翻译概论总结

第一篇：翻译概论总结

多项选择：

1.Roman Jakobson’s tripartite classification: intralingual translation(rewording), interlingual translation(translation proper), and intersemiotic translation(transmutation)

2.text types: technical, institutional, literary translation

3.outline of major theories of translation:(1)Chronologically(by the time of their birth or occurrence): the philological, hermeneutic, linguistic, communicative, sociosemiotic, skopos, manipulative, norm, post-structuralist, postcolonial(2)topologically(by the particular approach adopted or focus directed by their proponents): their approaches to translation may be grouped into the philological, linguistic, functionalist, semiotic, cultural, philosophical.重要概念：

1.translation studies:

(1).The paper “the name and nature of translation studies” written by James Holmes in 1988, marks the birth of the discipline of TS.The descriptive branch: product, process, function-oriented The theoretical branch: general & partial which includes medium, area, rank, text type, time, and problem restricted The applied branch: translation aids, training and criticism Note: though being lucid and inspiring in his theory, it shall be noted that description and theorizing are usually inseparable from each other in research.(2).The internal studies and external studies The internal studies: the theoretical branch takes as its objects of study the nature, principles, and procedures of translation;the applied branch includes translation practice(text analysis and genre translation), T criticism, and the training of translators, development of the translation profession.Specifically, translation practice includes text analysis and genre translation, and the former covers such areas of research as: source text analysis, comparison of translations & their source texts, comparison of translations and non-translated texts(comparable texts), translation with commentary;while the genre translation covers texts like drama, poetry, prose fiction, religious text, tourism texts, and multimedia texts.The external translation studies are the derived or borderline parts of TS, covering areas where the internal TS interact or marry with other disciplines, such as history, sociology, cultural anthropology, philosophy, linguistics, psychology, theory of communication, computer science and technology, etc.For example, history of translation;sociology and cultural studies of T;T ethics;terminology management;language and translation technology…

Or historical/cultural translation;translation ethics;terminology and glossaries;translation and technology

The internal studies and the external studies of translation are related and complementary to each other in that the research results in the former provide the latter with both a theoretical basis and a practical focus of concern while the research findings in external studies contribute to the depth and breadth of internal studies by providing new observations and new perspectives.2.definition of translation:

According to Wilss(1995), translation is an action directed toward both the source text and the reader of the target language.Its procedure is determined by its function and it pursues a goal of enabling understanding between individuals of different linguistic and cultural communities.Nida and Taber(1969)regard translation as a communication-based task and define it as: Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.(closest in meaning and style;acceptability;loss of information)--translation as a kind of communication between different language group--translation should communicate information or meaning

3.theory: A theory, in the simplest sense, is just a view or understanding of something that concerns us.In modern science, it is generally understood or refers to a proposed explanation of empirical phenomena, made in a way consistent with scientific method.Theories are collections of hypotheses that are logically linked together into a coherent explanation of some aspect of reality and which have individually or jointly received some empirical support.The properties of a good theory: strong explanatory power that can effectively explain the subject matter it pertains to;strong predicative power which means it should proved a)reasonably adequate predictions about the properties not yet discovered of the specific object under investigation and b)a measure of predictability about the degree of success to be expected from the use of certain principles and procedures in the study of the subject matter.3.equivalence: A term used by many writers to describe the nature and the extent of the relationships which exist between SL and TL texts or smaller linguistic units.The nature of “equivalence” was successively discussed by prominent figures such as Jakobson, Eugene Nida, Peter Newmark, and Werner Koller.(1)Jakobson’s linguistic meaning and equivalence.He followed the relation set out by Saussure between the signifier(the spoken and written signal)and the signified(the concept signified).He stated that the signifier and signified form the linguistic sign, but the sign is arbitrary or unmotivated, thus there is ordinarily no full equivalence between ST and TT.He defined translation as “substituting messages in one language not for separate code-units(signifier)but to entire messages(signified)in some other language”.(2)Catford regarded the central task of translation as “defining the nature and conditions of translation equivalence” and there exists a distinction between textual equivalence and formal correspondence.(3)Nida, inspired by Noam Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar, put forward a three-stage system of translation and used back-transformation to analyze the kernels under some complicated surface structure.In terms of equivalence, he stated that there are

formal equivalence which focuses attention on the message itself in both form and content, the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language.Dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect, where the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptor and the message.There are four basic requirements of a translation.(4)Newmark put forward the notions of communicative translation and semantic translation.Communicative translation attempts to produce on its reader an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.4.meaning: According to Nida, meaning is broke down into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning.In terms of traditional studies of meaning, the meanings of meaning are as follows: reference and sense: reference is the relationship between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities they stand for;sense is the place a which a word or phrase holds in the system of relationships with other words or phrases in the vocabulary of a language.From the perspective of sociosemiotics, there are 4 basic facts about meaning: 1)meaning is a kind of relationship.Meaning is not really an entity(because words do not have meanings, people have meanings for words), but the relationship between a sign and something outside it 2)there is a plurality of meaning: three kinds of relationship a sign may enter into –

referential(semantic), pragmatic, syntactic(intralingual);

a.Referential meaning(RM)(sign-real world entity)is chiefly connected with the topic of a communication.Its core elements are the external situation, the facts of the real world.Also known as informative, conceptual, cognitive meaning.But RM does not equal literal meaning(LM).E.g 挂号信；vice-chancellor；indian meal;国际学院；基础实验楼

b.Pragmatic meaning(PM)(sign-user)may be divided into four subsets: identificational meaning(regional, historial background of the speaker);expressive meaning(emotional content of an expression might have in terms of the personality or individual creativity of the user, e.g murder & homicide);associative meaning(connotative meaning隐含意义);social meaning(channel of contact, e.g phatic forms of discourse;forms of address vous/tu;flatter;register);imperative meaning(conative meaning, operative or instrumental meaning)c.intralingual meaning(IM)(sign-sign)is related to the code: phonetic meaning;phonological meaning;graphemic meaning;morphological/lexemic meaning, syntactic meaning, discoursal/textual meaning 3)style is meaning.Style in its linguistic sense is reduced to a group of pragmatic meaning and intralingual meanings.4)different meaning may carry different weight in different contexts.5.code: a system of signs or signals involved in the transmission of messages.Language as a code is a system of multiplicity, i.e.it is composed of diverse elements or has different aspects.6.sign: a thing that signifies or stands for another thing or things.7.signification: using signs to mean.A third item is included in the process of signification, that is, an abstract concept of the thing for which the sign stands.8.message: according to Nida and Taber, it consists of two aspects: meaning and style

9.fusion of horizon: the meeting of different perspectives or backgrounds.So far as translation is concerned, this concept implies that a translator has to emerge from his own intellectual perspective and cultural background in order to assimilate what is foreign in a new light.总结自己学习情况：

Taking the course “Introduction of Translation Studies” is conducive to the improvement of both my theoretical and practical inquiry on translation.It is a pity that we cannot cover all the items outlined in the syllabus such as the skopos theory and the manipulation school, which I find them an enlightening reading as I read them in Jeremy Munday’s “Introducing Translation Studies”.As far as I am concerned, the benefits by taking this course are twofold.First, owning to the systematic exemplifications and illustrations discussed in class, I have a better understanding of the major schools of translation chronologically and topologically.Equipped with the basic knowledge and systematic framework of translation studies, I can conduct my research or my future thesis paper from an in-depth perspective.The philological approach mainly concerning on the “word for word” or “sense for sense” debate, though

案例分析：

1.deep structure analysis The surface structure is the syntactic structure of the sentence which a person speaks, hears, reads or writes.It is the actually observed structure of a sentence.The deep structure is much more abstract and it is considered to incorporate all information relevant to the single or unambiguous interpretation of a particular sentence.Nida believes that the English language possesses seven such basic structures, which he terms “kernels” – the minimal number of structures from which the rest can be most efficiently and relevantly derived.Nida advocated the back-transformation of complex surface structures onto an underlying level, in which the fundamental elements are objects, events, abstracts, and relationals.Four steps for analyzing and transferring complicated SL sentences(1)determine whether each word is an object, and event, an abstract, or a relational(2)identify the kernels,(making explicit the implicit constituent elements of the kernels: who are the recipient and agent?)(3)determine the semantic and logical relationships between kernels(grouping the kernels into related sets)(4)find out the most efficient way of representing the given relationships between kernels in the target language.(state these relationships in a form which will be optimal, i.e.closest to the form in the target language, for transfer into the target language)

例子：the unique and mixed ethnic heritage of the population;the American defence of Bastogne sealed their(Nazi troops)fate;this land, which once barred the way of weary travelers, now has become a land for winter and summer vacation, a land of magic and wonder.2.transliteration 以义出音 vs.translation: a terminological study of the rendition of a sutra text

翻译：

长答题（essay questions；optional）:

1.the philological school, which lays emphasis on the source text, including its production, transmission, and history of interpretation, a typical question raised with this school being that of whether the translator should bring the original to the target reader(liberal translation)or the target language reader to the original(literal translation).Philological tradition in the western history can be illustrated chronologically:

a)roman times – word for word vs.sense for sense.Cicero & Horace & Quintilian: liberal translation;St.Augustine: literal translation b)the middle ages – debate between translation and unacceptable interpretation.St.Jerome, father of the church, translated the Bible into Latin, and developed the Ciceronian distinction between the undesirable “word for word” translation and the desirable “sense for sense”

translation.Translator such as King Alfred in England perceived the task of translating the Bible as linked to the task of elevating the status of the newly developing language known as English, i.e.the Old English.c)the Renaissance – “copying” an original, but also creating a new text with an individual voice.Focus on how to strike a balance in between and how to remain faithful without being subservient.d)Reformation – doctrinal fidelity vs.possible heretical “mistranslation”.Martin Luther elevated and disseminated the usage of German by his translation of the Bible.Etienne Dolet, burn at the stake for his addition to his translation of one of Plato’s dialogues, advocated five principles in translation.e)the 17th & 18th centuries – diversion of the activity of translation: translation as recovery or imitation of classical text;as language learning exercise;as commercial enterprise.John Dryden

reduces all translation to three categories: the triadic model: metaphrase, paraphrase, and imitation.The Port-Royal grammar put forward that “accuracy” in translation could somehow be measured on a qualifiable basis.Alexander Tytler reacted against Dryden’s “paraphrase”(loose translation)and set up three basic and celebrated principles of translation: complete transcript of ideas, style and manner of the same character, and all the ease of the original f)the 19th century – romanticism and “creative translation”, which centered around the problem of whether translation could be considered as a creative or a mechanical enterprise.g)the 20th century – the philological tradition endured

In conclusion, the methodology of this school is introspective, impressionistic, relying heavily on the researchers’ and practitioners’ intuition.Its central concepts are too abstract to be unequivocally understood and too fuzzy to serve as a reliable basis on which detailed theoretical analysis can be conducted and universally accepted conclusion drawn simply because different people may have different views of these concepts.2.the hermeneutic school, which concerns the interpretative process of the ST.The term “hermeneutics” is used in two senses: the part of Christian theology解经学 and theory of understanding and interpretation of the significance of human actions, utterances, products, and institutions 阐释学。Hermeneutics is a Romantic approach to interpretation based not on absolute truth but on the individual’s inner feeling and understanding.Friedrich Schleiermacher, founder of modern Protestant theology and of modern hermeneutics.To “give the reader the same impression that he as a German would receive the work in the original language”, the translator must adopt an “alienating”(as opposed to “naturalizing”)method of translation, orienting himself or herself by the language and content of the ST.While Schleiermacher was instrumental in extending hermeneutics beyond the theological domain, Heidegger was the first related the problem of understanding in general to that of linguistic translation.The interrelationship between hermeneutics and translation may be viewed from two angles: the status of translation in hermeneutics and the inspirations TS derived from hermeneutics.Translation is given by Heidegger a function of challenging thinking that both the original and the translated language are unique in their capacity for harbor philosophical premises or presuppositions.Gadamer develops his philosophical hermeneutics in terms of the concept of “fusion of horizons”, which implies that, in the view of translation, a translator has to emerge from his own intellectual perspective and cultural background in order to assimilate what is foreign in a “new light”.Viewing translation in hermeneutics, meaning must be expressed within the target language “in a new way” and therefore “every translation is at the same time an interpretation”.The status of translator was improved by “translator’s turn” since understanding is achieved through the very involvement of the translator in the convergence of two horizons.In summary, the perspective of hermeneutics is important in TS because it lends inspiring insights into the nature of T and has influenced some subsequent schools of thought on translation like the manipulative and post-structuralist ones and constructivism, but its concern about translation is basically philosophical which does not care about the process of translation.Case study: 圆成十相；土卫六;把汉语规律的解释建立在文化认同的科学基础上；知不知上不知知病

3.the linguistic school, which analyzes, among other things, the SL message and its restructuring in the TL.Principal figures of this school include Catford, Nida and Chomsky.According to Nida, meaning is broke down into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning.He also proposed three techniques to determine the meaning of different linguistic items: hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis.Chomsky’s generative-transformational model analyzes sentences into a series of related levels governed by rules which are phrase-structure rules, transformational rules and phonological and morphemic rules.Three levels of conceptualization: a basic component made up of phrase structure rules and lexicon that generate a deep structure, which in turn is changed through the application of transformational rules into a surface structure.Nida’s and Chomsky’s theories share two common features: Both assume that there exists an underlying, coherent and unified entity behind whatever manifestation language takes: the kernel, which are simple, active, declarative sentences that require the minimum of transformation.They both made philosophical claims about the object of investigation for their respective theories.Nida and Taber put forward a three-stage system of translation: analysis, transfer and restructuring.Kernels are the level at which the message is transferred into the receptor language before being transformed into the surface structure in three stages: literal, minimal and literary transfer.Nida advocated the back-transformation of complex surface structures onto an underlying level, in which the fundamental elements are objects, events, abstracts, and relationals.The linguistic school provides powerful analytical tools for decoding and reencoding the ST and adopts a rigorous approach to problems of linguistic translation.On the other hand, this approach is just one way, rather than the only way, of accounting for the translation process because it smacks of the extralingual elements such as pragmatic and cultural ones.4.the communicative school, which is focused on the communicative functions performed by the original and their translations in the source and target language environments.Inspired by the sociolinguistics and information theory, this school views translation as a process of communication that firstly, the process of translation is inherently similar to that of any other kind of human communication, which means the translator should seek an optimum balance between the cost and benefits of the translation;secondly, target texts need to be drawn out by the inclusion of a certain amount of redundancy so as to overcome the effects of noise and increase the predictability of the communicative content.According to Nida and Taber, this procedure of “drawing out” target texts is essential if dynamic equivalence is to be achieved and “there is a tendency for all good translations to be somewhat longer than the originals.”

They put forward the minimal and maximal requirements for translational adequacy.Minimal: readers are able to comprehend and appreciate how the original readers of the text understood and possible responded to it.Maximal: readers of the translation would respond to the text both emotively and cognitively in a manner essentially similar to the ways in which the original readers responded.5.the sociosemiotic school, which studies various codes involved in communicating meaning.The approach this school takes is a synthetic or eclectic one in that it selects and incorporates what is best of the other major schools.The basic assumption of sociosemiotics is that language must be views as a social as well as linguistic code, a shared set of habits using the voice to communicate, which signifies, elements specific to the speech community in which the code is created and used must also be taken into account and taken care of by the translator.Semiotics is the scientific study of the properties of signing systems or codes, whether natural or artificial and covers the investigation of patterned human communication in all contexts and in all its modes or channels.Four mode of semiotic communications: auditory-vocal;visual;tactile;olfactory and gustatory

Charles Morris, in 1938, defined semiotics as the use of signs governed by syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic rules.The definitions of meaning are different.Translation standard: optimal equivalence.The long-standing dispute about literal translation or liberal translation becomes largely meaningless or deconstructed when we approach the problem of what is to be translated in translation from the point of view of meaning.Optimal equivalence: within the bounds of the norms of target language grammar and usage as well as the receptability of the anticipated readership, with the appropriacy of the translation to the occasion in mind and with priority given to the most prominent or important meaning(s)in the context, the translator employs appropriate translation strategies when necessary to transfer the greatest possible number of meanings of the source message and the distributions of these meanings(i.e.the relative relationships among them)so that the translation is maximally equivalent to the source text and its communicative functions in the target language environment optimally fulfilled.e.g 遇难者的头颅和手臂；一笔双叙syllepsis；文明标兵单位

Before translating a text, the translator usually has to judge the likely setting of the translation.Three types of language target readership: expert, educated generalist, uninformed.The Sociosemiotic School: clarifying the essence, objects and procedures of translation in a most systematic and down-way;providing the most comprehensive perspective from which translation can be studied.

第二篇：翻译概论论文 - 副本

BJTU’s Graduate School Course Thesis

中国古诗词翻译中的动词巧用

中文摘要：许渊冲先生说，“文学翻译的公式是1+1=3, 而科学翻译公式是1+1=2.” 所以文学翻译不是科学。而中国诗歌大多是朦胧美，可意会不可言传，一个词一个字也许表达多重含义，读者不能只停留在字面意思，而要用心挖掘诗人内心的情感和志向，那么译者的任务就更加艰巨，这里讨论怎样把诗中的名词或抽象动词等转化为实意动词，从而传达出诗篇的意境美，读者不仅知之，而且好之乐之。

关键词： 诗歌翻译；意境美；朦胧美；动词活用

Abstract: Xu Yuanchong said, ―The equation of literature translation is 1+1=3, while the equation of science translation is 1+1=2.So there is big difference between literature translation and science translation.Most Chinese poetry depends on the imagination of readers, a phrase or a word may have more than one meaning, so when we read Chinese poetry, we should not only stay at the superficial meaning of the words, we’d better excavate the emotion and ambition of the poet.So the task of translator is more arduous, here we will talk about how to translate the nouns in the original poems into the verbs, thereby the poetic imagery beauty can be conveyed.Thus, the reader not only understands it, but also enjoys it.Key words: poem translation;poetic imagery beauty;hazy beauty;the flexibility of verbs.中国古诗词翻译中的动词巧用

1.概述

中国古诗词义具有模糊性：许多用于文学语言中的语词在表达字面意义的同时，又常暗示其他多重意义。这时就需要译者把字得表面含义和诗人当时的心境结合起来

而且语法的模糊性，中国文字重在意合，没有时态，语态，词性和数的字形变化，而且中国诗歌不必像英诗一样，一定要有主语，谓语，代词和介词等，从而造成了时空关系不明确，意向模糊。最 BJTU’s Graduate School Course Thesis

典型的例子，《天净沙 秋思》，全篇以名词为主，没有数量词，没有限定词，介词作连接。至于该景发生在何时何地，有几只昏鸦，是什么枯树，中国读者也许能深深体会到诗人内心的情感，但英美国家读者却可能真的深陷迷茫了。许渊冲先生讲过，写诗不是写史，所以翻译诗词在这些地方也不必过于拘泥，倒是原诗的精神——诗中大意和所含的感情，要用心体贴，重视表达不可。那么，是否可以用动词来传达诗人内心的精神和原诗意境呢？我们这里举11个例子来进行分析。

2.动词活用分析

（1）、杜牧一首著名的《秋夕》：银烛秋光冷画屏，轻罗小扇扑流萤。天阶夜色凉如水，卧看牵牛织女星。其中第三句的译文是：

―the night grows colder every hour,---it chills me to the heart.原诗“天阶夜色凉如水”是纯景物描写，但译者加了一个grows和chill, 表面强调的是天气冷，但实则深层意义是想表达诗人的内心很凄凉，看着牛郎织女已都幸福的团聚，而诗人却和意中人分别两地，内心早已是悲凉万分。何况是在这伤感的秋天，诗人内心怎能不越来越黯淡，幽冷？所以动词grows colder、chill把全诗的意美很形象的翻译出来了。

（2）、《苏小小墓》中有四句：草如茵，松如盖。风为裳，水为珮。英译为：Let grass be her cushion, pine trees her parasol, and wind clothe her, water chime at her tread.不难发现，“如”和“为”这个字分别被译为be、clothe、chine at 这三个动词，汉语中静态词翻译成英语中的动态词，化抽象为具体，形成了一幅惟妙惟肖的画面。

苏小小是南齐杭州名妓，一代美人。动词巧译的翻译给译语国家读者以生动的画面，因此不难想象出苏小小是何等的美人焉。尤其是得知她曾唱着爱歌，与情人去私订终身，但红颜薄命，英年早逝（spring death），希望终成泡影时，她的勇气她的坚强又为这份美增添了不少的分量。

（3）、《虞美人》:少年听雨歌楼上，红烛昏罗帐。壮年听雨客舟中，江阔云低，断雁叫西风。而今听雨僧庐下，鬓也星星也。悲欢离合总无情，一任阶前点滴到天明。全文翻译如下：

While young, I listened to rain in the house of song, overjoyed in curtained bed beside a candle red.In prime of life I heard rain on the river long, in lonely boat, when wailed wild geese beneath low clouds in western breeze.Now that I listen to rain under temple’ s eaves, my hair turns grey like starry ray.Who cares if men will meet or part, rejoice or grieve? Can I feel joy or sorrow? Let it rain till tomorrow!我们来分析下此译文的动词巧用。

首先，“红烛昏罗帐”译为“overjoyed in curtained bed beside a candle red.‖ 本是名词词组，译者添加了overjoyed一词可谓是眼到心到。因为是少年，所谓“少年不识愁滋味”，虽然窗外下着雨，但是室内充满着歌声笑语，诗人心里是充满愉悦与幸福的，所以overjoyed一词用的很贴切很灵活，也像读者传达了少年时的那种快乐，无忧无虑的生活，同时也为下文的凄凉生活作了铺垫。“悲欢离合总无情”翻译为―Who cares if men will meet or part, rejoice or grieve? Can I feel joy or sorrow?‖ 原文很抽象的四个字“悲欢离合”，英美国家读者就会匪夷所思，是怎样无情的？到底是谁无情？所以译者添加了meet、part、rejoice、grieve，men和I作主语，译文解释的很清晰，且用了反诘句，把全文的感情上升到了高潮之处，这样，原文“悲欢离合总无情”是个陈述句，被译为反诘句，深刻地体现出了诗人内心情感的高潮。

（4）．韦庄的《金陵图》： 江雨霏霏江草齐，六朝如梦鸟空啼。无情最是台城柳，依旧烟笼十里堤。”

第一句译文：Over a riverside grass falls a drizzling rain, 译者活用动词“falls”连接起“grass”和“rain”, 创造了一种很立体感的意境;第二句Six dynasties have passed like dreams, birds cry in vain.译者将 ―如梦‖翻成“have passed like dreams‖, 凸显了历史的沧桑，感叹时光的流梭；第三句译文是 BJTU’s Graduate School Course Thesis

For miles around the town unfeeling willows stand.―stand‖一词更能反映了台城柳是无情的，冰冷冷地树立在那里，怎知道诗人此刻的心情；最后一句Adorning like a veil of mist the lakeside land.译者添加了 ―adorn‖一词，让读者能联想到整个画面的唯美。

（5）、李煜词中的一首《乌夜啼》：“林花谢了春红，太匆匆！无奈朝来寒雨晚来风。胭脂泪，留人醉，几时重？自是人生长恨水长东！”

从第二句译文来分析： How can they bear cold morning showers , And winds at noon? 译者把“无奈”译成动词词组“how can they bear”, 告诉读者，诗人是不堪忍受这样的寒雨寒风的，译出了诗人内心的凄凉与无奈；

最后一句When shall we meet again ? As water eastward flows, so shall we part.译者添加了动词“meet” 和 “part”, 道出了诗人内心的疑问与期待，以及对人生离别的感慨。这样的译文，音美形美，意更美。

（6）李煜还有一首写渔家乐的小词，《渔父》：浪花有意千重雪，桃李无言一队春。一壶酒，一竿身，世上如侬有几人。

White-crested waves aspire to a skyful of snow, spring displays silent peach and plum trees in a row.A fishing rod, a pot of wine, who in this world can boast of a happier life than thine?

浪花本应是无意，但诗人写有意千重雪？怎样能体现出“有意”二字呢？译者译为动词“aspire to”, 渴求，渴望的意思，体现出了拟人手法，原来浪花是由感情的，说明了诗人对大自然的亲切之情。第二句“桃李无言一队春”，译者用动词“display”连接起春天和桃树李树的关系，一排排一列列的桃树李树，装点了春天，景色是多麽灿烂美丽，诗人心情也是爽朗无比。最后一句“世上如侬有几人”，如侬有几人译为了“boast of a happier life”, boast一词，本身含有引以为荣的事物，李煜这两首词，写来情调悠扬轻松，应该是亡国前所作，过着那种逍遥，自由自在的日子。可见诗人是多麽渴望与珍惜此时的生活，觉得世上没有谁再比他幸福了。

（7）.李白的《秋浦歌》“白发三千丈，缘愁似个长。不知明镜里，何处得秋霜？”

Giles 的译文是 My whitening hair would make a long long rope, yet could not fathom all my depth of woe;though how it within a mirror’s scope, to sprinkle autumn frosts, I do not know.此诗其实前两句和后两句是倒装，本应是不知明镜里，何处得秋霜？白发三千丈，缘愁似个长。但诗人倒装的顺序安排更能凸出鲜明的形象。“三千丈”被译为“make a long long rope”, 借助动词make, 体现了诗人那种匪夷所思的心情，和奔放的激情，好像把所有积压在心中的怨愤都体现了出来。

（8）、李煜的《浪淘沙》的后半阙：

独自莫凭栏，无限江山。别时容易见时难。流水落花春去也，天上人间。Gaze not alone from the balcony, For the landscape infinite extends.However easier parted than met.The river flows— The blossoms fall— Spring going-gone.In heaven as on earth.（林同济）

译得很简洁，没有一个多余冗杂的词语，非常忠实原文，四个动词part、met、flow、fall，做 BJTU’s Graduate School Course Thesis

到了直译，符合了翻译中的对等原则，尤其是“春去也”，由going 转为gone,体现出了时间的飞逝，时光的无情。但是景物虽然描写出来了，但远远不够，诗人的心境并没有展现出来，文学翻译不等于科学翻译，虽然音美形美，但是意美似乎并没有体现出来。再看第二种译文：

Alone at dusk I lean on the balcony;Boundless are the rivers and mountains.The time of parting is easy, the time of reunion is hard.Flowing water, falling petals, all reach their homes.Sky is above, but man has his place.“流水落花春去也”译者翻译为动词“all reach their homes”, 原来流水和落花都是有家的，都是有归属的，但诗人心里想念的人还未出现，他只有遥遥远期的等待心上人的归来，此译文音美形美，意境也很美的展现了出来，让读者好之，乐之。

（9）、辛弃疾《青玉案》：东风夜放花千树，更吹落，星如雨，宝马雕车香满路。凤箫声动，玉壶光转，一夜鱼龙舞。

蛾儿雪柳黄金缕，笑语盈盈暗香去。众里寻他千百度，蓦然回首，那人却在，灯火阑珊处。One night’s east wind adorns a thousand trees with flowers And blows down stars showers.Fine steeds and carved cabs spread fragrance en route;Music vibrates from the flute;The moon sheds its full light, While fish and dragon lanterns dance all night.In gold –thread dress, with moth or willow ornaments, Giggling, she melts into the throng with trails of scents.When all at once I turn my head, I find her there where lantern light is dimly shed.(许渊冲，1996.)分析译文：原文抽象动词居多，而英译把抽象动词译为具体动词，易于读者接受，可谓是妙笔生辉。“东风夜放花千树”的“放”，译者翻成“adorn”, 将东风拟人化，立刻有了画面美，那样的夜晚是多麽灿烂啊。

“凤箫声动，玉壶光转”被译为动词 ―vibrate、shed”,立刻凸显出了画面的灵动感，使读者也能感受到场面的光辉和繁华景象。最后 “melt”一词，突出了人山人海，而她却消融在了人海里，繁华的外表下衬托出了诗人寂寞的心灵。

（10）、苏轼的《行香子》：一叶舟轻，双桨鸿惊。水天清，影湛波平。鱼翻藻鉴，鹭点烟汀。过沙溪急，霜溪冷，月溪明。重重似画，曲曲如屏。算当年，虚老严陵。君臣一梦，今古空名。但远山长，云山乱，晓山青。实意动词寥寥无几，下面我们分析英译文： 开头“A leaflike boat goes light”，把形容词“轻”翻成动词词组―goes light‖,― At dripping oars wild geese take fright，” 形容词“惊”翻成词组“take fright”,强调了动作而不是状态，好像一副活灵活现的场景展现在读者眼中。

君臣一梦，今古空名。但远山长，云山乱，晓山青。The emperor shared the same dream with his peers.Then as now, their fame was left out in the cold.Only the distant hills outspread till they’re unseen, The cloud-crowned hills look disheveled BJTU’s Graduate School Course Thesis

And dawnlit hills so green.(许渊冲，1996)原诗最后五句都是名词词组，但译文却添加了五个动词：share、was left out、outspread、look 生动地说明了那幅幅青葱岁月都历历在目，不仅忠实于原文，而且诗人感慨人生如梦的内心也活灵活现的被译出。

（11）.晏几道《蝶恋花》前两句：醉别西楼醒不记，春楼秋云，聚散真容易。

译文是：Drunk, we parted at Western Bower;Sober ,I can’t recall that hour.Like autumn clouds and dreams of spring disperses every gathering.（许渊冲）

“聚散真容易”用了动词“disperse”, 运用了拟人的手法，更形象地凸显了秋云和春梦的无情，也把诗人从梦境中拉回了现实，使读者看得一清二楚。

3.总结

通过以上11个例子可以得知，中国古诗词以朦胧美著称，一个名词有时也能传达动态的意境，但是翻译为英文时不能照猫画虎的硬译过来，应该巧用动词的翻译，这样更有情趣和意境，将动态的视角更好的展现给读者。尤其是在翻译诗人情感高潮时，动词的使用更能凸显出诗人内心的情感波浪和全诗的意境。我们在古诗词翻译这条唯美的长河中还要有许多东西值得去探寻和深究，也相信广大学者会做的越来越好。

参考文献: 顾正阳著.《古诗词曲英译文化探幽》》.国防工业出版社，2012.许渊冲.《翻译的艺术》.五洲传播出版社，1996.张保红.“意像与汉诗英译”.《解放军外国语学院学报》，2005.

第三篇：翻译概论读书报告

从中西翻译大家看译者素养

-----《中西翻译简史》读书报告

《中西翻译简史》（a brief history of translation in china and the west），谢天振等著，这本书共包括十五个章节---翻译与宗教，翻译与知识传播，翻译与民族语，翻译与当代各国的文化交流，可见本书把中西翻译发展的历史放在一起进行描述，既强调中西发展史的共同点，也展示两者发展过程中的各自的独特性。

在编写原则上，本书强调“三抓”：一抓主线，即抓住中西翻译史上的主要事件；二抓主角，即抓住中西翻译史上的主要代表性人物；三抓主题，即中西翻译史上最有代表性的翻译思想和理论。我的心得体会便是从第二条主线入手的，即中西翻译史上的主要代表性人物。

我想着重从翻译大家的身上总结一下作为一名二十一世纪的翻译专业的学生，到底应该具备什么样的素养才算合格甚至是优秀。

首先，让我们看一下他们的所处的时代背景。罗马帝国时期的翻译家如西塞罗，贺拉斯，昆体良，哲罗姆等都是顺应时代的要求，从翻译大量的希腊文化典籍到翻译圣经。中国的翻译思想出现的时间虽然晚得多，但是也是从宗教典籍---佛经开始的。无论中西方翻译大家翻译宗教典籍的目的是出于政治统治，还是为了劳苦大众的信仰服务，我们都不难得出结论，他们的翻译工作正是因为顺应历史的要求才取得了如此伟大的成就。

其次，再来看翻译大家各自的出身情况。哲罗姆的《通俗拉丁文本圣经》是在他任教皇达马苏一世的秘书时完成的。而我国著名僧人中诸如彦琮，玄奘虽所处朝代不同，但都是奉召主持翻译佛经的。我国近代著名的翻译家和文学评论家傅雷，上海市南汇县人，1927年赴法学习，主攻美术理论和艺术评论。而恰恰在1931年回国后，他便开始了穷其一生的法国文学工作，且译作丰硕，共30余种，且风格独特，备受好评。他之所以能取得如此令人瞩目的翻译成就，和他几年的赴法经历不无联系

最后，个人因素。看了著名翻译家的详细介绍之后，还有两点共性不难被发现。一是他们对母语以及至少一门语的熟练应用。二是他们的博学。其中最值得一提的就是中国著名学者和作家钱钟书先生，他从小就接受过良好的古典文学教育，不仅在文学创作上成就卓著，其长篇小说《围城》被译成多种语言广为流传；他在学术研究领域的成就也是举世瞩目，其学术巨著《管锥编》以及诗论《谈艺录》，论文集《七缀集》等都是中国学界的经典之作。

以上是一些列的史实，现在让我们听一下关于译者素养的问题，翻译大家们的看法是怎样的。英国著名翻译理论家泰特勒对译者该具有的专业素质进行了概括，认为译者应该在语言和相关的知识方面是行家，这样才能满足翻译的要求。生活于南北朝时期的彦琮在他的翻译专论《辨证论》中对历代译经的得失进行了分析和评点，并在此基础上提出了一个合格的佛经翻译者所必须具备的八个条件，即“八备”说：“诚心爱法，益人，不殚久时，其备一也；将践觉场，先牢戒足，不染讥恶，其备二也；诠晓三藏，义贯两乘，不苦暗滞，其备三也；旁涉坟史，工缀典词，不过鲁拙，其备四也；襟抱平恕，器量虚融，不好专执，其备五也；耽於道术，淡於名利，不欲官衔，其备六也；要识梵言。乃闲正译，不坠彼学，其备七也；薄阅苍雅，粗谙篆隶，不昧此文，其备八也。热爱佛法，立志帮助别人，不怕费时长久。品行端正，忠实可信，不惹旁人讥疑。彦琮的“八备”说是我国翻译史上较早论及翻译主体译者的条件和要求的论说。“八备”说涉及了译者的人格培养和学识修养，这两点是是一个优秀的翻译家所必须具备的条件。即使放到当代，它也有其现实意义。

最后，我想总结一下到底一名优秀的译者应该兼备哪些素养： 第一译者扎实的语言功底。翻泽是一种语言活动，它要求译者熟练地掌握两种语言—这是翻译的根本前提，否则也就无法进行翻译。译者翻译的水准，首先取决于他对原作的阅读理解能力和鉴赏能力。要提高英语的阅读理解能力，最基本的是要掌握足够的词汇，具有系统的语法知识，以确保理解在语法层面上不出错误，或少出错误，并要进行大量的外语原著的阅读，不断丰富自己的语言知识，提高自己的语言感悟能力。将外来语译人汉语的译者，尤其应该下功夫提高自己的汉语表达能力。译者的汉语水平是决定他译文质量的第二大要素。凡想在英译汉上有所作为的人必须大量阅读汉语原著，进行经常性的汉语写作训练，学会熟练驾驭和自如运用汉语的能力。英汉两种语言属于不同的语系结构，在词法与句法上都存在着很大的差异，译者应熟悉汉英两种语言在语音、词汇、句法、修辞和使用习惯上的种种差异。翻译是语言艺术，是最复杂、最深刻也是最难掌握的艺术门类。译者以语言文字为媒介，通过再现原作的艺术形象和意境，揭示、展现原作的语言，反映、预示着原语文化。译者必须了解语言的创造规律及其语言的艺术特征，挖掘出原作的艺术魅力，译者应该是一个懂得语言艺术的传播者。

第二译者文化素养。翻译不是精通一门外语，借助于词典和工具书就能为之的事，缺少对原语文化的深人研究很难保证翻译的水平和质量。翻译要熟悉两种语言，悟出语言所具有的无比威力，还要透过语言所传达的信息，了解其背后的文化和精神，从而体会到中西文化的差异。尤金，奈达说:‘对于真正成功的翻译而言，熟悉两种文化甚至比掌握两种语言更重要，因为词语只是在其作用的文化背景中才有意义„„实际上，文化之间的差异比语言结构上的差异给读者带来的复杂性更多”(奈达，2001)。正如英国语言学家莱斯·约翰所说(1997):“特定社会的语言是这个社会文化的组成部分，每一种语言在词语上的差异都会反映在使用这种语言的社会事物、习俗以及各种活动中。”语言不仅仅是信息的载体，还是文化的载体。不同民族由于不同的生存环境，不同的认识世界的角度，往往形成各自独特的文化模式。人类对信息形式和内容的理解在相当程度上依赖于本民族的文化模式。原文读者与原文作者一般具有共同的文化背景，因此原文读者能按作者所期望的那样，透过词汇的表面形式去理解原文的全部文化内涵，而译者根据自己的语言和文化背景来传达信息、表达感情，他所面对的则是难以理解甚至是更容易误解的文化材料，因此“翻译者必须是一个真正意义上文化人”(王佐良，1989)。译者不仅应该精通原语和译人语这两种语言，而且应该通过各种信息渠道了解这两种语言所反映的文化，谙熟它们的差异，才能找到契合点，最大限度地缩小原作和译者之间的距离，准确地捕捉原文中的文化信息，进行有效的传播。第三除了精通原语和译语外，译者常常还要具备一个甚至多个领域的知识，如航空学、化学、人工智能、力学、会计学、国际法、医学或农学。这些领域需要称职的翻译，报酬也比较丰厚。不过有些平常实用的领域也需要相当的专业知识，如电视机维修手册、风味菜谱和建筑规程。

其他，政治道德条件，身体条件，和计算机知识条件等

第四篇：教案1：翻译概论

翻译概述

Genaral Introduction to Translation

一、翻译的分类

1.按照源语（source language）和译语(target language)的相对位置:

1）外语译成本族语

2）本族语译成外语

2.按照涉及到的语言符号:

1)intralingual translation（语内翻译）:

an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language

语内翻译指同一语言内部进行的翻译，如方言与民族共同语，古语与现代语等。

2)interlingual translation（语级翻译）

an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language.语际翻译指发生在不同语言之间的翻译活动，诸如英汉互译、法英互译等。

3)intersemoitic translation（符际翻译）:

an interpretation of verbal signs by means of non-verbal sign systems.符际翻译指不同符号之间进行的翻译，此类翻译往往只限于通讯及保密等工作。

3.按翻译手段: 可分为口译（interpretation）

笔译（translation）

机器翻译（machine translation）

4.按翻译题材:

1)科技翻译(translation for science and technology)（科技文献、学术著作等）

2)应用翻译(practical writing translation)（新闻报道、旅游宣传品、）

3)政论翻译（Political writing translation）(政府文件等)

4）文学翻译(literary translation)

5.按照处理方式

1、全译

2、摘译

3、编译

4、译写

5、译评

6、缩译

7、综述

8、改译

9、阐译

二、译者的素养 彦琮，（557—610年），隋代著名高僧，他精通梵文，也是我国佛教史上屈指可数的佛经翻译家和佛教著作家。他提出了“八备”说：

热爱佛法，不怕耗时长久； 忠实可信，不惹旁人讥疑； 通达旨意；不存暗昧疑点； 射猎经史，不令译文疏拙； 度量宽和，不可武断固执； 淡于名利，不求哗众取宠； 精通梵文，不失原文义理； 兼通汉语，不使译文失准。

用现代的话来说，就是：

汉语功底要好、英语语言能力要强 知识面要广（合理的知识结构）

政治觉悟要高（高度的政治和职业责任感）熟悉基本的翻译理论和技巧

扎实的语言功底 广博的言外知识 敏锐的感受能力 敬业乐业的精神

翻译工具箱

词典：《汉英大词典》

《新世纪汉英大词典》

《汉英科技大词典》 杂志：《中国翻译》 《中国科技翻译》

《上海翻译》 《英语世界》 报刊：《 21世纪报》 《北京周报》

《中国日报》

《今日中国》

网 站

1、翻译人才网

http://cntranslators.com.cn

2、中国自由翻译人网

http://www.xiexiebang.com

6、人民日报网

www.xiexiebang.com

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第五篇：翻译概论word版定

11月7日 第八周 中国翻译简史作业 217407009 于继杰 一.高昌回鹘（hu)族的翻译活动&二.元代的翻译活动 一．1.高昌回鹘族简介2.所译佛经来源

1.回鹘，维吾尔族的祖先，原称回纥（he）。743年在唐朝的帮助下，回鹘灭突厥汗国，建立回纥汗国（公元745-840）。公元788年回纥改名回鹘。公元840年回鹘政权被黠戛（xia jia)斯推翻后，大部分回鹘人向西迁徙。一支迁到葱岭以西，一支迁到河西走廊，一支迁到西州(今新疆吐鲁番)。西州回鹘又向西发展，以高昌(今新疆吐鲁番)为中心，建立了高昌回鹘政权。西州回鹘后来改称为“畏兀儿”，也就是今天的维吾尔族。

高昌回鹘族和内地朝廷保持着友好关系，继续进行东西方贸易。据《宋史》记载，高昌国于建隆，乾德，太平兴国年间，均遣使来朝贡献。北宋时期，回鹘族著名作家玉素甫•喀（ka)斯喀吉甫于1070年在其文学巨著《幸福智慧》中记录了当时回鹘族民间口头歌唱的诗篇，其中《春颂》和《商人赞》就热烈歌颂了汉族商人在经济生活上对他们的协助。

回鹘族在西迁以前，原使用突厥文。西迁后废弃了突厥文，采用粟特字母，创制了一种今天称为，“古回鹘文”的文字。回鹘文为全音素文字，有18个辅音字母及5个元音字母。字母在词头、词中、词末会有不同写法。回鹘文由上至下拼写成列，列与列由左至右排。契丹人曾仿写回鹘字创制契丹小字，十三世纪的蒙古人也曾用回鹘字母缀写蒙古语，可见回鹘字影响之大。

回鹘族西迁以前，原信摩尼教，西迁后又接受佛教。因此在公元965年（宋太祖乾德三年），高昌回鹘可汗曾遣僧法渊来献佛牙，公元981年王延德使高昌时曾看到那里有“佛寺五十余区，皆唐朝所赐额，寺中有《大藏经》，《唐韵》，《玉篇》等”。因此，就有回鹘文翻译佛经之举。

2.所译佛经来源:（1）早期的回鹘文佛经就是译自当地的古代库车语，古代焉耆（qi)语。如，《弥勒会见记》等。（库车，维吾尔语意为悠久、长久。库车古称“龟兹”，历史悠久，文化灿烂，曾是联系和沟通亚欧大陆的桥梁，中西文化在这里交融，成为举世闻名的龟兹文化发祥地。）（焉耆语亦称吐火罗文A方言，当时主要使用于焉耆至商昌(今吐鲁番)一带，用中巫婆罗谜字母书写。）

《弥勒会见记》,1959年4月在新疆哈密县发现。剧本的回鹘文写本，近300页，每页宽22厘米，长44厘米，左边第7—9行间画有黑色圆圈，中间有一小孔用以穿绳，此种装帧称“梵夹装”。剧本中，每幕前都用红色标写出了演出该幕的场景说明和人物的神情、动作等，还有人物对话和舞台指示等，也用不同颜色标写区分了开来。

自治区博物馆研究员伊斯拉非尔·玉苏甫，副研究员艾力江·艾沙等学者一直热衷于对它的研究。2011年，他们共同申请的国家级课题《回鹘文哈密本〈弥勒会见记〉研究》成功立项。2012年，长期从事该领域研究的德国哥廷根大学皮特劳特（Jenspeterlaut）教授等来馆访问，表示愿意在平等且对等的基础上进行合作研究。2014年4月，《中国新疆维吾尔自治区博物馆与德国哥廷根大学突厥学—中亚研究系合作研究回鹘文〈弥勒会见记〉》项目终于得到了国家文物局批准立项。诸多的历史之谜，将会通过对两种版本的回鹘文《弥勒会见记》的比较研究，运用国际通行规范，对原文进行拉丁字母的换写、转写、汉文译文、注释等解开，相信不久的将来，《弥勒会见记》将以更加准确、完整的内容呈现出来，让现代人满足对它的时空想象。（2）译自汉文

如《金光明最圣王经》，《八阳神咒经》等。

1928年，新疆吐鲁番出土一部回鹘文写本《菩萨大唐三藏法师传》，简称《玄奘传》，抄本，是海内外孤本。书的内容是玄奘弟子慧立记述老师生平西行、求经的经过。回鹘佛教僧人详古舍利于十世纪上半叶译成回鹘文。

（3）译自藏文大部分是密宗经典。

《吉祥胜乐轮曼陀罗》是佛教密宗经典，梵文作Śrīcakrasamvara Mandala-Abhisamaya，藏文译本称之为Cakrasamvara-mandala。其回鹘文译本是由元朝帝师、萨迦五祖八思巴（1235～1280）的弟子本雅失里（Punyaśri）依据藏文本翻译的。

该文献早已引起国际学术界的重视，1928年，德国学者缪勒曾对其做过简略的研究。他注意到该文献与藏文文献《吉祥胜乐轮怛特罗》（藏文作Bde-mchog-lu’i-pa’i lugs-kyi sgrub-thabs rim-pa gsal-ba或Dpal ’khor-lo bde-mchog-gi dkyil-’khor-gyi ’khor-lo’i thabs rim-pa gsal-ba zhes-bya-ba，见载于《萨迦五祖全集》第6卷）近似之处甚多。其后，有不少学者都关注过这一文献，而用功最巨，成就也最大的当属匈牙利学者卡拉和德国学者兹默，二人合力于1978年完成了该文献的转写、注释和德文翻译工作，使该文献的全貌终于得以面世，引起了学界的重视。

回鹘文佛典主要是写本，木刻应属于元代。最晚的回鹘经是清康熙二十六年（公元1687年）在甘肃刻成的《金光明最胜王经》。高昌回鹘族还译过文学作品，如印度《罗摩衍那》，《五卷书》以及通过叙利亚景教徒传入的《伊索寓言》和属于摩尼教内容的一些赞美诗。

高昌回鹘族不仅从汉文，藏文，吐火罗文，梵文翻译了大量佛经，而且还翻译改写了许多源出佛教传说，本生故事的文学作品，如《恰希塔尼▪伊力克伯克》、《哈勒亚木哈拉和帕帕木哈拉》、《两王子的故事》、《神猴与帕德摩瓦提姑娘》、《达尼提·帕拉》等。《恰希塔尼▪伊力克伯克》源于佛教本生故事，通过对菩萨转世的恰希塔尼▪伊力克伯克翦除凶恶的妖魔，瘟神，解放人民的英勇无畏精神的描绘歌颂，反映出当时劳动人民战胜社会和自然邪恶势力的强烈愿望。作者采用对反面人物狰狞面目的夸张描绘，成功反衬出主人公的英雄形象。这种对比陪衬手法成为后代维吾尔文学创作所经常采用的艺术手段之一。

二．1.元代简介 2.蒙古文字的创新与元代的翻译力量 3.蒙汉文互译的情况 4.其他方面的翻译情况.1206年，乞颜部首领铁木真在蒙古鄂嫩河畔称汗，尊号成吉思汗。成吉思汗不断对外发动战争，逐渐吞并了金朝、西夏、西辽、花拉子模、大理，招降了吐蕃，建立了大蒙古国（蒙古帝国），势力延伸到了西亚和北亚地区，最远一度到达了东欧 和埃及。除主体政权外，其余占领的地区由成吉思汗的子孙分封统治，也就是四大汗国。

1271年，成吉思汗的孙子忽必烈改国号为元（建立了元朝），1279年灭南宋统一中国。元朝统一中国后持续对外扩张，但在出海征伐日本和东南亚诸国时屡遭失利，如元日战争、元越战争、元爪战争等。

2.蒙古文字的创新与元代的翻译力量 在成吉思汗之前，蒙古各部未见有文字通行。蒙古勃兴之后，虽曾使用文字，然多借自他族，并多行于其他各族。宋人徐霆说：“鞑人本无字书，然今之所用，„„„„行于回回者，则用回回字，„„„„行于汉人，契丹，女真诸王国者，则用汉字”。清人赵翼说：“太祖（铁木真）以来，借用畏吾字以通文檄（xi)。世祖（忽必烈）始用西僧八思巴造蒙古字”。所谓借用畏吾字，就是用畏吾字来拼写蒙古语，这种文字曾长期通行于蒙古人中。蒙古人用以撰写本本族的历史，文学著作，也用以译写异族的典籍。但因这种文字不能完全表达蒙古语。因此成吉思汗以后，有吐蕃喇嘛接受当时蒙古贵族的指使，试图创制新的文字，未成而死。忽必烈继汗位后，乃命蕃僧八思巴再创蒙古新字。

八思巴制定的蒙古新字是拼音文字，共有四十一个字母，拼成的单词有一千多个。由世祖下令通行的时间是公元1269年，规定以后用之译写一切文字。但是由于新字笔划复杂，并未通行，只有玺书原来的上与汉字并用而已。原来的畏吾蒙字仍为译写用字。武宗海山时，又命吉敖德斯尔更创新字，基本奠定了今蒙古旧字的基础。

从元世祖忽必烈开始，元朝共传十帝，除文宗和顺帝外，“诸帝多不习汉文”。因此，“凡进文字，必皆译以 国书”。举凡接见，均借助于“通事”，蒙古语称为“怯里马赤”，（意译为翻译者。引申为代言人。）或“乞里密赤”，“却里马赤”。朝廷大臣和国君一样，也很少有人学习汉文。所以，元朝和辽，金一样，都设有译史与通事。

译史，是笔译吏员，有蒙古译史和回回译史之分。

蒙古译吏的职责是将中央下达的或由地方和某些部门向中央和皇帝呈报的公文，奏章，材料等译成蒙古文字，以供皇帝审阅或蒙古官员执行。蒙古贵族为了防范汉人，南人官员，用蒙古文字亦可起保密作用。

回回译史，是专为色目官员服务的，其职责是将公文，表章，报告，表册等译成波斯文字，供色目官员照办。（色目人（「各色名目之人」）是元代时对来自中西亚的各民族的统称，也是元代人民的四种位阶之一，广义上的来讲，一切除蒙古、汉人、南人以外的西北民族都算是色目人。）

“通事之设，本为蒙古，色目官员语言不通，俾bǐ 之传达”。“各路所设通事，于达鲁花赤之前通传口舌”。（达鲁花赤是蒙元时期具有蒙古民族特点和设置最为普遍的官职）由于通事终日活动在官员左右，其作用大于译史。有时，还常作官府代表办理公事。

元代培养译员，设有专门学校。（元朝回回国子学

据《新元史·选举志》记载：“回回国子学，到元二十六年(公元1289年)始置。是年五月，尚书省臣言：亦思替非文字宜施于用，今翰林院益福的哈鲁丁能通其字学，乞授以学士之职，凡公卿大夫与富民之弟子，皆依汉人入学之制，日肄习之。从之。八月，遂置国子学。”（《新元史》卷六十四《志》第三十一）。另据陈垣《元西域人华化考》：“亦思替非为波斯古代都城之名，亦思替非文字者，波斯文字也。回回国子学者，教习波斯文字者也。元时所谓回回文字，实波斯文字。”由此可见，元朝的“回回国子学”是一所教授波斯语言文字的学校。

《辞海》“回回国子学”的解释是：“元代培养译员的学校。学生为公卿大夫及‘富民’子弟，供给廪膳，学习亦思替非文字（即回回文）。学成后派充各官府译史。”（引自《辞海》缩印本第765页。）

已故江苏师范学院(1983年改名为苏州大学)顾树森教授的遗作《中国历代教育制度》一书，把元代的中央学校分为三种：一为“国子学”，1269年创立，主要教授儒家经典。二为“蒙古国子学”，1271年创立，规定学生为一百五十人，计蒙古学生七十人，色目学生二十人，汉学生六十人。学科以蒙古文译写《通鉴节要》为主，并兼学算学。学成考试，精通者量授官职。三为“回回国子学”，创立于元世祖到元二十六年（1289年），学生名额定为五十人。入学资格，限于公卿大夫及富民子弟。学科授以回回文文字为主，专以培养诸官衙译史人才为目的。其余学官与考试的制度未详。）

前述蒙古字学，不论是在京师者，还是在府，州者，其毕业生员经翰林院“出题试问，观其所对精通者”，即委以必阇 shé 赤，学官或译史之职。

除译史，通事外，元朝在中央政权机构内还设置以下专为皇帝服务的翻译部门和官员: 1.蒙古翰林院，其职责是“掌译写一切文字及颁降玺书，并用蒙古新字，仍各以国字副之”。

2.内八府宰相，其职责是“掌诸王朝朝觐傧介之事，遇有诏令，则与蒙古翰林院同译写而润色之”。

3.艺文监，“专以国语敷译儒书，及儒书之合校雠chóu 者，俾兼治之”。4.经筵译文官，负责为帝王翻译和讲解儒家经典之类。5.扎尔里赤，又称扎鲁忽赤，负责“职书制诰 gào”。

3.蒙汉文互译的情况

(1)诏书制造及官方文书的翻译 元世祖在蒙古新字制定以后，便规定诏书制造及官方文书一律以蒙文为正本，附以各地区的文字。因此，诏书之类必须译成汉文。赵翼曾在《廿niàn二史札记》中曾指出，有两篇诏书的译笔截然不同。一篇是宪宗蒙哥写给忙哥撒儿之子脱欢和脱尔赤的诏书。赵翼说，此诏译者是模仿“尚书体”。另一篇是泰定帝登基的诏书，完全是用“白话”译的。

关于政府机构的公文也有不少是用“白话”翻译的。译成汉语的公文及其他未录文书，其实不是元代的白话，而是不伦不类的硬译文体。其特点是：

大量夹杂音译的蒙古词语。硬译蒙古语的语法，破坏了汉语的习惯说法。不是用汉语的正常术语，而是硬译蒙古词语。

（2）汉本典籍之类的翻译

元朝统治者属于文化比较落后的少数民族，他们统治中国，就得向过去有经验的汉族帝王学习“御民”之术。儒家经典提供了不少治民，愚民的方法，因此他们有必要向之求教。关于所译书籍，《元史》中零星记载：

《大学衍义》，为元、明、清三朝皇族学士必读之书，被康熙皇帝称为“力明正学”，其治国之道、民生之理和廉政文化很为后世所推崇。

《孝经》，中国古代儒家的伦理著作。儒家十三经之一。传说是孔子作，但南宋时已有人怀疑是出于后人附会。清代纪昀在《四库全书总目》中指出，该书是孔子“七十子之徒之遗言”，成书于秦汉之际。自西汉至魏晋南北朝，注解者及百家。

《贞观政要》明成化九年内府刊本，其作者为唐代吴兢，是一本政论类史书。《贞观政要》主要内容记载了唐太宗在位的二十三年中一些政治、经济上的重大措施。

《尚书》《尚书》列为重要核心儒家经典之一，“尚”即“上”，《尚书》就是上古的书，它是中国上古历史文献和部分追述古代事迹著作的汇编。

《帝范》，《忠经》，《帝戒》，《帝训》及其他（3）汉族大臣奏章的翻译 由于元朝诸帝及蒙古大臣多不学汉文，因此汉族大臣所上的奏章必须经过翻译，再呈御览。

（4）国史的编译

元代的各朝都组织力量编写前一朝历史，名为“实录”，还纂修过《经世大典》。这些国史均是汉文写的。明代宋濂等编修《元史》，除顺帝一朝的史实外，其他各朝都系据原有的《实录》和《经世大典》等删削而成。但元代国史，还有一份是用蒙文记录的，叫做《脱卜赤颜》或《脱必赤颜》，记成吉思汗前后的蒙古史实。

文宗在至顺元年委任赵世延，赵世安纂修《经世大典》，“专命奎章阁阿怜帖木儿，忽都鲁都儿迷失等译国言所记典章为汉语”。后来奎章阁的纂修人员又要求从翰林国史院取出密藏的《脱卜赤颜》一书，译出太祖以来的史实。文宗诏令翰林学士承旨押不花和塔失海牙负责此事。押不花说：”《脱卜赤颜》事关密禁，非可另外人传写，臣等不敢奉诏。“文宗同意，便作罢论。但仁宗即位后，曾”命察汗译《脱卜赤颜》，名曰《圣武开天记》。这是节译本，并非全文。

在翰林国史院编写各朝实录时，又往往把汉文本《实录》转移成蒙文，送呈皇帝审阅。

4.其他方面的翻译情况

（1）用蒙文翻译汉文以外的其他文字

北庭感木鲁国人必兰纳识里，皇庆中受命翻译诸凡经典，还常译诸蕃朝贡的表箴文字。

搠思吉幹节儿，公元1295年应成宗之邀来大都主管佛教事物，并从事佛典的翻译。他最大的贡献是改革畏吾尔蒙古字，编成一部蒙古语语法书《蒙文启蒙》，解释了蒙文元音和辅音结合所构成音节的规律，并提出了蒙文字母的一百二十三个音节及蒙文所包含的阴，阳，中三性及语音和协律，还参照古印度语音学的五行说阐述了蒙语的音素。

又有萨迦派喇嘛法光，于武宗至大年中，增定八思巴所制定的蒙古新字，又与西藏，蒙古，中国及回鹘的学者共译西藏经为蒙古语。

藏族最早的一部格言体哲理诗集《萨迦格言》，首先译成蒙古新字，在国内外已公认为藏族名著之一。

从吐鲁番出土的文书中有畏吾蒙古文字译本《亚历山大传奇》。

意大利修士约翰▪孟德▪高维诺来元朝传教，曾把《新约》等译成蒙文。（2）用汉文译蒙文以外的文字

山东长清县大灵岩寺千佛殿东壁的元代藏，汉两体碑

河南浚（xun)县天宁寺里的藏，汉两体碑

地理学家朱思本曾从梵文译过河源方面的资料。

《回回药方》一书是元末由阿拉伯文译成汉文的。

伊朗合赞汗史大丞相剌失德▪哀丁▪法都刺编写世界史《史集》中关于蒙古这部分最为翔实，由元朝官员孛（bo）罗亲临伊朗进行协助，还要请两位中国文人替他翻译汉文材料。