第一篇:澳洲圣约翰托福写作中逻辑性推理的判断
托福写作:写作中逻辑性推理的判断
青岛雅思新托福专业培训机构-圣约翰(澳洲)语言专修学校
posted by Anna
条件推理和选择任务的关系:选择任务中的条件推理逻辑
摘要:要求大学生被试在相同的情境和规则下先后完成选择任务和条件推理任务,从而系统考察两项条件命题任务之间的关系。结果表明,当规则的语义表征意义为 条件命题和反条件命题时,两项任务的反应模式具有一致性;当为双向条件和非条件命题时,两项任务的反应模式出现了分歧,而且四种推理形式和四张卡片之间不 存在直接的对应关系。两项条件命题任务之间的关系表现在,它们可能享有共同的语义关系表征空间,但推理过程和策略有所不同。关键词:选择任务;条件推理;语义关系表征
引言
研究者有时会将Wason提出的选择作业选择任务视作一项条件推理任务,正确解决选择任务的过程被认为包含了条件推理的逻辑,而人们在该项任务中正确 率很低可能是因为缺乏这种逻辑知识。根据条件推理的逻辑,选择任务中的推理规则是一个条件规则,而四张卡片就相当于四个小前提,必须翻看的卡片应该是p和 —q,因为肯定前件和否定后件是两种有效推理形式,这两张卡片背面的值是确定的,非真即假,所以最后能对规则进行证伪。而那些选择了—p和q卡片的被试可 能是犯了否定前件和肯定后件式的错误。Feeney等人通过在选择任务中向被试提供两条规则(第二条规则中包含了备择前件的信息),发现q卡片的选择率受 到了抑制。他们认为选择任务中一定程度上确实包含了条件推理的逻辑。
也有研究者反对把选择作业视作一项条件推理任务。Wagner—Egger发现条件推理和选择任务在逻辑上是不对等的,选择任务中被试的反应主要取决 于被试对规则的语义解释spelber等人认为尽管该推理任务有一个逻辑上有效的答案,但并没有要求被试使用条件推理的逻辑,他们完全可以使用其它方法正 确地解决该问题。邱江等人在实验中让被试进行逻辑分析,结果发现逻辑分析过程没有改善被试的作业成绩。
目前,研究者对于人们在解决选择任务的过程中是否会自觉运用条件推理逻辑这一问题尚未有一个明确的结论。对于条件推理和选择任务之间的关系,以往的研 究更多地是从逻辑分析的角度进行推断,缺少实证研究,尤其缺少对两项任务之间的具体对应关系进行直接和系统地考察。研究通过两个实验以期系统地探讨在不同 性质的条件规则中,两项条件命题任务的关系,尤其是要研究不同的语义关系表征模式是如何同时影响被试在两项任务中的反应的。
第二篇:托福写作中的谚语
托福写作模板中的谚语
托福写作模板中有很多经典的句子,在忙于考试的同时,可以收集作为自己的东西,1.Fish
(1)The best fish swim near the bottom.好鱼常在水底游。
(2)Never offer to teach fish to swim.不要班门弄斧。
(3)Go to the sea, if you would fish well.不入虎穴,焉得虎子。
(4)There’s as good fish in the sea as ever came out of it.海里的好鱼多的是。
(5)It is a silly fish that is caught twice with the same bait.智者不上两次档。
(6)If water is noisy, there are no fish in it.咆哮的水中无鱼。(夸夸其谈者无真才实学。)。
2.Hare
(1)You cannot run with the hare and hunt with the hounds(猎狗).不能既和野兔一起跑又和猎狗一起追。(人不应两面讨好。)
(2)The tortoise wins the race while the hare is sleeping.兔子睡懒觉,乌龟跑赢了。
3.Horse
(1)You can take a horse to the water, but you can’t make him drink.带马到河边容易,逼马饮水难。
(2)Don’t ride the high horse.勿摆架子。
(3)A good horse cannot be of a bad colour.好马不会毛色差。
(4)A horse may stumble on four feet.马有四条腿,亦有失蹄时。
(5)A running horse needs no spur.奔马无需鞭策。
(6)Don’t put the cart before the horse.不要将大车套在马前面。(处理问题应按先后次序,不要本末倒置。)
(7)The common horse is worst shod.公用之马,掌子最差。
(8)Lock the barn door after the horse is stolen.失马之后锁马厩。(亡羊补牢)
(9)Don’t look a gift horse in the mouth.馈赠之马,勿看牙口。
(10)Hair by hair you will pull out the horse’s tail.一根一根拔,拔光马尾巴。(水滴石穿).Mouse
(1)It is a poor mouse that has only one hole.狡兔三窟。
(2)The mouse that has but one hole is quickly taken.只有一个洞的老鼠,很快就被抓住。
(3)A speck of mouse dung will spoil a whole pot of porridge.一粒老鼠屎,坏了一锅粥。
5.Sheep
(1)If one sheep leaps over the ditch, all the rest will follow.榜样的力量是无穷的。
(2)A lazy sheep thinks its wool heavy.懒羊嫌毛重。
(3)He that makes himself a sheep shall be eaten by the wolf.甘心做绵羊,必然喂豺狼。
6.Swallow
(1)One swallow does not make a spring.孤燕不报春。
(2)One swallow does not make a summer.一燕不成夏。
7.Tiger
(1)If you don’t enter a tiger’s den, you can’t get his cubs.不入虎穴,焉得虎子。
8.Wolf
(1)Don’t trust a goat with the kitchen-garden,or a wolf with sheepfold.不能请羊管菜园,不能请狼管羊圈。
(2)Who keeps company with wolves, will learn to howl.和狼在一起,就会学狼叫。
(3)Man is a wolf to man.人对人是狼。(人心狠,人吃人)
(4)A growing youth has a wolf in his belly.年轻人,在成长,吃起饭来像饿狼以上就是托福写作模板中一些经典的谚语,考生们要认真学习记忆,在写作中发挥运用。
第三篇:托福写作中的低级错误汇总
托福写作中的低级错误汇总
托福写作中低级错误其实也是很常见的,而这些问题在托福写作评分标准中也是着重看重的,一个不好就会让分数低下来,那么下面托福写作经验就介绍一下。
1.词汇失误
Example 1: Reading can increase my words, rich my knowledge and enlarge my eyesight。
托福写作经验提到这是考生在描述读书的好处,其优点在于在句子结构方面尽力打造排比结构。然而,词汇失误严重影响句子理解和整体效果。“读书可增大词汇量,增长知识,开阔眼界。”本句中词汇失误频繁出现,如:increase,words,rich;enlarge my eyesight令人费解。建议可做如下修改:
Revised: Reading can enlarge my vocabulary, enrich my knowledge and broaden my horizons。
Example 2: Sometimes I play with friends from my school。
通过托福写作评分标准可以看出此句是典型的Chinglish,在中文中,可以说“和朋友玩”,但是不可对应为英文的“play with friends”,其意思是把朋友当成了玩具。play 用作不及物动词时,常接介词 with,表示“玩;玩耍”。例如:
The little boy is playing with a yoyo。
Don't play with fire.It is very dangerous。
2.用词不当
学生们写的作文里或多或少都会有一些用词不当的问题,但是要注意的是一些最最基本的错误是托福作文中不能犯的。
In the show, if participators answer twenty problems that the host mentioned correctly, they will get five hundreds thousand U.S.dollars as a prize.——problems应改为questions
这里的拼写错误不是指在考试时候的误打,而是本身对词汇拼写记忆的错误。
In conclusion, issue of whether parents are the best teachers is a complex one, requiring subjective judgement, consequently, there are no easy or certain answers.——judgement应改为judgment
3.句子层面的常见失误
考生在语法方面的错误主要表现为“主谓不一致、可数名词单复数错误、时态错误、限定动词和非限定动词错误”等,这里就不一一赘述了。此外,还有一些句子层面的常见问题值得我们关注,现列举如下:
1.Run-on Sentences(串句)
串句是不用连词和标点而把两个(或以上)独立的句子串在一起的错误表达。有些串句是不用任何标点间隔两个甚至更多的句子;有些串句是在该用句号时滥用逗号,忽略了英语语言中的逗号本身没有连接句子的功能这一原则。
例如:
Rita decided to stop smoking she didn’t want to die of lung cancer。
The exam was postponed the class was canceled as well。
修改原则
First of all, children can earn money from their jobs, although there isn’t too much, but they will keep their salary gingerliness.这里的gingerliness根本是不知所云。该句子还有以下问题:
1)该作文题目是讲学生是否应该做兼职,因此children的出现就显得很莫名其妙;
2)although和but是不能连用的;
3)指代不明,they不知道是指代前面的什么;
4.表达中式
The second argument-it might have been noticed by others-is that in some occasion, it is quite difficult to compare parents to teachers because parents are a kind of people, teachers are a kind of vocation.1、句子中划线部分的表达过于中式化。
A。把原句分成两个独立的句子。
Rita decided to stop smoking.She didn’t want to die of lung cancer。
The exam was postponed.The class was canceled as well。
B。用并列连词连接两个句子。
Rita decided to stop smoking, for she didn’t want to die of lung cancer。
The exam was postponed, and the class was canceled as well。
C。用分号连接两个句子。
Rita decided to stop smoking;she didn’t want to die of lung cancer。
The exam was postponed;the class was canceled as well。
2、Fragmentary sentences(破句)
破句是把不完整的句子当作独立的子句来写作时发生的错误。常见错误包括:从属连词引起的破句,ing分词和不定式结构引起的错误,增添细节引起的破句和缺少主语的破句。
例如:
After I arrived in Chicago by bus.I checked into a room.Then I went to a diner to get something to eat。
修改原则:改正从属连词引起的破句时,可以把该从句附属于其前或其后某个子句上。也可以去掉破句中的连词。
I arrived in Chicago by bus and found a place to stay.Then I went to a diner to get something to eat。
当然,对于其它形式的破句,可以根据不同情况给予改正。如,改正-ing结构引起的破句时,可以把它附属在其前或其后的某个句子上,可以添加主语,把-ing形式改变成谓语动词,把being形式改成作谓语的be动词(is, are, was, were, am);改正不定式结构引起的破句时,可以把它附属于前句上;改正添加细节引起的破句时,可以把它附属在前面一个表达完整思想的句子上;可以给破句加上主语和动词使它成为一个独立子句;可以尽可能改变词序,辅以增减词,使破句成为前句的组成部分;改正缺少主语的破句时,可以把它附属于前句上,也可以给破句添加主语(通常是指代前句主语的代词形式)。
3、Faulty Parallelism(错误的平行结构)
两个(或以上)意思并列的成份(包括单词、词组、从句和句子)在写作时要用同等的语法形式表达,否则就破坏了其平行结构。
例如:
Many people choose air transportation because it is fast, offers convenience, and it is not very expensive。
修改原则
使句子中意思并列的成份在结构上并行的关键是用同等的语法形式表达这些成份。修改平行结构错误时,关键要找到平行点(单词、词组、从句或句子),然后删去引起不平行的多余成份或添加所缺成份。
Many people choose air transportation because it is fast, convenient, and inexpensive。
4、Misplaced Modifiers(修饰语错置)
修饰语可以是单词、词组或从句。修饰语位置不当,就无法清楚表达作者的原意,可能引发句子的歧义现象。
Misplaced: The old man walked into the lamp post going to the optician.(Who has bad eyesight, the old man or the lamp post?)
修改原则
A。避免修饰语错置的关键是使修饰语尽可能靠近被修饰语。
B。副词短语和时间、地点、方式等状语从句可以万无一失地置于句首。
C。把那些很难安排位置的修饰语置于句首。
D。避免因为一个修饰语和句子中多个成份之间存在潜在的修饰关系而引发歧义现象。
Corrected: While going to the optician, the old man bumped into the lamp post。
Going to the optician, the old man bumped into the lamp post.5.Dangling modifiers(悬垂修饰语)
悬垂修饰错误是句子中短语(包括介词短语、分词短语、动名词短语、不定式结构)或省略句(无主句或主谓省略句。]缺少修饰对象造成的。
Dangling: Going through a red light, the traffic police on duty stopped him。
修改原则
They shocked their friends, devastated their families, crushed their best friends.前面已经提到了朋友,后面又提到朋友。
The show is so compelling but attractive.compelling和attractive是同义词,所以这里这么写就让人不明白。
A。明确动作的实施者,使悬垂成份所修饰的对象成为主句主语。
B。将悬垂修饰语扩展成从句。
Revised: While he was going through a red light, the traffic police on duty stopped him。
Going through a red light, he was stopped by the traffic police on duty。
通过上面托福写作经验的介绍可以发现托福写作评分标准中有几种错误是一定要改正的,这对于大家的托福作文是没有任何好处的,希望各位能够注意。
第四篇:托福写作中的13个经典错误
http://toefl.100.com
托福写作中的13个经典错误
托福写作中,在用句措辞不能保证完全正确的情况下,100教育小编建议大家最好先用些简单不会错的句子,少一些浮夸华丽的辞藻,以保证写作不会因为小错误以致丢分。本文为考生们罗列出一些常见错误,供大家进行参考。
1.用词不当
学生们写的作文里或多或少都会有一些用词不当的问题,但是要注意的是一些最最基本的错误是不能犯的。
• In the show, if participators answer twenty problems that the host mentioned correctly, they will get five hundreds thousand U.S.dollars as a prize.——problems应改为questions
2.拼写错误
这里的拼写错误不是指在考试时候的误打,而是本身对词汇拼写记忆的错误。• In conclusion, issue of whether parents are the best teachers is a complex one, requiring subjective judgement, consequently, there are no easy or certain answers.——judgement应改为judgment
3.乱用大词
First of all, children can earn money from their jobs, although there isn’t too much, but they will keep their salary gingerliness.这里的gingerliness根本是不知所云。该句子还有以下问题:
1)该作文题目是讲学生是否应该做兼职,因此children的出现就显得很莫名其妙;
2)although和but是不能连用的;
3)指代不明,they不知道是指代前面的什么;
4.表达中式
The second argument-it might have been noticed by others-is that in some occasion, it is quite difficult to compare parents to teachers because parents are a kind of people, teachers are a kind of vocation.句子中划线部分的表达过于中式化。
5.表意重复
•They shocked their friends, devastated their families, crushed their best friends.前面已经提到了朋友,后面又提到朋友。
• The show is so compelling but attractive.•compelling和attractive是同义词,所以这里这么写就让人不明白。
6.固定用法错误
• To some extends, I agree with the author’s general assertion that if parents also have a comprehensive sense of professional knowledge.——To some extends应改为To some extent
7.例证夸张
• For example, when a doctor faces a patient who has got cancer, the doctor cannot tell the truth, for the truth may cause the patient’s immediate death.虽然善意的谎言是必要的,但是其功效显然没有这么大。
8.成分多余
• According to a comprehensive investigation which is carried out by Chinese Academy of Social Sciences shows that there is an increase in the number of university students who are taking part-time jobs.该句中的shows that是多余的成分。
9.词性混乱
• However, the questions such as “Have you ever regretted marrying your husband” may be very privacy and embarrassingly.句子中的privacy和embarrassingly应该改成private和embarrassing。
10.文体不正式
• All of the players gonna to tell the truth in attempt to win $500,000.——gonna过于口语化。
• In addition, I think people shoudn’t always tell the truth to others.——在托福作文中尽量不要用缩写,这里应该写should not。
11.两个独立句子间无连词
• Another point is that young people are more aggressive and energetic, and it’s suitable for them to choose such jobs, which will provide them with rich experience that is essential for their future success.这个错误犯的频率相当高,一定要注意。
12.时态错误
托福大作文一般使用现在时态,除了拿过去事件作为例子用过去时态。• Some people claimed that news media has enormous influence and is a detrimental creation.—— claimed应该改为claim
13.不知所云
• They also mention that in modern society there are too much
entertainment bothering them as the huge gap lying between them and the success.这句话完全不知道是什么意思,逻辑混乱,这是中国学生经常犯的错误。
以上13个错误是托福考生们在托福考试中经常犯的,希望大家引以为鉴。
文章来源:
教育3 100
第五篇:托福写作中从句怎样发挥作用
托福写作中从句怎样发挥作用
在托福考试中,从句是很重要的句型,并且在托福写作中的使用率比较高,考生们常常用到的从句句型主要有:主语从句、宾语从句、定语从句和同位语从句。下面我们就来看看专家如何让我们的从句在托福写作中将作用发挥到最大吧。
在我们所接触的托福写作范文中,包括老托福和新托福的两类作文,从句在段落中出现的频率都是很高的,尤其是第一段introduction中,一般做背景介绍的时候都会使用宾语从句。例如:Some people claim that„,在文章的主体部分中,为了体现句式的变化,各种从句交替应用就显得很重要。即使在IBT导入了first draft的概念之后,对文章的内容要求也没有改变要求,需要体现完整性和统一性。
凡事过犹不及,就像美酒再好也不能贪杯一样,从句虽然有很多好处,但千万不要过多重复。虽然从句的优点是简单句不能比拟的,但只有简单句结合从句,才能体现句子的多变性;也只有全部的句子都为主题句服务,文章的整体性才会更好的体现。以下是议论文写作中比较好的一些从句例子:
1)Many experts claim that people should positively participate in garbage recycle.宾语从句,一般出现在首段背景介绍部分。
2)Horror movies, in which there might be bleeding and terrifying scenes, are not recommended for children.定语从句,一般在主体部分中比较常见,用以解释说明,达到简化句子的目的。
3)As long as you are a student, you should always behave yourself.状语从句,让步状语从句比较常见的使用although或者though来引导,这里介绍一个使用as long as来引导的句子,这个例句可以解释成“做一天和尚撞一天钟”。
4)When it comes to psychology, most people believe that it is a behavioral study.时间状语从句,例句中的应用表示了“当谈到„„的时候”,这是一种美式英语中经常出现的句式,口语和书面语都可以使用,推荐各位掌握。
以上就是专家点评的如何让从句在托福写作中得到更好的利用,在掌握了从句的正确用法后,我们的托福写作不管在样式上还是在内容上都会有很大改观,离突破托福写作障碍自然也就不远了。