第一篇：论文写作之英文语法
学术论文的语言表达 2006-10-30 16:26 总则
语言风格清晰流畅的书面语言。注意向已发表的文章学习语言专业术语必须从该领域的文献中学习避免自创的新奇语句，应注意的问题：
一、时态
时态是个比较复杂的问题虽然有一般的规则，但往往在实际文章中很难把握总体的规则，已在前边讲过需要重申的是在同一段落中要避免时态跳跃详见学术论文的写作。最常见的描述一般现象的时态是一般现在时有时也用一般过去时或一般将来时，需要注意的语法In recent years 作时间状语时通常要用完成时。In recent years, Plesch and coworkers have concluded that many so-called cationic polymerizations do not proceed through intermediates of an ionic nature.二、数
数也有其复杂化，特别是在学术论文里有是很难顾及数上的逻辑，但一般不将逻辑上的问题视为语法错误。只须注意在一个句子中的数和谓语动词的统一即可.以下是需要注意的语法不规则变化的单复数。单数 复数
criterion criteria 依据 phenomenon phenomena 现象 medium media 介质 radius radii 半径 index indices 指数 appendix appendices 附录 stimulus stimuli 刺激 basis bases 基础 synthesis syntheses 合成 matrix matrices 基体
Novel biomaterials with improved, specific biological action are being developed using polymers that are responsive to environmental stimuli.一些数有特殊性的名词：data, kinetics 通常作复数名词；research, work: 不可数名词
The data in Table 1 are obtained from the reactions at different temperatures.The kinetics of polymerization within each droplet are the same as those for the corresponding bulk polymerization.Much research has been done to redirect the tropism of retroviruses by engineering the envelope glycoprotein.Most research on poly(ortho esters)has focused on the synthesis of polymers.一些结构的数 <主谓的统一> one of 复数名词单数 none of 复数名词复数
none of 单数名词/不可数名词单数 no 复数名词复数
no 单数名词/不可数名词单数
a kind of 单数名词单数 this/that kind of 单数名词单数 these kinds of 复数名词复数 复数名词 of this/that kind 复数 sort 与kind 类似 a type of 单数名词单数 a series of 复数名词复数 a class of 复数名词复数 the number of 复数名词单数 a number of 复数名词复数
Ara-C is one of most important antitumor agents, especially used in the treatment of various leukaemias.One of possibilities for enhancing the pharmacological properties is to link it to a carrier.Biocompatibility is one of the main criteria for the selection of a particular biomaterial.Controlled drug delivery technology represents one of most rapid advancing areas of science in which chemists are contributing to human health care.Several models have been proposed but none appear to be generally applicable.None of the presently used ones are applied rigorously.Thus far no studies have conclusively demonstrated long-term value of any of the cardiac gene therap approaches.This type of termination is often referred to as spontaneous termination.A number of polymer backbones that are potentially degradable are detailed in the text.The number of mechanisms which have been proposed to explain the stereopecificity of Ziegler-Natta catalysts.* The number of 复数名词: 整个做主语时谓语应为单数;但此句的动词have 是从句的谓语 而从句是形容mechanisms.在其它的从句谓语中也是同样如: One of the mechanisms which have been……
A series of telomers reported in table 1 were then synthesized.A diverse range of mechanisms have been developed.Polymers are a promising class of biomaterials that can be engineered to meet specific end-use requirements.The most important class of poly(amides)for controlled release are the poly(amino acids).The majority of poly(anhydrides)are prepared by melt-condensation polymerization.A wide variety of natural and synthetic polymers have been used to fabricate tissue-engineering matrices.后面通常要用复数名词对可数名词而言 various different most all many several one of many of kinds of a number of the number of a(wide)variety of a class of a series of a wide range of Dozens of different types of receptors are present on the average mammalian cell.In a number of special applications(e.g.contact lenses and skin-grafting materials), additional requirements such as transparency should be considered when selecting a polymer.Many of these transmembrane proteins are receptors.Some polymers are highly crystalline primarily because their structure is conductive to packing, while others are crystalline primarily because of the secondary forces.For still other polymers, both factors may be favorable for crystallization.形容可数名词的量词 a few many a number of 形容不可数名词的量词
a great/small/certain amount of a great/good deal of 形容可数和不可数名词均可的量词 a lot of lots of Although a few polymers may be completely amorphous and a few completely crystalline, most polymers are partially or semi-crystalline in character.The use of IPNs has received a great deal of attention in recent years and different kinds of IPN have been synthesized with different compositions.The major amount of work on size distributions has been on polyesters and polyimides.A sizeable amount work has been published on the copolymerizations of various cyclicmonomers.以下结构的谓语的数由前一个决定, as well as…… 由较靠近谓语动词的决定 not only……but also…… either……or…… neither……nor……
三、冠词
冠词是最易犯错误的地方一定要注意否则编辑的负担极重因为每句话都会用到冠词最普通的规则如下：
单数名词前一般要加冠词a , the 等 但有些情况可不加复数名词前一般可不加冠词也可加the, these, those.The molecular weight of a polymer is of prime importance in its synthesis and application.The rate constant can be expressed by an Arrhenius type relationship K = A e-E/RT Where A is the collision frequency factor, E the Arrhenius activation energy, and T the Kelvin temperature.A plot of lnK versus 1/T allows the determination of both E and A from the slope and intercept, respectively.When a water-insoluble or only slightly water-soluble monomer is added, a very small fraction dissolves and goes into solution.A large but still small portion of the m onomer enters the interior hydrocarbon part of the micelles.The largest portion of the monomer is dispersed as monomer droplets.被修饰的名词前要加the: There has been a rapidly increasing effort in the last ten to fifteen years toward the synthesis of new polymers with markedly higher temperature resistance than those previo usly available.The catalysts usually must be prepared at the low temperatures since most of them become heterogeneous when prepared at or warmed up to the temperatures above abou t-40.四、从句分词不定式
这些是写作时常用且必须用到的结构一定要掌握在学术论文中从句分词不定式通常用来作修饰
Applications in the relatively new field of tissue engineering, where polymers are used to assist regeneration of three-dimensional tissue structures, are more and more int egrated with biological demands.There are three general synthetic approaches that have been used to produc e polymers with increased thermal stability.If certain symmetry requirements are met, the molecules are able to pack into an ordered, lattice arrangement and crystallization occurs.The temperature at which this occu rs is Tm.There are at least two mechanisms through which the infectivity of a vector can be blocked.Biodegradable polymers containing ˋ hydrolysable ˊ groups in their chains, which are susceptible to biodegradation to low molecular weight, nontoxic products, have also been considered for controlled drug delivery systems.Polymers possessing high strength, solvent and chemical resistance, and serviceability at high temperatures would find a variety of uses.The challenge facing cell and molecular biologists is to decipher how cellular events occur.A general problem encountered in many of the polymerization systems has been a difficulty in obtaining polymers of sufficiently high enough molecular weight to have reasonable strength properties.Another approach to obtain rigid polymer chains is by the synthesis of spiro polymers.五、标点
英文中一句话结束要用句号注意避免过长的句子这点与汉语中常用逗号的习惯不同，请注意以下结构的标点 …… such as A and B …… …… such as A, B and C …… …… , such as A, …… …… , for example, …… …… , for example …… …… ,e.g., …… …… ,i.e., …… ……, respectively.六、掌握一些学术论文常用的短语结构可大大降低写作的难度 In order to meet all of these criteria, the vector must deliver the gene accurately.To overcome this problem, it would be advantageous to pseudotypelentiviral vectors with targeted MLV envelopes.Besides identifying suitable proteases for targeting, the success of this protease-targeting strategy relies on the accessibility of the linker to protease cleavage.We have focused our investigations on the in vitro and in vivo biological response of a mouse cell line.On the contrary, the homotelomer derivative 11 exhibits no substantial loss of cytotoxicity compared to free Ara-C.After more than three decades of development, in which numerous polymers have been used to replace body parts, clinical success is still relatively rare.In some cases, polymeric materials for drug delivery must satisfy additional requirements, such as environmental responsiveness(e.g.pH-or temperature dependent phase or volume transformations.)Owing to the nature of these interactions, surface modification strategies have been used to optimize specific surface properties.Several approaches to surface modification exist.In general, both chemical and physical modifications of the polymeric surface may significantly increase the biocompatibility.A host of new polymers have been developed specially for surgical applications, particularly drug delivery.For roughly the past three or four decades, biology has been undergoing a revolution toward a quantitative mechanistic understanding of cell and organism behavior.They offer improved mechanical properties and ease of synthesis.Specific gel systems are described in more detail in the following sections.Perhaps the strongest motivation for polymeric delivery systems is that many of the more recently discovered molecules require delivery at a very localized level due to their mechanism of action.A particular challenge in addressing materials issues for tissue engineering is that the biological processes are not yet understood well enough to allow a clear set of design parameters to be specified a priori.Over $20 billion is spent annually on therapeutic management of CHF treatments alone but the overall outcome is not highly successful.Unless tissue-specific gene targeting techniques have been developed, intravenous injection of recombinant viral vectors is unlikely to be the choice of gene delivery due to systemic infection and low efficiency of gene transfer.In most instances, there is some molecular weight range for which a given polymer property will be optimum for a particular application.The control of molecular weight is essential for the practical application of a polymerization process.Solid polymers differ from ordinary, low molecular weight compounds in the nature of their physical state or morphology.On the other hand, the highly flexible chain leads to very low values of Tg and Tm.Molecular symmetry of polymer chains also plays an important role in determining Tg and Tm.The reason for this is that the extent of crystallinity developed in a polymer is both kinetically and thermodynamically controlled while the melting temperature is only the rmodynamically controlled.This explains clearly why even the moderately high degree of syndiotacticity present in a polymer such as PMMA is not enough to allow it to crystallize extensively.Polymers vary widely in their mechanical behavior depending on the degree of crystallinity, the degree of crosslinking, and the values of Tg and Tm.The general order of thermodynamic stability of different sized ring structures is, thus, given by 3,4,8 to 11 < 7,12 and larger < 5 < 6 There are two important aspects with regard to the control of molecular weight in polymerizations.The rate constants for these reactions are orders of magnitude greater than those for the corresponding reactions of the diacid or diester reactants.The discussions until this point have been concerned with the polymerization of bifunctional monomers to form linear polymers.Of the polymers discussed in the previous section, only the polyimides have been far into the desired …
This corresponds to a two-or three-fold rate increase for a 10°C temperature increase.While the H values vary over a wide range for different monomers, the S values are insensitive to structure –being relatively constant within the range of 20-30cal/K mol.Some polymerizations show a rapid rise in Rp followed by a rapid decrease to the steady-state polymerization rate.Emulsion polymerization refers to a unique process employed for some radical chain polymerization.To a large extent, the molecular weight and polymerization rate can be varied independently of each other.The system undergoes a very significant change after only a few percent of the total monomer has been converted to polymer.As a consequence the monomer droplets are no longer stable and will coalesce if agitation is stopped.Each of the curves in Fig.1 is relatively typical of emulsion polymerization behavior.The mechanism is not well understood due to the experimental difficulties involved in the study.The monomers have been arranged in Table 1 in their general order of reactivity.The classification of a ring-opening polymerization as a chain or step polymerization can be made on two bases.This is explainable in terms of the differences in the reaction mechanisms involved.学术论文中避免语言等错误的建议，在稿件寄出前请按以下程序分别检查各项内容： 是否有人称和动词的不统一第三人称单数的动词是否都加了-s 2 是否有时态的错误 3 是否有数的错误 4 是否有冠词的错误 5 是否有单词拼写的错误 6 是否有大小写的错误 7 是否有标点的错误 8 是否有标题格式编号错误 9 是否有文献格式的错误 是否有页码的错误有无 ┮ 颠倒<包括全文和附图表> 11 是否有寄信的地址姓名的拼写的错误
第二篇：英文论文写作
2.怎样写英文摘要？
可以按照论文的逻辑结构撰写摘要，如概述、目的、方法、结果、结论、展望的顺序。概述(30词左右)：用最简洁的语言概括论文内容。例如：This paper is… 或 This study focuses on…
目的(30词左右)：用To…就可以了，没有必要使用 in order to 或者 for the purpose of 等较长的表述。
方法(50词左右)：尽可能具体地说明操作的步骤，其中注意时态的使用。常用的词汇有：test, study, investigate, examine, analyze, measure, application 等。
结果(50词左右)：直入主题地摆出结果，如 This paper shows… 或 The results are…
结论(60词左右)：删去类似于“The result of the study showed that…” 的赘语，逐条罗列出结论。
展望(20词左右)：指出研究对未来的意义，如 This paper is of great significance in… 或指出不足。
3.英文摘要有多长？
一般情况下用一段的篇幅完成英文摘要，特殊情况可以分成两到三段，但最好不要超过三段。长度一般为200字到300字之间。
4.英文摘要用什么语态和人称？
规范的学术文章通常采用被动语态，突出信息。但由于主动语态的表述更为清楚，现在有些地方也要求采用主动语态。
5.英文摘要用什么人称？
最好不要出现I，we等第一人称代词，而是使用第三人称，如the author等。
6.英文摘要用什么时态？
摘要的时态以一般现在时为主，表示一种存在于自然界的客观规律。在特殊的情况下可以使用一般过去时或现在完成时，用来表明一定范围内的结论或是某一过程的延续性。描述具体的动作时通常用一般过去时，总结主要的结果时通常用一般现在时。
注意：用paper 做主语来描述论文概况时后面常用一般现在时：This paper aims to focus on… 而采用study 来描述相同的内容时则常用一般过去时：This study investigated…
7.一定不能出现的东西
不常见的术语，插图，表格，数学公式，化学方程式，中文标点，过多的形容词，无关的背景资料，自我评价等。
200余篇英文论文被SCI/EI收录的牛人教你如何
写英语论文
今天我很荣幸地听了唐远炎教授关于<<如何写英语论文>>的讲座,唐远炎教授在国际刊物和国际会议上发表学术论文250多篇(其中包括22本书籍,及章节), 其中 SCI检索80余篇,EI检索100余篇.听了他的讲座之后,感觉受益匪浅,有些观点和思想很有参考价值.在此想跟虫友们分享一下.通过整理,在写英语论文过程中,主要注意的有以下几点:
第一.对于初写英语论文的人来讲.最好不要对原中文论文进行直译.在谈到这个观点时,唐教授一再强调初写英语论文一定要“抄”,也就是说搜集一些类似的国外高级刊物的英语论文,在这些论文中找到要表达相似意思的英文句子,使用它的句型.这样写出来的论文更适合外国人的思维方式.也能让外国人更容易理解.同时也更容易被SCI,EI检索.他还说,按这种方式写过5篇论文左右,一些地道的英语表达方式就可以熟练的记住了.第二.在写英语论文之前,首先要确定你要投什么样的期刊.其实投中文期刊论文也是这样的.举个很简单的例子,前几天,我有一个同学,写了一篇用数学问题解决纺织工程问题的论文.导师指导他说:“如果你想投到<<纺织学报>>,在写论文时,在内容上就应该对一些数学知识作详细的说明,而纺织知识可以作粗略的介绍,但如果你想投到<<应用数学>>期刊,那就应该对纺织的一些基础知识作详细的说明!”.因此,投不同类型的期刊有不同的写作手法.这样可以提高论文的录用率.第三.要想写出被SCI/EI检索的文章一定要多花功夫在标题和摘要上.这也许是大家都知道的.外国人更注重创新,只要你觉得自己的观点有创新点,就不要怕不会被外文收录.还有一句话我还记忆忧新:“做很少人做的研究领域,做难的研究领域”.这样的文章很容易被录用.第四.中国有句古话:“熟读唐诗三百首 不会作诗也会吟.”在写英语论文之前,做大量的阅读是必要的.但最好应该去读那些英语是母语国家学者写的论文.但是,必须注意的是.无论是硕士还是博士,永远应该把专业放在第一位,英语是放在第二位.英语只是一种工具.只是一种帮助你科研的工具.第五.写英语论文时,不要使用外国人没有使用过的句型.即使这样的句子在语法上没有问题.但是外国人就是看不懂.也就相当于是一个病句.也许这种“病句”对你考CET有用,其实学英语口语也是这样的.在练英语口语时,希望虫友们记住:“讲外国人从来没说过的英语,即使语法没有问题,也是错的.”我国著名语言学家说过:“想学好一门外语,首先要学好其文化!”
以上就是我总结的一些观点.希望能对广大的虫友们有所帮助.同时希望你们能提出自己的观点.大家互相交流.实现我们共同的目标!
如果你有新的观点或对我的观点不赞同,大家一起探讨,谢谢批评指正!
我的邮箱software_wei@163.com
我的其他文章<科研新手必看宝典> http://emuch.net/bbs/viewthread.php?tid=822575
通过这几天和虫友们的交流.我总结了一点新的观点.首先声明，这是真心话，希望能认真体会，能理解其中真意之后，一定就会懂的如何做研究。我老板平均每个毕业的博士都有6篇以上的SCI，他从来不强求学生发文章，只教如何做研究。下面的问题，他只和我说过一次，之后我的行动与之不相符就会被骂。现在成了习惯来这样思考，做事，发现真是事半功倍。
1.你在做研究之前，想过结果能不能发表没有？往哪里发？
2.写文章的高手是先把文章大框写好，空出数据来，等做完实验，填完空就可以发了。正谓心中有沟壑。
3.在想不清楚要写什么，要发到哪里去，自己做的与同行做的有什么出色之处，之前，就不要动手做事。去看文献，去想。想不清楚就做，不如不做 要想这样子做，就得先看文献不是？要知道如何把文章架起来，要知道别人是如何讨论的，要知道你自己的数据是不是说明了与别人不一样的东东或别人没有做过。这个过程就是看文献，想的过程，这些搞清楚了，写就简单了。要是先做事，做完发现别人做过，或无法用理论解释，岂不是冤大头？ 这可是哥们儿我被老板骂过NN次得来的血的教训啊。本来不想把这种丢人的事写出来的，可看到兄弟们好多在犯和我同样的错误，就写一下罢。但愿有用
如何写出好的英文论文
1.用Times New Roman排版，12号字。
2.1寸页边距，双倍行距。
3.按照要求行文。
4.所有引言须标注。
5.以介绍性段落开头，结尾处要有结论。
6.确认正确完整地表达出自己的思想。
7.更正错别字。
8.时态须一致。
9.第一以及第二人称代词“我”，“我们”，“你”，“你们”等不能出现在文中。
10.引言出处须标注。否则视作抄袭。
11.当引言出现在文中，建议要有提示性句子，如“根据**教授”，避免引言的突兀。
12.使用引言时，句点和逗号均应出现在最后一个引号内，但冒号和分号除外。13.若引言的出处为某书的某章节，书名应加下划线或者用斜体标注。14.避免频繁使用插入语（引言除外），分号，冒号，破折号。
15.不使用修饰性问句，如反问，设问等。
16.不使用夸张手法以及俚语。17.了解词语间不同的用法，例如“their”与“there”，“its”与“it’s”，“to”与“too”，“affect”与“effect”。18.学术性文章中不使用缩略语。19.提交之前仔细检查。
20.在提交日之前，欢迎给教授提供论文草样。
第三篇：英文论文写作常用句子
beginningl in this paper, we focus on the need for l this paper proceeds as follow.l the structure of the paper is as follows.l in this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related conceptsl to begin with we will provide a brief background on the introductionl this will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined.l details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections.l in the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed;then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non‑fuzzy service rule is studied;lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered.reviewl this review is followed by an introduction.l a brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in section 2.l in the next section a brief view of the....is given.l in the next section, a short review of...is given with special regard to...l section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx.l section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.bodyl section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance.l section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the flc decision‑making logic.l section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxxl section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding.l section 2 explains how flexibility which often...can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time‑windowl section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the...l section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the..and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.l section 3 describes a new measure of xx.l section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx.l section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.l section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rulesl the main idea of the flc is described in section 3 while section 4 describes the xx strategies.l section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model.l section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set‑based approach to cost variance investigation.l section 4 gives a specific example of xxx.l section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process.l section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of section 2 and 3.l section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data.l section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model..l section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.l section 6 illustrate the model with an example.l various ways of fuzzification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in section 2.l in section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human dm systeml in section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a...scheme must satisfy.l in section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order‑dense.l in section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions.l in section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...this sectionl in this section, the characteristics and environment under which mrp is designed are described.l we will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.next sectionl the next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements.l however, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.l the three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use.l we can interpret the results of experiments i and ii as in the following sections.l the next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xxsummaryl this paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5.l section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.l section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.l section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper.l finally, conclusions and future work are summarizedl the basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn.l section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.chapter 0.abstractl a basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables.l this paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures.l this paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx.l the method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations.l the procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.l the technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithms.l the usefulness of xx is also considered.l a brief methodology used in xx is discussed.l the analysis is useful in xx and xx problem.l a model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices.l algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified.l the use of the method is discussed and an example is given.l results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique.l this paper analyses problems in l this paper outlines the functions carried out by...l this paper includes an illustration of the...l this paper provides an overview and information useful for approachingl emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.l the main emphasis is placed on the problem of xxl our proposed model is verified through experimental study.l the experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of : xx,xxl the compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables.l a didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedurechapter 1.introductiontimel over the course of the past 30 years,..has emerged form intuitive l technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial worldl the advent of...systems for has had a significant impact on the l the development of...is exploredl during the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions,l the concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent yearsl there has been a turning point in...methodology in accordance with the advent of...l a major concern in...today is to continue to improve...l a xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena.l at the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xxl although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.l the pioneer work can be traced to xx [1965].l to date, none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from ready to be used in commercial systems.objective / goal / purposel the purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:l the ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the non‑experts to utilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to provide intelligent, computer‑aided instruction for xxx.l the paper concerns the development of a xxl the scope of this research lies inl the main theme of the paper is the application of rule‑based decision making.l these objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as to permit...l the objectives of the...operations study are as follows:l the primary purpose/consideration/objective ofl the ultimate goal of this concept is to providel the main objective of such a...system is tol the aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probability distribution.l in order to achieve these objectives, an xx must meet the following requirements:l in order to take advantage of their similarityl more research is still required before final goal of...can be completedl in this trial, the objective is to generate...l for the sake of concentrating on...research issuesl a major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently developed procedure for the xx.l for an illustrative purpose, four well‑known or problems are studied in presence of fuzzy data: xx.l a major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for structuring..methodsl this illustration points out the need to specifyl the ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive.l chapter 2.literature reviewl a wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature, for example, regarding xxl a considerable amount of research has been done..during the last decadel a great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties associated with xx.l there is considerable amount of literature on planningl however, these studies do not provide much attention to undertainty in xx.l since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still under investigation as well in methodological aspects as in concrete applications.l many research studies have been carried out on this topic.l problem of xx draw recently more and more attention of system analysis.l attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of l many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design procedure and have, therefore, not yet been automated.l most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabilistic in nature.l the central issue in all these studies is to l the problem of xx has been studied by other investigators, however, these studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches.l applied...techniques tol characterized the...system asl developed an algorithm tol developed a system called...whichl uses an iterative algorithm to deducel emphasized the need tol identifies six key issues surrounding high technologyl a comprehensive study of the..has been undertaken l much work has been reported recently in these filedl proposedl presentedl state thatl point out that the problem of l describedl illustratedl indicatedl has shown / showedl addressl highlightsl a study on...was done / developed by []l previous work, such as [] and [], deal only withl the approach taken by [] isl the system developed by [] consistsl a paper relevant to this research was published by []l []'s model requires consideration of..l []' model draws attention to evolution in human developmentl []'s model focuses on...l little research has been conducted in applying...tol the published information that is relevant to this research...l this study further shows thatl their work is based on the principle of l more history of...can be found in xx et al.[1979].l studies have been completed to establishedl the...studies indicated that l though application of xx in the filed of xx has proliferated in recent years, effort in analyzing xx, especially xx, is lacking.problem / issue / questionl unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturing planning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model.they tend to span broad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects.l remedy / solve / alleviate these problemsl...is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolvedl two major problems have yet to be addressedl an unanswered questionl this problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution.l an additional research issue to be tackled is....l some important issues in developing a...system are discussedl the three prime issues can be summarized:l the situation leads to the problem of how to determine the...l there have been many attempts to l it is expected to be serious barrier to l it offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex problem.l there are several ways to get around this problem.l as difficult as it seems to be, xx is by no means new.l the problem is to recognize xx from a design representation.l a xx problem can trace its roots to xx.l xx [1987] used a heuristic approach to simplify the complexity of the problem.l several problems are associated with them.l although some progress has been made in this area, at least two major obstacles must be overcome before a fully automated system can be realized.l most problems in practice are complicatedl more problem surface here.l hamper effort toward a xx systeml in order to overcome the limitations due to incomplete and imprecise xx knowledge, a xx program has been developed, which bases its knowledge upon the statistical analysis of a sample population of xxl the above difficulties are real challenges faced by researchers attempting to developl this type of mapping raises no controversy to the issue of membership function determination.l however, attempts to quantify the xx have met both theoretical and empirical problems.l it has become apparent that in order to apply this new methodological framework to real‑world problems and data, we have to pay attention to the problems of xx and xx.chapter 3.proposed methodologyassumptionl in the case when the assumption of a xx seems to be too restrictive or inadequate, the formulation with fuzzy termination time, i.e.given by a fuzzy set in the space of control stages, may be applied.l we assume here the fuzzy constraints to be state‑dependent, and the fuzzy goal to be the same for all the control states, xx, which stems from the problem's nature.l an approach to the solution of this problem is presented under the assumption that the sampling rate decision can be made prior to the execution of the experiment, as opposed to being made while the experiment is in progress.l another assumption made above is that there are precise odds at which the expert is indifferent.l main simplifying assumptions are:l this, in our view, is a questionable assumption.outline / structure / modulel an outline of the researchl information is incorporated within the schemel is built into...structurel a nice modular structure.l the principles of...are applied as modularized criteriaclassificationl a xx system comprises three main components:l must decompose the original..into a set of..l consists of the following steps:l this is summarized in the following steps:l can be broadly classified into the following areas:l can be characterized by its function of effectively processing thel can allow further breadth of application of...into morel the following steps should be followedl xx can be classified by a different ways.l based on the xx, one may classify xx into the following:l this catalog may change due to wear, breakage, and purchasing.systeml unlike many conventional program, expert systems do not usually deal with problem for which there is clearly a right or wrong answer.l the system consists of both...and...l the system has a hierarchical modular architecture organized on three levels.l expert system domains are area of expertisel to develop a xx system for xx, the following factors must be considered:l the system has been developed / designed to determinel the system has proven to be able to l the domain in which an expert system operates is a particular domainl the system comprises a...withl the system is [feature-oriented ] / based on the...techniquel the system environment must be relatively stablel the system is utilized to generate, load, store, update and retrieve...l the development of a xx system has two stages: xx stage and xx stage.l the most essential part of..system is the...l the successful developments in ess have made them an important tool in the development of l an automated system was developed forl in this case, the system can be considered to be generative.l an interactive automatic...systeml a..is commonly thought of as a truly integrated..systeml should be capable of being generated from a...systeml xx is an important part of the integrated system.l the model consists of four rule bases, each of which addresses a separate problem in the hierarchy of scheduling decision.l the rule bases are linked to each other in a chin‑like manner in the sense that the consequent of one rule base constitutes a part of the antecedent of the next rule base.l the rule base consists of all possible combinations of the linguistic terms associated with the linguistic variable of the antecedent of a rule.computer systeml the system has been implemented using prolog language in an ms‑dos environment.prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l the current version of the xx program when compiled with watfor77 results in an executable code of about 270k bytes.typical run time, when run on a xx computer(an ibm compatible machine)operating at 4.77 mhz with 640k ram, ranges from 10 min to 2h, depending on the size(or complexity)of the problem.l time consuming procedures have been implemented in c‑language and directly linked to the prolog environment.l the xx process, once the xx's data has been entered, requires approximately 180 seconds.l it should be noted that the computation was done with a 20 hhz, 80386‑based microcomputer equipped with a 80387 math co‑processor.l the computer programs used for the analyses, one based on the xx method and the other based on the new method, were written in fortran with a compiler that supports the math co‑processor.l lisp, prolog give maximum flexibility but also maximizes development time.l internal representation is the way a model is represented in the computer.l an interactive menu-driven procedure is used in this studyl shell can be develop very fast at the cost of time fairly severe limitations.l while there is no measurable saving of time for the case involving five criteria, the saving is dramatic for the case involving 10 criteria--the computation time reduces from 10 hr 40 min to about 1 min.l this combination is being implemented in an objected‑oriented programming environment(smalltalk‑80 system)to solve problems encountered in construction xxx.method / approach / study / process model / equation /algorithm / rule / formula / techniquel a discussion is presented of a problem-solving systeml to improve the efficiency of the method, the following approach may be applied.l in order to an investigation was made to find the causes of thel although large collections of rules and equations have been complied, none are generally accepted l this approach will be explained and discussed thoroughly in the body of the report.l this can be accomplished byl this algorithm to compute the total cost can be described step by step as follows:l the above preliminary analysis has provided important informationl various methods have been proposed for selecting an optimum...l these concepts have been applied to l on the basis of the concept mentioned above,l this can be achieved byl this fact suggests that a new conceptl this was accomplished by taking...l the preparatory stage is very time consuming process.l test are performed for validity, completeness, and compatibilityl there is little hope of achieving successful...l there has been an increasing awareness of the potential of using most..so far made have not taken this approach, with the exception ofl only a few studies can be found.l it is a very tedious process to go throughl it is only when..has been completed that..may be effectedl the entire interpretation process is conducted in one's head.l these approaches are sometimes very tedious.l several techniques can be usedl a polynomial parametric model can be written as [the following]/[follows]:l a xx model is constructed/formulated using xx.l a xx model represents an xx by its xx.l a process decision model captures the logic essential tol from the equation above, xx is equal to the summation of xx times the...l the validity of a xx model can be checked using euler's formula.l given a model, one can mathematically determine whether...or...l equations for xx need to be derived and implemented in the system.l a number of heuristic rules have been developed forl optimum..techniques can be made more reliable by...so thatl an algorithm based on the characteristic...is used to determinel euler's formula states the following:l the completed model should agree with the formula.l for manufacturing purposes, a detailed and precise model of the object is necessaryl engineering design models are very well defined;therefore, l to keep the domain narrow enough to be implementable, yet wide enough to be useful.point of viewl from an implementation standpoint,l from the point of view of this application,l from this point of view, zadeh suggested an inference rule named xxx(cri for short).l information is the meaningful interpretation and correlation of some aggregation of data in order to allow one to make decisions.l from a practical point of view, the computational aspects of an flc require a simplification of the fuzzy control algorithm.l the use of a hammer to insert screws, although partly effective, tends to distort, destroy, and generally defeat the purpose of using a screw [kusiak ai implications for cim p.129]justificationl we choose the so called xx in our experiment because it has received wide acceptance and canl prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l the rationale behind this is that it can be much easier for an estimator to rate a cost as high than to attempt to place a dollar value on the estimate.l this strategy has been widely used in fuzzy control applications since it is natural and easy to implement.l a function definition expresses the membership function of a fuzzy set in a functional form, typically a bell‑shaped function, etc.such functions are used in flc because they lead themselves to manipulation through the use of fuzzy arithmetic.l it should be noted that in our daily life most of the information on which our decisions are based is linguistic rather than numerical in nature.seen in this perspective, fuzzy control rules provide a natural framework for the characterization of human behavior and decisions analysis.l many experts have found that fuzzy control rules provide a convenient way to express their domain knowledge.this explains why most flcs are based on the knowledge and experience which are expressed in the language of fuzzy “if‑the” rule.chapter 4.examplesexample/ datal the data used in the following example was taken from an experiment in which xx was measured between x and x using a xx technique.l the data consists of over xx measurements.l an example of xx is discussed and the control rules of xx are compared with a xxl examples of complex processes to which this technique may be applied are xx, xx, etc.l the following example is constructed only for the purpose of illustrating the computational procedure discussed.l this example clearly demonstrates that the profile of an individual xx, or a very small group of xx, with no enough data to be studied statistically, can be meaningfully analyzed by fuzzy possibilistic methods.l there is no space here to go into detail on all these methods, but deserve a mention and the bibliography will point to detailed references for those wishing this level of detail.l note that the golf ball spotting example is used throughout the paper.comparisonsl as well, the pros and cons of these representations from a process planning point of view will be discussed.l the method of using xx to implement xx described by zadeh(1973)appeared more suitablel as discussed [in the previous section]/[preciously],relationl we can not invert f' directly because it defines a many-to-one mapping.l the relationships appear very complicatel lifting tasks involve complex and imprecise relationship between the task variables and the human operator's characteristics.l these methods are based on the relationship between...and...l the fundamental concept of a fuzzy rating language is that we can establish a relationship among terms such as high, medium, and low, and then modify these relationships.l this article will thus mention the latter as well as the former.l the former two bear a close relation to a fuzzy cartesian product.importancel the emphasis is on an implementation of a general approach to rule based decision making.consideration / attentionl careful evaluation is necessary to ensure l such a formulation does not change further considerations.l considerable attention has been paid tol attention should be paid to an important finding of this investigation.l caution should be exercised in this process to avoid...l primary consideration is given to...components, though others can be accommodatedl after...has been defined by..., a carefully analysis is carried out/performed to determinel a number of factors such as...need to be taken into consideration before making the appropriate decision.l it should be noted thatl it is important to point out that...l these considerations have heightened interest in the possibility of providing...l we should stress the fundamental importance of the xxchapter 5.results.advantages / disadvantagel one of the major advantages of this new measure of xx is that it can be applied to the experimental study ofl one advantage of using a..is the ease of preparing it.l the xx system is versatilel it has a very fast decision making processl all the algorithms involve mostly logical operations.l it can be easily and without additional cost implemented in a microprocessor‑based environment.l it can reduce the waste of designing from scratch.l the advantages of using a xx to represent xx are the following:l however, xx is not without its shortcomings.l in most cases, the xxx shows an improvement over the existing xxx.l compared to the existing xx, the impacts of the xx are generally reduced by 5% to 9%.l the “best case” results shows a savings of 6% to 9%.l most of the existing works based on xx approach can only recognize a xx.l most of the above methods are computational expansive and limited to xx.l some other advantages of xx are the following:l the problem is the limitation of this method to a limited domain of parts.l it proved limited in application because it demanded precision in system modeling that was impossible in practice.l there are advantages to be gained in the structuring of costs and benefits, the use of xx, l the disadvantages of this method are also disadvantages of conventional xx approaches.l this combines the best features of both techniquesl hopefully, this tool can be as the reference framework of for developing a xx platform, and helping the administration, marketing, and knowledge management activities in virtual communities.resultsl an improvement on the result shown above can be made by based on the data providedl discussion of these theories is beyond the scope of this reviewl based on the information contained in thisl the result can be categorized into nine classesl the results are illustrated by an examplel the experimental results for each xx time are reported in table 2.l from the results obtained so far, it seem thatl because of the inaccuracy of the..., a conclusion cannot be drawn as l although much effort has been made to., this reality is far from completion.l the results indicate that the total benefits are higher than the total costs.l their results may then serve as guidelines for lower level models, less fuzzy and more detailed.chapter 6.conclusionl from the discussion, one may conclude that...l form the above discussion, the conclusion can be reached that l the conclusions drawn are also validl in conclusion to this, it becomes obvious that the problem of xx lies not only in...l we have attempted to introduce some concepts associated with a theory of xx based on fuzzy sets.l considerable more work, hopefully, will be done in this areal a fuzzy set procedure is proposed to solve xx selection problems interwoven with imprecise datal employing the compositional rule of inference, the assessment of the xx compatibility in achieving prescribed xx projectiles in any level of the hierarchy is made possible.l this paper has presented a theoretical and experimental study of the xx process and xx concept.l the experimental research results will hopefully serve as useful feedback information for improvements for xx work.l the scope of this contribution was to introduce a xx method.l in general, fuzzy sets theory provides an alternative foundation for xx analysis in a fuzzy environment.future researchl thus, first extension of the approach could be, l present some cues for a further approach from fuzzy sets theory application to l some improvements to the scheduling aspect of the model may be brought through additional levels in the hierarchy for more detailed representation of the scheduling activity.tables and figuresl figure 7-1 sketches these relationships.l the graphical representation of these functions is shown in figure 1.l the xx may be depicted as in figure 1.l figure x shows the schematic diagram of the l figure 1 though 2 provide a...thatl the architecture of this expert system for....is illustrated in figure 2.l figure 2 gives the outline of an...systeml table shows thel as shown in table 1 and 2l this concept is illustrated in figure 2l at the top of table xx are shown two blocks of data.l each table or matrix has constructs xx through xx as row‑headings, xx through xx as column‑headings.l a table of..is developed and significant recommendations are made.conjugationto indicate additionl additionally, again, also, and then, as can be easily understood, besides, equally important, especially, finally, for the same reason, first, further, furthermore, in addition, last, likewise, moreover, next, second, third, too, evidently, obviously, roughly speaking, broadly speakingto indicate cause and effectl accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, in short, otherwise, then, therefore, thus, trulyto indicate comparisonl in a like manner, likewise, similarly , alternativelyto indicate concessionl after all, although this may be true, at the same time, even though, even so , i admit, naturally, of courseto indicate contrastl and yet, at the same time, but, for all that, however, yet, in fact, in contrast, in the real life, in spite of, nevertheless, notwithstanding, normally, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, traditionally, rather, unfortunately,to indicate time relationshipsl after a short time, afterwards, as indicated earlier, as long as, as soon as, at last, at length, at the moment, at that time, at the same time, before, earlier, currently, immediately, in the meantime, in recent years, lately, later, meanwhile, often, of late, presently, recently, soon, shortly, since, thereupon, temporarily, therefore, until, when, whileto indicate special features or examplesl for example, for instance, incidentally, indeed, in fact, in other words, in particular, in practice, specifically, that is, to illustrate, in this respect, theoretically, as mentioned before / aboveto indicate summaryl in brief, in conclusion, in short, in summary, on the whole, to conclude, in general, to summarize, to sum up, as a result, ultimately,verb phasel build a..modell build up the key linkl began a new era in...l can be regarded as / achieved / used to/for / found / obtained throughl can result inl carries out...tasks l production information in order to simultaneouslyl contains all information necessary to describel do not make use of production informationl deals withl end with failurel fetch the information from the model directlyl has great potential / yet to be resolved / spurred the development of / been recognized as l be aimed at / built up / carried out by / essentially concerned with / considered to be the key technology / associated with each feature of a composite component / cable of / currently implemented for / demonstrated by an example / finally reached / made equal to / equivalent to / more suitable to / oriented to / interpreted as / pointed out / potentially of great benefit in the complex task of / shown in / used to effectively guide the searchl makes use of l make upl meets the needs of real life production,/ the current demands placed upon itl must be justifiedl point outl play an important rolel relates tol rely on l satisfy the needsl determine the total requirements for the...l uses...as a key to search for...l without relying onl will be available/ performed/ overlookednoun phasel a basic technical function of l a critical needl a key / principle feature ofl a substantial impact onl an intensive review was conductedl an increasing need for expanding the application of....l an important component / function / aspect / issuel each rule is numbered in sequencel each of these involvesl for this calculation, it is necessary to definel in the physical environment / integration ofl in the reality of situations where …l many aspects of l most past efforts have been spent on...l common sense to a well studied and documented technical field.l sources of additional information on...are listedl systematic and rationally structured formatl the basis on which a range of...operations can be established is shownl the basic philosophy / principles of / key element / general hypothesis / candidate list of / concept of...has attracted wide interest / function is concerned with / heart / impact / nature / role / task of / kernel functions l the number of parts needed to l the above statement means thatl the output data is passed to l the proposed method / underlying principlel the recommendations made in this report, if implemented, shouldl this information resides inl this process is composed of...different...operationl along with the use of l concerning general aspects ofl due tol for later use in generating...,l in turn,l it is believed / noted / assumed / suggested / shown / quite evident / appears / implies that / intended for / of no important tol it can be claimed/concluded thatl it demonstrates the decisions required of l it also provides information to..l it becomes essential to l let...be the probability thatl once...is written, it is compiled into...l suppose it is observe
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第四篇：英文论文写作体会
本人近日侥幸在某SCI索引的外刊发表一篇论文，想在这里浅谈一下发外文的体会，供学弟、学妹们参考。我觉得发外文时主要注意以下几点：1.论文中必须至少有一个创新点。创新点或是开创性的工作，或是对原有工作的改进，或是提出一种新方法。老外对公式不是很看重，主要看你是否有创新。2.在外刊上发过文章的同学都知道，Introduction部分是最难写的，我认为在这部分中不但要提及题目的意义，别人的研究成果，更重要的是要指出你这篇论文的贡献，以吸引审稿人的眼球。3.标题也很重要，即要新颖又要体现你的论文的主要工作及采用的方法4.实验素材要丰富，以数据说话，让人感觉你作了许多工作。5.要直接用英文写，学会用英语语言思考问题，不要先写成汉语再翻成英语，这样写出来的东西总有点中国英语的味道，让审稿人看起来不舒服。6.平时多看一些牛刊的论文，摘抄一个常用的语句及段落，如开场白、题目的意义、章节安排、语气转折等，活学活用。这样写出来的文章看起来就很漂亮了。7.对审稿人提出的修改意见或建议一定要认真对待，尽量满足他们的要求，如你认为某些意见或建议不妥，要在回信中加以阐述。8.认真研究所发期刊的参考文献的引用格式。我的一位师兄就是因为这点直接被拒了。
第五篇：英文论文写作常用句子
Beginningl In this paper, we focus on the need for l This paper proceeds as follow.l The structure of the paper is as follows.l In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related conceptsl To begin with we will provide a brief background on the Introductionl This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined.l Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections.l In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed;then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non‑fuzzy service rule is studied;lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered.Reviewl This review is followed by an introduction.l A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in Section 2.l In the next section a brief view of the....is given.l In the next section, a short review of...is given with special regard to...l Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx.l Section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.Bodyl Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance.l Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision‑making logic.l Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxxl Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding.l Section 2 explains how flexibility which often...can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time‑windowl Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the...l Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the..and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.l Section 3 describes a new measure of xx.l Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx.l Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.l Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rulesl The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4 describes the xx strategies.l Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model.l Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set‑based approach to cost variance investigation.l Section 4 gives a specific example of xxx.l Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process.l Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Section 2 and 3.l Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data.l Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model..l Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.l Section 6 illustrate the model with an example.l Various ways of fuzzification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in Section 2.l In Section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human DM systeml In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a...scheme must satisfy.l In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order‑dense.l In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions.l In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...This Sectionl In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRp is designed are described.l We will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.Next Sectionl The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements.l However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.l The three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use.l We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in the following sections.l The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xxSummaryl This paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5.l Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.l Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.l Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper.l Finally, conclusions and future work are summarizedl The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn.l Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.Chapter 0.Abstractl A basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables.l This paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures.l This paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx.l The method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations.l The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.l The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithms.l The usefulness of xx is also considered.l A brief methodology used in xx is discussed.l The analysis is useful in xx and xx problem.l A model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices.l Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified.l The use of the method is discussed and an example is given.l Results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique.l This paper analyses problems in l This paper outlines the functions carried out by...l This paper includes an illustration of the...l This paper provides an overview and information useful for approachingl Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.l The main emphasis is placed on the problem of xxl Our proposed model is verified through experimental study.l The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of : xx,xxl The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables.l A didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedureChapter 1.IntroductionTimel Over the course of the past 30 years,..has emerged form intuitive l Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial worldl The advent of...systems for has had a significant impact on the l The development of...is exploredl During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions,l The concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent yearsl There has been a turning point in...methodology in accordance with the advent of...l A major concern in...today is to continue to improve...l A xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena.l At the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xxl Although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.l The pioneer work can be traced to xx [1965].l To date, none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from ready to be used in commercial systems.Objective / Goal / purposel The purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:l The ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the non‑experts to utilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to provide intelligent, computer‑aided instruction for xxx.l The paper concerns the development of a xxl The scope of this research lies inl The main theme of the paper is the application of rule‑based decision making.l These objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as to permit...l The objectives of the...operations study are as follows:l The primary purpose/consideration/objective ofl The ultimate goal of this concept is to providel The main objective of such a...system is tol The aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probability distribution.l In order to achieve these objectives, an xx must meet the following requirements:l In order to take advantage of their similarityl more research is still required before final goal of...can be completedl In this trial, the objective is to generate...l for the sake of concentrating on...research issuesl A major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently developed procedure for the xx.l For an illustrative purpose, four well‑known OR problems are studied in presence of fuzzy data: xx.l A major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for structuring..methodsl This illustration points out the need to specifyl The ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive.l Chapter 2.Literature Reviewl A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature, for example, regarding xxl A considerable amount of research has been done..during the last decadel A great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties associated with xx.l There is considerable amount of literature on planningl However, these studies do not provide much attention to undertainty in xx.l Since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still under investigation as well in methodological aspects as in concrete applications.l Many research studies have been carried out on this topic.l problem of xx draw recently more and more attention of system analysis.l Attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of l Many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design procedure and have, therefore, not yet been automated.l Most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabilistic in nature.l The central issue in all these studies is to l The problem of xx has been studied by other investigators, however, these studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches.l Applied...techniques tol Characterized the...system asl Developed an algorithm tol Developed a system called...whichl Uses an iterative algorithm to deducel Emphasized the need tol Identifies six key issues surrounding high technologyl A comprehensive study of the..has been undertaken l Much work has been reported recently in these filedl proposedl presentedl State thatl point out that the problem of l Describedl Illustratedl Indicatedl Has shown / showedl Addressl Highlightsl A study on...was done / developed by []l previous work, such as [] and [], deal only withl The approach taken by [] isl The system developed by [] consistsl A paper relevant to this research was published by []l []'s model requires consideration of..l []' model draws attention to evolution in human developmentl []'s model focuses on...l Little research has been conducted in applying...tol The published information that is relevant to this research...l This study further shows thatl Their work is based on the principle of l More history of...can be found in xx et al.[1979].l Studies have been completed to establishedl The...studies indicated that l Though application of xx in the filed of xx has proliferated in recent years, effort in analyzing xx, especially xx, is lacking.problem / Issue / Questionl Unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturing planning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model.They tend to span broad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects.l Remedy / solve / alleviate these problemsl...is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolvedl Two major problems have yet to be addressedl An unanswered questionl This problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution.l An additional research issue to be tackled is....l Some important issues in developing a...system are discussedl The three prime issues can be summarized:l The situation leads to the problem of how to determine the...l There have been many attempts to l It is expected to be serious barrier to l It offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex problem.l There are several ways to get around this problem.l As difficult as it seems to be, xx is by no means new.l The problem is to recognize xx from a design representation.l A xx problem can trace its roots to xx.l xx [1987] used a heuristic approach to simplify the complexity of the problem.l Several problems are associated with them.l Although some progress has been made in this area, at least two major obstacles must be overcome before a fully automated system can be realized.l Most problems in practice are complicatedl More problem surface here.l Hamper effort toward a xx systeml In order to overcome the limitations due to incomplete and imprecise xx knowledge, a xx program has been developed, which bases its knowledge upon the statistical analysis of a sample population of xxl The above difficulties are real challenges faced by researchers attempting to developl This type of mapping raises no controversy to the issue of membership function determination.l However, attempts to quantify the xx have met both theoretical and empirical problems.l It has become apparent that in order to apply this new methodological framework to real‑world problems and data, we have to pay attention to the problems of xx and xx.Chapter 3.proposed methodologyAssumptionl In the case when the assumption of a xx seems to be too restrictive or inadequate, the formulation with Fuzzy termination time, i.e.given by a fuzzy set in the space of control stages, may be applied.l We assume here the fuzzy constraints to be state‑dependent, and the fuzzy goal to be the same for all the control states, xx, which stems from the problem's nature.l An approach to the solution of this problem is presented under the assumption that the sampling rate Decision can be made prior to the execution of the experiment, as opposed to being made while the experiment is in progress.l Another assumption made above is that there are precise odds at which the expert is indifferent.l Main simplifying assumptions are:l This, in our view, is a questionable assumption.Outline / Structure / Modulel An outline of the researchl Information is incorporated within the schemel Is built into...structurel A nice modular structure.l The principles of...are applied as modularized criteriaClassificationl A xx system comprises three main components:l Must decompose the original..into a set of..l Consists of the following steps:l This is summarized in the following steps:l Can be broadly classified into the following areas:l Can be characterized by its function of effectively processing thel Can allow further breadth of application of...into morel The following steps should be followedl xx can be classified by a different ways.l Based on the xx, one may classify xx into the following:l This catalog may change due to wear, breakage, and purchasing.Systeml Unlike many conventional program, expert systems do not usually deal with problem for which there is clearly a right or wrong answer.l The system consists of both...and...l The system has a hierarchical modular architecture organized on three levels.l expert system domains are area of expertisel To develop a xx system for xx, the following factors must be considered:l The system has been developed / designed to determinel The system has proven to be able to l The domain in which an expert system operates is a particular domainl The system comprises a...withl The system is [feature-oriented ] / based on the...techniquel The system environment must be relatively stablel The system is utilized to generate, load, store, update and retrieve...l The development of a xx system has two stages: xx stage and xx stage.l The most essential part of..system is the...l The successful developments in ESs have made them an important tool in the development of l An automated system was developed forl In this case, the system can be considered to be generative.l An interactive automatic...systeml A..is commonly thought of as a truly integrated..systeml Should be capable of being generated from a...systeml xx is an important part of the integrated system.l The model consists of four rule bases, each of which addresses a separate problem in the hierarchy of scheduling decision.l The rule bases are linked to each other in a chin‑like manner in the sense that the consequent of one rule base constitutes a part of the antecedent of the next rule base.l The rule base consists of all possible combinations of the linguistic terms associated with the linguistic variable of the antecedent of a rule.Computer Systeml The system has been implemented using prolog language in an MS‑DOS environment.prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l The current version of the xx program when compiled with WATFOR77 results in an executable code of about 270K bytes.Typical run time, when run on a XX computer(an IBM compatible machine)operating at 4.77 Mhz with 640K RAM, ranges from 10 min to 2h, depending on the size(or complexity)of the problem.l Time consuming procedures have been implemented in C‑language and directly linked to the prolog environment.l The xx process, once the xx's data has been entered, requires approximately 180 seconds.l It should be noted that the computation was done with a 20 Hhz, 80386‑based microcomputer equipped with a 80387 math co‑processor.l The computer programs used for the analyses, one based on the xx method and the other based on the new method, were written in FORTRAN with a compiler that supports the math co‑processor.l Lisp, prolog give maximum flexibility but also maximizes development time.l Internal representation is the way a model is represented in the computer.l An interactive menu-driven procedure is used in this studyl Shell can be develop very fast at the cost of time fairly severe limitations.l While there is no measurable saving of time for the case involving five criteria, the saving is dramatic for the case involving 10 criteria--the computation time reduces from 10 hr 40 min to about 1 min.l This combination is being implemented in an objected‑oriented programming environment(Smalltalk‑80 system)to solve problems encountered in construction xxx.Method / Approach / Study / process Model / Equation /Algorithm / Rule / Formula / Techniquel A discussion is presented of a problem-solving systeml To improve the efficiency of the method, the following approach may be applied.l In order to an investigation was made to find the causes of thel Although large collections of rules and equations have been complied, none are generally accepted l This approach will be explained and discussed thoroughly in the body of the report.l This can be accomplished byl This algorithm to compute the total cost can be described step by step as follows:l The above preliminary analysis has provided important informationl Various methods have been proposed for selecting an optimum...l These concepts have been applied to l On the basis of the concept mentioned above,l This can be achieved byl This fact suggests that a new conceptl This was accomplished by taking...l The preparatory stage is very time consuming process.l Test are performed for validity, completeness, and compatibilityl There is little hope of achieving successful...l There has been an increasing awareness of the potential of using most..so far made have not taken this approach, with the exception ofl Only a few studies can be found.l It is a very tedious process to go throughl It is only when..has been completed that..may be effectedl The entire interpretation process is conducted in one's head.l These approaches are sometimes very tedious.l Several techniques can be usedl A polynomial parametric model can be written as [the following]/[follows]:l A xx model is constructed/formulated using xx.l A xx model represents an xx by its xx.l A process decision model captures the logic essential tol From the equation above, xx is equal to the summation of xx times the...l The validity of a xx model can be checked using Euler's formula.l Given a model, one can mathematically determine whether...or...l Equations for xx need to be derived and implemented in the system.l A number of heuristic rules have been developed forl Optimum..techniques can be made more reliable by...so thatl An algorithm based on the characteristic...is used to determinel Euler's formula states the following:l The completed model should agree with the formula.l For manufacturing purposes, a detailed and precise model of the object is necessaryl Engineering design models are very well defined;therefore, l To keep the domain narrow enough to be implementable, yet wide enough to be useful.point of Viewl from an implementation standpoint,l From the point of view of this application,l From this point of view, Zadeh suggested an inference rule named xxx(CRI for short).l Information is the meaningful interpretation and correlation of some aggregation of data in order to allow one to make decisions.l From a practical point of view, the computational aspects of an FLC require a simplification of the fuzzy control algorithm.l The use of a hammer to insert screws, although partly effective, tends to distort, destroy, and generally defeat the purpose of using a screw [Kusiak AI Implications for CIM p.129]Justificationl We choose the so called xx in our experiment because it has received wide acceptance and canl prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l The rationale behind this is that it can be much easier for an estimator to rate a cost as high than to attempt to place a dollar value on the estimate.l This strategy has been widely used in fuzzy control applications since it is natural and easy to implement.l A function definition expresses the membership function of a fuzzy set in a functional form, typically a bell‑shaped function, etc.Such functions are used in FLC because they lead themselves to manipulation through the use of fuzzy arithmetic.l It should be noted that in our daily life most of the information on which our decisions are based is linguistic rather than numerical in nature.Seen in this perspective, fuzzy control rules provide a natural framework for the characterization of human behavior and decisions analysis.l Many experts have found that fuzzy control rules provide a convenient way to express their domain knowledge.This explains why most FLCs are based on the knowledge and experience which are expressed in the language of fuzzy “if‑the” rule.Chapter 4.ExamplesExample/ Datal The data used in the following example was taken from an experiment in which xx was measured between x and x using a xx technique.l The data consists of over xx measurements.l An example of xx is discussed and the control rules of xx are compared with a xxl Examples of complex processes to which this technique may be applied are xx, xx, etc.l The following example is constructed only for the purpose of illustrating the computational procedure discussed.l This example clearly demonstrates that the profile of an individual xx, or a very small group of xx, with no enough data to be studied statistically, can be meaningfully analyzed by fuzzy possibilistic methods.l There is no space here to go into detail on all these methods, but deserve a mention and the bibliography will point to detailed references for those wishing this level of detail.l Note that the golf ball spotting example is used throughout the paper.Comparisonsl As well, the pros and cons of these representations from a process planning point of view will be discussed.l The method of using xx to implement xx described by Zadeh(1973)appeared more suitablel As discussed [in the previous section]/[preciously],Relationl We can not invert F' directly because it defines a many-to-one mapping.l The relationships appear very complicatel Lifting tasks involve complex and imprecise relationship between the task variables and the human operator's characteristics.l These methods are based on the relationship between...and...l The fundamental concept of a fuzzy rating language is that we can establish a relationship among terms such as high, medium, and low, and then modify these relationships.l This article will thus mention the latter as well as the former.l The former two bear a close relation to a fuzzy Cartesian product.Importancel The emphasis is on an implementation of a general approach to rule based decision making.Consideration / Attentionl Careful evaluation is necessary to ensure l Such a formulation does not change further considerations.l Considerable attention has been paid tol Attention should be paid to an important finding of this investigation.l Caution should be exercised in this process to avoid...l primary consideration is given to...components, though others can be accommodatedl After...has been defined by..., a carefully analysis is carried out/performed to determinel A number of factors such as...need to be taken into consideration before making the appropriate decision.l It should be noted thatl It is important to point out that...l These considerations have heightened interest in the possibility of providing...l We should stress the fundamental importance of the xxChapter 5.Results.Advantages / Disadvantagel One of the major advantages of this new measure of xx is that it can be applied to the experimental study ofl One advantage of using a..is the ease of preparing it.l The xx system is versatilel It has a very fast decision making processl All the algorithms involve mostly logical operations.l It can be easily and without additional cost implemented in a microprocessor‑based environment.l It can reduce the waste of designing from scratch.l The advantages of using a xx to represent xx are the following:l However, xx is not without its shortcomings.l In most cases, the xxx shows an improvement over the existing xxx.l Compared to the existing xx, the impacts of the xx are generally reduced by 5% to 9%.l The “best case” results shows a savings of 6% to 9%.l Most of the existing works based on xx approach can only recognize a xx.l Most of the above methods are computational expansive and limited to xx.l Some other advantages of xx are the following:l The problem is the limitation of this method to a limited domain of parts.l It proved limited in application because it demanded precision in system modeling that was impossible in practice.l There are advantages to be gained in the structuring of costs and benefits, the use of xx, l The disadvantages of this method are also disadvantages of conventional xx approaches.l This combines the best features of both techniquesl Hopefully, this tool can be as the reference framework of for developing a xx platform, and helping the administration, marketing, and knowledge management activities in virtual communities.Resultsl An improvement on the result shown above can be made by based on the data providedl Discussion of these theories is beyond the scope of this reviewl Based on the information contained in thisl The result can be categorized into nine classesl The results are illustrated by an examplel The experimental results for each xx time are reported in Table 2.l From the results obtained so far, it seem thatl Because of the inaccuracy of the..., a conclusion cannot be drawn as l Although much effort has been made to., this reality is far from completion.l The results indicate that the total benefits are higher than the total costs.l Their results may then serve as guidelines for lower level models, less fuzzy and more detailed.Chapter 6.Conclusionl From the discussion, one may conclude that...l Form the above discussion, the conclusion can be reached that l The conclusions drawn are also validl In conclusion to this, it becomes obvious that the problem of xx lies not only in...l We have attempted to introduce some concepts associated with a theory of xx based on fuzzy sets.l Considerable more work, hopefully, will be done in this areal A fuzzy set procedure is proposed to solve xx selection problems interwoven with imprecise datal Employing the compositional rule of inference, the assessment of the xx compatibility in achieving prescribed xx projectiles in any level of the hierarchy is made possible.l This paper has presented a theoretical and experimental study of the xx process and xx concept.l The experimental research results will hopefully serve as useful feedback information for improvements for xx work.l The scope of this contribution was to introduce a xx method.l In general, fuzzy sets theory provides an alternative foundation for xx analysis in a fuzzy environment.Future Researchl Thus, first extension of the approach could be, l present some cues for a further approach from Fuzzy Sets Theory application to l Some improvements to the scheduling aspect of the model may be brought through additional levels in the hierarchy for more detailed representation of the scheduling activity.Tables and Figuresl Figure 7-1 sketches these relationships.l The graphical representation of these functions is shown in Figure 1.l The xx may be depicted as in Figure 1.l Figure x shows the schematic diagram of the l Figure 1 though 2 provide a...thatl the architecture of this expert system for....is illustrated in Figure 2.l Figure 2 gives the outline of an...systeml Table shows thel as shown in Table 1 and 2l This concept is illustrated in Figure 2l At the top of Table xx are shown two blocks of data.l Each table or matrix has constructs xx through xx as row‑headings, xx through xx as column‑headings.l A table of..is developed and significant recommendations are made.CONJUGATIONTo Indicate Additionl additionally, again, also, and then, as can be easily understood, besides, equally important, especially, finally, for the same reason, first, further, furthermore, in addition, last, likewise, moreover, next, second, third, too, evidently, obviously, roughly speaking, broadly speakingTo Indicate Cause and Effectl accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, in short, otherwise, then, therefore, thus, trulyTo indicate Comparisonl in a like manner, likewise, similarly , alternativelyTo Indicate Concessionl after all, although this may be true, at the same time, even though, even so , I admit, naturally, of courseTo Indicate Contrastl and yet, at the same time, but, for all that, however, yet, in fact, in contrast, in the real life, in spite of, nevertheless, notwithstanding, normally, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, traditionally, rather, unfortunately,To Indicate Time Relationshipsl after a short time, afterwards, as indicated earlier, as long as, as soon as, at last, at length, at the moment, at that time, at the same time, before, earlier, currently, immediately, in the meantime, in recent years, lately, later, meanwhile, often, of late, presently, recently, soon, shortly, since, thereupon, temporarily, therefore, until, when, whileTo Indicate Special Features or Examplesl for example, for instance, incidentally, indeed, in fact, in other words, in particular, in practice, specifically, that is, to illustrate, in this respect, theoretically, as mentioned before / aboveTo Indicate Summaryl in brief, in conclusion, in short, in summary, on the whole, to conclude, in general, to summarize, to sum up, as a result, ultimately,VERB pHASEl build a..modell build up the key linkl began a new era in...l can be regarded as / achieved / used to/for / found / obtained throughl can result inl carries out...tasks l production information in order to simultaneouslyl contains all information necessary to describel do not make use of production informationl deals withl end with failurel fetch the information from the model directlyl has great potential / yet to be resolved / spurred the development of / been recognized as l BE aimed at / built up / carried out by / essentially concerned with / considered to be the key technology / associated with each feature of a composite component / cable of / currently implemented for / demonstrated by an example / finally reached / made equal to / equivalent to / more suitable to / oriented to / interpreted as / pointed out / potentially of great benefit in the complex task of / shown in / used to effectively guide the searchl makes use of l make upl meets the needs of real life production,/ the current demands placed upon itl must be justifiedl point outl play an important rolel relates tol rely on l satisfy the needsl determine the total requirements for the...l uses...as a key to search for...l without relying onl will be available/ performed/ overlookedNOUN pHASEl a basic technical function of l a critical needl a key / principle feature ofl a substantial impact onl an intensive review was conductedl an increasing need for expanding the application of....l an important component / function / aspect / issuel each rule is numbered in sequencel each of these involvesl for this calculation, it is necessary to definel in the physical environment / integration ofl in the reality of situations where …l many aspects of l most past efforts have been spent on...l common sense to a well studied and documented technical field.l sources of additional information on...are listedl systematic and rationally structured formatl the basis on which a range of...operations can be established is shownl THE basic philosophy / principles of / key element / general hypothesis / candidate list of / concept of...has attracted wide interest / function is concerned with / heart / impact / nature / role / task of / kernel functions l the number of parts needed to l the above statement means thatl the output data is passed to l the proposed method / underlying principlel the recommendations made in this report, if implemented, shouldl this information resides inl this process is composed of...different...operationl along with the use of l concerning general aspects ofl due tol for later use in generating...,l in turn,l IT IS believed / noted / assumed / suggested / shown / quite evident / appears / implies that / intended for / of no important tol it can be claimed/concluded thatl it demonstrates the decisions required of l it also provides information to..l it becomes essential to l let...be the probability thatl once...is written, it is compiled into...l suppose it is observe
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