2014中科院地理所考博自然地理学[5篇]

第一篇：2014中科院地理所考博自然地理学

中科院地理所2014年考博专业课

自然地理学

一、简答题（共3题，每个10分）

1、地球表面的形态特征

2、土壤对地理环境的作用

3、水量平衡

二、论述题（共3题，共70分）

1、中国气候及其特征（20分）

2、中国植被分布特征（20分）

3、试述综合自然区划的主要内容（30分）

第二篇：中科院考博英语

考博英语范文总结十篇

一、Television Program and Their Effect on children

Television programs regularly entertain, educate, effect and even frighten the majority of our children.Most children are allowed to watch whatever program is on, with little thought on the effect that particular show will have on a child.Most programs can be classed as beneficial or harmful, according to what effect the program might have on a child.The beneficial television programs are mainly thouse that educate the young.There are often specials on animal life.A few regular children’s programs develop the child’s interest in school-type learning by stressing numbers and the alphablt, and that encourages him or her to be creative.The beneficial commercials, such as those on anti-smoking, anti-litter, and health, should be included in this category.On the opposite side are the shows, which are generally harmful to children.Many commercials, especially those sponsoring the children’s programs, are deliberately written to create a desire for an unnecessary product such as sugar coated cereals and candy.All adult programs that include violence or sex scenes can at best fill a child’s mind with confusing or misleading ideas, and could possib ly harden the child to violence.Thoughtful parents will definitely not allow their children to view the bad programs.A child’s viewing time should be limited to watching educationlly benefical programs.二、―The younger generaton knows best‖

Old people are always saying that the young are not what they were.The same comments is made from generation to generation and it is always true.It has never been truer than ti is today.The young are better educated.They have a lot more money to spend and enjoy more freedom.They grow up more quickly and are not so dependent on their parents.They think more for themselves and do not blindly accept the ideas of their elders.Events, which the older generation remembers vividly, are nothing more than past history.This is as it should be.Every new generation is different from the one preceded it.Today the difference is very marked indeed.The old always assume thaty they know best for the simple reason that they have been around a bit longer.They don’t like to feel that their values are being questioned or threatened.And this precisely what the young are doing.They are questioning the assumptions of their elders and disturbing their complacency.They take leave to doubt that the older generation has created the best of all possible worlds.What they reject more than anything is conformity.Office hours, for instance, are nothing more than enforced slavery.Wouldn’t people work best if they were given complete freedom and responsibility? And what about clothing? Who said that all the men in the world should wear drab grey suits and convict haircuts? If we turn our minds to more serious matters, who said that human differences can best be solved through conventional politics or by violent means? Who said that human differences can best be solved through conventional politics or by violent means? Who said that human differences can best be solved through conventional politics or by violent means? Why have the older generation so often used violence to solven their problems? Why are they so unhappy and guilt-ridden in their personal lives, so obsessed with mean ambitions and the desire to amass more and more material possessions? Can anything be right with the rat —race? Haven’t the old lost touch with all that is important in life?

There are not questions the older generation can shrug off lightly.Their record over the past forty years or so hasn’t been exactly spotless.Traditionally, the young have turned to their elders for guilance.Today, the situation might reversed.The old—if they are prepared to admit it — could learn a thing or two from their children.One of the biggest lessons they could learn is that enjoyment is not ―sinful‖.Enjoyment is a principle one could apply to all aspects of life.It is surely not wrong to enjoy your work and enjoy your leisure to shed restricting inhibitions.It is surely not wrong to live in the present rather than in the past or future.This emphasis on the present is only to be expressed because the young have grown up under the shadow of the bomb: the constant threat of complete annihilation.This is their glorious heritage.Can we be surprised that they should so often question the sanity of the generation that bequeathed it ?

三、How to Solve the Housing Problem in Big Cities

With the development of modern industryu, more and more people are flowing into big cities.Accordingly, the housing problem in big cities is becoming more and more serious.People have offered many solutions to this problem.I think building satellite cities in the suburbs is more practical.The fresh air and beautiful secnery in the suburbs will be appealing to the city citizens, who suffer from air pollution, noises, etc.in the overcrowded city.With more people leaving the city, more space will be available for those remaining.The housinmg problem in big cities will thus be solved.四、Public Transportation

As part of domestic modernization, public transportation needs to be developed urgently in China.I can illustrate some examples.There does not only exist serious traffic jams but also crowded buses, underground and railways.Commuters find it hard to get to work on time due to overcrowded buses or tubes.Travelers could hardly get on buses in big cities during weedends owing to fewer buses and more people.When Spring Festival is drawing near, there is much greater –ressure on public transportation since it has to deal with a large number of travelers rushing home.And travelers need special arrangements to go home.In a word, public transportation has become bottleneck to the advanc of Chinese economy.To solve the above-mentioned problems, the departments concerned should carry out the following steps: to build more roads, highways or railways and to add buses or trains to the original lines.But ther funds have to be raised both from the government and the public.There are three sources for fund raising.One is to raise the fares for all kinds of all transportation vehicles.Another is to increase the prices for various vehicles on sale.The third is to raise the prices of petrol and diesel oil in addtion to the governmental funds.If all this money to raise the prices of petrol and diesel oiil in addtion to the governmental funds.If all this money collected is used to improve transportation services, the situation will be bettered and favorable.The third step to take is to introduce new technology in order to raise the efficiency of vehicles.For instance, the speed of trains can be increased as much as two times so that two times as many people can be held.In this way, the pressure on public transportation can be dramatically alleviated.So in a word, we need to introduce new technology to raise the speed of vehicles while having built even wider roads and added more efficient trains and huses.五、Human Education

The other day, a professor from Peking University gave a lecture ―Chinese Intellectuals and Written Cultural Text‖.In his lecture, he held that Chinese intellectuals have lost the written cultural text since the May 4th movement.His opinion set us thinking that the loss of traditional humane education resulted in a crisis of cultural education.With the rapid development of economy, the living standard of the Chinese people has improved a lot in terms of material wealth.In a period when economics take priority, people pay more aned more attention to profit.At present, moneymaking and pleasure seeking are becoming a popular fashion.On the other hand, there appears a barren field of spirit in today’s society.It has become unexpectedly hard to rebuild the paradise of traditional culture.Ideological confusion, moral decline and a chaotic cultural market, all this shows that it is the high time to have something done in order to tackle the problem of cultural orientation.Our times call for an ideal humane education.It is unwise to discard traditional Chinese culture as a whole.Some of the elements of this culture can be made use of in the reconstruction of our spiritual civilizaiton directly or wit5h some adaptation.Our attitude towards tradition should be ―discarding the dross and selecting the essence‖.The humane education of the past can serve as a supplement to our Marxist education.It should start from primary school.In this way, our children will get educated so as to be possessed of a perfect personality.The national morale will be deeply rooted in people’s mind, and will help push forward the growth of economy.To sum up, we can find it badly necessary to build up an ideal humane education.We should find an efficient way to develop our humane education and dig out5 more resources form traditional Chinese culture.六、Criticism on Television

A lot of people believe that television has a harmful effect on chldren.A few years ago, the same criticisms were made of the cinema.But although child psychoilogists have spent a great deal of time studying his problem, there is not much evidence that television brings about teenager’s crimes.For people in the modern worlds share the views of parents a hundred years ago.In those days, writers for children carefully avoided any reference to sex in their books, but had not inhibitions about including scenes of violence.The evidence collected suggests, however, that neither the subject, nor the action in itself frightens children.The context in which cruely or violence occurs is much more important.A good guide to what is psychologically healthy for a small child is therefore provided by a television series in which a boy and a girl are supposed to be exploring distant planets with their parents.In each story, they encounter strange monsters and find themselves in dangerous situations but the parents are reassuring and sensible, as a child’s paprents should be in real life.There is an adult character who is a coward and liar, but both the children are brave and , of course, every story ends happily.In my view, children should be exposed to the problems of real life as soon as possible, but they cannont help seeing these through news programs.When they are being entertained, the healthiest atmosphere is one which the hero and heroine are children like themselves who behave naturally and confidently in any situation.七、he ony thing people are interesed in today is earing more money

Once upon a time there lived a beautiful young woman and a handsome young man.They were very poor, but as they were deeply in love, they wanted to get married.The young people’s parents shook their heads.―You can’t get married yet.‖ They said.Wait till you get a good job with good prospects.So the young people waited until they found good jobs with good prospects and they were able to get married.They were still poor, of course, they didn’t have a house to live in or any furniture, but that did’t matter.They young man had a good job with good prospects, so large organizations lent him the money he needed to buy a house, some furniture, all the latest electrical appliances and a car.The couple lived happily ever after paying off debts for the rest of their lves.And so ends another modern romantic fable.We live in a materialistic society and are trained from our earlist years to be acquistive.Our possessions, yours and mine are clearly labeled from early childhood.When we grow old enough to earn a living, it does not surpise us to discover that success is measured in terms of the money you earn.We spend the whole of ourlives keeping up with our neighbors, the Joneses.If we buy a new television set , Jones is bound to buy a bigger and better one.If we buy a new car, we can be sure that Jones will go one better and get two new cars: one for his wife and one for himself.The most amusing thing about this game is that Joneses and all the neighbors who are struggling frantically to keep up with them are spending borrowed money kindly provided, at a suitable rate of interest, of course, by friendly banks, insurance companies, etc.It is not only affluent societies that people are obsessed with the idea of making more money.Consumer goods are desirable everywhere and modern industry deliberately sets out to create new markets.Gone are the days when industrial goods were made to last forever.The wheels of industry must be kept turning.Built-in obsolescence provides the means;goods are made to be discarded.Cars get tinnier and tinnier.You no sooner acquire this year’s model than you are thinking about its replacement.This materialistic outlook has seriously influenced education.Fewer and fewer young people these days acquire knowledge only for its own sake.Every course of studies must lead somewhere.i.e.to a bigger wage packet.The demand for skilled personnel for exceeds the supply and big companies compete with each other to recruit students before they have completed their studies.Tempting salaries and ―fringe benefits‖ are offered to them.Recruiting tactics of this kind have led to the brain drain, the process by which highly skilled people offer their services to the highest bidder.The wealthier nations deprive their poorer neighbors of their most able citizens.While Mammon is worshipped as never before, the rich get richers and the poor, poorer.八、Communication and Language

One of the first things we think about when we hear the word communication language.There are thousands of languages spoken around the world today.In fact, linguistis say that there may be as many as 10000.Speaking with others is an important means of communication, but we can also communicate without using words, that is by nonverbal communication.Nonverbal communication includes voice quality, eyes movement, facial expression and body movements such as gestures and change in body position.But many people do not realize that everyone uses nonverbal communication.Sometimes, we ―say‖ more with our face and gestures that we do with our voices.Books, magazines, newspapers, radio, television, are other means of communication.Today we can also communicate over long distance with the help of communications satellites.Some scientists say that soon machines will be developed for sending message through the earth.The technology necessary to build these machines is very complex.But the language we speak every day is much more complex than the most modern communication technology.九、Cooperation Goes with Competition

In our times, cooperation and competition spread over the world.Both of them speed up the wheel of economy and enrich the intelligence of mankind.It is possible to accomplish a complicated program by only one person now.As we know, the more cooperation a company depends on, the more efficient it will become in business.Furthermore, we can’t avoid competition in our exchanges.From time to time, we compare ourselves with others, expecting to catch up with others.This is the spirit of competition, by which we pursue the highest goal.It is only by competition in the market that a company can raise its reputation.Were it not for competition, say, all of us would not enjoy what we have achieved.十、he Rise of Intellectual Property Protection

Intellectural property scarcely existed in the vocabularies of academic researchers and administrators even 15 years ago.Now it is an ever-present part of discussions on research policies and directions.This new importance of intellectual property in academia reflects a changing view on ther relationships of research at universities to the surrounding society.Until recently, research at universities has been relatively isolated from demands of economic utility,and education of graduate students has emphasized a career in academic research as the final goal.Now almost all research universities in the United States have technology licensing operations.The number of U.S.patents granted to American universities in a year rose from about 300 in 1980 to almost 2000 in 1995.The direct economic impact of technology licensing on the universities themselves has been relatively small.In contrast, the impact of university technology transfer on the local and national economies has been substantial, and leads to the concusion that the Licensing Act()is one of the most successful pieces of economic development in recent history.It has been estimated that more than 200000 jobs have been created in the United States in product development and manufacturing of products from university licenses, with the number increasing fairly rapidly as the licenses mature.Intellectual property terms have become vitally important.The company wants to be assured that it can use the results of the research-and that these results will not be available to their competitors.But most universities insist that transfer of research results is key to their identity and mission and will not agree to keep the project results secret.The key to resolving this dilemman is to grant patents: the university will publish the results, but will first agree to file patents that will protect the company’s privilege in the commercial market place.

第三篇：中科院考博资料总结

英语：中科院考博英语真题，北京理工大学出版社

单词书：新东方考博单词，或中科院考博单词，北京理工大学出版社

高物：课本（没有指定，我用的复旦大学何曼君那本），课后题

题库书：高分子物理习题集，徐世爱，华东理工大学出版社 历年真题

高化：课本（高分子化学，潘祖仁），课后题

题库书：高分子化学习题及解答，焦书科，化学工业出版社

历年真题

高物高化出的范围比较广，除了题库的题，历年真题，还有别的题，应该好好看看课本，复习的全面一些

质谱：历年真题，重复率高

参考书：有机质谱原理及应用，陈耀祖，科学出版社，（这本书最好在网上买一本或复印一本，看着方便）

可以去图书馆借些有质谱章节的表征书

所有的书都可以在淘宝上买到，也不贵，书后面都有答案。选专业课：应化所主页-（右栏）招生信息-（左栏）招生简章

专业课真题：应化所主页-（右栏）招生信息-（上栏）招生信息-下载专区。这是我用的资料，可以多逛逛小木虫，上边有很多考试资料和经验。

第四篇：中科院考博英语作文材料

Kobe Bryant can be a good case of how diligence works in our life.When asked by one of his friends that what is the secret of his success, he replied with humor and implication that，“Do you know how Los Angeles looks like at 4 o'clock AM ? I know.”Obviously, how could he, one of the greatest basketball players throughout the history of mankind who was once deemed not appropriate for playing basketball, have achieved unprecedented success in NBA without diligence ?

科比.布莱恩特是一个证明勤奋是如何起作用的很好的例子。当被他的一个好朋友问到他成功的秘诀的时候，他幽默而又意义深远地回答到：“你知道洛杉矶凌晨四点的样子吗？我知道。”很明显，这位曾经被认为不太适合打篮球的、人类历史上最伟大的篮球运动员之一的科比，如果没有勤奋的话，怎么可能在美职篮获得史无前例的成功呢？

Thomas Edison，one of the greatest inventors and entrepreneurs throughout the history of mankind, could be best case of how persistence works in the course of pursuing success.Just imagine, having experienced thousands of times of unsuccessful attempts, how could he have succeeded in inventing the first electric lamp and changed the world without persistence?

人类历史上最伟大的发明家、企业家之一的爱迪生就是坚持如何在追求成功的过程中起作用的最好的例子。试想一下，如果没有坚持，他如何能够在经历了数以千计的失败的尝试后依旧不放弃，直至最后发明出第一盏点灯并改变全世界呢？

To further illustrate the importance of being patient, I would like to take Thomas Edison as a case in point: as one of the greatest inventors throughout the history of mankind who experienced thousands of times of unsuccessful attempts in the course of scientific inquiry, how could he have invented the first electric lamp and changed the world without patience and persistence ?

为了进一步证明能够耐心的重要性，我想以托马斯.爱迪生作为例子：作为人类历史上最为的、在科学探索中经历数以千次的失败尝试的发明家，如果没有耐心和坚持，他如何能够发明出第一盏电灯并且改变世界？

Besides, surveys conducted by some biographers have also demonstrated that almost all of the great men and celebrities have built their mansion of success on the bedrock of adversities.Take Georgia Washiton, one of the greatest founding fathers of the United States of America, as a case in point：to break away from the British Empire and became an independent country，he led the American War of Independence.However，problems and challenges such as inexperience of war, adverse weather condition, shortage of ammunition and smallbox arose.Confronted with such an adversity, he became more mature and composed, and then won the Revolutionary War finally through his courage and wisdom resulted from supassing adversity.而且，由一些传记作者展开的调查也已经发现，几乎所有的伟大的人物和名人都将自己成功的大厦建立在逆境的基石上。以美国最伟大的开国之父之一乔治亚.华盛顿为例，为了脱离英国的殖民统治，建立一个独立的国家，他领导了美国独立战争。但却遇到了诸如战争经验不足、气候条件恶劣、弹药不足及天花肆虐等各种问题和挑战。面对这样的逆境，华盛顿变得更加成熟镇定，并最终用自己战胜逆境的勇气和智慧，赢得了这场战争的最后胜利。

Honesty can be a more noble quality than intelligence,abilities and anything you can learn from books.George Washington，one of the most influential founding fathers of US, was not only famous for his wisdom, courage and political talent，but also his honesty.When he was a little boy, out of curiosity he chopped down the cherry tree planted by his father.Confronted with his father's query，he did not lie to him but admitted his fault frankly.Then, his father exclaimed with gratification，“an honest boy is more valuable than one thousand trees!”

诚实甚至是比智慧、能力和任何你能从书上学到的知识更为高尚的品质。美国开国之父乔治亚华盛顿，不仅以他的智慧、勇敢和政治才能闻名，更以诚实为人闻名。在小的时候，他曾经砍掉了父亲栽种的一株樱桃树，面对父亲的询问，他没有撒谎，而是诚实地承认了自己的行为。他的父亲感叹：“一个诚实的孩子胜过一千株樱桃树”！

Jeremy Lin, one of the most famous Chinese American basketball players, can be a good case of how confidence works in the course of pursuing success.He was once a common and little-known player at Harvard University.When fell on his evil days and became homeless, he could only live in his friends' home and sleep on the sofa.Without confidence and diligence, how could he have distinguished himself from other excellent players and achieved unprecedented success in NBA?

作为最著名的华裔篮球运动员之一的林书豪就是证明自信在追求成功的过程中是如何起作用的最好的例子。他曾经只是哈佛大学校队的一名普通运动员，落魄的时候，无家可归，甚至只能住在朋友的家里。如果没有强大的自信心和自身的努力，他怎么可能在高手如林的美职篮赛场上脱颖而出并且最终取得史无前例的成功呢？

第五篇：2010年3月中科院考博英语翻译

The Internet is good at shame.【There are countless Web sites where people can post nasty rants about ex-lovers and rude customers or, worse, push fragile teens over the edge, as in the recent case of a Missouri girl driven to suicide by online bullying】.Now a new site aimed at college students is raising questions about the legality of online rumor mills.【JuicyCampus.com is a rapidly growing gossip site that solicits content with the promise of anonymity.But what began as fun and games—and now has spinoffs on seven college campuses, including Duke University, where it began—has turned ugly and, in many cases, flatly defamatory】.The posts have devolved from innocuous tales of secret crushes to racist tirades and lurid finger-pointing about drug use and sex, often with the alleged culprit identified by first and last name.In one post, a nameless Loyola Marymount University student asks why so many African-Americans and Latinos are enrolled at the school: “I thought the high tuition was supposed to keep the undesirables OUT?”【 It's gotten to the point, says Dan Belzer, a Duke senior who has written about the site for his school's newspaper, where “anyone with a grudge can maliciously attack defenseless students.”】

【And get away with it, too.JuicyCampus—whose Duke-graduate founder, Matt Ivestor, declined to comment for this story—isn't sponsored by the schools it covers, so administrators can't regulate it.】 Neither does the law.Such sites are protected by a federal law that immunizes Web hosts from liability for the musings of their users—as long as the hosts themselves don't modify content.(And firmly establishing the identity of an individual poster would be next to impossible.)The rationale is to protect big companies like AOL from the actions of each and every user.But as a consequence, it means victims of a damaged rep have little legal recourse.“Courts tend to have antiquated understandings of privacy,” says Daniel Solove, an expert in cyberlaw and the author of “The Future of Reputation.” “Until that changes, we're going to see this keep happening.” 【At present, there's only one sure way to rein in a site like JuicyCampus: persuade everyone to stop using it.But you don't need a college degree to figure out that won't happen.】

Part IV Translation(30 minutes, 15 points)Direction: Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese.Write your pieces of Chinese version in the proper space on your Answer Sheet II.As we enter the 21st century, the gap between the worlds’s rich and poor is widening, both within and among countries.1)The vast majority of the world's population is receiving an ever-decreasing share of its collective wealth, while the share claimed by a few rich nations and individuals is steadily growing.In 2001 Forbes magazine counted 538 billionaires with a total net worth of 1.7 trillion dollars, while the United Nations identified 2.8 billion people surviving on less than two dollars a day.Overall, the richest 20 percent of the world's people control 86 percent of global income, while the poorest 20 percent control barely one percent.The impacts of this widening rich-poor gap are varied and worrisome.2)They include environmental destruction—richer nations and individuals can afford to over-consume resources, while poorer nations and individuals are forced to over-exploit the environment just to survive.They include migration—people are forced to move in search of adequate resources.And they include conflict—wealthier nations and individuals fight to keep what they have, while those suffering a lack of resources fight to obtain them.3)Because poorer groups typically lack the assets and technology to conduct large-scale conventional war to obtain their goals, they often resort to low-intensity conflict and terrorism.The causes of this global disparity are diverse and complex, but include colonial era trading patterns that favor industrialized nations;the globalization of economies and economic structures, in which poor nations struggle to compete;a growing “digital divide” characterized by lack of access to information technology;inadequate governance and protection of law;and lack of access to education, healthcare, and social safety nets, especially for women and girls.4)Individuals and nations need not remain in poverty indefinitely, however.With an awareness of the interdependence of our modern world and a concerted political will, it is possible to reverse this trend that threatens to divide the world against itself.And reversing this trend would have powerful and positive impact on our future.5)Bringing the nearly 5 billion people of the less industrialized world into a sustainable economy through “pro-poor” policies would provide a tremendous boost to the world economy, as well as to those people.With increased economic opportunities comes improved access to nutrition, education, and health care.With those comes higher income, greater autonomy—especially for women—and the opportunity to pursue environmentally sound technologies and products.进入21世纪以来，在全球范围内，不论是国内还是国家之间，贫富差距加大。全球财富中，世界上绝大多数人所能获得的份额在日益减少，而少数几个富人和富国所获得的份额却在稳步增长。2001年《福布斯》杂志收录了资本净值总额为l．7万亿美元的538位亿万富翁，而联合国确认有28亿人每天靠不足2美元艰难度日。总的说来，全世界最富裕的20％的人口控制着全球86％的财富，而最贫穷的20％的人El所占的财富仅为1％。

贫富差距日益加大所产生的影响是方方面面的，也是令人担忧的。其中包括对环境的破坏：富人和富国因财力充足而过度地消费资源；穷人和穷国为了生存而不得不过度地开发利用环境。其次是迁移——人们为了寻找足够的资源而不得不背井离乡。还有冲突——富人和富国通过对抗以确保对财富的所有权；饱受资源不足之苦的穷人和穷国则通过对抗来获得他们所需要的资源。贫穷的群体一般都缺乏资金和技术，无力从事大规模的常规战争以达到自己的目的，因此常常诉诸于小型的对抗和恐怖活动。

虽然导致全球贫富差距的原因是多方面的，也是很复杂的，但是其中就包括了有利于工业化国家的殖民时代的贸易模式；穷国在其中奋力抗争的经济和经济结构的全球化；由于信息技术不发达而逐渐增大的“数字化差异“；法律管理和保护的不善；教育、医疗保健、社会安全保障体系的缺乏，尤其是针对妇女和女童的安全保障体系的缺乏。

但是，这些国家和个人不必毫无止境地贫困下去。意识到当今世界需要相互依赖，在共l司的政治愿望的促使下，扭转这种迫使世界违背自身的愿望而分裂的趋势是有可能的。而扭转这种趋势对我们的未来会产生积极而有力的影响。

执行“扶贫”政策，把来自世界工业发展欠发达地区的近50亿人都纳入到一个可持续经济发展的框架之下，将不仅造福于这50亿人，而且将极大地推动世界经济的发展。随着经济发展机遇的增加，人们获得的营养、教育和医疗保健的水平也得以改善。而这些带来的又是高收入、高度自治——尤其是妇女的高度自治以及追求环保型技术和产品的机遇

英语和汉语语言结构和表达习惯有很多差异之处，翻译时往往不能死扣原文逐词逐句译出。一、一些原义并无否定意思的形容词和别的词搭配有时可译成否定句

1.These goods are in short supply.这些货物供应不足。

2.This equation is far from being complicated.这个方程一定也不复杂。

二、为了使译文自然流畅，读起来顺口，在一些形容词前可根据上下文内容加上副词“很”、“最”等字

1.It was as pleasant a day as I have ever spent.这是我度过最愉快的一天。

2.It is easy to compress a gas.气体很容易压缩。

三、有时可将英语的“形容词+名词短语”译成汉语的主谓结构

1.She spoke in a high voice.她讲话声音很尖。

2.This engine develops a high torque.这台发动机产生的转矩很大。

四、如果一个名词前有几个形容词修饰，英译时应根据汉语习惯决定其顺序

1.a large brick conference hall

一个用砖砌的大会议厅

2.a plastic garden chair

一把在花园里用的塑料椅子

五、英语中一些表示知觉、情感、欲望等心理状态的形容词同连系动词构成复合谓语时，翻译时可将形容词译成动词

1.You are ignorant of the duties you undertake in marrying.你完全不懂你在婚姻方面承担的责任。

2.Such criticisms have become familiar in his later commentaries on America.类似的批评在他后来写的评论美国的文章中屡见不鲜。

3.He is truly sorry for his past, and he has undertaken to give up motorcars entirely and for ever.他诚恳地忏悔过去，并保证永远不再玩汽车。

六、由于语言习惯不同，英语里的形容词有时译成汉语副词

1.I am going to be good and sweet and kind to every body.我要对每一个人都亲切、温顺、和善。

2.He asked me for a full account of myself and family.他详尽地问起我自己和我家里的情况。

3.Another war will be the absolute end of our country.再来一次战争将彻底毁灭我们这个国家。

从以上几个方面可以看出，译好形容词是使译文通顺、流畅的一个环节。

英汉互译的几种方法

在翻译中，针对词汇空缺现象，在词汇的借用、引用方面通常采取四种形式： 音译、直译、改编、意译

1.音译：人名、地名以及一些表示新概念 而本族语里又找不到对成词来表示时，均可采用 音译法介绍到译文语言中去，如: [汉译英] 磕头（kowtow），荔枝（litchi）； [英译汉]、engine（引擎），motor（马达），sofa(沙发)，logic（逻辑）（考试大）

2．直译： paper tiger(纸老虎)，lose face（丢脸），Seeing is believing.（百闻不如一见。）Out of mind，out of sight.（眼不见，心不烦）

3.改编：所谓“改编”指的是音译或直译如意 义补充的翻译，在翻译的“改编法”中，译者总 是一方面尽可能保持原文语言的特性，另一方面 更希望译文含义明朗，使读者一目了然。

比如，汉语的“班门弄斧”这个成语，可译成 This is like showing off one's proficiency with the axe before Lu Ban the master carpenter 其中，“鲁班”变成了“Lu Ban the mater carpenter” 否则鲁班究竟是什么人，不知道典故的外国读者 就会感到茫然。这类译法在英译中比较常见，如巧克力糖（chocolate），鸦片烟（opium），高尔夫球（golf），来福枪（rifle），尼龙布（nylon）

4．意译法：填补语言中的词汇、语义空缺，采用“并行法”即意译法是一种常见的有效方 法。如果某一语言观象，在译文语言中只的用意 义相同的不同语言形式即“并行”的词汇来翻译 时，那么就等于说译文语言的形式中存在着一个 “空缺”。比如，有许多词以及由这些词代表的思 想概念，最先只存在于某种语言中，当把这些词 或概念介绍到另一种语言中去时，我们可采取音 译，直译法，同时也可采用意译法，而且意译译文 可从语音、语法、语义等方面都合乎译文语言的 规范，因此最易为读者接受。比如： communism，democracy,和proletariat等外来词变成“共产主义” “民主”和”无产者”时，可以说最先是意译的结 果。同时，由于“共产主义”，“无产者”等完全 是按我们汉语的构词规则，用汉语的构词材料构成 的。因此，这种意译只不过是属于一种概念的借鉴 而已。

倒装和分割结构

为了强调句子的某些部分，或是为了保持句子平衡，英语中常常使用倒装。大体说来，倒装可以分为主谓倒装和非主谓倒装。主谓倒装里又分为完全倒装和部分倒装。在翻译的时候，既可以按照主谓语的顺序翻译，也可以按照字面意思翻译。非主谓倒装只是将强调部分前置，以保持句子平衡或是起强调作用。翻译时可以采用顺序译法或是倒序译法。

1.For example, they do not compensate for social inequality, and thus do not tell how able an underprivileged youngster might have been had he grown up under more favorable circumstances.分析：本句中 had he grown up under more favorable circumstances 属于部分倒装。正常语序为： if he had grown up under more favorable circumstances。在正式文体中，可以将虚拟条件句中的 if 省略，并将助动词提前。

译文：例如，它们（指测试）并不弥补社会的不公，因此不能说明一个贫困青年，要是在比较有利的境况下长大，会有多大才干。

2.Nonstop waves of immigrants played a role, too and so did bigger crops of babies as yesterday’s “baby boom” generation reached its child-bearing years.分析：该句中 so did bigger crops of babies 属于语法倒装。用 so 来代替前述肯定句谓语部分所说情况。

译文：不间断的移民浪潮也起了作用 —— 而且随着昔日在 “ 生育高峰期 ” 出生的一代人达到生育年龄，婴儿的出生数量增加了，这同样起了作用。

3.Much as I have traveled, I have never seen anyone to equal her in thoroughness, whatever the job.分析：该句的 Much as I have traveled 是一个由 as 引导的让步状语从句。相当于 though I have traveled much，但语气要比后者强。这种结构要求部分倒装。

译文：我虽然见多识广，但还从未见过比她细心的人，不管什么职业。

4.Only when you have acquired a good knowledge of grammar can you write correctly.分析：相信大家对这种结构都不陌生。Only 后加副词、介词、状语从句时要用部分倒装。但是要注意的是，如果 only 修饰的不是状语，则不用倒装。

译文：只有很好地掌握了语法知识，写出来的东西才会正确。

5.Nowhere do 1980 census statistics dramatize more the American search for spacious living than in the Far West.分析：当句首是否定副词或含有否定词的词语时，一般要部分倒装。

译文： 1980 年哪里的人口普查统计资料也不如远西地区的更能生动地说明美国人对宽敞的生活环境的追求。

6.Hardly had he began to speak when the audience interrupted him.分析： hardly…when 的结构表示 “ 刚 … 就 …”。含有这种结构的句子常将 hardly 置于句首，而采用部分倒装的语序。此外，hardly 分句中一般采用过去完成时，而 when（或 before）分句中使用过去时。还有，与 hardly…when… 结构类似的用法还有 barely(scarcely)…when…

译文：他刚开始讲，听众就打断了他的话。

7.To such length did she go in rehearsal that two actors walked out.分析： such…that 结构可将 such 或含有 such 的词组放在句首，使全句采用部分倒装。与此用法类似的还有 so…that 结构。

译文：她在排演中搞得太过分，以致两名男演员退出不干了。

8.Certain it is that all essential processes of plant growth and development occur in water.分析：本句为表语前置，表示强调。正常语序应为： It is certain that…。

译文：植物发育生长的全部基本过程当然是在水中发生的。

9.We rally should not resent being called paupers.Paupers we are, and paupers we shall remain.分析：这两句话是为了使上下文紧密衔接，从而将第二个并列分句的表语前置。

译文：我们确实不应因为被称作穷光蛋而愤愤不平。我们的确是穷光蛋，而且还会继续是穷光蛋。

10.Then, down the crowed thoroughfare comes the University of Cambridge ’s most distinctive vehicle, bearing its most distinguished citizen.分析：正常语序应为： The vehicle came down the thoroughfare。为使语言生动形象，文学作品中常用这类倒装。在翻译时要尽量翻译出原句的语言效果。这里 bear=carry。

译文：从拥挤的街道上驶来了一辆剑桥大学最有特色的车，车上坐着学校最著名的人物。

语法关系密切的两个句子成分被其他句子成分分隔的现象称为分割结构。英语中，分割结构的类型是多种多样的。例如，英语句子的主语和谓语一般都紧密相联，它们之间很少插入介词等比较长的结构。但是，在有些情况下，或是为了保持句子的平衡，避免头重脚轻；或是为了语义严密，结构紧凑，在主语和谓语之间有时也会插入其他成分。此外，还有定语（或定语从句）与其中心词被分隔；某些词语与其所要求的介词被分隔；动词与其宾语被分隔；介词与其宾语被分隔等等。总之，英语的分割应遵循尾重原则（应把长而复杂的成分放在句末，使结构匀称）和句尾信息焦点原则（把新信息，即语意重点放在句末）。同时，在阅读时要注意找出原来属于一个整体部分的意义。

1.Most novelists and historians writing in the early to mid-twentieth century who considered women in the West, when they considered women at all, fell under Turner’s spell.分析：本句的主干结构是： Most novelists and historians…fell under Turner’s spell.Turner 是美国历史学家。under a spell ：被迷住，着迷。writing in the early to mid-twentieth century who considered women in the West, when they considered women at all 修饰主语，起分割主谓的作用。而其中的状语从句 when they considered women at all 是定语从句 who considered women in the West 中的状语成分。

译文：从本世纪初到本世纪中叶从事写作的小说家和历史学家只要描写妇女，就会描述西部妇女，而且都被特纳迷住。

2.Abraham Lincoln is the most famous instance of the claim that Americans often made that in their country a man may rise from the lowest to the highest position.分析： the claim 和其同位语 that in their country a man may rise from the lowest to the highest position 被 the claim 的定语从句 that Americans often made 分割。同位语从句在翻译时可按照顺序翻译，将其翻译为分句。

译文：美国人常认为，在他们国家，一个人的地位可以从社会最底层上升到社会最上层，亚伯拉罕 " 林肯就是极好的例子。

3.In the last eight years there were difficult, almost non-stop negotiations and reported threats of failure, ultimately overcome by a combination of creative compromise and stubborn determination—indeed, some call it unprecedented determination—to succeed.分析：本句的主干结构是： …there were negotiations and…threats of failure。“overcome by…” 是过去分词短语，修饰 threats of failure。stubborn determination 和其定语动词不定式 “to succeed” 被 “indeed, some call it unprecedented determination” 分割。

译文：在最后的八年里，进行了艰苦卓绝的、几乎是不间断的谈判，其间屡经失败之虞，但最终通过创造性的协调和要取得成功的顽强决心 —— 确实有人称之为前所未有的决心 —— 而渡过难关，取得了胜利。

4.The discovery of surplus value suddenly threw light on the problem, in trying to solve which all previous investigations, of both bourgeois economists and social critics, had been groping in the dark.分析： in trying to solve 插在 the problem 和定语从句 which… 之间，起到承上启下的作用。of both bourgeois economists and social critics 为 investigations 的后置定语，起到分割作用。

译文：由于剩余价值的发现，使问题明朗化了。而先前，无论资产阶级经济学家还是社会批评家所从事的一切研究都只是在黑暗中摸索。

5.A better knowledge of China ’s civilization would lay open to us an empire of learning, hitherto fabulously described.分析： lay open 和 an empire of learning 被介词短语 to us 分割。本句选自英国前首相撒切尔夫人 1982 年在中国欢迎宴会上的讲话。翻译时要注意转译的应用。如把 “better” 译为副词 “ 更好地 ”。

译文：更好地了解中国的文明，将为我们打开一个知识的王国，对这个王国迄今只有神话般的描述。

6.It is the insistence, as a first consideration, upon the interdependence of the various elements in, and parts of, the United States —a recognition of the old and permanently important manifestation of the American spirit of the pioneer.分析： insistence 后接 upon the interdependence of the various elements in, and parts of, the United States, 中间被插入语 as a first consideration 分割，做进一步说明。该句选自美国前总统罗斯福在 1933 年的就职演说。汉语中动词用得较多，翻译时可把名词转译为动词。

译文：我们首先应考虑的是，坚持美国国内各种因素之间、各个部分之间的相互依赖关系 —— 即承认体现传统的和永远重要的美国开拓精神。

7.Old Henry and his wife Phoebe were as fond of each other as it is possible for two old people to be who have nothing else in this life to be fond of.分析：连词 as 引导的比较状语从句中，it 代替 for two old people to be。to be 后省略了 fond of each other。to be 做分割成分。

译文：象两位老人一生中没有其他什么东西可爱而彼此相爱一样，老亨利和他的妻子芬比也互相爱慕。

8.As they grow old, people also accumulate belongings for two other reasons: lack of physical and mental energy—both of which are essential in turning out and throwing away—and sentiment.分析：该句包含了并列结构被分割的情况。lack of physical and mental energy 和 sentiment 是并列结构，作 two other reasons 的同位语。但是被非限定性定语从句 both of which are essential in turning out and throwing away 分割。

译文：人们随着日趋年迈，积存物品还有其他两个原因：一是缺乏体力和精神，两者在清理和扔掉无用之物时不可或缺，二是感情上的原因。

9.Those who believe in capital punishment may have arguments for its retention, but surely no reasonable argument can be found for retention of the sickening mumbo-jumbo that accompanies it from the moment that the judge dons the black cap with what looks like a pen-wiper balanced on the top of his wig, to the reading of the burial service over the condemned man before he is dead.考博汉英翻译重要策略

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一、中的一个悖论 英汉翻译和翻译，哪一个更难？

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一、中的一个悖论

英汉翻译和翻译，哪一个更难？大多数人会答曰：汉英翻译更难。显然，这看起来是一种合理的问问题的方法，其实并非如此。英汉翻译和汉英翻译，没有哪一个更难和不难的问题，只是因人而异，视个人的水平和翻译水平而定。那么，为什么大多数人会有一种明显的“汉英翻译比英汉翻译更难”的感觉呢？有回答这个问题，我们有必要了解一下翻译的过程。其实，无论是英汉翻译，还是汉英翻译，就翻译的过程而言，只有两个：一是对原文的理解，二是用译文来表达。弄明白理解和表达这两个过程，我们就可以清楚的看到，为什么大多数人会有一种“汉英翻译更难”的论调了。

首先，有必要考查一下英汉翻译的过程。如果做英汉翻译的话，我们第一步需要理解英语，然后再把理解到的英语表达成为汉语就可以了。因为英语毕竟是我们的外语，所以大多数人认为，我们不懂英语是正常的。所以，无论英译汉这个过程汇总，英语有多难或者有多简单都没有，我们可以查阅英语词典得出比较正确的译文。然后，换过来，汉译英则不一样了。那些认为汉译英更难的人就认为，明明我们认识汉语，却不能用地道的英语来翻译，所以，汉译英很难做。但是，如果我们这样来想，在英译汉的过程中，我们连第一步（理解英语）可能都无法完成；而汉译英的话，好歹我们能完成翻译的第一步（理解汉语原文）。没有人能否认我们中国人，看不懂汉语吧？

既然如此，我们就能够克服那种长期以后认为“汉英翻译更难”的心理障碍了。那么如何比较有效的完成汉英翻译呢？根据长期以来积累从事翻译教学的，笔者认为可以从以下三个步骤来着手：

二、汉英翻译三步之一：定主语 1． 翻译的单位

在翻译中，最小的翻译单位是什么？是篇章吗？是段落吗？是句子吗？是吗？甚至是音节吗？这是一个翻译理论家长期以来争论不休的一个话题。现在大多数翻译家、翻译理论家和翻译实践家都趋向于以篇章或者是整个问题为基本的翻译单位。但是，对于初学翻译的人来说，或者那些根本没有掌握翻译的人，要去应付一个翻译考试的时候，笔者认为，句子可能是最好的翻译单位。什么是句子？或者具体说来，在汉英翻译中，要把汉语翻译成英语，究竟什么是英语的句子？ 柯林斯词典对英语句子的定义是这样的：A sentence is a group of words which，when they are written down，begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop，question mark or exclamation mark.Most sentences contain a subject and a verb.具体说来，英语的句子可以这样来定义：一个句子就是一组词，在书面语中，每一个句子首词的第一个字母大写，句末用句号、问号或者感叹号；大多数句子有主语和谓语。

根据英语句子的定义，我们可以清楚的知道，英语的句子中，大多数句子都有主语和谓语。那么汉英翻译，只要我们能把汉语转变成为准确通顺的英语，就需要搭建英语的主语和谓语等句式结构。而英语本身语法非常严谨，逻辑非常严密的特点，所以，在汉英翻译中，主语的确定和谓语的选择就是成功构建英语句式结构的关键，也是保证英语译文和汉语原文功能对等的关键。

2． 确定汉语原文的主语为英语译文的主语

1)把汉语原文中的主语直接翻译成英语充当译文的主语，这是一种最简单、最可靠的对应方法，也是我们做汉英翻译“定主语”的时候首先应该考虑的方法。如：

例1． 当前，国际正着自冷战结束以后最复杂、最深刻的变化。（中国社会科学院04年考博英语翻译）

At present，the international situation is experiencing the most complicated and profound changes since the end of Cold War.例2． 和平与发展仍然是摆在世界各国人民面前的两大课题。（同上）

Peace and development are still the two subjects confronted with people all over the world.以上两个例子中，汉语句子的主语是名词，由于名词在英语句子中可以直接充当主语，所以在翻译的时候可以直接对应下来，确定这个名词为译文的主语。

2)汉语和英语都有一个共同的特点，就是代词可以充当主语，所以，我们当然还可以直接选用汉语原文中的代词来充当英语译文的主语。如：

例3． 我们正努力教育公民不要像西方国家那样过度消费，比如使用过多的空调、私人汽车、以及随意处理的产品。（中国社会科学院02年考博英语翻译试题）

We are managing to educate citizens to avoid the behavior of over-consumption，such as the excessive use of air conditioners，private cars and disposable products at will.例4． 如今我们有许多不同的选择：除传统的家常菜以外，还有营养保健配餐和方便可口的快餐食品。（武汉大学04年考博英语翻译试题）、Nowadays we have many varieties of choices: nutrition-balanced and healthy food，convenient and delicious fast food in addition to traditional homemade meal.3)在汉语中，除了上述名词和代词可以作主语之外，动词也可以直接充当主语，英语的动词原形则不能。可是，我们非常清楚的知道，英语中的动名词或者动词不定式形式则可以充当主语。所以，如果我们要确定汉语的动词主语来充当英语译文的主语时，必须要使用这个动词的动名词形式或者不定式形式。如：

例5． 帮助真正的穷人，要比仅仅缩小贫富差距更有价值。帮助下层社会的人重新回到社会主流中来，符合所有人的利益。（中国社会科学院03年考博英语翻译试题）

Helping the truly poor is much worthier than merely narrowing inequalities.And helping the lower class rejoin mainstream of society is in the interests of all.例6． 推进现代化建设、完成祖国统一、维护世界和平与促进共同发展，是中国人民在新世纪的三大历史任务。

To continue to propel the modernization drive，to achieve reunification of the motherland，and to safeguard world peace and promote common development are the three historical tasks of the Chinese people in the new century.3． 重新确定主语

由于汉语和英语两种语言存在着较的的差异，有时候，确定汉语句子的主语为英语译文句子主语的时候，常常会导致英语句子的逻辑比较混乱，而不能直接对应。所以，这时候，就有必要从原句中挑出其他词来，充当英语译文的主语。1）把汉语确定汉语原文的宾语为英语译文的主语

宾语是动作所及的对象，常常是人或者物。在翻译中，我们可以选择汉语原文的宾语来充当英语译文的主语。但是，在这种情况下，一般需要用英语的被动句式来翻译。如： 例7． 伟大艺术的鉴赏和伟大的科学观念的理解都需要智慧。

Wisdom is required both in appreciating great artistic works and in understanding great scientific concepts.（中国科学院02年3月考博英语翻译试题）

说明：在这个例子中，我们可以看到，汉语的主语太长，如果直接用汉语原文的主语来充当英语译文的主语，就显得有点头重脚轻。这个时候，我们就可以利用“英语句子多用被动句”的特点，确定汉语原文的宾语“智慧”来充当英语译文的主语。例8． 为了保证国民经济持续、快速、健康地发展，我们必须加快国有企业的改革步伐。（中国社会科学院02年考博英语翻译试题）

The speed of reform of state-owned enterprises must be accelerated(stepped up)to ensure sustained，rapid and sound development of the national economy. 说明：在这个例子中，汉语原文的主语应该是“我们”。但是，这个我们属于泛指的，不专门针对某一个人或者某几个人。当然，一方面，我们可以采用选取汉语原文的“我们”来充当英语译文的主语，而把这个句子的译文安排为“We must accelerate„”这样一个结构。但是，直接选用汉语原文的宾语“国有企业的改革步伐”来充当英语译文的主语，并且不提出这个泛指的主语“我们”，更适合英语的表达方式。

例9． 目前在中国正进行着一场意义深远的社会和经济改革。（同上）

At present，a sweeping and profound social and economic reform is being carried out in.说明：在这个例子中，汉语是一个无主句。显然，一方面，我们可以确定汉语的宾语为英语的主语，使用英语的被动结构来翻译，避免了需要去找一个动作发出者来充当主语的情况。

以上例子清楚的说明，选择汉语原文的宾语充当译文主语的情况下，通常是需要用英语的被动结构来翻译的。但是，并不是说所有确定汉语原文宾语为译文主语的情况都一定要用被动结构来翻译。如：

例10． 中国的饮食方式正在发生许多变化。（武汉大学04年考博英语翻译试题）Many changes are taking place in China‘s diet style.说明：我们可以看到，上面这个例子中，汉语原文的主语是“中国的饮食方式”，谓语是“发生”，宾语是“许多变化”。当一旦确定了宾语“许多变化”为英语译文主语的时候，这个英语译文的逻辑结构就可以直接用主动结构：Many changes are taking place„。因为在英语中，“变化”与动词“发生”的搭配是符合逻辑，而不能说“变化被发生”。

2）确定汉语原文主语中心词的修饰语来充当英语译文的主语

有时候，汉语主语中心词的修饰语可能是整个句子的突出部分。在翻译的时候，为了正确传达原文中突出的，我们就可以把主语中心词前面的修饰语确定为英语译文的主语。如： 例11． 中国的饮食文化具有悠久的历史。（武汉大学04年考博英语翻译试题）China has a long history in her diet culture.说明：在这个例子中，汉语的主语是“中国的饮食文化”，其主语中心词是“文化”。如果确定“文化”为英语译文的主语，则原来汉语句子只能生硬的转化为“文化具有历史”这样的英语结构。所以我们可以把主语中心词前面的修饰语“中国”确定为英语译文的主语，这样一来，整个句子的逻辑结构就非常清楚，突出了“中国在饮食文化方面具有悠久的历史”这个。

例12． 他的身材魁梧，生一副大长方脸，嘴巴阔大，肌肤呈着紫檀色。（选自陈宏薇和李亚丹 新编汉英翻译教程）

He was a giant of a man with a long square face，a wide mouth and a complexion suffused with the colour of read sandalwood.说明：在这个例子中，从形式上看，汉语的主语中心词是“身材”，单似乎随后的三个部分的内容“生一副大长方脸，嘴巴阔大，肌肤呈着紫檀色”都是在说明“他”，而不是“他的身材”。因为我们不能说“他的身材生了一副大长方脸”，所以，我们就确定汉语原文主语中心词的修饰语“他”来充当英语译文的主语。

4．增加主语

汉语句法具有开放性和松散性，句子不一定要有主语，因而有许多无主句，如“出太阳了”，“昨晚放了一场电影”等；另外一些句子，在上下文意思清楚的情况下，主语往往承前省略，出现许多主语省略句。在将这些无主句和省略句译为英语时，必须补出主语，以形成英语译文中主谓齐备的格局。但是，补出什么作主语是一个十分复杂的问题。译者必须透彻理解上下文，仔细斟酌原文的确切含义，反复推敲英语的表达方式，才能补出恰当的主语，否则会歪曲原文的意思。增加主语的方法一般有以下几种： 1）增加泛指的主语“we，you，one”等。

汉语句子在泛指的时候，显然可以增加上英语表示泛指的主语。如：

例13． 充分发挥个体、私营等非公有制经济在促进经济增长、扩大和活跃市场等方面的重要作用。（上海理工大学04年考博英语翻译试题）

We should take advantage of non public-owned economy，including individual，privately owned etc.，to fulfill it‘s significant effect on accelerating economic improvement，enlarging employment，and flourishing the market.例14． 然而，要想了解一个人的禀赋资质和实际如何，考试是考不出名堂来的。（中国人民大学02年考博英语翻译试题）

But they are of vain if you want to know about the gift，intelligence or practical abilities of a person.

例15． 凡事应该适度，适度是最安全的。（天津大学01年考博英语翻译试题）

One should be moderate in all things，and moderation is always the safest way.2)增加英语代词it作主语

在英语中，代词it作主语的情况非常多。因为这个代词表示的意义非常丰富，它可以表示汉语中的气候、天气、时间等无主句，如“下雨了（It is raining），三点了（It’s 3 o’clock now）等，当然，它还可以充当强调句和形式主语句型的主语。如：

例16． 自从理查德尼克松（Richard Nixon）同癌症宣战以来已经有30年了。（武汉大学03年考博英语翻译试题）

It is already three decades since Richard Nixon declared war on cancer.说明：在这个例子中，汉语原文是一个明显的表示时间的无主句。我们则可以增加英语的代词it来充当英语译文的主语。

例17． 大学的研究所才是初步研究学问的所在。（中国人民大学03年考博英语翻译试题）It is graduate school in a university that is the place to do research work at a basic level.说明：在这个例子中，汉语的原文主语是“的研究所”。但是如果我们确定“大学的研究所”作为英语译文的主语，则没有办法很好的体现汉语原文的强调语气“才是”。所以，我们就可以增加代词it，用英语的强调句型来翻译。

例18． 知道这个答案是有用的„„如果你想到英语国家去念大学，或者你想找一份需要英语技能的的话，通过语言考试那就至关重要了。

It’s useful to know the answer„ it is vital if you want to be enrolled in a college or university in an English-speaking country，or if you want to find a job which requires English language skills.说明：在这个例子中，我们可以非常清楚的看到，汉语原文有非常显着的用英语代词it充当形式主语来翻译的特征：那就是，如果汉语句型通常呈现出“„是很重要/有用/有意义的”等结构，或者是“据说（It is said„），有人认为（It is taken that„）”等结构。

3）增加there be„

显然，如果汉语原文表达的是“有、存在、出现”等概念，我们则可以用英语的there be„句型来翻译。如：

例19． 还将有一些生活极端贫困的人们，他们还需要政府的资助。（武汉大学04年考博英语翻译试题）

There will still be some people living in extreme poverty，who are still in need of the government‘s financial support.例20． 举例来说，在早先的法国洞穴绘画里，早于公元前10，000年的绘画中没有人与人打仗的画面。（大学02年考博英语翻译试题）

For example，among ancient French cave drawings earlier than 10，000 B.C.，there were no pictures describing people fighting with each other.从上述分析中我们可以知道，汉语的语言句法和逻辑结构比较松散，而英语则有非常清楚的语法结构和严谨的逻辑结构。而英语句子基本上是围绕主语来展开句型结构的，正因此，我们有必要在汉英翻译中，确定英语的主语。只要确定了汉语原文中用什么来充当英语译文的主语，我们就基本上能选择出一个合适的谓语动词来。可以这么说，英语的语法结构的表现在英语的谓语上，或者说表现在主语和谓语之间的相互制约。所以，谓语的选择也是汉英翻译中一个非常重要的问题。

例1． 当前，国际形势正经历着自冷战结束以后最复杂、最深刻的变化。（中国社会科学院04年考博英语翻译试题）At present，the international situation is experiencing the most complicated and profound changes since the end of Cold War.例2． 和平与发展仍然是摆在世界各国人民面前的两大课题。（同上）Peace and development are still the two subjects confronted with people all over the wo rld.以上两个例子中，汉语句子的主语是名词，由于名词在英语句子中可以直接充当主语，所以在翻译的时候可以直接对应下来，确定这个名词为译文的主语。

2)汉语和英语都有一个共同的特点，就是代词可以充当主语，所以，我们当然还可以直接选用汉语原文中的代词来充当英语译文的主语。如：例3． 我们正努力教育公民不要像西方国家那样过度消费，比如使用过多的空调、私人汽车、以及随意处理的产品。（中国社会科学院02年考博英语翻译试题）We are managing to educate citizens to avoid the behavio r of over-consumption，such as the excessive use of air conditioners，private cars and disposable products at will.例4． 如今我们有许多不同的选择：除传统的家常菜以外，还有营养保健配餐和方便可口的快餐食品。（武汉大学04年考博英语翻译试题）、Nowadays we have many varieties of choices: nutrition-balanced and healthy food，convenient and delicious fast food in addition to traditional homemade meal.3)在汉语中，除了上述名词和代词可以作主语之外，动词也可以直接充当主语，英语的动词原形则不能。可是，我们非常清楚的知道，英语中的动名词或者动词不定式形式则可以充当主语。所以，如果我们要确定汉语的动词主语来充当英语译文的主语时，必须要使用这个动词的动名词形式或者不定式形式。如：例5． 帮助真正的穷人，要比仅仅缩小贫富差距更有价值。帮助下层社会的人重新回到社会主流中来，符合所有人的利益。（中国社会科学院03年考博英语翻译试题）Helping the truly poo r is much wo rthier than merely narrowing inequalities.And helping the lower class rejoin mainstream of society is in the interests of all.例6． 推进现代化建设、完成祖国统一、维护世界和平与促进共同发展，是中国人民在新世纪的三大历史任务。To continue to propel the modernization drive，to achieve reunification of the motherland，and to safeguard wo rld peace and promote common development are the three histo rical tasks of the Chinese people in the new century.3． 重新确定主语由于汉语和英语两种语言存在着较的的差异，有时候，确定汉语句子的主语为英语译文句子主语的时候，常常会导致英语句子的逻辑比较混乱，而不能直接对应。所以，这时候，就有必要从原句中挑出其他词来，充当英语译文的主语。1）把汉语确定汉语原文的宾语为英语译文的主语宾语是动作所及的对象，常常是人或者物。在翻译中，我们可以选择汉语原文的宾语来充当英语译文的主语。但是，在这种情况下，一般需要用英语的被动句式来翻译。如：例7． 伟大艺术的美学鉴赏和伟大的科学观念的理解都需要智慧。Wisdom is required both in appreciating great artistic wo rks and in understanding great scientific concepts.（中国科学院02年3月考博英语翻译试题）说明：在这个例子中，我们可以看到，汉语的主语太长，如果直接用汉语原文的主语来充当英语译文的主语，就显得有点头重脚轻。这个时候，我们就可以利用“英语句子多用被动句”的特点，确定汉语原文的宾语“智慧”来充当英语译文的主语。

例8． 为了保证国民经济持续、快速、健康地发展，我们必须加快国有企业的改革步伐。（中国社会科学院02年考博英语翻译试题）The speed of refo rm of state-owned enterprises must be accelerated(stepped up)to ensure sustained，rapid and sound development of the national economy.说明：在这个例子中，汉语原文的主语应该是“我们”。但是，这个我们属于泛指的，不专门针对某一个人或者某几个人。当然，一方面，我们可以采用选取汉语原文的“我们”来充当英语译文的主语，而把这个句子的译文安排为“We must accelerate„”这样一个结构。但是，直接选用汉语原文的宾语“国有企业的改革步伐”来充当英语译文的主语，并且不提出这个泛指的主语“我们”，更适合英语的表达方式。例9． 目前在中国正进行着一场意义深远的社会和经济改革。（同上）At present，a sweeping and profound social and economic refo rm is being carried out in China.说明：在这个例子中，汉语是一个无主句。显然，一方面，我们可以确定汉语的宾语为英语的主语，使用英语的被动结构来翻译，避免了需要去找一个动作发出者来充当主语的情况。

以上例子清楚的说明，选择汉语原文的宾语充当译文主语的情况下，通常是需要用英语的被动结构来翻译的。但是，并不是说所有确定汉语原文宾语为译文主语的情况都一定要用被动结构来翻译。如：例10． 中国的饮食方式正在发生许多变化。（武汉大学04年考博英语翻译试题）Many changes are taking place in China‘s diet style.说明：我们可以看到，上面这个例子中，汉语原文的主语是“中国的饮食方式”，谓语是“发生”，宾语是“许多变化”。当一旦确定了宾语“许多变化”为英语译文主语的时候，这个英语译文的逻辑结构就可以直接用主动结构：Many changes are taking place„。因为在英语中，“变化”与动词“发生”的搭配是符合逻辑，而不能说“变化被发生”。

2）确定汉语原文主语中心词的修饰语来充当英语译文的主语有时候，汉语主语中心词的修饰语可能是整个句子的突出部分。在翻译的时候，为了正确传达原文中突出的，我们就可以把主语中心词前面的修饰语确定为英语译文的主语。如：例11． 中国的饮食文化具有悠久的历史。（武汉大学04年考博英语翻译试题）China has a long histo ry in her diet culture.说明：在这个例子中，汉语的主语是“中国的饮食文化”，其主语中心词是“文化”。如果确定“文化”为英语译文的主语，则原来汉语句子只能生硬的转化为“文化具有历史”这样的英语结构。所以我们可以把主语中心词前面的修饰语“中国”确定为英语译文的主语，这样一来，整个句子的逻辑结构就非常清楚，突出了“中国在饮食文化方面具有悠久的历史”这个。例12． 他的身材魁梧，生一副大长方脸，嘴巴阔大，肌肤呈着紫檀色。（选自陈宏薇和李亚丹 新编汉英翻译教程）He was a giant of a man with a long square face，a wide mouth and a complexion suffused with the colour of read sandalwood.说明：在这个例子中，从形式上看，汉语的主语中心词是“身材”，单似乎随后的三个部分的内容“生一副大长方脸，嘴巴阔大，肌肤呈着紫檀色”都是在说明“他”，而不是“他的身材”。因为我们不能说“他的身材生了一副大长方脸”，所以，我们就确定汉语原文主语中心词的修饰语“他”来充当英语译文的主语。

4．增加主语汉语句法具有开放性和松散性，句子不一定要有主语，因而有许多无主句，如“出太阳了”，“昨晚放了一场电影”等；另外一些句子，在上下文意思清楚的情况下，主语往往承前省略，出现许多主语省略句。在将这些无主句和省略句译为英语时，必须补出主语，以形成英语译文中主谓齐备的格局。但是，补出什么作主语是一个十分复杂的问题。译者必须透彻理解上下文，仔细斟酌原文的确切含义，反复推敲英语的表达方式，才能补出恰当的主语，否则会歪曲原文的意思。增加主语的方法一般有以下几种：

1）增加泛指的主语“we，you，one”等。汉语句子在泛指的时候，显然可以增加上英语表示泛指的主语。如：例13． 充分发挥个体、私营等非公有制经济在促进经济增长、扩大就业和活跃市场等方面的重要作用。（上海理工大学04年考博英语翻译试题）We should take advantage of non public-owned economy，including individual，privately owned etc.，to fulfill it‘s significant effect on accelerating economic improvement，enlarging employment，and flourishing the market.例14． 然而，要想了解一个人的禀赋资质和实际能力如何，考试是考不出名堂来的。（中国人民大学02年考博英语翻译试题）But they are of vain if you want to know about the gift，intelligence o r practical abilities of a person.例15． 凡事应该适度，适度是最安全的。（天津大学01年考博英语翻译试题）One should be moderate in all things，and moderation is always the safest way.2)增加英语代词it作主语在英语中，代词it作主语的情况非常多。因为这个代词表示的意义非常丰富，它可以表示汉语中的气候、天气、时间等无主句，如“下雨了（It is raining），三点了（It’s 3 o’clock now）等，当然，它还可以充当强调句和形式主语句型的主语。如：例16． 自从理查德8226;尼克松（Richard Nixon）同癌症宣战以来已经有30年了。（武汉大学03年考博英语翻译试题）It is already three decades since Richard Nixon declared war on cancer.说明：在这个例子中，汉语原文是一个明显的表示时间的无主句。我们则可以增加英语的代词it来充当英语译文的主语。例17． 大学的研究所才是初步研究学问的所在。（中国人民大学03年考博英语翻译试题）It is graduate school in a university that is the place to do research wo rk at a basic level.说明：在这个例子中，汉语的原文主语是“大学的研究所”。但是如果我们确定“大学的研究所”作为英语译文的主语，则没有办法很好的体现汉语原文的强调语气“才是”。所以，我们就可以增加代词it，用英语的强调句型来翻译。例18． 知道这个答案是有用的„„如果你想到英语国家去念大学，或者你想找一份需要英语技能的工作的话，通过语言考试那就至关重要了。It’s useful to know the answer„ it is vital if you want to be enrolled in a college o r university in an English-speaking country，o r if you want to find a job which requires English language skills.说明：在这个例子中，我们可以非常清楚的看到，汉语原文有非常显着的用英语代词it充当形式主语来翻译的特征：那就是，如果汉语句型通常呈现出“„是很重要/有用/有意义的”等结构，或者是“据说（It is said„），有人认为（It is taken that„）”等结构。

3）增加there be„显然，如果汉语原文表达的是“有、存在、出现”等概念，我们则可以用英语的there be„句型来翻译。如：例19． 还将有一些生活极端贫困的人们，他们还需要政府的资助。（武汉大学04年考博英语翻译试题）There will still be some people living in extreme poverty，who are still in need of the government‘s financial suppo rt.例20． 举例来说，在早先的法国洞穴绘画里，早于公元前10，000年的绘画中没有人与人打仗的画面。（复旦大学02年考博英语翻译试题）Fo r example，among ancient French cave drawings earlier than 10，000 B.C.，there were no pictures describing people fighting with each other.从上述分析中我们可以知道，汉语的语言句法和逻辑结构比较松散，而英语则有非常清楚的语法结构和严谨的逻辑结构。而英语句子基本上是围绕主语来展开句型结构的，正因此，我们有必要在汉英翻译中，确定英语的主语。只要确定了汉语原文中用什么来充当英语译文的主语，我们就基本上能选择出一个合适的谓语动词来。可以这么说，英语的语法结构的表现在英语的谓语上，或者说表现在主语和谓语之间的相互制约。所以，谓语的选择也是汉英翻译中一个非常重要的问题。

三、汉英翻译三步策略之二：找谓语

在汉语和英语两种语言的对比中，有一个最显着的特点：就是汉语中，几乎所有词类都可以充当谓语；而英语中则只有动词才能充当谓语。一般来说，我们在汉英翻译的过程中，随着主语的确定，凭我们作为汉语母语的使用者，几乎总能在汉语原文中，找出一个对应的谓语来。但是，和汉语原文主语对应的谓语，不一定能充当英语译文的谓语。在弄明白怎么选择汉语原文中的一个合适的谓语去充当译文的谓语之前，我们有必要对汉语的谓语和英语的谓语做一个简单的对比。如图所示：

区别汉语的谓语英语的谓语1没有人称、时态、和数的变化有人称、时态、和数的变化2常常是动词作谓语只有动词作谓语3名词、数量词、形容词等可以作谓语无4少用被动句多用被动句5有“连动式”谓语无6有“兼语式”谓语无

正因为有以上区别，在我们做汉英翻译的时候，就可以利用英汉语两种语言的各自的特点，选择合适的谓语来翻译。所以，简单归纳起来，谓语的选择主要有以下几种方式：

1．选择谓语要注意时态、人称和数的变化

由于英语的动词具有人称、时态和数的变化，而汉语没有这样的变化方式。所以，在翻译中，一定要注意这种最基本语法一致原则。一般来说，要确定汉语原文的在译文中的基本时态，应该没有问题。因为毕竟汉语是我们的母语，我们对汉语原文的理解水平应该是能把握好时态这个问题的。但是，一定要在英语译文中注意不要犯“时态、人称和数”这个基本错误。如：

例1． 过去的五十年并不是发明创新的黄金时期。（同等学历01年汉译英试题）The past fifty years was not really a golden age for inventions and creations.说明：在这个例子中，原文虽然有明显的时间词提示我们，所选择的谓语需要用过去时态，但是，大多数人忽略了谓语动词需要用单数的问题，所以必须加以注意。

例2． 实行改革开放以来改变了过去封闭半封闭状态，提高了我国经济水平。（中国社会科学院03年考博英语翻译试题）

Since China started to implement the policy of opening up to the outside，its total or semi-closure has been changed and the level of its economy and technology has been raised.说明：在这个例子中，有“以来”这个汉语词提示我们，在译文中要用跟过去相关的时态。同时汉语原文的谓语“改变了”和“提高了”中的“了”也给我们提示，译文需要用完成时态。

2．常常选择汉语原文的动词谓语作英语译文的谓语，但是选择谓语需要注意“瞻前顾后” 由于汉语中的动词也常常充当位于成分，既然英语中只有动词才能作谓语，我们就可以选择汉语原文的动词谓语充当英语译文的谓语。但是，一定要注意的是，由于汉语语言本身“意合”的特点，所以与汉语主语能够顺利搭配的谓语，在英语译文中则不一定能在逻辑上搭配起来。那么，我们就需要选择一个和确定好的主语能够逻辑搭配的谓语，这就需要权衡，甚至是改变我们前面已经确定的主语，重新确定一个和这个谓语动词能逻辑搭配的主语，并且不改变汉语原文的意义，以利于我们得到一个“准确通顺”的译文。我把这种权衡并选择一个合适的谓语的现象叫“瞻前”。同时，所选择的谓语如果要带宾语的话，一定要思考谓语动词和下文的宾语在逻辑上能够搭配，这也需要权衡，甚至改变我们已经选择好的谓语动词。我们这种权衡并选择一个合适的谓语的现象叫“顾后”。如：

例3． 中国加入世贸组织以后，外商参与中国投资活动的机会将越来越多，自身发展的空间也越来越大。（中国人民大学04年考博英语翻译试题）

After China’s entry into WTO，more opportunities will be created for the participation of foreign entrepreneurs in the investments in China and larger space for their own development.说明：在这个例子中，汉语原文的主语是“机会”以及“空间”，相应的谓语分别是“越来越多”（more and more）和“越来越大”（larger）。但是，考虑到英语译文中，opportunity和more，以及space和larger不能构成一个合适的主谓关系，所以，我们需要重新选择一个谓语。考虑到英语中more可以修饰opportunity，我们就可以确定more opportunities（越来越多的机会）充当主语，同时，按照英语译文的搭配方式，给增加一个谓语动词create。这样，就可以把原文“外商参与中国投资活动的机会将越来越多”这层含义用“越来越多的机会将（被创造）出来给外商参与中国投资活动”这个逻辑顺序来翻译。同样的方法，也可以解决“自身发展的空间也越来越大”这个句子。

例4． 迄今为止，教育工作还没有找到比考试更有效、更可靠的方法。（中国人民大学02年考博英语翻译试题）

So far，there has been no way which is more effective and reliable than exams in education.说明：在这个例子中，汉语原文的主语是“教育工作”，谓语是“没有找到”，宾语中心词是“方法”。但是如果我们翻译为“Education hasn’t found the way„”的话，一方面英语译文中的主谓逻辑搭配不是特别恰当，另一方面，我们也不好安排汉语原文中“比考试更有效、更可靠”这层意义。但是，考虑到汉语原文中出现了“没有”这个词，其实是典型的英语There be„句型的标志。所以，我们则需要改变所确定的主语和谓语，用英语There be„句型来翻译就更适合英语的语言习惯了。

3．对汉语中名词、数量词、形容词等可以作谓语的情况，一般可以用英语的“系表结构”来翻译

汉语中，充当谓语的可以是名词、数量词和形容词等，这个特点是英语不具有的。如“我人，你呢”中的，“北京人”就是汉语名词作谓语；“他81了”中的数词81就是谓语；“今天天气热，昨天凉快。”中的“热”和“凉快”就是形容词充当谓语。这种情况，其实我们可以从英语的角度来思考的话，英语的名词、数量词和形容词不能充当谓语，但是可以充当表语，所以英语中的“系表结构”刚好可以解决这些问题。如： 例5． 投资规模偏大。（四川大学04年考博英语翻译试题）The investment scale is too large.例6． 很多道路太窄。（天津大学02年考博英语翻译试题）Many of the roads are too narrow.1． 如果汉语原文有明显的被动意味，则应该选择对应的谓语动词，并且用英语的“被动结构”来翻译

汉语中，很少使用“被”字句，通常由“受到、得到、加以、得以、为„所、由„来、是„的”等词来表现被动意味，有时候甚至没有明显的标志词。如果我们在汉英翻译中，能够读出原文中的明显的被动意味，当然需要选择对应的谓语动词来翻译为英语的“被动句”。如： 例7．

此外，对于那些刚刚脱贫的人们，他们目前的生活状况必须改善。（武汉大学04年考博英语翻译试题）

Furthermore，the present living conditions must be improved for those who have just freed themselves from poverty.说明：这个例子中，汉语原文虽然没有明显的被动句的标志词，但是，我们知道“生活状况必须改善”这个主干结构中，逻辑上应该是“生活状况必须被改善”。所以，我们需要选择“改善”这个词来翻译为英语的被动结构。

例8． “学习”也许意味着对一系列细小而不相关的行为按新的顺序重新排列。（湖北省03年考博英语试题联合考试翻译试题）

Learning may mean that a number of small independent acts are arranged in a new order.例9． 美国的经济体制主要是围绕着私人企业和以市场为导向而建立起来的。（四川大学04年考博英语翻译试题）

The economic system of U.S.A.is mainly set up centering on the private enterprises and market orientation.例10． 他们的生产和生活状况没有从根本上被改变。（武汉大学04年考博英语翻译试题）Their production and living conditions have not been changed fundamentally.例11． 各国的人权问题主要由各国政府和人民自己来解决，世界的人权问题要由世界各国政府和人民共同参与来解决。（中国社会科学院04年）

Each country‘s human rights problem should be solved mainly by its own government and people，while that of the world by governments and people from all over the world together.2． 对汉语的“连动式”特殊句型，可以选择一个主要动词作为英语译文的动词谓语，其他次要动词用英语的“非谓语动词”形式，介词的形式，或者用“and”来连接几个动词 “连动式”是汉语语言的一种特殊句式，是指“谓语由两个或者两个以上的动词构成，在动词短语中没有停顿，也没有关联词语，两个动词短语共用一个主语”（刘月华等 《使用现代汉语语法》北京：商务印书馆 P.701）。如，“我去问”。“他们结了帐搬走了”。而在英语中，众所周知，英语的一个句子只有一个能充当谓语的动词，绝对不可能两个动词连接在一起。这看起来似乎是给我们汉英翻译增加了障碍。其实不然，因为英语中，动词除了充当谓语以外，还有所谓的“非谓语动词”形式。这就给我们解决翻译汉语“连动式”这个特殊句型提供了一个突破口。

这样看来，由于原文是汉语，我们作为中国人，在理解汉语的时候，几个连续动作中，要找出一个主要动词来并不困难。我们可以根据几个动作发生的先后来选择主要谓语动词，也可以根据几个动作之间的关系来选择主要动词。对于次要动词，一般有以下几种处理方式： 1）用分词和不定式等非谓语动词来翻译次要动词，如：

例12． 我们花很少的钱就能够买到一份日报。（西南财经大学04年考博英语翻译试题）We spend very little money to buy a piece of daily.例13． 市政府于底启动了一项“净空”工程，关闭了大气污染严重的企业。（首都经贸大学06年考博英语翻译试题）

The municipal government started an air-decontamination project at the end of last year，closing the enterprises that cause heavy pollutions.2）用英语的介词短语可以表达汉语中的动词概念，如： 例14． 我将乘飞机离开北京。I will leave Beijing by plane.3）用英语“and”连接词来连接几个动作

例15． 从社会总体、长远的利益出发，政府可以运用税收、转移支付等方式适当调节收入分配差距，扶助弱势群体，维护整个社会的和谐、稳定。（财政部财政科研所05年，略有改动）

From the society as a whole and long-term profit perspectives，the government can use tax or transfer payment to appropriately adjust the difference of income distribution so as to help the weak and maintain harmony and stability of the society.说明：很显然，在汉语原文中，有一系列的动词。我们可以选择“运用”作为主要动词，突显原文几个动词之间的时间先后顺序，或者几个动词之间的目的关系。这样以来，后面的“调节”和“扶助”就可以用动词不定式来翻译。同时，在“扶助”和“维护”两个动词间，当然可以用英语的“and”来连接。3． 对汉语中的“兼语式”特殊句型，可以选择汉语原文中第一个动词充当英语译文的谓语动词，汉语第一个动词后面的结构则可以采用“宾语和宾语补足语”的形式来翻译 “兼语式”也是汉语中的一种特殊句型，是指其“谓语是由一个动宾结构和一个主谓短语套在一起构成的，谓语中前一个动宾结构兼作后一个主谓结构的主语”（刘月华等 《使用现代汉语语法》北京：商务印书馆 P.708）。如：“你请他来”这个句子中，主语是“你”，谓语中的第一个动词“请”所带的宾语是“他”；而“他”这个宾语又兼作后面动词“来”的主语。这个结构看起来似乎和英语中的句型没有太大关系，但是我们仔细研究就可以知道，汉语的“兼语式”几乎都应该是的结构。而这个结构，刚好契合了英语的“主语+谓语+宾语+宾语补足语”的结构。所以，我们“一般”可以把汉语的“兼语式”谓语翻译为英语的““主语+谓语+宾语+宾语补足语”结构。如： 例16． 疼痛使他喊出了声。The pain made him cry out.例17． 我等他来。

I am waiting for him to come.