in banks' statements.The question is whether investors see a few more problem numbers down the road.In three years starting 2009, banks in China issued a total of 25 trillion yuan of

renminbi-denominated loans, with roughly 40% of the lending going to government-initiated infrastructure projects and the property sector.'The second quarter of this year will be one of the peak seasons for the repayment of property loans and local government borrowings.With a slowing economy, we can expect that higher nonperforming loans are on the cards,' GF Securities analyst Mu Hua said in a recent note.According to Noah Wealth Management, a Chinese financial service company, a total of 117.25 billion yuan of property trust products will be due this year, well above the 47.05 billion yuan last year, putting huge pressure on property developers' cash flows.Besides property, analysts say local government borrowings will present a bigger challenge to banks.Banking executives have estimated that a third of China's 10.7 trillion yuan government debt will be due this year and the next.Standard & Poor's analyst Liao Qiang said he believes Beijing will likely give some regulatory forbearance to local government debt to prevent a surge in banks' bad loans.'Nevertheless, property developers and manufacturers in industries with a supply glut will continue to face policy-induced refinancing uncertainties from time to time,' he said.Monday in Hong Kong, China Construction Bank Chairman Wang Hongzhang said he's optimistic about the bank's asset quality, given China's economic growth is likely to remain solid.'Nonperforming loan levels are controllable.Even though they are higher than before, the amount is small and [the rise] is likely to be temporary,' he said.Agence France-Presse/Getty Images

中资银行净利润去年创下新高，似乎并没有受到中国这一世界第二大经济体经济增速放缓的影响。这是否意味着，银行业可以免受经济下行的影响呢？

未必。

银行业的反应往往有一定的滞后性。只有在一段时期后，中国宏观经济形势的影响才会在银行的营收中有所体现。

以不良贷款为例。在下降趋势持续了几年之后，不良贷款的比例终于开始上升，虽然涨幅不大。按资产总量计算，中国最大的银行中国工商银行(Industrial & Commercial Bank of China Ltd.)的不良贷款去年第四季度增加了人民币38.2亿元（约合6.06亿美元），中国第二大银行中国建设银行(China Construction Bank Corp.)的不良贷款增加了人民币62.7亿元。中国银行(Bank of China Ltd.)的不良贷款在第四季度增加了13.9亿元。（在中国，不良贷款指的是变成坏账的几率在30%以上的贷款。）

规模较小银行的不良贷款水平也在增长。中国最大的非国有银行中国民生银行(China

Minsheng Banking Corp.)2011年不良贷款增加了人民币2亿元。兴业银行(Industrial Bank Co.)的不良贷款去年增加了人民币9,900万元。

更能说明这一问题的是，中国银监会的数据显示，中国银行业的不良贷款比例在第四季度较第三季度上升了0.1个百分点，这是该比例过去六年来首次上升。

银监会没有给出原因，但是中资银行本周发布的年报提供了一些线索：房地产市场可能是罪魁祸首。

中国建设银行表示，在该银行的所有不良贷款中，与房地产业有关的不良贷款同比上涨了20%。民生银行说，其房地产融资业务的不良贷款比例为1.72%，大大超过了其0.63%的总体不良贷款比例。

两年来住房价格一直在承受压力，但直到现在我们才在银行的年报中看到了相关迹象。问题是，投资者是否看到了更多问题数据出现的可能性。

从2009年到2011年这三年里，中资银行共发放了25万亿元以人民币计价的贷款，其中约有40%的贷款流向了政府主导的基建项目和楼市。

今年的第二季度将是房地产贷款和地方政府借贷的还款高峰期。广发证券(GF Securities Co.)分析师沐华在最近的一份报告中说，由于经济减速，我们预计可能出现更多的不良贷款。

中国的金融服务公司诺亚财富投资管理有限公司(Noah Private Wealth Management, 简称：诺亚财富)说，共有1,172.5亿元的房地产信托产品将会在今年到期，高于去年的470.5亿元，这给房地产开发商的现金流造成了巨大压力。

分析人士说，除了房地产，地方政府借的贷款将为银行带来更大的挑战。据一些银行高管估计，中国10.7万亿元的政府贷款中，有三分之一将在今明两年到期。

标准普尔(Standard & Poor)的分析师廖强说，中国中央政府可能会给予地方政府债务一定的宽限，以防不良贷款激增。他说，尽管如此，房地产开发商以及供应过剩行业的制造企业仍会不时地面临由政策引发的再融资不确定性。

中国建设银行董事长王洪章周一在香港说，考虑到中国经济很可能继续保持稳定增长，他对该银行的资产质量持乐观态度。他说，不良贷款的水平是可控的。即使是比以往有所增加，总量还是很小，而且增长很可能也是暂时的。

第三篇：毕业论文外文翻译

译文

组织为留住员工的激励理论以及它们的应用的研

究

为什么必须要留住关键性的雇员？

Fitz-enz（1997年）提出，公司每失去10个管理上和专业上的员工就会损失100美元。算上直接成本和间接成本，避免雇员流失的总成本，是其一年工资和福利的最小量，或两年的薪酬和福利的最大值。对于一个组织来说，失去任何一个关键的雇员都会产生严重的经济影响，特别是考虑到随雇员离去而丧失的知识。这些知识是可以用来满足顾客的需要和期望的。知识的管理是创造、捕捉的过程以及知识来提高组织绩效的进程。

此外，Toracco（2000年）指出，虽然现在知识已经被认为是一个组织最宝贵的资产，但是，大多数组织缺乏必要的保留和利用知识价值的配套制度。组织不能只站在消极的立场上去希望人们在这个组织内能够得到和利用那些已知的、可以接近的知识。相反，组织应该以寻求维持竞争优势为目的，迅速发展能充分利用知识价值的系统(Robinson & Stern, 1997;Stewart, 1997).。因此，这很容易看到失去了宝贵的员工的知识的巨大影响。

人力资本和知识管理的概念是，人们拥有的技能，经验和知识，因此对组织具有经济价值。这些技能，知识和经验代表了资本，因为它们提高了生产率(Snell and Dean, 1992)。人力资本理论假定某些劳动力更有生产力仅仅是因为越来越多的资源投资在劳动力培训上，相当于一台机器投入了更多的资源来提高生产率ller, 1982)。人力资本理论的一条基本原则是，如同任何商

业投资，“投资技能建设将更加有利可图，更有可能将要持续较长的时期，从而获得投资回报”(Mueller, 1982, p.94)。此外，留住对于实现充分的投资回报是非常重要的。人力资本理论还认为员工在一个组织的服务长度可以作为与职业相关的知识或能力的代表。一个人对与工作有关的知识或能力的了解，影响该人的工资，推销自己和工作的类型(Becker，1975； Hulin & Smith，1967； Katz，1978)。在一个组织里，关于工龄的理解可以与乌尔里希（1998）定义的智力资本承诺的组成部分联系起来。他的定义很简单“技能通过承诺而增加”(p.125)，智力资本的重要性等于知识，技能和每一个人在组织中的属性乘以他们愿意努力工作。在未来几年，个人对组织的承诺将得到更重要的承认，以及该组织需要创建一个有人会愿意留下来的环境(Harris, 2000)。组织将需要或创建一个智力资本环境下，知识的传播的发生将遍及整个组织，或继续通过工龄发展失去重要的个人知识。许多人认为这些深奥的知识将有助于满足客户的需求和期望，并在全球经济组织相互竞争的今天，创建和维持竞争优势。

作者：苏尼尔

国籍：美国

出处：《美国商业学术期刊》，2004年9月，第52-59页

原文

A Review of Employee Motivation Theories and their

Implications

for Employee Retention within Organizations

Why is it Necessary to Retain Critical Employees?

Fitz-enz(1997)stated that the average company loses approximately $1 million with every 10 managerial and professional employees who leave the organization.Combined with direct and indirect costs, the total cost of anexempt employee turnover is a minimum of one year’s pay and benefits, or a maximum of two years’ pay andbenefits.There is significant economic impact with an organization losing any of its critical employees, especially given the knowledge that is lost with the employee’s departure.This is the knowledge that is used to meet the needs knowledge to enhance organizational performance(Bassi, 1997).Furthermore, Toracco(2000)stated that although knowledge is now recognized as one of an organization’s most valuable assets most organizations lack the supportive systems required to retain and leverage the value of knowledge.Organizations cannot afford to take a passive stance toward knowledge management in the hopes that people are acquiring and using knowledge, and that sources of knowledge are known and accessed throughout the organization.Instead, organizations seeking to sustain competitive advantage have moved quickly to develop systems to leverage the value of knowledge for this purpose(Robinson & Stern, 1997;Stewart, 1997).Thus, it is easy to see the dramatic effect of losing employees who have

valuable knowledge.The concept of human capital and knowledge management is that people possess skills, experience and knowledge, and therefore have economic value to organizations.These skills, knowledge and experience represent capital because they enhance productivity(Snell and Dean, 1992).Human capital theory postulates that some labor is more productive than other labor simply because more resources have been invested into the training of that labor, in the same manner that a machine that has had more resources invested into it is apt to be more productive(Mueller, 1982).One of the basic tenets of human capital theory is that, like any business investment, an “investment in skill-building would be more profitable and more likely to be undertaken the longer the period over which returns from the investment can accrue”(Mueller, 1982, p.94).Again, employee retention is important in realizing a full return on investment.Human capital theory includes the length of service in the organization as a

proxy for job relevant knowledge or ability.A person’s job relevant knowledge or ability influences that person’s wage, promotional opportunity and/or type of job(Becker, 1975;Hulin & Smith, 1967;Katz, 1978).The understanding of length of service in an organization relates back to Ulrich’s(1998)component of commitment in his definition of intellectual capital.His definition was simply“competencemultiplied by commitment”(p.125), meaning intellectual capital equals the knowledge, skills, and attributes of each individual within an organization multiplied by their willingness to work hard.It will become significantly more important in the years ahead to recognize the commitment of individuals to an organization, as well as the organization’s need to create an environment in which one would be willing to stay(Harris,2000).Organizations will need to either create an intellectual capital environment where the transmission of knowledge takes place throughout the structure, or continue to lose important individual knowledge that has been developed through the length of service.This deep knowledge is what many believe will help to meet the needs and expectations of the customers and to create and sustain a competitive advantage within the global economy in which organizations are competing in today.Author： Sunil Ramlall

Nationnality：America

Originate from：The Journal of American Academy of Business，September 2004,P52-59

第四篇：毕业论文外文翻译

齿轮和轴的介绍

摘 要:在传统机械和现代机械中齿轮和轴的重要地位是不可动摇的。齿轮和轴主要 安装在主轴箱来传递力的方向。通过加工制造它们可以分为许多的型号，分别用于许 多的场合。所以我们对齿轮和轴的了解和认识必须是多层次多方位的。关键词:齿轮；轴 关键词 在直齿圆柱齿轮的受力分析中，是假定各力作用在单一平面的。我们将研究作用 力具有三维坐标的齿轮。因此，在斜齿轮的情况下，其齿向是不平行于回转轴线的。而在锥齿轮的情况中各回转轴线互相不平行。像我们要讨论的那样，尚有其他道理需 要学习，掌握。斜齿轮用于传递平行轴之间的运动。倾斜角度每个齿轮都一样，但一个必须右旋 斜齿，而另一个必须是左旋斜齿。齿的形状是一溅开线螺旋面。如果一张被剪成平行 四边形（矩形）的纸张包围在齿轮圆柱体上，纸上印出齿的角刃边就变成斜线。如果 我展开这张纸，在血角刃边上的每一个点就发生一渐开线曲线。直齿圆柱齿轮轮齿的初始接触处是跨过整个齿面而伸展开来的线。斜齿轮轮齿的 初始接触是一点，当齿进入更多的啮合时，它就变成线。在直齿圆柱齿轮中，接触是平行于回转轴线的。在斜齿轮中，该先是跨过齿面的对角线。它是齿轮逐渐进行啮合 并平稳的从一个齿到另一个齿传递运动，那样就使斜齿轮具有高速重载下平稳传递运 动的能力。斜齿轮使轴的轴承承受径向和轴向力。当轴向推力变的大了或由于别的原 因而产生某些影响时，那就可以使用人字齿轮。双斜齿轮（人字齿轮）是与反向的并 排地装在同一轴上的两个斜齿轮等效。他们产生相反的轴向推力作用，这样就消除了 轴向推力。当两个或更多个单向齿斜齿轮被在同一轴上时，齿轮的齿向应作选择，以 便产生最小的轴向推力。交错轴斜齿轮或螺旋齿轮，他们是轴中心线既不相交也不平行。交错轴斜齿轮的 齿彼此之间发生点接触，它随着齿轮的磨合而变成线接触。因此他们只能传递小的载 荷和主要用于仪器设备中，而且肯定不能推荐在动力传动中使用。交错轴斜齿轮与斜 齿轮之间在被安装后互相捏合之前是没有任何区别的。它们是以同样的方法进行制 造。一对相啮合的交错轴斜齿轮通常具有同样的齿向，即左旋主动齿轮跟右旋从动齿 轮相啮合。在交错轴斜齿设计中，当该齿的斜角相等时所产生滑移速度最小。然而当

该齿的斜角不相等时，如果两个齿轮具有相同齿向的话，大斜角齿轮应用作主动齿轮。蜗轮与交错轴斜齿轮相似。小齿轮即蜗杆具有较小的齿数，通常是一到四齿，由 于它们完全缠绕在节圆柱上，因此它们被称为螺纹齿。与其相配的齿轮叫做蜗轮，蜗 轮不是真正的斜齿轮。蜗杆和蜗轮通常是用于向垂直相交轴之间的传动提供大的角速 度减速比。蜗轮不是斜齿轮，因为其齿顶面做成中凹形状以适配蜗杆曲率，目的是要 形成线接触而不是点接触。然而蜗杆蜗轮传动机构中存在齿间有较大滑移速度的缺 点，正像交错轴斜齿轮那样。蜗杆蜗轮机构有单包围和双包围机构。单包围机构就是蜗轮包裹着蜗杆的一种机 构。当然，如果每个构件各自局部地包围着对方的蜗轮机构就是双包围蜗轮蜗杆机构。着两者之间的重要区别是，在双包围蜗轮组的轮齿间有面接触，而在单包围的蜗轮组 的轮齿间有线接触。一个装置中的蜗杆和蜗轮正像交错轴斜齿轮那样具有相同的齿 向，但是其斜齿齿角的角度是极不相同的。蜗杆上的齿斜角度通常很大，而蜗轮上的 则极小，因此习惯常规定蜗杆的导角，那就是蜗杆齿斜角的余角；也规定了蜗轮上的 齿斜角，该两角之和就等于 90 度的轴线交角。当齿轮要用来传递相交轴之间的运动时，就需要某种形式的锥齿轮。虽然锥齿轮 通常制造成能构成 90 度轴交角，但它们也可产生任何角度的轴交角。轮齿可以铸出，铣制或滚切加工。仅就滚齿而言就可达一级精度。在典型的锥齿轮安装中，其中一个 锥齿轮常常装于支承的外侧。这意味着轴的挠曲情况更加明显而使在轮齿接触上具有 更大的影响。另外一个难题，发生在难于预示锥齿轮轮齿上的应力，实际上是由于齿轮被加工 成锥状造成的。直齿锥齿轮易于设计且制造简单，如果他们安装的精密而确定，在运转中会产生 良好效果。然而在直齿圆柱齿轮情况下，在节线速度较高时，他们将发出噪音。在这 些

情况下，螺旋锥齿轮比直齿轮能产生平稳的多的啮合作用，因此碰到高速运转的场 合那是很有用的。当在汽车的各种不同用途中，有一个带偏心轴的类似锥齿轮的机构，那是常常所希望的。这样的齿轮机构叫做准双曲面齿轮机构，因为它们的节面是双曲 回转面。这种齿轮之间的轮齿作用是沿着一根直线上产生滚动与滑动相结合的运动并 和蜗轮蜗杆的轮齿作用有着更多的共同之处。轴是一种转动或静止的杆件。通常有圆形横截面。在轴上安装像齿轮，皮带轮，飞轮，曲柄，链轮和其他动力传递零件。轴能够承受弯曲，拉伸，压缩或扭转载荷，这些力相结合时，人们期望找到静强度和疲劳强度作为设计的重要依据。因为单根轴 可以承受静压力，变应力和交变应力，所有的应力作用都是同时发生的。“轴”这个词包含着多种含义，例如心轴和主轴。心轴也是轴，既可以旋转也可 以静止的轴，但不承受扭转载荷。短的转动轴常常被称为主轴。当轴的弯曲或扭转变形必需被限制于很小的范围内时，其尺寸应根据变形来确 定，然后进行应力分析。因此，如若轴要做得有足够的刚度以致挠曲不太大，那么合 应力符合安全要求那是完全可能的。但决不意味着设计者要保证；它们是安全的，轴 几乎总是要进行计算的，知道它们是处在可以接受的允许的极限以内。因之，设计者 无论何时，动力传递零件，如齿轮或皮带轮都应该设置在靠近支持轴承附近。这就减 低了弯矩，因而减小变形和弯曲应力。虽然来自 M.H.G 方法在设计轴中难于应用，但它可能用来准确预示实际失效。这 样，它是一个检验已经设计好了的轴的或者发现具体轴在运转中发生损坏原因的好方 法。进而有着大量的关于设计的问题，其中由于别的考虑例如刚度考虑，尺寸已得到 较好的限制。设计者去查找关于圆角尺寸、热处理、表面光洁度和是否要进行喷丸处理等资料，那真正的唯一的需要是实现所要求的寿命和可靠性。由于他们的功能相似，将离合器和制动器一起处理。简化摩擦离合器或制动器的 动力学表达式中，各自以角速度 w1 和 w2 运动的两个转动惯量 I1 和 I2，在制动器情 况下其中之一可能是零，由于接上离合器或制动器而最终要导致同样的速度。因为两 个构件开始以不同速度运转而使打滑发生了，并且在作用过程中能量散失，结果导致 温升。在分析这些装置的性能时，我们应注意到作用力，传递的扭矩，散失的能量和 温升。所传递的扭矩关系到作用力，摩擦系数和离合器或制动器的几何状况。这是一 个静力学问题。这个问题将必须对每个几何机构形状分别进行研究。然而温升与能量 损失有关，研究温升可能与制动器或离合器的类型无关。因为几何形状的重要性是散 热表面。各种各样的离合器和制动器可作如下分类： 1．轮缘式内膨胀制冻块； 2．轮缘式外接触制动块； 3．条带式； 4．盘型或轴向式； 5．圆锥型；

6．混合式。分析摩擦离合器和制动器的各种形式都应用一般的同样的程序，下面的步骤是必 需的： 1．假定或确定摩擦表面上压力分布； 2．找出最大压力和任一点处压力之间的关系； 3．应用静平衡条件去找寻（a）作用力；（b）扭矩；(c)支反力。混合式离合器包括几个类型，例如强制接触离合器、超载释放保护离合器、超越 离合器、磁液离合器等等。强制接触离合器由一个变位杆和两个夹爪组成。各种强制接触离合器之间最大的 区别与夹爪的设计有关。为了在结合过程中给变换作用予较长时间周期，夹爪可以是 棘轮式的，螺旋型或齿型的。有时使用许多齿或夹爪。他们可能在圆周面上加工齿，以便他们以圆柱周向配合来结合或者在配合元件的端面上加工齿来结合。虽然强制离合器不像摩擦接触离合器用的那么广泛，但它们确实有很重要的运 用。离合器需要同步操作。有些装置例如线性驱动装置或电机操作螺杆驱动器必须运行到一定的限度然后 停顿下来。为着这些用途就需要超载释放保护离合器。这些离合器通常用弹簧加载，以使得在达到预定的力矩时释放。当到达超载点时听到的“喀嚓”声就被认定为是所 希望的信号声。超越离合器

或连轴器允许机器的被动构件“空转”或“超越”，因为主动驱动件 停顿了或者因为另一个动力源使被动构件增加了速度。这种离合器通常使用装在外套 筒和内轴件之间的滚子或滚珠。该内轴件，在它的周边加工了数个平面。驱动作用是 靠在套筒和平面之间契入的滚子来获得。因此该离合器与具有一定数量齿的棘轮棘爪 机构等效。磁液离合器或制动器相对来说是一个新的发展，它们具有两平行的磁极板。这些 磁极板之间有磁粉混合物润滑。电磁线圈被装入磁路中的某处。借助激励该线圈，磁 液混合物的剪切强度可被精确的控制。这样从充分滑移到完全锁住的任何状态都可以 获得。

GEAR AND SHAFT INTRODUCTION

Abstract: The important position of the wheel gear and shaft can't falter in

traditional machine and modern machines.The wheel gear and shafts mainly install the direction that delivers the dint at the principal axis box.The passing to process to make them can is divided into many model numbers, useding for many situations respectively.So we must be the multilayers to the understanding of the wheel gear and shaft in many ways.Key words: Wheel gear;Shaft

In the force analysis of spur gears, the forces are assumed to act in a single plane.We shall study gears in which the forces have three dimensions.The reason for this, in the case of helical gears, is that the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation.And in the case of bevel gears, the rotational axes are not parallel to each other.There are also other reasons, as we shall learn.Helical gears are used to transmit motion between parallel shafts.The helix angle is the same on each gear, but one gear must have a right-hand helix and the other a left-hand helix.The shape of the tooth is an involute helicoid.If a piece of paper cut in the shape of a parallelogram is wrapped around a cylinder, the angular edge of the paper becomes a helix.If we unwind this paper, each point on the angular edge generates an involute curve.The surface obtained when every point on the edge generates an involute is called an involute helicoid.The initial contact of spur-gear teeth is a line extending all the way across the face of the tooth.The initial contact of helical gear teeth is a point, which changes into a line as the teeth come into more engagement.In spur gears the line of contact is parallel to the axis of the rotation;in helical gears, the line is diagonal across the face of the tooth.It is this gradual of the teeth and the smooth transfer of load from one tooth to another, which give helical gears the ability to transmit heavy loads at high

speeds.Helical gears subject the shaft bearings to both radial and thrust loads.When the thrust loads become high or are objectionable for other reasons, it may be desirable to use double helical gears.A double helical gear(herringbone)is equivalent to two helical gears of opposite hand, mounted side by side on the same shaft.They develop opposite thrust reactions and thus cancel out the thrust load.When two or more single helical gears are mounted on the same shaft, the hand of the gears should be selected so as to produce the minimum thrust load.Crossed-helical, or spiral, gears are those in which the shaft centerlines are neither parallel nor intersecting.The teeth of crossed-helical fears have point contact with each other, which changes to line contact as the gears wear in.For this reason they will carry out very small loads and are mainly for instrumental applications, and are definitely not recommended for use in the transmission of power.There is on difference between a crossed helical gear and a helical gear until they are mounted in mesh with each other.They are manufactured in the same way.A pair of meshed crossed helical gears usually have the same hand;that is ,a right-hand driver goes with a

right-hand driven.In the design of crossed-helical gears, the minimum sliding velocity is obtained when the helix angle are equal.However, when the helix angle are not equal, the gear with the larger helix angle should be used as the driver if both gears have the same hand.Worm gears are similar to crossed helical gears.The pinion or worm has a small number of teeth, usually one to four, and since they completely wrap around the pitch cylinder they are called threads.Its mating gear is called a worm gear, which is not a true helical gear.A worm and worm gear are used to provide a high angular-velocity reduction between nonintersecting shafts which are usually at right angle.The worm gear is not a helical gear because its face is made concave to fit the curvature of the worm in order to provide line contact instead of point contact.However, a disadvantage of worm gearing is the high sliding velocities across the teeth, the same as with crossed

helical gears.Worm gearing are either single or double enveloping.A single-enveloping gearing is one in which the gear wraps around or partially encloses the worm..A gearing in which each element partially encloses the other is, of course, a double-enveloping worm gearing.The important difference between the two is that area contact exists between the teeth of double-enveloping gears while only line contact between those of single-enveloping gears.The worm and worm gear of a set have the same hand of helix as for crossed helical gears, but the helix angles are usually quite different.The helix angle on the worm is generally quite large, and that on the gear very small.Because of this, it is usual to specify the lead angle on the worm, which is the complement of the worm helix angle, and the helix angle on the gear;the two angles are equal for a 90-deg.Shaft angle.When gears are to be used to transmit motion between intersecting shaft, some of bevel gear is required.Although bevel gear are usually made for a shaft angle of 90 deg.They may be produced for almost any shaft angle.The teeth may be cast, milled, or generated.Only the generated teeth may be classed as accurate.In a typical bevel gear mounting, one of the gear is often mounted outboard of the bearing.This means that shaft deflection can be more pronounced and have a greater effect on the contact of teeth.Another difficulty, which occurs in predicting the stress in bevel-gear teeth, is the fact the teeth are tapered.Straight bevel gears are easy to design and simple to manufacture and give very good results in service if they are mounted accurately and positively.As in the case of squr gears, however, they become noisy at higher values of the pitch-line velocity.In these cases it is often good design practice to go to the spiral bevel gear, which is the bevel counterpart of the helical gear.As in the case of helical gears, spiral bevel gears give a much smoother tooth action than straight bevel gears, and hence are useful where high speed are encountered.7

It is frequently desirable, as in the case of automotive differential applications, to have gearing similar to bevel gears but with the shaft offset.Such gears are called hypoid gears because their pitch surfaces are hyperboloids of revolution.The tooth action between such gears is a combination of rolling and sliding along a straight line and has much in common with that of worm gears.A shaft is a rotating or stationary member, usually of circular cross section, having mounted upon it such elementsas gears, pulleys, flywheels, cranks, sprockets, and other power-transmission elements.Shaft may be subjected to bending, tension, compression, or torsional loads, acting singly or in combination with one another.When they are combined, one may expect to find both static and fatigue strength to be important design considerations, since a

single shaft may be subjected to static stresses, completely reversed, and repeated stresses, all acting at the same time.The word “shaft” covers numerous variations, such as axles and spindles.Anaxle is a shaft, wither stationary or rotating, nor subjected to torsion load.A shirt rotating shaft is often called a spindle.When either the lateral or the torsional deflection of a shaft must be held to close limits, the shaft must be sized on the basis of deflection before analyzing the stresses.The reason for this is that, if the shaft is made stiff enough so that the deflection is not too large, it is probable that the resulting stresses will be safe.But by no means should the designer assume that they are safe;it is almost always necessary to calculate them so that he knows they are within acceptable limits.Whenever possible, the power-transmission elements, such as gears or pullets, should be located close to the supporting bearings, This reduces the bending moment, and hence the deflection and bending stress.Although the von Mises-Hencky-Goodman method is difficult to use in design of shaft, it probably comes closest to predicting actual failure.Thus it is a good way of checking a shaft that has already been designed or of discovering

why a particular shaft has failed in service.Furthermore, there are a considerable number of shaft-design problems in which the dimension are pretty well limited by other considerations, such as rigidity, and it is only necessary for the designer to discover something about the fillet sizes, heat-treatment, and surface finish and whether or not shot peening is necessary in order to achieve the required life and reliability.Because of the similarity of their functions, clutches and brakes are treated together.In a simplified dynamic representation of a friction clutch, or brake, two inertias I1 and I2 traveling at the respective angular velocities W1 and W2, one of which may be zero in the case of brake, are to be brought to the same speed by engaging the clutch or brake.Slippage occurs because the two elements are running at different speeds and energy is dissipated during actuation, resulting in a temperature rise.In analyzing the performance of these devices we shall be interested in the actuating force, the torque transmitted, the energy loss and the temperature rise.The torque transmitted is related to the actuating force, the coefficient of friction, and the geometry of the clutch or brake.This is problem in static, which will have to be studied separately for eath geometric configuration.However, temperature rise is related to energy loss and can be studied without regard to the type of brake or clutch because the geometry of interest is the heat-dissipating surfaces.The various types of clutches and brakes may be classified as fllows:

1.Rim type with internally expanding shoes 2.Rim type with externally contracting shoes 3.Band type 4.Disk or axial type 5.Cone type 6.Miscellaneous type The analysis of all type of friction clutches and brakes use the same general procedure.The following step are necessary:

1.Assume or determine the distribution of pressure on the frictional surfaces.2.Find a relation between the maximum pressure and the pressure at any point 3.Apply the condition of statical equilibrium to find(a)the actuating force,(b)the torque, and(c)the support reactions.Miscellaneous clutches include several types, such as the

positive-contact clutches, overload-release clutches, overrunning clutches, magnetic fluid clutches, and others.A positive-contact clutch consists of a shift lever and two jaws.The greatest differences between the various types of positive clutches are concerned with the design of the jaws.To provide a longer period of time for shift action during engagement, the jaws may be ratchet-shaped, or gear-tooth-shaped.Sometimes a great many teeth or jaws are used, and they may be cut either circumferentially, so that they engage by cylindrical mating, or on the faces of

the mating elements.Although positive clutches are not used to the extent of the frictional-contact type, they do have important applications where

synchronous operation is required.Devices such as linear drives or motor-operated screw drivers must run to definite limit and then come to a stop.An overload-release type of clutch is required for these applications.These clutches are usually spring-loaded so as to release at a predetermined toque.The clicking sound which is heard when the overload point is reached is considered to be a desirable signal.An overrunning clutch or coupling permits the driven member of a machine to “freewheel” or “overrun” because the driver is stopped or because another source of power increase the speed of the driven.This type of clutch usually uses rollers or balls mounted between an outer sleeve and an inner member having flats machined around the periphery.Driving action is obtained by wedging the rollers between the sleeve and the flats.The clutch is

therefore equivalent to a pawl and ratchet with an infinite number of teeth.Magnetic fluid clutch or brake is a relatively new development which has two parallel magnetic plates.Between these plates is a lubricated magnetic powder mixture.An electromagnetic coil is inserted somewhere in the magnetic circuit.By varying the excitation to this coil, the shearing strength of the magnetic fluid mixture may be accurately controlled.Thus any condition from a full slip to a frozen lockup may be obtained.11

第五篇：毕业论文外文翻译

外文翻译：

安全评估和风险管理方法建设

张军，张明元，袁勇波，周静

（中国土木与水利工程大学，大连理工，大连116085）

摘要： 改进后的LEC法是用于处理与期货大厦项目的安全评估的。经修订的评估项目L的危险方法隐藏的工作条件，存在由实验结果确定了不同价值体系之间的能源和人工能源，表明该方法的科学性和实用性，并能提高安全成本的经济效率。

关键词：建设危害，安全评价，安全管理

1建筑的危害和安全评估

建筑存在的危险性都和周围的建设用地有关系。这些条件不合理造成的勘查施工前和施工期间的经济活动不合理并会转移到危险性上。首先，它是认识到科学和危害之后而确定安全管理的必要，进行任何监测都有可能发生意外。

评估的目的是寻找出安全分析和预测危险的方法，而且其结果与现有工程或一个系统，都需要合理并可行。因此我们提出了从监督监测和抵御风险中得到的情况，以求意外事故有最低发生率，这是不同的方法之间的安全评估和正常的安全管理和监控。这样做的安全评估、分析、论证和可能的损失建筑工程有关的伤害和影响范围都最小。

安全文化是伴随人类的生产活动而产生的。但是，人类有意识地发展安全文化，还是近1 0余年的事，国际原子能机构在对1 9 8 6年发生的切尔诺贝利核泄漏事故调查分析的基础上，于1 9 9 1年编写的“7 5一工N 8 A G-4 "评。报告首次提出了“安全文化”的概念，并建立了一套核安全文化建设的思想和策略。

安全文化从核安全文化、航空航天安全文化等企业安全文化，拓宽到全民安全文化，由此发展到了由安全观念文化、安全行为文化、安全物质文化组成的全民安全文化的新时代。在该阶段，安全教育体系正在形成，儿童和，}，小学生的安全教育已经起步。大学和成人的专业化安全教育已初具规模，在有关政府机

构领导下的安全文化普及教育正蓬勃发展;安全科学作为独立的学科体系已经建立，安全科学形成了由安全科学技术基础学科、安全学、安全工程等构成的多学科体系;安全管理机构进一步健全，建立健全了一大批国际的、国家的、行业的、社会的、企业的安全管理机构;在法规、标准、安全制度方而，体现在而向全民的安全建设开始起步，而向行业的、企业的安全法规、标准、制度、操作规程等具有更强的针对性，在安全宣传方而，一个社会化的安全宣传网正在形成，出现了一些而向大众、宣传安全光荣、安全就是效益的作品，“安全第一，顶防为主”的安全哲学思想更加深入人心。

“安全文化是人类文化的部分，它涉及人类活动的各个领域，存在于社会生活的各个方而;它涉及自然科学和社会科学的诸学科，它为安全的世界观和方法论的形成提供乳育的胚胎，它既具有历史的继承性，又具有鲜明的时代感”。安全文化是灿烂的，华民族文化的组成部分，华民族在生存和繁衍，}，与世界其他民族一起创造并传播了安全文化。安全文化在我国的发展也经历了人类对安分与健康的台目追求、核安全文化出现、全民安全文化的兴起等二个阶段。2危险方法评估工作

考虑到人的危险在工作条件，格雷厄姆和吉尔伯特。楼金尼建议的频率和严重程度，以该评估环境和一些揭露应指环境变量作为独立设置的函数公式。根据他们的实际经验，根据不同情况独立变量的值，给出了三被标记的对象，然后在危害水平也分为公式后的危险值来计算。这种方法容易识别。

D=LEC

其中，D指该商标，L是指事故的发生概率，E和C是指人类正暴露的频率和在环境意味着损失。

3管理建设的危害

建造业是高风险行业，需要管理并改善其意外总数的发生。政府提出安全建设模式位“统一的模式，法律监督机构负责企业所有安全监管，部分群众以及整个社会参与监督”。作者假设如下：

（1）加强安全监察，建设，以确保施工安全的措施费组成竞争费和特殊项目费用;建设行政主管部门应加强项目前的审计。

（2）加强并完善组织建设施工安全监管，成立一个监管组织，其的特点是依法执行监管任务。

（3）编制依据不同专业的职业经理人的安全的安全生产监管部根据建筑由大小的地盘遵守《组织对构建企业安全生产和职业经理人准备》。

（4）发展项目和危害安全风险评估，登记项目，消除构建社会安全危害的可能影响。

（5）建立和落实，检查系统的支架固定和拆卸起重机械，成型板，建立和落实制度，消除危害的技术，设备和材料，建立和实施项目系统研究项目的施工安全。

（6）监测信息系统的致命危害工地使用是高级电力监控。

（7）开展风险规避。风险规避是一个有用的和共同的风险管理策略。当认识到严重后果的隐患和风险因素，但没有可用的措施之前，建设，施工计划可能改变或放弃为避免风险。

（8）建筑企业要建立和完善安全体系建设的长期性，管理和设备应达到 降低风险损失之和（参考标准：标准JGJ59 一 1999年）。

（9）发挥媒体的咨询作用，进行系统的安全性评估、设计、安全监测、认证和考试，以及意外伤害保险赔偿。

（10）建立工会公关，处理紧急项目。

4结论

本文主要内容是考察了管理层在判断建筑危害中应用的安全性评估方法。以及建设项目危险评价工作的执行情况，我们已确保了致命的危险事故发生率为最低。根据经验，可纳入危险管理系统的危险值为：低于160时的危险，否则，它会被认为是不可承受的危险事故。应该充分应用现代化的信息技术来建立和完善

一道预防和控制系统来检测意外事故。以期待应用技术来预防更多的意外事故发生。