英语专业论文翻译

第一篇：英语专业论文翻译

A smart copper(II)-responsive binucleargadolinium(III)complex-based magnetic resonanceimaging contrast agent†

Yan-meng Xiao,ab Gui-yan Zhao,ab Xin-xiu Fang,ab Yong-xia Zhao,ab Guan-hua Wang,c Wei Yang*a and Jing-wei Xu*a A novel Gd-DO3A-type bismacrocyclic complex, [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA], with a Cu2+-selective binding unitwas synthesized as a potential “smart” copper(II)-responsive magnetic resonance imaging(MRI)contrast agent.The relaxivity of the complex was modulated by the presence or absence of Cu2+;in the absence of Cu2+, the complex exhibited a relatively low relaxivity value(6.40 mM1 s1), while the addition of Cu2+ triggered an approximately 76% enhancement in relaxivity(11.28 mM1 s1).Moreover, this Cu2+-responsive contrast agent was highly selective in its response to Cu2+ over other biologically-relevant metal ions.The influence of some common biological anions on the Cu2+-responsive contrast agent and the luminescence lifetime of the complex were also studied.The results of the luminescence lifetime measurements indicated that the enhancement in relaxivity was mainly ascribed to the increased number of inner-sphere water molecules binding to the paramagnetic Gd3+ core upon the addition of Cu2+.In addition, the visual change associated with the significantly enhanced relaxivity due to the addition of Cu2+ was observed from T1-weighted phantom images.Introduction Copper(II)ion is a vital metal nutrient for the metabolism of life and plays a critical role in various biological processes.1,2 Its homeostasis is critical for the metabolism and development of living organisms.3,4 On the other hand, the disruption of its homeostasis may lead to a variety of physical diseases and neurological problems such as Alzheimer's disease,5 Menkes and Wilson's disease,6 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,7,8 and prion disease.9,10 Therefore, the assessment and understanding of the distribution of biological copper in living systems by noninvasive imaging is crucial to provide more insight into copper homeostasis and better understand the relationship between copper regulation and its physiological function.A wide variety of organic uorescent dyes have been exploited for the optical detection of ions in the last few decades.11–13However, optical imaging using organic uorescent dyes hasseveral limitations such as photobleaching, light scattering,limited penetration, low spatial resolution and the disturbance of auto uorescence.14 By comparison, magnetic resonance imaging(MRI)is an increasingly accessible technique used as a noninvasive clinical diagnostic modality for medical diagnosis and biomedical research.15 It can provide high spatial resolution three-dimensional anatomical images with information about physiological signals and biochemical events.16 As a powerful diagnostic imaging tool in medicine, MRI can distinguish normal tissue from diseased tissue and lesions in a noninvasive manner,17–19 which avoids diagnostic thoracotomy or laparotomy surgery for medical diagnoses and greatly improves the diagnostic efficiency.Multiple MRI imaging parameters can provide a wealth of diagnostic information.In addition, the desired cross-section for acquiring multi-angle and multi-planar images of various parts of the entire body can be freely chosen by adjusting the MRI magnetic eld;this ability makes medical diagnostics and studies of the body's metabolism and function more and more effective and convenient.Contrast agents are often used in MRI examinations to improve the resolution and sensitivity;the image quality can be signicantly improved by applying contrast agents which enhance the MRI signal intensity by increasing the relaxation rates of the surrounding water protons.20 Due to the high magnetic moment(seven unpaired electrons)and slow electronic relaxation of the

paramagnetic gadolinium(III)ion, gadolinium(III)-based MRI contrast agents are commonly employed to increase the relaxation rate of the surrounding water protons.16,21 However, most of these contrast agents are nonspecific and provide only anatomical information.On the basis of Solomon–Bloembergen–Morgan theory,22–24 several parameters can be manipulated to alter the relaxivity of gadolinium(III)-based MRI contrast agents.These parameters include the number of coordinated water molecules(q), the rotational correlation time(sR)and the residence lifetime of coordinated water molecules bound to the paramagnetic Gd3+ center(sM).Adjusting any of these three factors provides the opportunity to design “smart” MRI contrast agents for specific biochemical events.25–27 In recent years, there have been many studies on the development of responsive gadolinium(III)-based MRI contrast agents;most of them have focused on the development of targeted, high relaxivity and bioactivated contrast agents.These responsive gadolinium(III)-based MRI contrast agents can be modulated by particular in vivo stimuli including pH,28–35 metal ion concentration36–43 and enzyme activity.44–50 Notably, a number of copper-responsive MRI contrast agents have been reported to detect uctuations of copper ions in vivo.51–58 These activated contrast agents exploit the modulation of the number of coordinated water molecules to generate distinct enhancements in longitudinal relaxivity in response to copper ions(Cu+ or Cu2+).In this study, we designed and synthesized a binuclear gadolinium-based MRI contrast agent, [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA], that is specically responsive to Cu2+ over other biologicallyrelevant metal ions.The new copper-responsive MRI contrast agent comprises two Gd-DO3A cores connected by a 2,6-bis(3-methyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)isonicotinic acid scaffold59,60(BMPNA), which functions as a receptor for copper-induced relaxivity switching.The synthetic strategy for [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] is depicted in Scheme 1.Subsequently, the T1 relaxivity of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] was studied at 25 C and 60 MHz in the absence or presence of Cu2+.Experiments to determine the selectivity of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] towards Cu2+ over other biologically-relevant ions were carried out as well.Luminescence lifetime was measured to determine the number of coordinated water molecules(q)of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] in the absence or presence of Cu2+.In addition, T1-weighted phantom images were collected to visualize the relaxivity enhancement caused by Cu2+, suggesting potential in vivo applications.Experimental section

Materials and instruments

All materials for synthesis were purchased from commercial suppliers and used without further purication.1H and 13C NMR spectra were taken on an AMX600 Bruker FT-NMR spectrometer with tetramethylsilane(TMS)as an internal standard.Luminescence measurements were performed on a Hitachi Fluorescence spectrophotometer-F-4600.The time-resolved luminescence emission spectra were recorded on a Perkin-Elmer LS-55 uorimeter with the following conditions: excitation wavelength, 295 nm;emission wavelength, 545 nm;dela time, 0.02 ms;gate time, 2.00 ms;cycle time, 20 ms;excitation slit, 5 nm;emission slit, 10 nm.The luminescence lifetime was measured on a Lecroy Wave Runner 6100 Digital Oscilloscope(1 GHz)using a tunable laser(pulse width ¼ 4 ns, gate ¼ 50 ns)as the excitation(Continuum Sunlite OPO).Mass spectra(MS)were obtained on an auto ex III TOF/TOF MALDI-MS and anIonSpec ESI-FTICR mass spectrometer.Elemental analyses were performed on a Vario EL Element Analyzer.Synthesis Synthesis of compound 3.Methyl 2,6-bis(3-(bromomethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)isonicotinate(Compound1)59,60 and 4,7,10-tris(2-(tert-butoxy)-2-oxoethyl)-4,7,10-triaza-azoniacyclododecan-1-ium bromide(Compound 2)61 were prepared following thereported methods.Compound 2(0.25 g, 0.296 mmol)was suspended in 2 ml anhydrous acetonitrile with 6 equivalents of NaHCO3(0.1492 g)and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 0.5 h.Compound 1(0.0675 g, 0.148 mmol)was added, and the mixture was slowly heated to reflux(80 C)and stirred overnight.After the reaction was terminated, the mixture was cooled to room temperature, and the solution was ltered.The precipitate was washed several times with anhydrous acetonitrile, and the collected ltrate solution was evaporated under reduced pressure.The residue was puried using silicagel column chromatography eluted with CH2Cl2–n-hexane–CH3OH(10 : 3 : 1, v/v/v)to afford Compound 3(0.1038 g, 53%)as a pale yellow solid.1H NMR(600 MHz, DMSO): 8.22(s, 2H), 8.15(s, 2H), 6.62(s, 2H), 4.53(s, 4H), 3.82(s, 3H), 3.42(m, 4H), 2.98(m, 8H), 2.85(s, 8H), 2.71(m, 24H), 1.33(s, 54H)(Fig.S1†).13C NMR(151 MHz, CDCl3): d 173.21, 172.44, 163.99, 152.38, 150.11, 143.13, 128.07, 109.83, 108.36, 82.59, 57.84, 56.52, 56.06, 55.56, 52.98, 50.55, 48.91, 47.30, 27.96(Fig.S2†).HRMS(ESI): m/z calc.for C67H111N13O14 [M + 2H]2+ 661.92650, [M + H + Na]2+ 672.91747, [M + 2Na]2+ 683.90844, found [M + 2H]2+ 661.92584, [M+ H + Na]2+ 672.91690, [M + 2Na]2+ 683.90682(Fig.S3†).Synthesis of compound 4.Compound 3(0.1 g, 0.0756 mmol)was stirred with triuoroacetic acid in methylene chloride solution(2 ml)at room temperature for 24 h.The solvent was then evaporated under reduced pressure, and the residue was washed three times in CH3OH and CH2Cl2 to eliminate excess acid.The obtained residue was dissolved with a minimum volume of CH3OH and precipitated with cold Et2O.The precipitate was ltered to afford a brown yellow solid(0.1022 g).1H NMR(600 MHz, DMSO): 9.06(s, 2H), 8.17(s, 2H), 6.84(s, 2H), 4.33(s, 4H), 3.98(s, 3H), 3.56(b, 20H), 3.09(m, 24H)(Fig.S4†).13C NMR(151 MHz, D2O): d 174.11, 169.13, 164.64, 150.75, 148.85, 142.10, 129.88, 109.75, 107.99, 55.69, 54.01, 53.10, 52.43, 51.15, 49.59, 48.22, 47.69(Fig.S5†).MALDI-TOFMS spectrum(CH3OH): m/z calc.for C43H63N13O14 [M H] 984.46, found 984.7(Fig.S6†).Anal calc.for C43H63N13O14-$3CF3COOH$2H2O: C, 43.14;H, 5.17;N, 13.35;found C, 42.34;H, 4.999;N, 13.29%.Preparation of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] and [Tb2(DO3A)2-BMPNA].Compound 4(0.05 mmol)was dissolved in 2 ml of highly-puried water.GdCl3 or TbCl3(0.1 mmol)was added dropwise.The pH was maintained at 6.5–7.0 with NaOH during the whole process.The solution was then stirred at 75 C for 24 h.MALDI-MS(H2O): m/z calc.for C42H55N13O14Gd2 [M + H]+ 1281.46, found 1281.4(Fig.S7†).MALDI-MS(H2O): m/z calc.for C42H55N13O14Tb2 [M + H]+ 1284.3, found 1284.4(Fig.S8†).T1 measurements.The longitudinal relaxation times(T1)of aqueous solutions of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] were measured on an HT-MRSI60-25 spectrometer(Shanghai Shinning Globe Science and Education Equipment Co., Ltd)at 1.5 T.All of the tested samples were prepared in HEPES-buffered aqueous solutions at pH 7.4.All of the metal ions(Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cu2+, Zn2+, Fe3+, Fe2+)were used as chloride salts.Concentrations of Gd3+ were determined by ICP-OES.Relaxivities were determined from the slope of the plot of 1/T1 vs.[Gd].The data were tted to the following eqn(1),20

(1/T1)obs ¼(1/T1)d + r1[M](1)

where(1/T1)obs and(1/T1)d are the observed values in the presence and absence of the paramagnetic species, respectively, and [M] is the concentration of paramagnetic [Gd].Luminescence measurements.Luminescence emission spectra were collected on a Hitachi uorescence spectrophotometer-F-4600.The luminescence lifetime was measured on a Lecroy Wave Runner 6100 Digital Oscilloscope(1 GHz)using a tunable laser(pulse width ¼ 4 ns, gate ¼ 50 ns)as the excitation(Continuum Sunlite OPO).Samples were excited at 290 nm, and the emission maximum(545 nm)was used to determine luminescence lifetimes.The Tb(III)-based emission spectra were measured using 0.1 mM solutions of Tb complex analog in 100 mM HEPES buffer at pH 7.4 in H2O and D2O in the absence and presence of Cu2+.The number of coordinated water molecules(q)was calculated according to eqn(2):62,63 q= ¼ 5(sH2O1 sD2O1 0.06)(2)T1-weighted MRI phantom images.Phantom images were collected on a 1.5 T HT-MRSI60-25 spectrometer(Shanghai Shinning Globe Science and Education Equipment Co., Ltd).Instrument parameter settings were as follows: 1.5 T magnet;matrix =256 256;slice thickness =1 mm;TE= 13 ms;TR= 100 ms;and number of acquisitions =1.Results and discussion Longitudinal relaxivity of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] in response to copper(II)ion To investigate the inuence of Cu2+ on the relaxivity of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA], the longitudinal relaxivity r1 for the [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] contrast agent was determined using T1 measurements in the absence or presence of Cu2+ at 60 MHz and 25 C using a 0.2mMGd3+ solution of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] in 100 mM HEPES buffer(pH 7.4)under simulated physiological conditions.The concentrations of Gd3+ were determined by ICP-OES.The relaxivity r1 was calculated from eqn(1).In the absence of Cu2+, the relaxivity of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] was 6.40 mM1 s1, which was higher than that of [Gd(DOTA)(H2O)](4.2 mM1 s1, 20 MHz, 25 C)and Gd(DO3A)(H2O)2(4.8 mM1 s1, 20 MHz, 40 C).64 Upon addition of up to 1 equiv.of Cu2+, the relaxivity of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] increased to 11.28 mM1 s1(76% relaxivity enhancement).As shown in Fig.1, the relaxivity gradually increased with the copper ion concentration, reaching a maximum value of approximately 1.2 equivalents of Cu2+.Due to the use of triuoroacetic acid in the synthesis of Compound 4, triuoroacetic acid residues produced CF3COO in the [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] solution, allowing CF3COO to partially coordinate with Cu2+ to form “Chinese lantern” type structure complexes.65 When the amount of added copper ions was further increased to above 1.2 equiv., the relaxivity was maintained at the same level.The observed difference in Cu2+-triggered relaxivity enhancement demonstrated the ability of this contrast agent to sense Cu2+ in vivo by means of MRI.Our designed contrast agent not only exhibited a higher relaxivity, but also displayed a Cu2+-responsive relaxivity enhancement.Selectivity studies The relaxivity response of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] exhibited excellent selectivity for Cu2+ over a variety of other competing, biologically-relevant metal ions at physiological levels.As depicted in Fig.2(white bars), the addition of alkali metal cations(10 mM Na+, 2 mM K+)and alkaline earth metal cations(2 mM Mg2+, 2 mM Ca2+)did not generate an increase in relaxivity compared to the copper ion turn-on response;even the introduction of d-block metal cations(0.2 mM Fe2+, 0.2 mM Fe3+, 0.2 mM or 2 mM Zn2+)did not trigger relaxivity enhancements.We noted that Zn2+ is also known to replace Gd3+ in transmetalation experiments;however, studies with analogous Gd3+-DO3A complexes demonstrated that this ligand is more kinetically inert to metal-ion exchange.66 To ensure the kinetic stability of the complex, we used MS to monitor [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] in the presence of 1 equiv.of Zn2+.No metal-ion exchange was observed at room temperature after 7 days(Fig.S13†).Relaxivity interference experiments for [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] in the presence of both Cu2+(0.2 mM)and other biologically-relevant metal ions were also conducted;the results are shown as black bars in Fig.2, indicating that these biologically-relevant metal ions(Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Zn2+)had no interference on the Cu2+-triggered relaxivity enhancement.In addition, we also tested the Cu2+ response for [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] in the presence of physiologically-relevant concentrations of common biological anions to determine whether the Cu2+-triggered relaxivity enhancement was affected by biological anions at physiological levels.As previously mentioned, Cu2+ binding induced an enhancement in relaxivity from 6.40 mM1 s1 to 11.28 mM1 s1(a 76% increase).As shown in Fig.3, in the presence of citrate(0.13 mM), lactate(0.9 mM), H2PO4(0.9 mM), or HCO3(10 mM), the Cu2+-triggered relaxivity enhancement was approximately 61%(from 6.01 mM1 s1 to 9.66mM1 s1), 66%(from 6.13mM1 s1 to 10.16 mM1 s1), 20%(from 5.88 mM1 s1 to 7.02 mM1 s1), or 55%(from 6.15 mM1 s1 to 9.55 mM1 s1), respectively.Additionally, 100 mM NaCl had almost no effect(an approximately 75% increase), and a simulated extracellular anion solution(EAS, contain 30 mM NaHCO3, 100 mM NaCl, 0.9 mM KH2PO4, 2.3 mM sodium lactate, and 0.13 mM sodium citrate, pH =7),67 resulted in a Cu2+-triggered relaxivity enhancement of approximately 26%(from 6.02 mM1 s1 to 7.56 mM1 s1).Generally, the results revealed that lactate, citrate, and HCO3 had slight impacts on the Cu2+-triggered relaxivity enhancement, while H2PO4 and EAS influenced the enhancement to a greater degree.As shown in Scheme 2, [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] possessed two water molecules after the addition of 1 equiv.Of Cu2+.According to the work of Dickins and coworkers, in lanthanide complexes with two water molecules, the waters can be partially displaced by phosphate, carbonate, acetate, carboxylate, lactate and citrate at different levels.68–70 The influence of these anions on the Cu2+-triggered relaxivity enhancement may be attributed to the partial replacement of coordinated water molecules by these anions.The relatively high concentration of phosphate could likely replace coordinated water molecules to reduce the increased number of water molecules surrounding the paramagnetic Gd3+ centre induced by Cu2+.As shown in Table 1, we measured the number of water molecules in the rst coordination sphere of Tb3+ in the presence of phosphate;the number of coordinated water molecules(q)decreased from 1.5 to 0.8.Coordination features Luminescence lifetime experiments were performed to explore the mechanism of the Cu2+-triggered relaxivity enhancement.Luminescence lifetime measurements of lanthanide complexes have been widely used to quantify the number of inner-sphere water molecules.71 In particular, Tb3+ and Eu3+ have commonly been applied for lifetime measurements because their emission spectra are in the visible region when their 4f electrons are relaxed from higher energy levels to the lowest energy multiplets.72,73 Therefore, the Tb3+ analogue of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA], [Tb2(DO3A)2BMPNA], was prepared according to a similar method, and the luminescence lifetimes of the Tb3+ analogue in HEPES-buffered H2O and D2O in the absence and presence of Cu2+ were measured.As shown in Fig.S9,† the luminescence decay curve of [Tb2(DO3A)2BMPNA] was tted to obtain the luminescence lifetimes74(Table 1), and the number of coordinated water molecules(q)was calculated by eqn(2).The analysis results(Table 1)for [Tb2(DO3A)2BMPNA] in HEPES-bufferedH2OandD2O in the absence and presence of Cu2+ indicated that q increased from 0.6 to 1.5 upon the addition of 1 equiv.of Cu2+;this result indicated that the Cu2+-triggered relaxivity enhancement for [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] was most likely due to the increased number of coordinated water molecules around the Gd3+ ion upon Cu2+ binding to the pyrazole centre(Scheme 2).Aer the addition of Cu2+, Cu2+ removed the pyrazole centre N atom from the paramagnetic Gd3+ ion to generate an open coordination site available for a water molecule.Luminescence emission titrations of [Tb2(DO3A)2BMPNA] towards Cu2+ were also performed to investigate the binding properties of the contrast agent towards Cu2+.Upon addition of 1 equiv.Cu2+, the luminescence of [Tb2(DO3A)2BMPNA] at 545 nm decreased gradually and reached a minimum due to the quenching nature of the paramagnetic Cu2+(Fig.S10†).The titration data indicated a 1 : 1 binding stoichiometry(Scheme 2)Copper-responsive T1-weighted phantom MRI in vitro To demonstrate the potential feasibility of this Cu2+-responsive [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] for copper-imaging applications, T1-weighted phantom images of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] were acquired in the absence and presence of copper ions.The phantom images depicted in Fig.4 displayed distinct increases in image intensity in the presence of 1 equiv.Cu2+ compared with those without Cu2+(Fig.4D).Moreover, some of the other competing metal ions were also tested to further verify the selectivity of [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA] towards Cu2+.Discernible differences were not observed upon the addition of Mg2+(Fig.4C), Zn2+(Fig.4E), or Ca2+(Fig.4F).In addition, we also tested the clinical contrast agent Magnevist(Fig.4G);the image intensity was a bit darker than that of our contrast agent.Conclusions

In conclusion, we designed and synthesized a novel bismacrocyclic DO3A-type Cu2+-responsive MRI contrast agent, [Gd2(DO3A)2BMPNA].The new Cu2+-responsive MRI contrast agent comprised two Gd-DO3A cores connected by a 2,6-bis(3-methyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)isonicotinic acid scaffold(BMPNA)that functioned as a Cu2+ receptor switch to induce a distinct relaxivity enhancement in response to Cu2+;the relaxivity was increased up to 76%.Importantly, the complex exhibited high selectivity for Cu2+ over a range of other biologically-relevant metal ions at physiological levels.Luminescence lifetime experiment results showed that the number of inner-sphere water molecules(q)increased from 0.6 to 1.5 upon the addition of 1 equiv.Cu2+.When Cu2+ was coordinated in the central part of the complex, the donor N atom of the pyrazole centre was removed from the paramagnetic Gd3+ ion and replaced by a water molecule(Scheme 2).Consequently, the Cu2+-triggered relaxivity enhancement could be ascribed to the increase in the number of inner-sphere water molecules.The designed contrast agent had a longitudinal relaxivity of 6.40 mM1 s1, which was higher than that of [Gd(DOTA)(H2O)](4.2 mM1 s1, 20 MHz, 25 C)and Gd(DO3A)(H2O)2(4.8 mM1 s1, 20 MHz, 40 C).In addition, the visual change associated with the signicantly enhanced relaxivity from the addition of Cu2+ was observed in T1-weighted phantom images.Acknowledgements We are grateful to the State Key Laboratory of Electroanalytical Chemistry for nancial support.Notes and references 1 S.Puig and D.J.Thiele, Curr.Opin.Chem.Biol., 2002, 6, 171.2 S.C.Leary, D.R.Winge and P.A.Cobine, Biochim.Biophys.Acta, Gen.Subj., 2009, 146, 1793.3 D.D.Agranoff and S.Krishna, Mol.Microbiol., 1998, 28, 403.4 H.Kozlowski, A.Janicka-Klos, J.Brasun, E.Gaggelli, D.Valensin and G.Valensin, Coord.Chem.Rev., 2009, 253, 2665.5 K.J.Barnham, C.L.Masters and A.I.Bush, Nat.Rev.Drug Discovery, 2004, 3, 205.6 D.J.Waggoner, T.B.Bartnikas and J.D.Gitlin, Neurobiol.Dis., 1999, 6, 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第二篇：机械英语专业论文及翻译

This application is a 371 of PCT/EP2008/064542 filed Oct.27, 2008, which in turn claims the priority of DE 10 2007 054 547.0 filed Nov.15, 2007, the priority of both applications is hereby claimed and both applications are incorporated by reference herein.这个应用程序是一个371的PCT / EP2008/064542申请10月27日,2008年,进而主张德10 2007 054 547.0提出的优先级11月15日,2007年,两个应用程序的优先级是在此宣称,两个应用程序中通过引用。

FIELD OF THE INVENTION 发明的领域

The invention relates to an engine control strategy for a hydraulic camshaft adjuster with mechanical central locking, in particular a vane-type hydraulic camshaft adjuster, having the features of the preamble of claim 1.本发明涉及发动机控制策略与机械液压凸轮轴调节器中央锁定,尤其是叶片式液压凸轮轴调节器,在权利要求1的序言的特点。Camshafts of internal combustion engines are usually driven by crankshafts via a chain or a toothed belt, and here, are continuously adjusted in a closed control loop, with typical adjustment ranges being 40° to 60° crank angle.Crank angles to be set are stored in characteristic maps.Adjustments take place for example hydraulically, fed from the engine oil circuit by means of an electrically actuated control valve, and permit optimized valve control times by means of the parameters of engine load and rotational speed.Depending on the engine concept and number of adjusters, it is thus possible to obtain a considerable reduction in fuel consumption and exhaust-gas emissions and an increase in power and torque.凸轮轴的内燃机通常是由曲轴通过链或齿形带,在这里,不断调整在一个封闭的控制回路,典型的调整范围是40°60°曲柄角度。曲柄角度设置存储在特征地图。例如液压调整发生,美联储从发动机油路通过一个电驱动控制阀,并允许通过优化阀控制倍发动机负载和转速的参数。根据发动机概念和数量的调节器,因此可以获得相当大的减少燃料消耗和废气排放,提高功率和扭矩。

In the state in which they are not hydraulically braced, camshafts and, fixedly connected thereto, rotors of a hydraulic camshaft adjuster tend to perform acoustically noticeable oscillations on account of alternating torques on the camshaft.Said oscillations can be prevented by means of a mechanical connection of the rotor to the stator and therefore to the crankshaft.A known mechanical connection of said type is the camshaft adjuster locked in the center, that is to say between the LATE and EARLY end stops.Two locking pistons which are axially movable in the rotor, and which are also referred to as pins, can be pressed by means of spring force into a locking slot which is positioned opposite in an axially arranged locking cover which is fixedly screwed to the stator, and thereby lock the rotor and stator to one another in a rotationally fixed manner.Unlocking takes place hydraulically by means of oil pressure from the lubricating oil circuit of the engine, which oil pressure is deflected to the locking pistons by means of a controlled supply of current to a solenoid valve and moves said locking pistons axially out of the locking slot into the rotor such that the rotor and stator are rotatable relative to one another.的状态,他们不是液压支撑,凸轮轴,固定连接,转子的液压凸轮轴调节器倾向于执行听觉上明显的振荡的凸轮轴上的交变扭矩。说振荡可以预防通过机械连接的转子定子,因此曲轴。一个已知的机械连接的类型是凸轮轴调节器锁在中心,也就是说之间初末结束停止。两个活塞锁定在转子轴向移动,也被称为别针,可以通过弹力压成相反的锁槽定位在一个轴向锁定封面安排固定螺纹定子,从而锁定转子和定子旋转固定的方式。解锁发生液压通过油压润滑油电路的引擎,这油压偏转到锁定活塞通过一个电磁阀控制的电流供应和行动表示活塞轴向锁定的锁槽的转子,转子和定子旋转相对于另一个。

Non-hydraulically braced states are typical of the starting of the engine, during which the low rotational speed of the oil pump and the correspondingly low oil pressure in the lubricating circuit of the engine may be insufficient for an oil pressure which holds the position of the rotor relative to the stator.As the rotational speed of the engine increases, friction torques are generated on the camshafts counter to the rotational direction thereof, which friction torques assist central locking if the rotor of the camshaft adjuster has been shut down between the central locking position(CLP)and the EARLY end stop.However, if the rotor of the camshaft adjuster has been shut down between the LATE end stop and CLP upon the stopping of the engine, the adjustment of said rotor by means of friction torques takes place exclusively in the LATE direction, and it is not possible for the rotor to reach the CLP without sufficient oil pressure.Non-hydraulically支撑国家的典型的引擎开始,在此期间的低转速油泵和相应的低油压在发动机的润滑电路可能不足为油压持有相对于定子转子的位置。随着发动机转速的增加,摩擦力矩产生的凸轮轴与转动的方向,这些摩擦扭矩协助中央锁定的转子凸轮轴调节器被关闭中央锁定位置(CLP)和早期结束停止。然而,如果转子之间的凸轮轴调节器被关闭末结束停止,CLP的停止发动机,调整表示转子的摩擦扭矩发生只在已故的方向,并为转子是不可能达到CLP没有足够的油压。U.S.Pat.No.6,450,137 B2 discloses a camshaft adjuster whose rotor can be pushed hydraulically relative to the stator either to the EARLY end stop or to the LATE end stop.An electrical control valve connects an inlet to oil under pressure from a pump and an unpressurized return to an oil reservoir alternately to the EARLY end stop or the LATE end stop.The electric control valve is adjusted by a control device.To prevent noises from the camshaft drive, it is the aim for the rotor to be rotated mechanically relative to the stator by the crankshaft during the starting of the engine in such a way that the rotor can be locked centrally with the stator.However, if the rotor of the camshaft adjuster has been shut down between the LATE end stop and CLP upon the stopping of the engine, the adjustment of said rotor by means of friction torques takes place exclusively in the LATE direction, and the CLP can thus be reached only with difficulty and unreliably, such that the acoustically noticeable oscillation of the camshaft is not prevented.美国帕特。6450137号B2披露的凸轮轴调节器可以推液压相对于定子转子早期结束停止或结束停止。电子控制阀连接一个进口石油的压力下一个泵和一个非承压的回到交替油藏早期结束停止或结束停止。电动调节阀是由控制装置调整。防止噪音凸轮轴驱动,它的目标是旋转机械的转子相对于定子的曲轴在发动机的起动的方式可以锁定转子与定子集中。然而,如果转子之间的凸轮轴调节器被关闭末结束停止,CLP的停止发动机,调整表示转子的摩擦扭矩发生只在已故的方向,和CLP因此可以达到只有困难和unreliably,这样的听觉上明显的振荡凸轮轴不阻止。

第三篇：英语专业毕业论文——翻译

论译学观念 现代化

On the Modernization of the Concept of Translation Studies 摘要：本文认为，人类翻译经历了三个阶段，即口语翻译阶段、文字翻译阶段和文化翻译阶段，目前我们已经处于文化翻译阶段。鉴于翻译所处的文化语境已经变化，所以我们有必要进行译学观念的现代化，调整、丰富和充实我们对翻译和翻译研究的认识，推进翻译学学科的建设。

关键词：翻译研究 译学理论 观念现代化

Abstract: The present paper aims to propose there are three periods in the translation history of the world, i.e., the period of oral communication(close to interpreting), the period of written translation and the period of cultural translation.Now we are in the third period when the cultural context of the translation and the translation studies have taken great changes.It’s time to modernize and adjust our concepts about the translation and the translation studies and bring new dimensions to them in order to put forward the construction of the translation studies as a relatively independent discipline.Key Words: translation studies, translation theories, modernization of the concept

自从上世纪八十年代有学者提出建立翻译学以来，国内翻译界围绕着翻译学的问题，围绕着翻译理论有用无用的问题，就一直争论不已。争论的双方各执其词，一方呼吁建立翻译学，认为翻译学是一门独立的学科，另一方则讥笑翻译不可能有“学”，建立翻译学的努力是一个未园而且也难园的梦。双方谁也没有说服谁，至今聚讼不已，各执其端，有时的反应甚至还相当激烈。

反对者中有人说：“译家不可能因为掌握了现有的任何一套翻译理论或遵循了以上任何一套翻译原则，其翻译水准就会有某种质的飞跃。„„如今我国译林之中的后起之秀，可谓人才济济，无论他们用什么翻译理论武装自己，无论他们对翻译的过程、层次有多透彻的认识，无论他们对翻译美学原理如何精通，无论他们能把读者分成多少个层次从而使其翻译更加有的放矢，也无论他们能用理论界最近发明的三种机制、四种转换模式把翻译中的原文信息传递得如何有效，他们的译作会比傅雷的高明多少呢？霍克思（David Hawks）与闵福德（John Minford），虽然是西方人士（后者还曾是笔者所在学系的翻译讲座教授），从来就不信什么等值、等效论，他们凭着深厚的语言功底和坚强的毅力，也‘批阅十载’，完成了《红楼梦》的翻译。在众多的英文版《红楼梦》中，他们的译作出类拔萃，在英美文学翻译界堪称一绝。霍克思在他写的翻译后记一书中也没有提到任何时髦的翻译理论，但东西方翻译界和翻译理论界仍然为其译作而折服。由此可见，翻译理论与译作的质量并没有必然的关系。”还有一位自称“在20世纪出版了50多部中英法互译作品的译者”也声称：“从实践上讲，西方的‘纯理论’对我完全无用。”ii

i 这些话听上去振振有词，甚至咄咄逼人，其实明显失之偏颇，而且不经一驳。因为这些话的前提是：翻译的纯理论应该对译作的质量负责，翻译的纯理论应该对翻译实践“有用”。如此提出问题，已经到了幼稚可笑的地步。这就像一个泥瓦匠和一个小木匠跑去对一位建筑学教授说，“你写的《建筑学》对我们造房子毫无用处。”更有甚者，他们俩还硬牵着那位建筑学教授到工地上去，泥瓦匠对教授说：“你写了那么多的建筑学论文，你现在倒砌一垛墙给我们看看，有没有我砌的墙结实。”小木匠对教授说：“你研究了那么多年的建筑学理论，我让你刨一块木板，看你能不能像我一样刨得既平整又光滑。”看，这个泥瓦匠和那个小木匠对建筑学理论的否定，与上述两位作者对翻译理论（纯理论）的质疑和否定，真可谓异曲同工，何其相似乃尔。

然而，类似的认识和观点（甚至行为）在我国翻译界却有相当的市场。把纯理论研究与具体的实践指导相混淆，把翻译理论与译作的质量牵强联系，这正是我们某些翻译家、甚至某些翻译教师、翻译研究者在译学理论认识上的一个误区。这种情况也从一个方面表明，在我国翻译界严格意义上的译学意识还没有真正确立，我们的翻译研究、尤其是译学研究还不够成熟。

我们不妨把翻译界的情况与其他学科的情况作一个比较。试想：在文学艺术界会不会有哪位作家对着文艺学家宣称“你的文学理论对我的创作完全无用”？会不会有哪位歌唱家去质问音乐理论家：“为什么读完了你的《音乐原理》，我的演唱技巧仍然毫无长进？”当然，我们更难设想会有人质疑陈景润对哥德巴赫猜想的研究对我们计算国民经济的总值有什么帮助，质疑科学史学者研究几亿万年前的宇宙大爆炸对改善我们今天的空气质量有什么实用价值，等等，等等。类似的例子我们还可以举出许多许多。譬如，对巴尔扎克、托尔斯泰的作品，我们的文艺理论家们大多是表示“折服”的，但是难道会有人跑出来宣称文艺理论对作家的创作质量“没有必然的关系”？

然而，这种在其他学科都不大可能发生的对理论研究的怀疑和否定，却不断地在我们的翻译界发生。这是不是说明我们的翻译学学科、甚至我们的翻译研究至今还不够成熟呢？而之所以存在这样的情况，其中一个很重要的原因，就是我们翻译界的译学观念还没有及时转变。如果仔细考察一下我们讨论的翻译，我们讨论的翻译研究，我们应该能够发现，翻译所处的文化语境已经发生了变化，翻译的内涵已经发生了变化，翻译研究的内容也已经发生了变化，然而我们的译学观念却没有变化，我们的翻译研究者队伍没有发生实质性的变化，我们不少人的译学观仍然停留在几十年前、甚至几百年以前。而要改变目前这种状况，尽快实现我国翻译界译学观念的现代化转向是目前我们译学界的当务之急。

译学观念现代化的问题大致可以从以下三个方面进行讨论。

一．翻译研究的最新进展与译学观念的转变

在讨论翻译研究的最新进展时，我们认为必须把这个“最新进展”放到整个中外翻译研究发展史的大背景中去看，而且，有可能的话，还要尽可能地联系我们国家自己的翻译研究现状，这样才有可能比较容易地发现中外翻译研究中的“最新进展”，也比较容易发现我们国家翻译研究中所存在的问题。

这样，如果我们从整个中西翻译研究发展史的大背景上去看的话，那么我们应该可以发现，一直到20世纪上半叶，也就是在上世纪五十年代以前，中西翻译研究的差别并不是很大：因为中西翻译界基本上都停留在传统的译学研究范畴之内，也即主要关心的是翻译的方法（如直译、意译等问题）、翻译的标准（如严复的“信达雅”，泰特勒的翻译三原则等）、翻译的可能性（可译性与不可译性等）等问题。但是进入上世纪五、六十年代以后，西方翻译研究中出现了三个大的突破和两个划时代的转向，这使得西方翻译研究与此前的研究相比，发生了重大的实质性的变化。

所谓的“三大突破”，首先指的是自上世纪五十年代以来的西方翻译研究开始从一般层面上的对两种语言转换的技巧性研究，也即从“怎么译”的问题，深入到了对翻译行为本身的深层探究，提出了翻译中的等值问题，等效问题，等等。当代西方翻译研究中的语言学派学者是这方面的代表，如卡特福特，纽马克，尤金·奈达，以及雅可布逊等。对这方面的研究进展，我们国内译学界比较熟悉，这里就不赘言了。

其次，也即第二个突破，指的是当代西方的翻译研究不再局限于对翻译文本本身的研究，而是还把目光投射到了译作的发起者（即组织或提议翻译某部作品的个人或群体）、翻译文本的操作者（译者）和接受者（此处的接受者不光指的是译文的读者，还有整个译语文化的接受环境）身上。它借鉴了接受美学、读者反应等理论，跳出了对译文与原文之间一般字面上的忠实与否之类问题的考察，而注意到了译作在新的文化语境里的传播与接受，注意到了翻译作为一种跨文化传递行为的最终目的和效果，还注意到了译者在这整个翻译过程中所起的作用，等等。自上世纪七十年代起，以詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯(James S Holmes)、埃文－佐哈(Itamar Even-Zohar)、吉迪恩·图里(Gideon Toury)、利菲弗尔(André Lefevere)、苏珊·巴斯奈特(Susan Bassnett)、朗贝尔(José Lambert)、以及梵·登·勃鲁克（R.van den Broeck）等为代表一些学者，他们的研究就属于这种性质。他们竭力打破文学翻译研究中业已存在的禁锢，探索建立文学翻译研究的新模式。他们都把翻译研究的重点放在翻译的结果、功能和体系上，他们都对制约和决定翻译成果和翻译接受的因素、对翻译与各种译本类型之间的关系、翻译在特定民族或国别文学内的地位和作用、以及翻译对民族文学间的相互影响所起的作用感到兴趣。这无疑是翻译研究的一大深化和进展，也是当代西方翻译研究中的第二个大的突破。

最后，当代西方翻译研究中一个最大的、也即第三个大的突破，还表现在把翻译放到一个宏大的跨文化和跨学科的语境中去审视。研究者开始关注翻译研究中语言学科以外的其他学科的因素。他们一方面认识到翻译研究作为一门独立学科的性质，另一方面又看到了翻译研究这门学科的多学科性质，注意到它不仅与语言学、而且还与文艺学、比较文学、哲学甚至社会学、政治学、心理学等学科都有密不可分的关系。但是翻译研究最终关注的当然还是文本在跨文化交际和传递中所涉及的一系列文化问题，诸如翻译在译入语文化语境里的地位、作用，以及文化误读、信息增添、信息失落等。正如韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）提到的，“符号学、语境分析、和后结构主义文本理论等表现出了重要的概念差异和方法论差异，但是它们在关于‘翻译是一种独立的写作形式，它迥异于外语文本和译语文本’这一点上还是一致的。”

在这种情况下，翻译不再被看作是一个简单的两种语言之间的转换行为，而是译入语社会中的一种独特的政治行为、文化行为、文学行为，而译本则是译者在译入语社会中的诸多因素作用下的结果，在译入语社会的政治生活、文化生活、乃至日常生活中扮演着有时是举足轻重的角色。鉴于此，德国功能学派的另一学者贾斯塔·霍尔兹-曼塔利(Justa Holz-Manttari)甚至不把翻译简单地称作为“翻译”（translation），而是用一个杜撰的、含义更为广泛的新词“迻译行为”（translatorial action）代替它，以表示各种各样的跨文化交际行为。这个词还不光局限于翻译、改编、编译，它甚至把与外来文化有关的编辑、查阅等行为也包括在内。在这种“行为”里，译者变得像是一个根据委托人要求设计“产品规范”（product specification）的专家，并生产符合接受者文化圈特定需要的“信息传递物”（message transmitter），而译作也不再寻求与原文的等值，而只是一份能满足委托人需要的目的语文本。

西方翻译研究中的三大突破，又可以归纳为两个转向，那就是上世纪五十年代开始的语言学转向和七十年代前后开始的文化转向。语言学转向使得当代西方的译学研究对翻译中的语言转换观察和分析更加具体细微；而文化转向则借用各种当代文化理论对翻译进行考察、剖析，进行新的阐述，体现为从文化层面上对翻译进行整体性的思考，它更注重诸如共同的规则、读者的期待、时代的语码，注重翻译与译入语社会的政治、文化、意识形态等的关系，更关注翻译作为一种跨文化交际行为在译入语社会中的巨大影响和作用。这方面的例子有埃文-佐哈尔的多元系统理论，有前几年去世的安德鲁·利菲弗尔提出的“折射理论”，也有最近几年在国际译学界相当活跃的西奥·赫曼斯、苏珊·巴斯奈特等人的著述，以及尼南贾纳、斯皮瓦克等人的后殖民主义翻译理论研究。

当代西方学者谢莉·西蒙说：“80年代以来，翻译研究中最激动人心的一些进展属于被称为‘文化转向’的一部分。转向文化意味着翻译研究增添了一个重要的维度。不是去问那个一直困扰翻译理论家的传统问题――‘我们应该怎样去翻译？什么是正确的翻译？’――而是把重点放在了一种描述性的方法上：‘译本在做什么？它们怎样在世上流通并引起反响？’„„这种转向使我们理解到翻译与其他交流方式之间存在着有机的联系，并视翻译为写作实践，贯穿所有文化表现的种种张力尽在其中。”当前西方学界已有越来越多的学者开始从文化层面上审视、考察翻译，翻译研究正在演变为一种文化研究，翻译研究的文化转向和文化研究的翻译转向已经成为当代西方学术界的的一道最新景观。然而对翻译研究来说，这种文化转向具有更为重要的意义。它不仅在一定程度上揭开了当代翻

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iii译研究的一个新的层面，而且还对主宰中外翻译界几千年的一些译学观念，诸如“忠于原文”的翻译观，译作与原作的关系，译者与原作者的关系，等等，产生了相当大的冲击，从而为国际译学界、也为中国译学界展示出相当广阔的研究前景。

二．翻译的文化语境及其内涵的变化

如本文一开始所述，目前，人类翻译所处的文化语境已经发生了变化，翻译的内涵已经发生了变化，翻译研究的内容也已经发生了变化，然而我们的译学观念却没有变化，我们的翻译研究者队伍没有发生实质性的变化，我们不少人的译学观念没有变化，仍然停留在几十年前、甚至几百年前的状态。然而，翻译所处的文化语境以及翻译的内涵究竟发生了什么样的变化呢？这里我们不妨对人类的翻译史做一个简单的回顾。

众所周知，翻译作为人类跨越语言界限的交往行为已经具有一、二千年以上的历史。在这一、二千年的时间里，翻译这个行为的文化语境发生了巨大的、实质性的变化。

回顾人类的翻译史，粗粗划分一下，我们大致可以看到这样三个大的发展阶段。

初期阶段是一个口语交往阶段，这是人类翻译最早的阶段。这里我们有意不用“口译”而用“口语交往”，这是因为这个阶段的“口语交往”与目前严格意义上的“口译”尚有一定的差距。这一阶段翻译的内容大多限于一般的交往和简单的商贸活动，如何达到交往双方基本信息的相互沟通是这一阶段翻译的主要目的。对这一阶段翻译的含义我们可以借用《周礼·秋官》和《说文》中对“译”的解释：前者称翻译为“换易言语使相解也”，后者则简单明了地说翻译就是“传四夷之言”。当然，从我们今天的角度看这两则对翻译的定义，我们把它们用诸书面翻译也未尝不可，但当初如此解释翻译，其原始用意恐怕是偏向口语翻译的。

中期阶段我们也许可以称之为文字翻译阶段，也即人类进入文字翻译以来的阶段，借用施莱尔马赫的话来说，也就是“真正的翻译”的阶段。这个阶段有相当长的历史跨度，其翻译内容以早期的宗教典籍和以后的文学名著、经典文献（除宗教文献外的哲学、社会科学著作等）为主。我们一些最基本的翻译观，诸如围绕翻译“可译”与“不可译”的性质之争、“直译”与“意译”的方法之争，以及翻译的标准，如泰特勒的翻译三原则、严复的“信达雅”，等等，都是在这一阶段形成的。

由于这一阶段所翻译的对象主要是宗教典籍、文学名著、经典文献，译者、甚至读者对这些原著都是取仰视态度，所以我们也就不难理解为何在这一阶段，“忠实于原文的内容”成为翻译家们最核心的翻译观――宗教典籍、文学名著、经典文献这些著作都是翻译者以及译作的读者顶礼膜拜的对象，翻译时译者当然要小心翼翼，字斟句酌，否则一不小心歪曲了原文，招致批评不说，甚至因此获罪都有可能。与此同时，随着文学翻译数量的急剧上升，文本形式的传递也开始引起重视，这样，我们对翻译的认识又向前推进了一步：翻译不仅要传递原作的内容，还要传达出原作的形式意义。但是这一阶段的译学观基本上还是建立在两种语言的转换的基础上，基本上还是局限在原文与译文的文本之内。

第三阶段，也许我们可以称之为文化翻译阶段，因为这一阶段的翻译已成为民族间全方位的文化交流，成为极重要的一项人类文化交际行为，翻译的视野大大拓宽。第三阶段的开始大致可以追溯至上世纪五十年代末、六十年代初，当时雅各布逊提出了翻译的三种类型、也即语内翻译、语际翻译和符际翻译时，这种翻译的定义显然已经背离了传统的译学观念，它越出了单纯语言的界限，使得翻译的定义不再仅仅是“语言文字的转换”，而是进入了宽泛意义上的信息转换和传递。至于之后的德国功能学派翻译学学者汉斯·威尔梅（Hans Vermeer）的翻译行为理论（action theory of translation）竭力强调译者的目标(skopos)在翻译过程中的决定性作用，英国的斯坦纳提出“理解也是翻译”、当代美国女性主义批评家斯皮瓦克提出“阅读即翻译”等概念，更是大大拓展了翻译的含义，使得翻译成了几乎渗透人类所有活动的一个行为，从人际交往到人类自身的思想、意识、政治、社会活动，等等；当代西方文化理论，则进一步把翻译与政治、意识形态等联系起来，翻译的内涵更是空前扩大。如后殖民主义翻译理论家尼南贾纳声称：“我对翻译的研究，完全不是要去解决什么译者的困境，不是要在理论上再给翻译另立一说，以便能够找到一个‘缩小’不同文化间之‘隔阂’的更加保险可靠的‘办法’。相反，它是要对这道隔阂、这种差异作彻底的思索，要探讨如何把对翻译的执迷（obsession）和欲望加以定位，以此来描述翻译符号流通其间的组织体系。关于翻译的论述是多种多样的，但它们却都没有或缺乏或压制了对历史性和不对称的意识。就这一状况进行考察，便是我的关怀所在。”

不无必要强调说明一下的是，这里所谓的第三阶段、也即文化翻译阶段的出现，并不意味着第二阶段、也即文字翻译阶段的结束。这两个阶段在相当长一个时期里将会是相互交融、并存并进的，而相关的译学观也将是并存互补。所以我们应该看到，翻译研究中的文化转向给传统译学观带来的是冲击，而不是颠覆，文化翻译阶段出现的新的译学观是丰富、深化原有的译学观，而不是取代、更不是推翻传统的译学观。

然而，不少事实表明，在翻译的文化语境和翻译的内涵都已经发生了巨大变化的今天，我们相当一部分翻译研究者和翻译教学者的译学观念还没有来得及发生实质性的变化，基本上还是停留在文字翻译阶段。有人曾直率地指出：“有关语言与翻译的政治，是我们大陆学人思考中的一个盲点。”换句话说，有关语言与翻译的政治问题，我们国内译学界至今还没有人把它当作一个翻译研究中的学术问题认真地思考过。其实，冷静思考一下的话，我们当能发现，我们译学研究中的“盲点”恐怕还不止“翻译的政治”这一个问题吧。这恐怕也就是为什么至今在国内译学界对于翻译学、翻译理论等问题仍然争论不休的一个原因。从这个意义上而言，我国的译学理论建设与翻译学科建设现在已经到了一个瓶颈口了。

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vi如果再不迅速实现译学观念的现代化转向，这种一定程度上译学观念的滞后，势必会阻滞中国译学的进一步发展，从而对我们整个翻译事业带来不利的影响。

三．译学观念的现代化与翻译学的学科建设

译学观念的现代化直接关系到翻译学的学科建设。但是在讨论这个问题之前，有两组概念必须予以区分，这就是翻译研究与译学研究的区别，以及翻译事业与译学学科建设之间的区别。之所以如此，是因为国内翻译界在讨论翻译学或翻译理论问题时，经常把这两组概念相混。本来，只要稍微仔细地辨别一下，这两组概念的差异是很容易辨清的：翻译研究泛指一切与翻译有关的研究，同样，翻译事业不仅包括翻译实践，还要包括翻译研究（有具体翻译的研究，也有理论研究），而后者，也即翻译学的学科建设则偏重于译学作为一门独立学科的发展问题，既有翻译学科在学校里的课程设置、教学计划，更有译学理论等方面的探讨。

但是国内翻译界总是有人在一提到要深入进行译学研究时，就会搬出一些联系具体翻译实践的“翻译研究”，以此来否定纯理论的译学研究，还有人则强调翻译要得到全社会的重视，靠的是“走出象牙之塔，投身于改革开放和现代化建设的大潮”，靠的是“编印一系列有关‘入世’及为外商准备的中外文对照的资讯材料”，这样就会“受到全社会的欢迎”

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。他们抓住一点，即在西方翻译的稿酬也比较低，以此证明尽管在西方翻译的理论研究取得很大的成就，但翻译仍然没有得到足够的重视，等等。然而，他们却没有看到在西方普遍开设的独立的翻译系、翻译学院、翻译学硕士、博士学位点，而在我国，尽管早在清末马建忠就已经提出设立翻译书院的提议，但直至最近几年才陆续有学校设立了单独的翻译系和翻译学院。然而，至今仍然没有独立的翻译学的学位点。

由此可见，讨论译学观念现代化的问题并不是一个多余的问题。

那么如何实现译学观念的现代化呢？或者说，译学观念的现代化转向应该体现在哪几个方面呢？

首先，要能够正确处理翻译理论与翻译实践之间的关系。不要一提翻译理论就想到对我的翻译有用还是无用，另外也不要把个别译者的经验体会误认、或者更严重的是冒充为理论。香港浸会大学张佩瑶教授于2002年在上海外国语大学举行的翻译研讨会上通过追溯“theory”一词的来源，指出“理论”意即“道理、法则、规范”，是系统的东西，科学的东西，是现代建构出来的产物，因此，从某种意义上说，无论中西，早期的翻译论述中其实是有“论”而无“理论”。她认为，重经验讲实践，不只是中国特色，中外皆然，不同点是西方自上个世纪70年代后大力发展纯理论的东西，从多角度探讨翻译的本质，而中国的译学研究很大程度上还没有脱离传统的巢臼，仍然强调以实践为基础，很少探讨翻译的语言哲学问题，追问翻译的本质，所以在中国译学观念的现代转型过程中，应该首先重估中国传统译学理论的价值，然后再考虑如何引入西方新的译学理论范式。

香港中文大学王宏志教授也有相似的意见。他分析了中国传统译学中讨论的ix主要内容，认为徒有理论之虚名而无其实，只是经验的堆砌而已。虽然这些经验之谈对翻译实践有一定的参考价值，但是它们不能看成是真正的译学理论研究，因为真正的译学研究是有逻辑性的，是客观的，科学的。翻译研究不是价值判断，不是用作指导实践。鉴于中国至今尚无真正的译学理论研究，王宏志认为，当务之急是建立严格意义上的翻译学科，确立新的研究方向，实现从原文为中心向译文为中心的研究范式的转型。

其实，对于翻译理论有用无用的困惑，不光在我国翻译界存在，在国外也同样存在。2002年出版的一本《理论对翻译家有用吗？――象牙之塔与语词表面之间的对话》讨论的也是这个问题。该书的两位作者Andrew Chesterman和 Emma Wagner指出，那种指令性的研究（prescriptive study），也就是要去规定翻译家该怎么做、不该怎么做的研究，已经过时了（old-fashioned），现在的研究者（显然是指的纯理论研究者），要做的是描述性的研究（descriptive study），他们的研究是“描述、解释、理解翻译家所做的事，而不是去规定翻译家该怎么做。”

从这个意义上而言，相对于传统翻译研究的实用主义观念，翻译的纯理论研究也许可定义为“无用之用”。因为从传统的实用观念来看，翻译的纯理论研究是“无用”的，如同本文开首引用的两位作者所说的那样。但是从另一个角度看，纯理论研究也有它的功用。以笔者本人的译介学研究为例，它对具体的翻译实践虽然“无用”，但是它在在区分“翻译文学史”和“文学翻译史”的概念方面，在界定翻译文学的概念方面、在确立翻译文学在中国文学中的地位方面，又有传统翻译研究所无法替代的功用。

其次，译学观念现代化要求我们从事翻译实践和翻译教学的人中间有一部分人应该有成为专门翻译理论家的追求。我们当然不反对从事翻译理论的专家学者们在从事翻译理论研究的同时，在可能的情况下也从事一些翻译实践。但是，从目前我们国内译学界的实际情况来看，我们更迫切需要一批有独立译学理论意识的、能全身心献身于中国译学学科建设的人才队伍。

关于这个问题，前几年王东风教授就已经提出了“21世纪的译学研究呼唤翻译理论家”的观点。他指出：“虽然从理论上讲，实践与理论之间的互动始终存在，但从根本上讲，实践和理论是不能互相取代的。说白了就是，实践家不是理所当然的理论家，理论家也未必就是理所当然的实践家，实践家可以成为理论家，但前提是他必须花费与他的实践几乎相同的时间和精力去钻研理论。反之亦然。”

xiixi

x当代学科建设的特点之一就是分工越来越细，研究队伍开始分流，各有所重，这意味着每一门学科需要有一支专门的研究队伍，我们再也不可能像从前俄国的罗蒙诺索夫那样，一个人既是诗人，语言学家，语文学家，又是化学家，物理学家，等等，等等。

从相关学科的发展史看，这个问题也许可以看得更清楚。学科的建立固然离不开具体的实践以及对实践的研究，但更需要专门的理论工作者。文艺学学科的建立、比较文学学科的建立，主要不是靠的从事实际写作和创作的诗人、小说家和剧作家，而是靠的文艺理论家和比较文学家，其中的主力更是在高等学府从事研究生教学和相关学科的理论研究的学者。现在，中国翻译学学科的建设与发展的情况也一样。

最后，译学观念的现代化意味着要有开阔的学术视野，这是与上述学术队伍的分流、分工，是相辅相成、互为补充的两个方面。一门独立的学科当然需要专门的学科理论的支撑，但是由于现代学科、尤其是我们这门学科的研究对象――翻译的特殊性(它几乎与所有的学科都有关系)，所以我们这门学科的理论，也即翻译学，也必然是开放性的，它必然、也必须借用各种当代文化理论，以拓展它的研究视野，以展示它的方方面面。翻译研究的界限不再像以前那么分明，学科之间的重叠、交叉、接壤的情形将越来越多，越来越普遍。这一点从当代国外以及我们国内的翻译研究中已经得到了证实，这里无须赘言。

十六大以来，我国报刊媒体有一个词的出现率相当高，这就是“与时俱进”。现在我们是不是也应该把这个词(这已经不是一个普通的词，而是代表了一种观念)用到我们的译学界来，让我们的译学观念也能与时俱进，实现译学观念的现代化转向，以推进我国译学学科建设的健康发展呢？

参考文献

［1］谢天振.译介学［M］.上海：上海外语教育出版社，1999.［2］谢天振.翻译研究新视野［M］.青岛：青岛出版社，2003.［3］许宝强、袁伟（选编）.语言与翻译的政治［C］.北京：中央编译出版社，2001.［4］张柏然、许钧（主编）.面向21世纪的译学研究［C］.北京：商务印书馆，2002.［5］Anderman,Gunilla and Margaret Rogers, ed.Translation Today—Trends and Perspectives Multilingual Matters LTD, Clevedon, 2003.［6］Chesterman, Andrew and Emma Wagner.Can Theory Help Translators? A dialogue between the ivory tower and the wordface [M].St.Jerome Publishing, Manchester,UK & Northampton, MA, 2002.［7］Niranjana, Tejaswini.Siting Translation: History, Post-Structuralism, and the

Colonial Context [M].University of California Press, Berkley·Los Angeles· Oxford,1992.i 李克兴《中国翻译学科建设的出路》，载《译学新探》，青岛出版社，2002年，第147页。

许渊冲《关于翻译学的论战》，《外语与外语教学》2001年第11期。iii Lawrence Venuti ed.The Translation Studies Reader, Routledge, 2000, p.215.iv 同上，参见p.216-7。v Sherry Simon, Gender in Translation, Routledge, 1996,p.7 vi 尼南贾纳《为翻译定位》，载《语言与翻译的政治》，中央编译出版社，2001年，第122－123页。vii 参见《语言与翻译的政治》，中央编译出版社，2001年，第1页。viii 参见《中国翻译》2002年第6期第35页。ix 参见李小钧《促进译学观念转变 推动译学建设――2002年上外中国译学观念现代化高层学术论坛综述》，载《中国比较文学》2003年第1期。x 同上。xi Andrew Chesterman and Emma Wagner，Can Theory Help Translators?—A dialogue between the ivory tower and the wordface，St.Jerome Publishing, Manchester, UK & Northanmpton, MA, 2002, p2.xii

王东风《中国译学研究：世纪末的思考》，载张柏然、许钧《面向21世纪的译学研究》，商务印书馆，2002年，第58页。

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第四篇：英语专业 翻译句子

• 刘玉翠回到村里，就好比是住进了监牢里。Having returned to the village，Liu Yucui felt as if she had got into prison.• He drove as if possessed by the devil.他着魔似的驾车狂奔。

• …her sharp mind, sawing raggedly through illusions like a bread knife through a hunk of frozen fish.她敏锐的思想慢慢地剔开了错觉, 就象一把面包刀割开一块厚厚的冻鱼一样。

…(He)wanted it all with a horrible intensity, as the faun wants the nymph.他强烈得可怕地渴望着这一切,象牧神渴望林间的仙女一样。

• The pen is to a writer what the gun is to a fighter.作家的笔犹如战士的枪。

• Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.俗话说，衣柜里面藏骷髅，见不得人的事家家都有。

• Advice and correction roll off him like water off a duck’s back.劝导对他好像水过鸭背似的不起作用。

• Life is like a yo-yo.生活是一个悠悠球,充满一连串的起伏不定。• 爱自己尊如菩萨,待他人秽如粪土。She had as high an opinion of herself as if she were a goddess, and treated like dirt •.接着他们用绳子五花大绑,把节振德捆得象个粽子似的,又是一阵拳打脚踢。

• They give him a good cuff and kick, trusses him up like a fowl and then went on walloping and kicking him again till his nose and mouth were a bloody pulp.• Today you see them bouncing, buxom, red as cherries.如今你看他们又结实又胖，脸上红扑扑的。

• Every bean has its black.人皆有短处。

• The best is the enemy of the good.要求过高反难成功。

• Don’t trust him.He is an ambulance chaser.不要相信他，他是个惟利是图的人。

• 何等动人的一页又一页篇章！这是人类思维的花朵。What inspiring chapters!They are the flowers of the human brainwork.• 霎时间，东西长安街成了喧腾的大海。At once，the Eastern and Western Chang’an Roads became roaring oceans.• Jane’s uncle is an old fox，up to all kinds of evils.简的叔叔是个老狐狸，什么坏事都干得出来。

• After that long talk，Jim became the sun in her heart.那次长谈之后，吉姆成了她心中的太阳。

• 每条岭都是那么温柔，虽然下自山脚，上至岭顶，长满了珍贵的林木，可是谁也不孤峰突起，盛气凌人。All the ridges were so amiable.None of them stood above the others with arrogance，though their slopes were fully covered with precious trees. “Don’t talk to me about no opportunity any more.Opportunity’s knocking down every door in the country，trying to get in.When I was young，a man had to go out and find opportunity and drag it home by the ears.” “休说什么机会难逢。机会正在国内每家每户敲门，想要进去呢。我年轻那会儿，人们得出门去寻找机会，揪着耳朵把它拖回来。”

 How soon hath Time，the subtle thief of youth，stolen on his wing my three and twentieth year!时间，这个盗窃青春的狡猾的小偷，盗窃了我二十又三年飞走了。

我从乡下跑到京城里，一转眼已经六年了。Six years have passed by in a twinkle since

I came to the capital city from the countryside.She is the prettiest girl in the world.她是世界上最漂亮的姑娘。

 尤氏道：“我也暗暗地叫人预备了。——就是那件东西，不得好木头，且慢慢地办着罢。” “I’ve secretly sent people to get things prepared.But they haven’t found good wood for that thing yet，so we have to wait.”



His daughter is rather weak in the head.他的女儿脑子不太好使。

 我和她的关系出现了一个“黑洞”，后来“裂变”，到现在已经“死机”了。

 The initial “black hole” in the relationship between me and her later turned into a “fission” and finally into a “crash”. 秃头站在白背心的略略正对面，弯了腰，去研究背心上的文字。Baldy，standing almost directly opposite White Jerkin，stooped to study the characters written on his jerkin.

His wife spent all her life on the stage.（= theatrical profession）他的妻子在舞台上度过了一生。（=戏剧工作，表演艺术）

 Paper and ink cut the throats of men，and the sound of a breath many shake the world.（= written words；speech）纸墨能割断人的喉管，嗓音能震动整个世界。（纸墨=写几个字；嗓音=说几句话）

 Great minds think alike.（= Great people think alike.）英雄所见略同。（不宜译成 “伟大的脑袋所见略同。”）

 Gray hair should be respected.（gray hair = the aged）老年人应受到尊敬。（不宜译成

“灰头发应受到尊敬。”）

 得到母亲去世的消息，我很悲痛。（“得到”= “我得到”）On hearing of my mother’s death，I was caught in a tremendous grief.（“on hearing of”= “as soon as I heard of ”） 2)“When did he say this?” “At the playground.And walking home.Yesterday.”

（= “He said this at the playground when he was walking home yesterday.”（John

Cheever:The Season of Divorce）

“他什么时候说这话的?”“在广场上。昨天回家的路上。”

 He has provided the poor with jobs，with opportunity，with self-respect.（在 with self-respect 之前省去了连词 and。）他给穷人提供了工作，提供了机会，提供了自尊。 They smiled，shook hands，parted.（在 parted 之前省去了 and。）他们微微一笑，相互握手，分手告别。 折绕；Periphrasis  “孔乙己，你脸上又添上新伤疤了!”（“ 添上新伤疤”意为 “又挨打了”。）“Kong Yiji!You’ve got fresh scars on your face!”  胡思乱想，一夜也不曾合眼。（“不曾合眼”意为“没睡着觉”。）Indulging himself in wild fancies，he did not close his eyes throughout the night. Her olfactory system was suffering from a temporary inconvenience.（= Her nose was blocked.）她的嗅觉系统暂时有些不便。（=她鼻塞。）

 His brother is a disturber of the piano keys.（= pianist）他哥哥是一个跟钢琴键找麻烦的人。（=钢琴家）（这一折绕句有着幽默的效果。）

 然而悲惨的皱纹，却也从他的眉头和嘴角出现了。Miserable wrinkles began to appear between his eyebrows and round his mouth. 广场上又烧起欢乐的篝火。Jubilant bonfires were lit again on the square. After a happy day，she had a sleepless night.她在度过欢乐一天之后，却又熬过一个不眠之夜。

 In the examination，the boy threw a nervous glance at the teacher，who was obviously suspicious of his cheating.在考场上，那个男孩用紧张的眼光瞥了老师一眼，老师显然怀疑到他在作弊。

 敬爱的周总理啊，人民想念您，祖国需要您，我们的党不能没有您!（呼人）Oh，our beloved Premier Zhou，our people miss you very much，our motherland is in need of you，and our Party cannot afford to have your departure! England!awake!awake!awake!英格兰!醒来!醒来!醒来吧! Jerusalem thy sister calls!（呼物）你的姐姐耶路撒冷在呼唤着你!

事情就是这样，他来进攻，我们把他消灭了，他就舒服了。消灭一点，舒服一点；消灭得多，舒服得多；彻底消灭，彻底舒服。This is the way things are：if they attack and we wipe them out，they will have that satisfaction；wipe out some，some satisfaction；wipe out more，more satisfaction；wipe out the whole lot，complete satisfaction. It is an outrage to bind a Roman citizen；to scourge him is a crime；to put him to death is almost parricide.（Cicero）绑架一个罗马公民是一种违法行为；对他进行肉体折磨是一种犯罪行为；把他处死几乎等于杀父母一样的叛逆行为。

 Threaten him，imprison him，torture him，kill him：you will not induce him to betray his country.威胁他，监禁他，拷打他，处死他：这些都不能使他背叛自己的国家。 How haughtily he cocks his nose，他昂首挺胸，趾高气扬，傲慢无比， To tell what every schoolboy knows.讲开了每个小学生都知道的东西。

 The explosion completely destroyed a church，two houses，and a flowerpot.这起爆炸事故彻底毁坏了一个教堂、两所房屋和一个花盆。

 周蘩漪：你这一次到矿上去，也是学着你父亲的英雄榜样，把一个真正明白你，爱你的人丢开不管么? FAN：And the reason why you are going away to the mine is that you’re following your father’s heroic example and throwing over the one person who really understands and loves you?  根据报纸上官方介绍，他是天底下头等大好人，浑身上下毫无缺点，连肚脐眼都没有。According to the official write-ups in the papers，he’s the best man in the world.He doesn’t have a single defect in his whole body.Why，he doesn’t even have a belly-button! What a noble illustration of the tender laws of his favoured country!—they let the paupers go to sleep!以此说明他那行善的国家的仁慈法律是多么有意义的例证!——他们竟允许穷人睡觉! “The boy has broken another glass，”said the mother.母亲说：“小家伙又打碎了一个杯子。”

 “A fine thing!”the father replied.父亲回答道：“好得很!”

 生产多么需要科学!Our production is in burning need of science! 革命多么需要科学!Our revolution is in burning need of science!

人民多么需要科学!Our people are in burning need of science!We can gain knowledge，by reading，by reflection, by observation or by practice.（parallelism）求知门径颇多，或阅读，或思考，或观察，或实践。

 I came，I saw，I conquered.（parataxis）我只身前往，我明察秋毫，我旗开得胜。 We laughed，we sang，we danced.（parataxis）我们纵情欢笑，我们放声歌唱，我们翩翩起舞。

 不知细叶谁裁出？（问）But do you know by whom these young leaves are cut out?  二月春风似剪刀。（答）The early spring wind is as sharp as scissor blade. Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?（问）我能不能拿夏天来同你相比?  Thou art more lovely and more temperate.（答）（Shakespeare）你呀比夏天来得可爱和温煦。

 幸因腐草出，By chance you’re born from grasses of decay， 敢近太阳飞? Dare you fly near where shines the light of day?  Then who will cheer my bonny bride杀了这漂亮新娘的爱人，When they have slain her lover? 还有谁能使她欢愉?  O，if you felt the pain I feel!啊，要是你能体会这痛苦! But O，who ever felt as I? 唉，可谁的感觉像我一样?  卜卜卜——机关枪的声音跟着又来。The staccato chatter of a machine-gun was heard again. 敲了两下门，心上还突突直跳。He knocked twice at the gate，his heart thudding violently. A hammering clatter of hoofs beating the hard road.“得、得、得”，坚硬的路面上响着接连不断的马蹄声。

 White jagged lightning，followed by the brazen clash and deep rumble of thunder.天空中闪过一道成V形的白色闪电，紧接着传来一声霹雳，然后是深沉的隆隆雷声。

樱花红陌上，The pathways red with cherry blossoms；

柳叶绿池边。The lakeside green with willow leaves.Beauty，strength，youth，are flowers but fading seen；美貌、体力、年轻，就像花朵，终

将衰尽；

Duty，faith，love，are roots，and ever green.义务、信念、爱情，就像树根，万古长青。

你刚才所说做大生意做得有些讨厌，这还是第一百零一回听到的话。Just now you said it’s a tiring job to do a big sale.It is the first time I’ve heard this.饭来张口，衣来伸手have only to open one’s mouth to be fed and hold out one’s hands to be dressed

秦时明月汉时关，The age-old moon still shines o’er the ancient Great Wall，万里长征人未还。But our frontier guardsmen have not come back at all.When the cat’s away，the mice will play.猫儿不在，鼠儿作怪。

阿舒已二八，A-Shu is twice eight，懒惰故无匹。For laziness he has no equal.三五中秋夕Mid-autumn’s fifteenth night is here again.清游拟上元。As on the Feast of Lanterns we stroll round.Now，of my threescore years and ten，在我的七十寿数内，Twenty will not come again.有二十已一去不回。

Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation.八十七年前，我们的先辈在这块大陆上创建了一个新的国家。

杨柳青青江水平， 闻郎江上唱歌声；  东边日出西边雨， 道是无晴却有晴。

 Between the willows green  the river flows along， My beloved in a boat  is heard singing a song. The west is veiled in rain， the east basks in sunshine， My beloved is as deep in love  as the day is fine. 春蚕到死丝方尽，The silkworm till its death spins silk from love-sick heart；  蜡炬成灰泪始干。The candle only when burnt has no tears to shed. 空对着，山中高士晶莹雪；Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow-clad hills  终不忘，世外仙姝寂寞林。I forget not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world.(杨）

有个农村叫张家庄，张家庄有个张木匠。张木匠有个好老婆，外号叫“小飞娥”。小飞娥生了个女儿叫艾艾。There was a village called Zhangjia Village，where lived Carpenter Zhang，who had a good wife，nicknamed Little Moth，who gave birth to a girl called Ai’ai. 他一见面是寒暄，寒暄之后说我 “胖了”，说我 “胖了”之后即大骂其新党。Having exchanged some polite remarks upon meeting he observed that I was fatter，and having observed that I was fatter launched into a violent attack on the reformists. Still he sought for fame...fame，that last infirmity of noble mind.可是他仍旧追逐名气——追逐名气，这是个高尚人永远摆脱不了的弱点。

 He gave his life；life was all he could give.他奉献了自己的生命；生命是他能奉献的一切。

 1)我妈妈是个古板人，讲究的是三从四德。（周立波：《山乡巨变》）My mother is rigidly conservative.She’s very particular about the Three Obediences and the Four Virtues. 1)蓝的天，绿的地，长长的小路，她走来了!（张枚同等：《麦苗返青的时候》）The blue sky，the green land，and the long path.Here she was coming along.• 1)哼!你别看我耳朵聋——可我的心并不 “聋”啊!（郭澄清：《大刀记》）Humph!My ears are deaf，but my mind is not.• 2)小火车在欢腾地急驰。人们的心和火车一样，向家乡急奔。（曲波：《林海雪原》）The little train and the hearts of all its passengers，together，sped merrily homeward.1)他细味他俩最近的几页可爱的历史。想一节伤一回心，但他宁愿这样甜蜜的伤心。（《朱自清文集》第一卷）He meditated upon their recent pleasant experiences.Each time he indulged in such meditation，he felt heart-broken.But he was eager to taste this kind of sweet bitterness.2)年年难过年年过，Hard up，we manage to get over it each year； 3)处处无家处处家。（解放前的一副趣联）Homeless，we try to make home everywhere.4)The land did not move，but moved.The sea was not still，yet was still.Paradox flowed into paradox，stillness mixed with stillness，sound with sound.（E.Ray Bradbury: The Vacation）大地止而亦行，大海动而亦静。万寂交而万籁和，若真若假，若是若非。

1)中国还有一句成语，三个臭皮匠，合成一个诸葛亮。单独的一个诸葛亮总是不完全的，总是有缺陷的。Still another Chinese proverb says three cobblers with their wits combined equal Zhuge Liang the mastermind.Zhuge Liang by himself can never be perfect，he has his limitations.5)这对年轻夫妇并不相配，一个是西施，一个是张飞。This young couple is not well matched，one is a Xi Shi---a famous Chinese beauty，while the other is a Zhang Fei---a well-known ill-tempered brute.6)3)He is a modern Samson.他是现代参孙式的大力士。（Samson：参孙，《圣经》中人物，以身强力大著称。）

7)4)We have enrolled every local Cicero.我们把各地西塞罗式的雄辩家都招来了。（Cicero：西塞罗，古罗马雄辩家、政治家、哲学家。）8)5)Our village Hercules has come.我们村的大力士来了。（Hercules：海格立斯，希腊神话里主神宙斯之子，力大无比，曾完成十二项英雄事迹。）9)倒装；Anastrophe 10)1)屈原：鼓动吧，风!咆哮吧，雷!闪耀吧，电!把一切沉睡在黑暗怀里的东西，毁灭，毁灭，毁灭呀!（郭沫若：《屈原》）

11)QU YUAN：Blow，wind!Roll，thunder!Flash，lightning!Destroy all things that slumber in darkness，destroy them utterly!12)2)如果我能够，我要写下我的悔恨和悲哀，为子君，为自己。（鲁迅：《伤逝》）I want，if I can，to record my remorse and grief，for Zijun’s sake as well as for my own.13)3)Fine and sunny it was when we started on our way.我们动身那天，天气晴朗，阳光灿烂。14)4)So beautifully did she sing that the audience burst into applause.她唱得美妙动听，全体听众都为她鼓掌。

1)几何老师手拿一把丁字尺，走进了教室。With a T square in his hand，the teacher of geometry came into the classroom.15)2)老张走进房间一看，只见女儿在床上睡成一个 “大”字。Old Zhang went into the room and saw his daughter lying on the bed in the shape of the Chinese character 大.16)3)It was just impossible for him to get into this I-shaped hole.要他钻进这个 “工”字形的洞口，是完全不可能的。

17)4)What they need now is a large quantity of Z iron.他们目前需要的是大量的乙字铁。18)A thin man in a thin overcoat watched them out of thin，emotionless eyes.（James Thurber: One Is A Wanderer）一个骨瘦如柴、衣服单薄、双目失神的男子注视着他们。19)1)Dumb dogs are dangerous.不吠的狗最危险。

20)2)Sarah sits by six sick city slickers.萨拉坐在来自城里的六个生着病的狡猾骗子的身旁。21)3)Four fat friars fanned flickering flames.四个肥胖的修士扇着闪烁不定的火焰。22)4)Round the rough and rugged rock the ragged rascal rudely ran.23)那个衣着破烂的恶棍绕着粗糙不平的岩石狂奔。

24)1)这个连长太 “军阀”了!年纪不大，脾气可不小!（曲波：《山呼海啸》）

25)（名→动）“ This company commander is too much of a “warlord”.Though he’s young，he easily gets into a fit of temper.26)2)他 “科员”了一辈子。（老舍：《离婚》）27)He’s been clerked all his life.28)（名→动）He's been an office clerk all his life.29)3)The sight of the happy children warmed his heart.看到幸福的孩子们温暖着他的心

30)（形→动）看到幸福的孩子们，他心里感到热乎乎的。31)4)You can never fox me.（名→动）你决骗不了我。

32)5)You have no right to boss me.你无权老板我（名→动）你无权指挥我。33)1）狗拿耗子——多管闲事 be as nosy as a dog trying to catch a rat；

34)瞎子点灯——白费蜡 be like a blind man holding a candle--a sheer waste of wax。35)科学需要社会主义，社会主义更需要科学。（郭沫若：《科学的春天》）

36)Science is in need of socialism，while socialism is in greater need of science.37)

他们那种快活劲儿，真叫人喜欢，我喜欢他们，他们喜欢我。（艾芜：《屋里的春天》）38)Their liveliness is very appealing.I like them，and they like me.39)Ma is as selfless as I am.妈同我一样无私。

40)又：Ma is a nun，as I am.妈和我一样，也是个修女。41)You can cage a swallow，can’t you? But you can’t swallow a cage，can you? 42)你可以把一只燕子关到笼里，是吗? 但你不能吞下一个笼子，对吗? 43)Strong in attack，and in defense unrivalled.进攻上，无坚不摧；防守上，无懈可击。44)The melody was old；old also were the words.曲调是古老的；同样古老的是歌词。45)3)Mr.Hooligan is more than a hooligan while Mr.Fox is more than a fox.46)胡里干先生是个大流氓，福克斯先生是个老狐狸。

47)4)A man has two hands，but a clock has three hands.人有两只手，而钟有三根指针。

48))Tom looked at her with eyes and envy（= with envious eyes）.汤姆用羡慕的眼光望着她。49)4)They drank from goblets and from gold（= from gold goblets）.（Virgil）他们手拿金杯喝着酒。

上周一个温暖、多云的早上，我们一道去布朗克斯动物园看小驼鹿，刚好也给新买的一双黑鞋子试试脚。我们没想到运气会那么好，一头母鹿正带着小鹿站在鹿苑的围墙旁边，鹿苑在猴舍的下面。为了得到更好的观察视角，我们踱行到鹿苑地势较低、紧邻一条小溪的那端。有条小路很少有人踏足。来到铁丝网下小溪涓涓流过的这一僻静之所，就看到一头红鹿站直了身子，在她身旁挣扎着站立的是一头斑点小鹿，娇美得就像放在缩小透镜中去看的一件饰物。母亲带着孩子站在一棵灰色的山毛榉树下，树干上被人刻写上了几十颗心形图案和刻写人姓名的首字母缩写。看到又一头小鹿躺在地面上，我们才意识到他们是母鹿刚刚产下的双胞胎。后生的这头小鹿身体还是湿的，还没有站立起来。这是一幅难得一见的森林奇景，竟然出现在最受欢迎的纽约市五大城区之一的这个地方，我们还有什么不满足的呢（这真是上天对我们的最大恩赐）。我们脚上穿着的新鞋子似乎也开始合脚了，不像开始那么夹脚了。

母鹿离铁丝网只有几步之遥，我们便坐在小路边的一块石头上，观察新生的小鹿在中布朗克斯这个严密布控的鹿苑中是如何（战战兢兢）开始生活的。母鹿刚刚产下双胞胎，对我们的到来有些不满，抬起一只前蹄，在地上轻轻地跺了跺。然后她低下头去，叼起产下的胞衣，尽心尽力地嚼了起来，并用嘴使劲地把它甩来甩去，好像它就是一捆干草。我们正看期间，一丝阳光穿过云层照在鹿宝宝身上，照亮了它们红褐色的皮毛，也照亮了它们白色的斑点。偶然会有一些漫无目的的游客走到这里来，然而没有人意识到这里发生了多么不同寻常的事情！“看这些袋鼠！”一个孩子嚷道。他和妈妈一起面目表情看了一眼鹿就走开了。

过了一会儿，躺着的那头小鹿使出全部的力气和智慧站了起来，第一次站起身来努力嗅探着圈禁它的鹿苑的秘密。作为对儿子站起来的褒奖，母亲放下嘴里的胞衣，试图用嘴舔干他的身体。她逆着小鹿身上的纹理舔，特别关注那些关键部位。与此同时，大儿子踮着脚尖，迈着碎步，朝小溪走去，并下到了溪水中去。他在溪水中间停下来撒了泡尿，就像小孩子洗澡的时候常干的事情。然后，在母亲眼光的注视下，他趟过了溪水，到了溪对岸，选了一个藏身之处躺了下来，那是紧邻铁丝网的一棵臭崧树叶底下，树叶正好把他遮住，四条腿一条不拉地收拢在身下。虽然他并未完全走出游人的视野，但已巧妙地躲藏到摇曳的光影背后，避开了人的视线。远方不知何处传来了正午12点的汽笛报时声。我们又呆了一会儿，他一动也不动。离开鹿园以前，我们跨过小溪，在铁丝网前跪下，将手伸过网，去验证一下我们听闻的秘密：在新生鹿的两耳之间搔一下并不会惊着小鹿。我们搔了一下，事实的确如此。

第五篇：英语专业论文

英语专业文学方向本科毕业论文写作问题探究

[摘 要]英语毕业论文由于从事英美文学教学的教师理论水平参差不齐、教师对学生文艺理论接受能力的怀疑、商品经济时代文学和文艺理论曲高和寡等因素,造成文学学习和文学方向毕业论文写作中缺乏科学的分析方法。本研究将探索将文艺理论引入本科毕业生的论文写作课程中的必要性和可行性,从而建构以文艺理论为中心的英语专业文学方向毕业论文写作的新模式。

[关键词]文学理论;读者反映理论;认知教学法

依据《高等教育法》(1998)的本科教育学业标准,学生应比较系统地掌握本专业所必需的基础理论知识、基本技能和相关知识,并“具有从事本专业实际工作和研究工作的初步能力”。这一标准强调了研究性教学(research-oriented teaching)的重要性,无疑为英美文学教学中理论研究与实践的有机融合提出了要求,而这种融合往往体现在学生文学论文写作的能力之中。然而,高校中实用主义风气、急功近利思想和“重技能,轻人文”弊端的集中体现冲击着文学课教学,助长了学生轻视与人文修养有关的课程,助长了他们对文学作品敬而远之的倾向(马爱华, 2006)。作为全面考核毕业生综合素质的有效途径,毕业论文写作是本科学生毕业前必须经受的考验关口,是师生教学相长的过程。本文将从文学课教学的现状出发,通过毕业论文写作的过程,在揭示现象、总结经验的基础上,提出重视文艺理论的教学,提高学生的文学素养,培养研究性学习能力的意义。

一、研究现状

部分专家认为英语专业(张冲, 2003)是“英语语言技能的专业训练和对英语语言文化的专门研究”,其特征为“技能加专业,复合而开放”,其培养目标为“纯熟的语言能力,深度的专题研究”。这一专业定位除了强调语言技能之外,着重强调了“文化”和“研究”。文化理解和专题研究的基础在于学生文学课程的给养过程,其中,文学理论分析则既指导了文学课程的学习,又加深了学生对文学作品的理解。文学作品的学习与文艺理论的关系好比材料和工具的关系,“工欲善其事,必先利其器”,如果学生没有相关的文艺理论的学习,就好比一个没有工具的工匠,只能望天兴叹。

二、问题成因

文艺理论是学习英美文学的分析和鉴赏工具,研究生阶段的文艺理论教学已经有了一定的历史,但在英语专业本科教学中文艺理论的教学目前尚未展开。这直接导致学生的文学毕业论文的写作难度增大,出现了许多亟待解决的问题。主要成因如下:

1.从事英美文学教学的教师理论水平参差不齐。部分教师讲授英美文学,而其自身很少涉及文艺理论的使用,或者说自己的文学批评理论知识匮乏,因此不可能在授课时有意识地将文艺理论融入到教学中去。

2.轻视或放低对学生的人文素质和评析能力的生成要求。有些教师担心学生的接受能力,甚至害怕因为学生不能正确理解文艺理论的精髓而将其误用或者滥用。《高等学校英语专业英语教学大纲》(2000)明确规定了文学课程的教学目的“在于培养学生阅读、欣赏、理解英语文学原著的能力,掌握文学批评的基本知识和方法。通过阅读和分析英美文学作品,促进学生语言基本功和人文素质的提高,增强学生对西方文学及文化的了解”,显而易见,加大文学批评理论的讲授和研讨是符合《大纲》要求的。

3.所学知识与研究性写作存在三个“不和谐”关系:文学课的教与学脱节;文学课与语言实践脱节;文学教学理论的研究与外语教学实践脱节(马爱华, 2006)。学生习得的知识孤立于其写作实践之外。人才培养目标不明确,学生急功近利,一成不变的文学课程教学脱离实际人才

培养模式。学生将文艺理论视为纸上谈兵。因而,导致“文学理论教材和教学实践逐渐偏离当今消费时代的审美精神”以及“文学理论的教学被大学生们冷落”(李迪江, 2002)。

三、文艺理论在文学论文写作中的意义

1.文学理论的专业知识学习,铺垫了文学论文的研究能力。“文学理论教学应该优先地培养大学生的理论素养,更多地培养大学生的应用能力,如从文学作品的分析讨论中,来培养大学生的理解能力、分析能力和表达能力等(李迪江, 2002)”。本科学生已经有了一定的文学常识,至少对于著名作品的情节有了一定程度的了解,文学名著选读课使用文学名著的原版书籍作为教材,使得学生有机会对文学文本进行仔细研读,为文艺理论的学习奠定了基础。

2.毕业论文写作,完成学生从读者到理论分析的升华。Guerin认为,“读者参与在文本的创作中”。作品的意义是文本和读者相互作用的结果,它强调读者在阅读过程中的不同参与方式。这一理论代表人物之一伊瑟尔指出,所有文学篇章都有“空白”或“缺口”,这些空白和缺口必须由读者在解读过程中填补或具体化(刘辰诞, 1999)。文学作品须由接受者内化和心灵化,即需要接受者的理解、体验、加工、补充和创造,融入接受者的思想和情感、倾向和评价,只有这样,作品中的时间、人物形象等才会活生生地呈现在自己的头脑中(郭宏安, 1997)。从这个角度暴露了英语专业教育中一贯的“知识单一和技能单一”问题,带来的思考是应该如何培养学生多种语言技能,满足其独立学习的需要。

3.文学史学习为文艺理论的学习奠定基础。心理学、原型批判、女权主义、马克思主义的文学评论等可将传统文学史中作家、作品按照时间排序的方式打破。从各种文艺理论的角度对作家、作品重新排序,不同的文学作品可以用相同的文艺理论进行分析,既起到梳理文学史和文学作品的目的,又使学生对文学作品甚至文学史的认识提升到一个新的高度。如:莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》,尤金?奥尼尔《榆树下的欲望》,劳伦斯的《儿子与情人》等作品中都蕴含着恋母情结的心理学分析。以此为基础,给学生补充讲述古希腊剧作家索福克里斯的著名悲剧作品《俄狄浦斯王》,能帮助学生探究作品人物的内心世界,为论文写作奠定基础的同时,也有助于选择一个更为可行的题目。

4.结合文本与文艺理论,丰富学生的论文选题。学生文学专业毕业论文选题往往单一,如选择:《伟大的盖茨比》中美国梦破灭的主题或美国梦的悲剧一类的主题;《呼啸山庄》、《傲慢与偏见》中的爱情主题等。选择经典作家的代表作品为研究对象并不是不可以,但对于一般本科生而言,要就这些作品的某一方面进行较为深入、有创意的探讨,还是有相当难度的。因为,对于某一经典文本的某些问题,国内外评论界可能早有定论,而一般的学生“尚不能用当代文论的新视角去解读,很难提出自己的新解”(杜志卿, 2005)。

5.研读诗歌,理论先行。在历届本科英语专业毕业生的论文中,有关诗歌的论文很少有人涉及。究其成因,主要是在较短篇幅的诗歌中大量运用意象和象征等写作手法,再加上诗人用特有的音韵感和