第一篇：a brief history of Britain 英国历史简述
A Brief History of Britain
by Pam Barrett
When French and British construction workers met beneath the English Channel in 1990, Britain became linked to Continental Europe for the first time in 7,000 years.For it was then, when the last Ice Age ended, that melting ice flooded the low-lying lands, creating the English Channel and the North Sea and turning Britain into an island.This fact of being “set apart” was one of the two seemingly contradictory factors which would affect every aspect of the country’s subsequent history.The other was a genius for absorbing every invader and immigrant, creating a mongrel breed whose energies would establish an empire incorporating a quarter of the population of the planet.Early settlers: Stone Age people arrived, probably from the Iberian peninsula, in around 3000 BC.They lived by farming but left few traces.The most dramatic ancient monument is Stonehenge in Wiltshire, built during the next 1,000 years.How and why it was built was a mystery, but it must have had religious and political significance.The Beaker people, named after their pottery, were next to arrive.But a more importance wave of immigration, in 700 BC, was that of the Celts from eastern and central Europe.The ancestors of the Highland Scots, the Welsh and the Irish, they left behind a rich legacy of intricate and beautiful metalwork.The Romans: British recorded history began when Julius Caesar first crossed the English Channel in 55 BC.Roman rule continued for nearly 400 years, failing to subjugate only Scottish tribes, whose raiding parties were contained by Emperor Hadrian who built a defended wall right across the north of England.Eventually, threatened by barbarians at the gates of Rome, they abandoned Britain, leaving behind them a network of towns, mostly walled, a superb road system, and a new religion, Christianity.The next wave of invaders from central Europe – Angles, Saxons and Jutes – gradually pushed the native Celts west into Wales and north into Scotland.Anglo-Saxon dominance, too, lasted for four centuries, though it did not extend to Scotland, where a separate kingdom was forged by the Picts and the Scots.Although the Anglo-Saxons were a ferocious bunch, constantly squabbling, they laid the foundations of the English state, dividing the country into shires and devising an effective farming system.Their Teutonic religion, worshipping gods such as Woden and Thor, eclipsed Christianity until, at the end of the 6th century, the monk Augustine(once heard to remark “O Lord, make me chaste, but not yet”)converted the kings and the nobles.Monasteries sprang up, becoming places of learning.Treasures contained in the monasteries were a lure for the Vikings, whose ruthless raids from across the North Sea began in the 9th century.Initially they were defeated at sea by Alfred the Great, founder of the British Navy, but eventually they too were assimilated.Canute, the Danish leader, became king of Britain.The Norman Conquest: Links with Normandy, the part of France settled by the Vikings, were strong, and in 1066 William, Duke of Normandy, claimed the English throne.His triumph at the battle of Hastings decisively changed English history.As W.C.Sellar and R.J.Yeatman put it in their classic humorous history 1066 And All That: “The Norman Conquest was a Good Thing, as from this time onwards England stopped being conquered and thus was able to become top nation.”
William parceled out the land to barons in return for their loyalty, and the barons parceled out land in turn to lesser nobles in return for goods and services.At the bottom were the peasants, whose feudal status resembled slavery – hence the potency of the Robin Hood legend, celebrating the Nottingham outlaw who stole from the rich to give to the poor.Although much of the Norman kings’ energies were devoted to protecting their borders, there was a great flowering of Norman culture, producing many erudite historians and scholars.In 1167 Oxford University was founded.Thanks to the influence of William Shakespeare’s history plays, much of the next period of English history is popularly remembered through his view of the shifting alliances of the Plantagenet and Tudor kings who ruled from 1154 to 1547.During this period of conflict and disease – the Black Death alone killed nearly half the population in 1348-49 – the royal succession was by no means assured.Power struggles propelled to the throne those who could command the greatest military backing from the majority of the rival barons, a process vividly illustrated by the Wars of Roses, the tussles between the House of Lancaster and York between 1455 and 1485.Frequent strife with France(including the intermittent Hundred Years’ War from 1337 to 1453)dominated international relationships.Internally, Wales was subjugated by 1288, though Scottish independence was recognized when Robert Bruce defeated English forces at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314.Britain’s most famous king, Henry VIII, is remembered not only for his six wives(two of whom he had beheaded)but also for bringing about the Reformation, making England a Protestant rather than a Catholic country.His quarrel centred on the Pope’s refusal to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, who could not oblige him with a male heir.Doctrinal differences aside, however, Henry capitalized on a growing distaste for the church’s excessive privilege and wealth, and was thus able to get away with seizing enough monastic lands and property to finance his rule.Under Henry, Wales was formally united with England in 1536.The Age of Elizabeth: England entered its Golden Age under Elizabeth I, Henry’s daughter by Anne Boleyn.The Elizabethan Age has a swashbuckling ring to it: the Virgin Queen and her dashing courtiers;the defeat of the Spanish Armada;Sir Walter Raleigh’s discovery of tobacco in Virginia;Sir Francis Drake’s circumnavigation of the world.Poetry, plays and pageantry flourished during her 45-year reign.When Elizabeth, the “Virgin Queen”, died without an heir, the throne passed to James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England, inaugurating the Stuart dynasty and effectively joining together the two kingdoms.The Stuart period was one of conflict between Crown and Parliament.James I, a staunch believer in the Divine Right of Kings, would have preferred no Parliament at all, and Charles I dissolved Parliament and initiated an 11-year period of absolute rule.The upshot was a civil war from 1622 to 1649;Charles lost and was beheaded.A period of republicanism followed, under the rule of Oliver Cromwell, but after his death the monarchy was restored and prospered under Charles II.His brother, who succeeded him as James II, was less circumspect and tried to restore absolute monarchy and the Catholic religion.The newly emerging political parties, growing in confidence, forced him to flee and invited his daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, Prince William of Orange, to take the throne.This “Glorious Revolution”, although bloodless, was nonetheless a revolution and paved the way for Parliament’s permanent dominance over the Crown.In 1707 an Act of Union united England and Scotland, although Scotland was allowed to retain its own Church and legislature.Many Scots felt that the union was bulldozed through by English politicians’ intent on improving their international trade prospects, and Scottish pressure to unravel the union is still a political issue.Political pragmatism triumphed again in 1714 when, a reliable Protestant monarch being needed in a hurry, a search through the family tree came up with George I of Hanover in Germany.Although he spoke no English and had little interest in his subjects, he founded a dynasty which was to span 115 years and encompass an expanding empire and an industrial revolution.The age of empire: Despite the loss of its American colonies in 1783, Britain’s trade-driven adventurism was undiminished, giving it control of West Africa and India, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, some Caribbean island, and Australia and New Zealand.At home, farmers embraced more efficient and profitable methods, which led to the eviction of many peasant farmers who either emigrated to the New World, carrying with them a resentment that would bequeathed to future generations, or left the land to find work in the towns, which rapidly became overcrowded.This combination of landowners with surplus capital to invest and laborers in search of a living was one reason why British became the first country to industrialize.Political stability helped too, as did the security of being an island, natural resources, good trade arrangements and a native genius for inventing things.The Scottish inventor James Watt modified and improved the steam engine in the 1770s, opening the way for the efficient powering of trains, ships and factory machinery.The invention of the Spinning Jenny and the power loom created mass production in textiles.The smelting of iron with coke, instead of charcoal, hugely increased the production of iron.A massive building program of railways, roads and canals created a new class of industrialist, whose fortunes rivaled those of the aristocracy.But it also created abominable working conditions in mines and factories, conditions which led to the slow and painful development of trade unionism.Political reforms, seized elsewhere in Europe by revolution, came gradually in Britain.Parliamentary seats were distributed more fairly among the growing new towns, but voting was still based on property ownership and universal suffrage didn’t come until 1918(and even then was scarcely universal since it excluded women under 30).The problem that dominated parliamentary debate during this period was the intractable Irish Question.The resentment over centuries of British rule in Ireland bubbled to the surface after the potato famines of the mid-1840s, when about 20 percent of Ireland’s population died of starvation and more than a million people emigrated to escape a similar fate.Demands for Irish independence grew but they were demands which many English politicians, conscious of the security problems of having an independent and possibly none-too-friendly neighbor to their west, were reluctant to grant.As with today’s IRA campaign, the debate had a backdrop of violence.Today, however, the Victorian Age is remembered as a time of exuberant self-confidence, symbolized by the building in London of the Crystal Palace to showcase Britain’s industrial and technical achievements in the Great Exhibition of 1851.But many of London’s inhabitants might well have wondered when they would benefit from all these accomplishments.For them, the squalor and crime which Charles Dickens portrayed so evocatively in his novels were all too real.Working-class life improved considerably during the last quarter of the 19th century.Many homes had gas lighting and streets were cleaned by the new municipal councils.A new police force contained crime.The music hall provided inexpensive entertainment in towns.Bicycles became a common method of transport, and a trip by train to seaside resorts was for many a highlight of summer.In London, trains in the world’s first underground railway began puffing their way through smoke-filled tunnels between Paddington and Farrington in 1863.Art and drama flourished.By the time of Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in 1897, the country was feeling quite pleased with itself.Britannia ruled the waves, and anything seemed possible.The 20th century: But all good things come to an end.The Boer War of 1900 ended in victory for the British in South Africa but damaged its international reputation.France, Germany and America were becoming powerful competitors for world markets.The newly united German state was flexing its military muscles.The Edwardian era of the early 20th century, seemingly an idyllic time, was built on shifting sands.Dragged into World War I by a complex web of international alliances, Britain faced unimaginable carnage in which more than a million of its young men died.Social unrest at the end of the war, though less devastating than in the defeated Germany, gave more power to women(who had shouldered a heavy burden while the men were at war)and led to a General Strike by dissatisfied workers in 1926.The Irish Question was partly answered with the creation of an independent Irish free State, but six Protestant-dominated counties in the north stayed under UK rule – a time bomb which exploded in 1969.The shock waves from the 1929 New York Stock Market crash plunged Britain into depression, throwing millions out of work, especially in the industrial areas of northern England, south Wales and Clydeside in Scotland.The monarchy was rocked by crisis in 1936 when Edward VIII, who had just become king, decided to marry the twice-divorced Mrs Wallis Simpson.His family, the church and the government opposed the match, forcing him to abdicate.His brother, a reluctant George VI, restored the monarchy’s popularity, not least through the support which he and his wife Elizabeth(later the Queen Mother)gave to their subjects during the German air raids of World War II.Although Britain’s island status saved it from invasion, this war involved civilians in an unprecedented way.Cities like Coventry were devastated by bombing and the Blitz radically changed the face of London for the first time since the Great Fire of 1666.Many children were sent to live in the countryside.Most social inequalities were set aside during the war and, when peace returned in 1945, voters turned to the Labour party in hope that it could develop an even greater egalitarianism.It laid the basis of a welfare state, providing free medical care for everyone as well as financial help for the old, the sick and the unemployed.But the war had left Britain broke.While Germany and Japan rebuilt their industries almost from scratch, helped by international aid, Britain was left to patch together a severely damaged economy.It could no longer sustain an empire, and gradually its colonies became independent.Many former subjects, especially from the Caribbean and the Indian sub-continent, settled in Britain, raising fears of racial conflict that, despite some serious tensions, were never(quite)fulfilled.As the austere 1950s gave way to the ’60s, things started to look up.New universities were built, a motorway network launched, and a reinvigorated culture promoted by a group of writers dubbed “the angry young men”.Much of the explosion of new talent came from the north of England: actors like Albert Finney, playwrights like Alan Sillitoe, and pop groups galore, led by the Beatles.The swinging Sixties, powered by a newly affluent youth, had arrived.Britain’s heavy industry might be in trouble, but in fashion and pop music it led the world.The good times died in the 1970s as inflation and unemployment soared and labour unrest led to endless strikes.Joining the European Community in 1973 seemed to produce few obvious economic benefits and revenues from North Sea oil were quickly spent rather than invested.Margaret Thatcher came to power in 1979 promising tough new policies.Her popularity quickly faded, but was revived in 1982 by the Falklands War when an invading Argentinean force was beaten off the South Atlantic islands, remnants of the old empire.Although she went on to win two further elections convincingly, by 1990 her popularity, always firmer abroad than at home, was so shaky that her party, fearing that she would not win them the next election, replaced her with a less combative leader, John Major.He duly won the 1992 election, but a reinvigorated Labour Party under Tony Blair won in 1997.The overall problems did not change, though.The economy remained weak, distrust of the European Community did not abate, nationalism simmered in Wales and Scotland, the conflict in Northern Ireland dragged on, and the Royal Family’s private life continued to obsess the tabloid press.It was business as usual, in fact – which, in a country obsessed by continuity, was immensely reassuring.
第二篇：材料学的历史简述
姓名：何莞晨
学号：2014012075
材料学的历史简述
1.按材料划分的时代
生活离不开材料，人类的一切生产活动所需的工具都建立在合适的材料的基础上。同样，人类社会的发展历程，也是以材料为主要标志的。材料的进步标志着人类科技的进步，生产能力的增强，以及生活质量的提升。人类对材料的认识和利用能力，决定了社会的形态。考古学家常把材料及其器具作为划分时代的标志，如石器时代、青铜器时代、铁器时代、高分子材料时代等等。
一百万年以前，祖先们便学会了用石头作为工具，进行狩猎和采集，进入了石器时代。随着使用技术的提高，充满智慧的先人开始将天然的粗大石料进行加工、打磨，变成更便于操控的器材，如刀、棍、箭、碗等。先进的工具使人们的生活水平有很大提升。锋利的刀具可以高效地采摘，还能进行收割，为种植打下了基础；棍棒、弓箭不仅可以防御猛兽，还能狩猎一些以前无法捕获的大型动物；石制容器可以储水，避免了旱灾造成的损失。随后的新石器时代中，祖先们又开始了陶器的使用，这种容易塑造、容易成形的材料，极大提高了储备物资的能力，使人们的生活水平更进一步。
整个石器时代持续了约三百万年的时间，直到人类发现了优秀的金属材料——铜。早在四千多年前的新石器时代晚期，人类已开始加工和使用金属，最先进行加工使用的金属是铜。人们在采集石料的时候偶然发现与石料性质完全不同的材料，它不像石料那样容易劈裂剥落，反而有优越的延展性，并有光泽，还具有足够的硬度。人类便这样开始接触并使用铜。考古学的证据表明1，早在公元前二十一世纪，我国就掌握了炼铜工艺，进入了青铜器时代。相传禹统治时期便“以铜为兵”，“禹铸九鼎”2。青铜器的出现，对提高社会生产力起了划时代的作用。青铜器由于其优秀的强度和铸造性，被广泛的应用于食器、乐器、兵器、工具、货币、铜镜等各领域的制造。
青铜器时代持续了数千年之久。随着金属冶炼技术的提高，比青铜器更加优秀的铁器，逐渐被人类所使用。铁比铜合金硬度更大，能用来制作更加锋利的器材。直到今天，铁以及它的衍生产品——钢，仍旧是人类发展无法取代的材料之一，广泛地被使用于建筑、能源、汽车、国防、电器、机械装备领域，并且需求量巨大。
时至今日，越来越多的新型材料被研制出来，人们进入了多种材料共同发展、共同统治世界的时期。高分子材料塑料、橡胶、纤维已成为现代工业的支柱之一，各种性能优越的合金被应用于各类制造业，硅材料成为高新技术产业中不可或缺的元素„„人类的生活质量也随着各种新型材料的应用日益提高。
2.金属材料的发展史
如果说材料标志着人类社会的进步，那金属材料的使用就标志着人类工业水平的发展。二十世纪之前，受到金属冶炼技术的限制，人类对于金属材料的利用顺序几乎完全按照它们的活动性由低到高的次序。最为惰性，也是最为昂贵的金属之一，金，在公元前六千年就被人类所使用3。金光泽灿烂，几乎不受腐蚀，置地较软便于加工，又因为其数量稀少，一直以来都被用做贵重的饰品。
铜、银、铅等较为惰性的金属，在公元前四千年左右依次被人类所利用。人类铜的使用的意义是巨大的，铜器是人类使用的第一种金属工具。人类对使用铜的鼎盛时期是中国青铜器时代，从夏、商、西周时期直到春秋及战国早期，持续时间约一千六百余年。这个时期的青铜器主要分为礼乐器、兵器及杂器。直到秦汉末年，青铜器的社会地位逐渐下降，开始被陶瓷、铁器所取代。同时代的银起着和金 同样的作用，象征着财富，而铅 由于其高韧性、延展性和耐腐蚀性，被大量用作管道材料，其化合物直到今天还被用做颜料。
汞的出现可追溯到公元前1500年，埃及人已经在古墓中使用汞。在古代中国。汞 基本处于被误用的状态，人们普遍迷信汞的医疗功效，而不知道其毒性。今天人类已经在各个领域开始禁用含汞材料，并寻找汞的替代品。
人类很早就开始对铁进行加工利用了，但是钢铁的大规模发展，还是上个世纪的事。钢铁可以说是人类现代工业的支柱。现代钢铁工业始建于19世纪初期，至今已有百年历史。但直到第二次世界大战前，钢铁工业发展缓慢，产量有限，生产国不多，且分布十分集中。二战后，世界钢铁工业迅猛发展。全球钢铁产量在1950年仅一亿多吨，到2013年，已经达到十六亿多吨4。在人类目前所使用的金属材料中，钢铁由于强度较大，价格较低，矿产丰富且便于冶炼，在建筑、机械、汽车、造船、铁道、石油、家电、集装箱等行业中有着极其广泛的应用，至今仍然是不可替代的金属材料。
随着科技的发展，人类对金属材料的性能要求也在不断提高，对质量更轻、强度更大的金属的需求越来越迫切。铝合金、钛合金等性能较钢铁更为优秀的合金被研制出来，它们的作用和意义及其重大。铝合金的突出特点是密度小、强度高，广泛应用于制造飞机、舰艇和载重汽车等，可增加它们的载重量以及提高运行速度，并具有抗海水侵蚀，避磁性等特点。而钛合金主要用于制作飞机发动机压气机部件，其次为火箭、导弹和高速飞机的结构件。这些合金的使用极大地推动了我国工业的发展。
面对21世纪人类科技虽然已推进到太空时代，电子资讯时代，各种新兴的材料如高分子材料，半导体材料。光电材料的白热化竞争，金属材料却未因而失去其魅力，反之在电脑、程控、材料等科技的支援下，金属材料不断在新的领域应用，仍是充满着无限发展的生命力。
近一二十年来，金属材料的发展受到了巨大的压力，这种压力来自外部和内部两个方面。就外部来讲，材料领域从金属材料的一统天下转变为金属、陶瓷、高分子材料三足鼎立的新格局。从内部来讲主要是能源、资源和环境三个方面。这些问题对金属材料今后的发展提出了有力的挑战。
3.材料科学成为一门学科
虽然人类对材料的研究与利用自古以来就在进行，但是材料科学成为一门独立的学科还是上个世纪（20世纪）的事5。这很大程度上时因为人类对于材料性质的本质的了解逐渐加深的缘故。
20世纪以来，人们在物理、化学、力学、生物学等学科上取得了卓越的成就，对物质结构、材料的理化性质和力学性能都有了更深入的了解，愈发认识到了对材料进行更深入研究的重要性，而不是仅停留在合成与利用层面上。与此同时，金属金属学、冶金学、工程陶瓷技术、高分子科学、半导体科学、复合材料科学以及纳米技术等新科学的发展促使了一系列新型材料的诞生，推进了人们对于材料的结构、生产工艺、性能以及相互作用的研究，这些前沿科学也为材料的设计、制造、加工与合理使用提供了充分的科学依据。现代的材料科学在以往的基础上，加强了对于复合材料、纳米材料的制备和创新，对于设计具有不同性能要求的材料复合工艺和纳米材料的凝聚过程，以及各类材料之间的相互渗透和交叉的性能以及综合性能的研究给予了更多的重视。现代材料科学不仅在材料的本质与其理化性能、力学性能放面有深入的研究，还对材料的加工过程有较高要求，于是材料科学还涉及到了工程技术学科以及制造加工材料的工程学科。在此基础上，“材料科学与工程”逐步形成学科，并发展成为一门独立的一级学科。作为一级学科的“材料科学与工程”下分三个二级学科：材料物理、材料化学、材料加工工程6。
在20世纪中期及以前，世界上的大学中研究材料的专业多只有冶金专业，可见当时人们对金属材料的重视。但随着性能卓越的无机非金属材料、高分子复合材料的出现和应用，金属之外的材料受到的重视程度越来越高。1955年，美国西北大学设立了世界上第一个材料科学与工程系7。美国麻省理工学院在1967年设立了材料科学与工程系8，由原来的冶金专业改名而来，现在已处于世界材料科学的领袖地位9。到今天，材料科学与工程已成为一门改变世界的学科，其受重视程度已与当年不可同日而语。
4.清华大学的材料专业
材料科学与工程系建于1988年，由原工程物理系材料物理教研组，原机械工程系金属材料教研组和化学工程系无机非金属材料教研组组建而成10。清华大学材料科学与工程系建于1988年，由化学工程系的无机非金属材料专业、工程物理系的材料物理专业、原机械工程系的金属材料专业组成。20多年来，建成了一支高水平的师资队伍，做出了一批高水平的科研成果，培养了一批优秀的人才，大大提升了清华大学材料学科的实力、学术声誉、国内和国际影响力。
2012年12月27日，经学校批准，由原材料科学与工程系、原机械工程系材料加工学科组建了材料学院。下设材料物理与化学系、材料加工工程系、无机非金属材料系、金属材料系、复合材料系。清华大学的材料专业虽然成立时间较短，但专业排名已经居于全国第一的水平11，世界排名也名列前茅12。
学院瞄准材料科学前沿、国民经济主战场和国家重大需求开展研究，注重学科交叉，形成了材料微结构及表征、计算材料科学及工程仿真、材料制备工艺及加工工程、新型信息功能材料、新型能源材料、环境友好材料、再生医学及仿生材料、极端条件材料等有特色和在国内外有影响力的研究方向。近年来，在Nature、Science等刊物上发表了大量学术论文，获得了多项国家级奖励。据ISI统计，本学科近10年发表的SCI论文数量和被引用次数居全球高校前列13。
5.国内材料科学的前沿以及现状简述
目前材料科学的前沿领域主要有各类电池、石墨烯等高强度的复合材料、高温超导材料、与电子信息行业密不可分的硅材料、高分子聚合物、生物材料等等。在这些领域能否实现突破基本上决定了我国能否继续在科技、军事方面处于国际社会的领先地位。正是由于受到了复合材料、硅材料等的限制，使中国一直以来不能在大型飞机、航空母舰以及信息技术领域取得成就。
我认为，中国在材料领域所以无法取得进一步突破，有以下几点原因。首先，中国对高级人才的重视程度不够，这导致国家培育出的尖端人才大量外流，无法为科研力量注入新鲜血液；其次，国家对材料领域的投入也不够，太急于求成，导致很多研究由于经费的不足而无法继续进行，这也使国内的科研项目充满了水分，无法取得实际进展；第三，中国的技术创新意识薄弱，在技术层面创新较少，从实验器材到设计，无处不依赖着进口。这使得中国在材料科学领域与世界顶尖水平还存在着一定的差距。
我国的对于材料的研究与应用还任重道远。想要取得重大突破，既需要国家的大力支持，也需要我国材料科学工作者们的共同努力。作为一名材料学院的学生，我学业有成后，也会奋力投入到祖国的材料事业建设当中，争取至少为祖国健康工作50年，为祖国的发展添力！
字数统计：4092 参考：
1.《考古学报》 1960年02期
2.“我国有色金属生产发展史话”
周越先
3.http://neon.mems.cmu.edu/cramb/Processing/history.html 4.World Steel Statistics data 2013.World Steel Association.23 January 2014 [4 February 2014] http://
第三篇：城管历史简述
城管历史简述
产生形成阶段：20世纪80年代初
整顿规范阶段：《行政诉讼法》，《城建监察规定》
全面发展阶段：《行政处罚法》，《城建监察规定》
制度创新阶段： 城市管理综合执法《行政处罚法》第16条
1956～1977基本杜绝流动摊贩没有统一执法机构
1978～1996农村人口逐渐进入城市谋生建立临时的执法机构
1996～2006农村人口、下岗职工加入到摊贩队伍中相对集中处罚权制度确立 2006～“崔英杰”案件后，流动摊贩不减反增城市管理方式亟待变革
第四篇：简述英国议会的形成
简述英国议会的形成
议会是英国政治的中心舞台，是英国的最高立法机关。政府从议会中产生，并对其负责。国会为两院制，由上院和下院组成。它的形成反映了英国民主进程。
英国民主化进程中重要的一步是英王约翰被迫签署的宪法性的《大宪章》。《大宪章》是英国宪法的基础，创造了“法治”这一理念。时至今日，《大宪章》中的3个条款目前仍然有效，包括保证英国教会的自由，确认伦敦金融城及其他城镇的特权，以及所有人都必须有合法的审判才能被监禁。1215年大宪章中最为重要的条文是第六十一条，即所谓“安全法”。根据该条的规定，由二十五名贵族组成的委员会有权随时召开会议，具有否决国王命令的权力；并且可以使用武力，占据国王的城堡和财产。这种权力是出自中古时期的一种法律程序，但加之于国王却是史无前例。它所最为关注的是对贵族、自由民的财产保障和人身保障。这是它的核心，也即为，它以明文的方式对自由民的财产权利和人身权利作出了规定。《自由大宪章》共63条，其中就有21条论述财产权。自此之后，无论是《权利请愿书》还是《权利法案》都未忽略这一点，就是排斥国王对于私人财产权的可能的侵害。“风能进，雨能进，国王不能进”的谚语体现了财产权首先应该使不受政治权力侵犯的权利“普遍的、平等的、个人化的财产权与专横的政治权力是完全对立的。承认每个人的财产权就意味着统治者的权力要从根本上受到节制。”
1258年，约翰儿子亨利三世再次被迫接受“贵族请愿书”，即《牛津条约》，承认了议会独立于国王并定期开会的法定存在。郡法庭设4名骑士组成陪审小组；由贵族组成一个永久性的15人会议，参与国家管理，国王在处理国务的时候必须遵从劝导，大会有权利指定首席法官、秘书长和财政大臣；每年举行三次大会议，没有大会议同意，国王不得增加新税，不得没收、分配、监护土地。亨利三世不得不接受条例，向教会屈服，1260年以后他基本上没有执行大宪章和牛津条例的内容，从而引起了贵族的分裂。
查理一世登基。他继任后，英国与西班牙、与法国之间宗教战争使国库空虚，财政紧张。为了维持战事，查理一世想到的最主要的手段就是增加税收。但是自《大宪章》签署开始，开征新税的权力就属于议会。国王要想征收新税，必须得到议会的批准。议会向国王提交了一份《权利请愿书》，规定国王不经议会同意不得征收新税。查理一世却对文意加以曲解，并且瞒着议会征收新税。于是议会号召民众不再向国王纳税，作为回应，国王强行解散了议会。直到1640年，英国没有再召开议会，这段时期称之为“无议会时期”。在此时期，查理一世强行征收各种名目的赋税，引起了民众的强烈不满，加上因宗教问题而反抗国王的苏格兰，迫使查理一世在1640年11月重新召开议会，这届议会断断续续一直持续到1653年，史称“长期议会”。议会召开之初，向国王递交了一份《大抗议书》，重申了议会的要求。国王立刻亲率人马逮捕反对者，却遭到强有力的回击，查理一世被迫离开伦敦，并于1642年8月22日向议会宣战，拉开了内战的序幕。
这时的英国拥有广大殖民地的海上强国。市场不断扩大，财富随之增加，同时国内工场手工业也已经有了很大的发展。资本主义经济的发展大大加强了资产阶级和新贵族的势力。当时英国的封建经济基础瓦解了，但是保护它的上层阶级却不愿自动退出历史舞台，这成为资本主义进一步发展的最大阻碍。也是英国爆发资产阶级革命的根本原因之一。
苏格兰国王詹姆士·斯图亚特继承后英国王位并不断鼓吹"君权神授'的说法，声称国王是上帝派到人间的最高权威，有无限的权力。他不把议会放在眼里，曾三次解散议会；他不关心英国的海上贸易，不重视建设海军；这些政策大大阻碍了英国资本主义的发展，引起了资产阶级和新贵族的强烈不满。查理一世继位后，大肆搜刮钱财，仍然独断专行，由于议会不同意他随意收税，他竟多次解散议会，结果形成多年无议会统治的局面。此时的英国，一方面王室生活极度腐化，挥霍无度，国家处在无序之中；另一方面国王征收各种苛捐杂税，压榨劳动人民，大量工人失业，反对压迫的农民要求取消地租，获得土地，革命运动随之逐渐蓬勃兴起，越演越烈。城市平民和失业的手工业者为生活所迫时常暴动，查理一世的专制统治使英国社会的各种矛盾迅速激化。
英国资产阶级革命时期的内战共有两次，第一次内战分为两个阶段：第一阶段从1642年到1644年夏，军事主动权基本上掌握在国王手中，议会当时主要处于防守地位。第二阶段从1644年夏到1646年，军事主动权完全转到议会手中。英国革命确立了“议会制君主立宪制”、“内阁制”，颁布《权利法案》。以法律形式对国王的权力进行制约，人类社会由专制转向民主，由人治转向法制。该法案体现了国王的权力受到议会牵制的宗旨，明确了“议会至上”的原则，把国王的权力转移到了议会。更进一步的是，他们使内阁向议会负责，即国王必须提请获得议会多数的政党来组阁，若议会不信任，内阁必须辞职，或者解散议会。但若新选出的议会仍然不信任内阁，则内阁必须辞职。于是，英国的君主立宪政治通过这次不流血的革命而正式确立下来。这是人类宪政民主史上的一个关键转折点。“光荣革命”后建立起来的议会权力超过君主的立宪君主制度以及两党制度，不仅对英国以后的历史发展，而且对欧美许多国家的政治都产生了重要影响。英国的政治制度及由此而萌发的政治思想，对欧洲绝对君主专制制度是一个沉重的打击，而对一些民主、进步的思想家，如18世纪法国的启蒙思想家孟德斯鸠、伏尔泰等则起了巨大的鼓舞作用，从某种意义上，可以说是法国大革命的一针催化剂。同时，对亚洲的中国也产生了巨大影响，中国的维新派在为改革而奋斗的时候，就常常引用英国的民主政治制度作为楷模。也使一些封建专制的国家陷入害怕和担忧。但是英国革命毕竟是不彻底革命，没有从政治制度上彻底铲除旧的毒瘤。但对1789年法国大革命影响却是显而易见的。而且英国通过革命推翻了君主专制，推动了历史的进程，是世界近代史的开端。
1690年，英国议会的《财政法案》将国王的财政权进行限制；1694年的《三年法案》限制了国王召集、解散议会的随意性；1701年颁布的《王位继承法》旨在通过规定王位继承问题，实现资产阶级对王权的控制。同时又规定，国王无权干涉立法和司法，无权赦免议会弹劾的案件，这就意味着司法权与行政权的分立，即司法独立。1714年，乔治一世即位，因不通英语，逐渐不出席内阁会议，而由内阁中一名大臣负责主持内阁会议。1721年，下院多数党领袖、内阁首席大臣兼财政大臣沃波尔取代国王成为内阁首脑。沃波尔内阁是英国首届正规内阁。1742年，沃波尔因失去议会的支持而辞职，他这一行为开创了内阁得不到议会信任时必须辞职的先例，1784年小皮特首相遭到议会下院反对时，提请国王解散下院，提前大选，获胜后仍继续任职。他的做法也成为惯例。经过一个多世纪的变革，到1832年议会改革后，议会不但成为实际的最高立法机关，而且也取得了决定内阁人选，监督内阁施政，决定内阁去留及干预司法工作的大权。国王的行政权力被剥夺殆尽，成为“统而不治”的君王，议会制度正式宣告形成。
英国的资产阶级改革之所以能够成功是历史的必然。英国在资产阶级革命以前就已经将革命后要建立制度和思想建立起来了。这是英国商品经济和资本主义经济发展的结果。资产阶级革命前的英国社会是一个具有相当资本主义经济成分的被资本主义化了的封建君主专制社会。它早已具备了资产阶级革命和改革的条件和基础,并且随着资本主义经济不断的发展壮大,这种革命和改革的条件和基础变成了一种需要。正是这样,资产阶级革命在轰轰烈烈地爆发以后不久便停顿下来,接着发生了没有流血和牺牲的资产阶级改良。这种改良完成了各民古诶有完成的任务--建立了资本主义君主立宪制。可以这样说,英国的资产阶级革命是改革中的革命,革命是改良的先锋的前兆,而改良则是革命的继续和发展。英国特有的国情和决定了英国所走的这一条有革命向改良过度的道路,并且决定了它的成功。
第五篇：简述 怎么在英国写论文
大学四年都读下来了，怎么可能连作业都不会做?但是，在英国读书，中国学生碰到最大的问题就是：如何写论文?怎样准备口头答辩?很多在英国留学的同学经常为了作业通宵达旦。
英国老师布置的作业一般有论文、口头答辩和案例分析三种。老师在学期开始就会给每个学生一个教学大纲。教学大纲首页一定清楚写了这科的目的、在学期结束以后学生要达到的要求、科目教学的内容、教学方式和作业题目。看看每节课前要求阅读的参考书清单，准会傻眼：少则10本，多则20本。每本书都有“杂志的面子，字典的肚子”，要求一个星期内读完。很多学生偷懒不读书，上课时“如入迷雾”，不知老师所云。听不懂老师的课也就不知道如何做作业了。所以，在英国读书首先要学会如何阅读。要学会抓住重点，做好笔记，那一天读一本书是没有问题的。
另外，对作业的形式也要了解清楚。论文通常分6大部分：介绍、背景、研究的问题、影响问题的因素、解决方法和总结。写的时候，最好有大标题、小标题，把每一个观点阐述得清晰明了。其中，介绍和总结是最重要的，因为有的老师，只看介绍就知道你文章的思路，看总结就知道你研究的结果。所以，在介绍的章节中要清楚写出你写这篇文章的原因，你将如何写，文章分几部分。一个好的开始往往能给你赢得很多印象分。在总结中，应提出你对这个领域的未来展望，最好有属于自己的建议，不必担心是否可行，但一定要有创造性。口头答辩是中国学生的弱项。中国学生喜欢预先写好发言稿，然后将它背下来。可是，答辩分成两部分，一是发言，二是提问。你往讲台上背完发言稿，同学和老师就会针对你刚刚发言的疑点，逐一问问题。结果常常站在讲台上张口结舌，无“还招之力”。
其实，不少外国学生在口头答辩中，不一定表现得比中国学生好，但是，他们发言从来不背发言稿，而是准备一张张小卡片，上面写了主要的论点。他们一边看提示论点，一边将相关例子，用自己的语言讲出来。至于应付提问环节，他们会化被动为主动：在发言的最后，自己先准备好一条到两条的问题，问在场同学，同学们就只能按照你的思路提问。
至于案例分析，通常要你针对一个公司，或一件事，发表你个人的观点。比如商科案例分析，要掌握资料，首先可以上网搜寻，一般在网上已经可以找到公司背景介绍、公司的营运和资产负债表、公司的策略这几项内容。然后，再通过书本和杂志的分析找到一些关于这个行业的大环境和公司的内部结构、公司存在的问题的一些文章。最后，你还可以打电话和公司公关部门的人联系，如果能约一个采访，那拿到的资料更多;如果不行就在电话上采访，了解公司策略，案例分析就可以做得十分不错了。同样的作业，我在中国也做过。只是，到了英国，用不同的方法做得更好。
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