中西方商务礼仪差异

第一篇：中西方商务礼仪差异

武汉纺织大学外经贸学院

商务礼仪（小论文）

课题名称：

完成期限： 2013年10月01日至 2013年10月31日

学院名称 外经贸学院专业班级 工商管理21102 学生姓名 江 津 学 号 1014221075 指导教师 陈晓燕 指导教师职称 副教授 学院领导小组组长签字

绪论„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„1

一、商务礼仪的内涵„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„2

（一）礼貌„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„2

（二）礼节„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„2

二、中西语言文化差异„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„3

（一）中西方礼尚交往的区别„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„3

（二）不同文化背景下的商务礼仪„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„3

三、中西方文化背景的差异„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„3

（一）交际语言的差异„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„4

（二）餐饮礼仪的差异„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„4

（三）中西方服饰礼仪的差异„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„4 结论„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„5 参考文献„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„6

绪论

中国一向是礼仪之邦，礼仪对每个中国人来说是非常重要的，无论是会见亲朋好友或者是在人与人的打交道上，都离不开礼仪。礼仪被认 为是一个人道德修养的表现，一个人若毫无礼仪可言，那么他在学习或工作时都将不会很顺利，因为没有人愿意和这样一个人相处。如今随着世界经济的发展，特别是全球经济一体化的不断形成，各国间的联系加强，商务往来增多，如何才能在众多企业中脱颖而出，除了需要卓越的能力外，还要掌握有效沟通及妥善人际关系，建立良好优雅的企业形象，此时，商务礼仪便起到了一个十分重要的作用。商务礼仪顾名思义就是商务活动中对人的仪容仪表和言谈举止的普遍要求，体现了人与人之间的相互尊重，同时也约束了商务活动中的某些方面。而在商务往来中，任何一个表现都可能会导致意想不到的结果，也许是一块手表，也许是一顿晚餐。学习商务礼仪最主要的是可以提高个人的素养。比尔盖茨曾讲过，企业竞争，是员工素质的竞争，进而到企业，就是企业形象的竞争，教养体现细节，细节展示素质。可见一个人的素养高低对企业的发展是多么重要啊！其次是为了交际应酬，因为商务活动中毕竟是离不开这个的，在不同的交往活动中我们会遇到不同的人，而面对不同的人怎样进行交往也是一门艺术，如何让人感到舒服，却又没有拍马屁的嫌疑是非常关键的。最后便是有助于维护企业形象。在商务交往中，个人便代表了整体，个人的所作所为，一举一动，一言一行，就是企业的典型活体广告。

东西方商务礼仪的差异

一、商务礼仪的涵义

商务礼仪是指在商务活动中的礼仪规范和准则。它是一般礼仪在商务活动中的运用和体现，在内容上比一般的人际交往礼仪更为丰富。同一般的人际交往礼仪相比，商务礼仪具有很强的规范性和可操作性，并且与商务组织的经济效益密切相关。商务礼仪具体表现为礼貌、礼节、仪表、仪式等方面。

（一）礼貌

礼貌是指人们在商务活动中展现出来的得体的风度和风范。礼貌是礼的行为规范，是指人在仪容、仪表、仪态、语言和动作上待人接物的表现。礼貌主要通过言语和动作表现对他人的谦虚和恭敬，它是一个人文化层次和文明程度的体现。良好的教养和道德品质是礼貌的基础，我们可以通过自觉的培养和必要的训练，养成良好的礼貌习惯。在日常生活和工作环境中，习惯的微笑、主动打招呼、善意的问候、得体的举止等都是礼貌的反映。商务交往中有礼貌的人往往热情大方、待人谦恭、行为举止得体，显得很有教养。在商务会面时，他会自觉地向对方问好，行致意礼或握手礼，说话彬彬有礼，一切礼仪的运用看上去自然和谐。

（二）礼节

礼节是指人们在社会交往过程中表示出的尊重、祝颂、问候、哀悼等惯用的形式和规范。礼节是礼的惯用形式，是礼貌的具体表现方式。比如现代商务交往中，初次见面要行握手礼、交换名片等礼节。礼节从形式上看，具有严格规定的仪式；从内容上看，它反映着某种道德原则，反映着对人的尊重和友善。在行握手礼时，长辈、上级、女士先伸手，晚辈、下级、男士才能伸手相握；交换名片时一般是地位低的先向地位高的递名片，对方人员较多时，先 将名片给职务高或年龄大的，分不清职务时，按照座次递送名片，这都是礼节。在国际交往中，由于各国的风俗习惯和文化的不同，礼节的具体表达具有明显的差异。例如，握手、点头、拥抱、鞠躬、合十、碰鼻子、折肚皮等，都是礼节的表现形式，而且不同国家、地区和民族的表达形式不同。礼节是社会交往中人与人之间约定俗成的“法”，是必须遵守的表示礼仪的一种惯用形式。因此，我们平时应十分注重不同礼节的具体运用，以避免出现“失礼”行为而影响商务活动的进行。

二、中西语言文化差异

（一）中西方礼尚交往的区别

近代历史上有两则故事，相信大家会比较熟悉。故事一是：李鸿章曾应俾斯麦之邀前往赴宴，由于不懂西餐礼仪，把一碗吃水果后洗手的水喝了。当时俾斯麦不了解中国的虚实，为了不使李鸿章丢丑，他也将洗手水一饮而尽，见此情景，其他文武百官只能忍笑奉陪。还有一个故事是：一个国民党军官携夫人去机场迎接来自美国的顾问。双方见面后，美国顾问出于礼貌说:“您的夫人真漂亮!”军官甚感尴尬又不免客套一番：“哪里，哪里!”在中国，这本是一句很普通的客套话，可是蹩脚的翻译却把这句话译成：where?where?美国顾问听了莫明其妙，心想：我只是礼貌地称赞一下他的夫人，他居然问起我他的夫人哪里漂亮?于是他只好说：“从头到脚都漂亮!”这两个故事都是由于中西文化差异闹出的礼仪上的笑话。通过以上两则小故事可体现出：了解中西方礼尚交往之间的习惯差异是很有必要的。往大处来说，一个国家无论是在政治上，还是在经济贸易中，了解对方国家的礼仪习惯，将有利于各国之间的交往。从小处来讲，一个人了解对方的礼仪民间习惯，是对对方的尊重，容易给对方留下一个好印象，以便交往的顺利进行。随着东西方文化的不断发展，东西方的礼仪正在相互融合，西方人逐渐地接受了东方文化中重情感等合理因素，东方人也逐渐地接受了西方文化中先进文明的礼仪和交往方式。

（二）不同文化背景下的商务礼仪

跨国商务活动中,不同文化背景下的理解和沟通是极其重要的。人们在进行跨文化交流时,很容易出现误解。虽然将一种语言翻译成另外一种语言时,基本上可以直接而准确传达信息,但是实践中也出现过因语言差异而造成国际商务活动失败的案例。例如,百事可乐公司的“七-UP”(七喜)牌汽水在上海一直销路不畅,经过调查才发现,这个品牌用上海方言来说即为“去死”,上海人当然是不会去买这“去死”牌汽水了。再比如,法国雪佛莱汽车公司对“诺瓦”牌轿车在拉美地区的销售状况很是沮丧,随后才发现该品牌在西班牙语中的意思是“不

走”。最终,雪佛莱公司只好改变销往拉美国家的汽车品牌。

所以从种种生活中的小例子可体现出：所以说,对商务活动中难以理解事情的分析,从文化背景角度上考虑往往能得出正确的结论。与其他领域相比,许多国家的商界对跨文化活动 较为敏感。来自《1995国家竞争报告》的研究显示,对跨国文化的理解程度最高的是瑞士,其下依次是新加坡、荷兰、马来西亚和瑞典,中国排在墨西哥之后列第十六位。在跨越文化鸿沟时,要有一双倾听的耳朵,敞开理解的胸怀,这样双方的沟通才不是一件难事。

三、中西方文化背景的差异

（一）交际语言的差异

日常打招呼，中国人大多使用“吃了吗？”“上哪呢？”等等，这体现了人与人之间的一种亲切感。可对西方人来说，这种打招呼的方式会令对方感到突然、尴尬，甚至不快，因为西方人会把这种问话理解成为一种“盘问”，感到对方在询问他们的私生活。在西方，日常打招呼他们只说一声“Hello”或按时间来分，说声“早上好！”“下午好！”“晚上好！”就可以了。而英国人见面会说：“今天天气不错啊！”

（二）餐饮礼仪的差异

中国人有句话叫“民以食为天”，由此可见饮食在中国人心目中的地位，因此中国人将吃饭看作头等大事。中国菜注重菜肴色、香、味、形、意俱全，甚至于超过了对营养的注重，只要好吃又要好看，营养反而显得不重要了。西方的饮食比较讲究营养的搭配和吸收，是一种科学的饮食观念。西方人多注重食物的营养而忽略了食物的色、香、味、形、意如何，他们的饮食多是为了生存和健康，似乎不讲究味的享受。

在餐饮氛围方面，中国人在吃饭的时候都喜欢热闹，很多人围在一起吃吃喝喝，说说笑笑，大家在一起营造一种热闹温暖的用餐氛围。除非是在很正式的宴会上，中国人在餐桌上并没有什么很特别的礼仪。而西方人在用餐时，都喜欢幽雅、安静的环境，他们认为在餐桌上的时候一定要注意自己的礼仪，不可以失去礼节，比如在进餐时不能发出很难听的声音。

（三）中西方服饰礼仪的差异

古今中外，着装从来都体现着一种社会文化，体现着一个人的文化修养和审美情趣，是一个人的身份、气质、内在素质的无言的介绍信。从某种意义上说，服饰是一门艺术，服饰所能传达的情感与意蕴甚至不是用语言所能替代的。在不同场合，穿着得体、适度的人，给人留下良好的印象，而穿着不当，则会降低人的身份，损害自身的形象。在社交场合，得体的服饰是一种礼貌，一定程度上直接影响着人际关系的和谐。影响着装效果的因素，重要的一是要有文化修养和高雅的审美能力，即所谓“腹有诗书气自华”。二是要有运动健美的素质。健美的形体是着装美的天然条件。三是要掌握着装的常识、着装原则和服饰礼仪的知识，这是达到内外和谐统一美的不可或缺的条件。西方人注重身份，把衣服变成象征，中国注重韵味。如果说西方服饰文化刻意追求表现人体美，而完全忽视了服饰伦理，那么，中国服饰文化由于受到传统的伦理价值观念的影响还或多或少地保留着一些道德上的体统。而最能代表我们国家的是中山装，西方代表装是西装。

结 论

商务礼仪乃商务人员交往之艺术，只有在商务交往中做到“约束自己，尊重他人”才能使商务活动在更轻松更愉快地氛围中顺利进行。可以说，正确运用商务礼仪既是一个人内在修养和素质的外在表现，又是企业展示形象，塑造企业文化的一种艺术。因此，只有正确掌握商务礼仪才能有助于提高我们自身素质修养。从而，更好改善人际关系，通过自身良好的礼仪展示，树立良好的企业形象。

参考文献：

[1] 汪洪梅.礼仪在商务活动中的作用分析[J]；科技信息(学术研究)2007(33)[2] 吕维霞.现代商务礼仪及其发展的新特点[J]国际商务;对外经济贸易大学报 2004(03)[3] 郭 华.浅谈商务礼仪在商务活动中的作用[J]；黑龙江科技信息 2009(26)

第二篇：浅谈中西方商务礼仪的差异

2016届毕业论文

江 西 应 用 科 技 学 院

毕 业 论 文（设 计）

中文题目：浅谈中西方商务礼仪的差异

外文题目:Comparison between Chinese and Western Business Etiquette

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年

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系 别：

指导教师：

完成日期：

摘要

商务礼仪是商务活动中的行为规范，它是一门行为科学，在商务交往中扮演着重要的角色,了解中西方的礼仪及其差异对促进国际间商务交往的顺利进行有着举足轻重的作用。随着中国在国际交往的角色发生改变，中国的对外交流和合作日益频繁，国际地位越来越明显，国际间的交往，尤其是和西方国家的商务交往就更应该规范化、礼仪化。本文主要介绍了中西方礼仪在问候，拜访，谈判，等方面表现出的不同的形态，并从文化背景的不同，价值取向的差异，宗教信仰的影响等方面分析了影响中西方商务礼仪差异的因素。最后得出“和而不同”的态度对待中西方文化差异,将二者合理有效的融合，方能建立适合中国当代社会的礼仪文化体系，达成和谐社会的理想。

摘要：商务礼仪；差异；商务交往

i

Abstract

Business etiquette, a behavior science, is the norms in the business activities, which plays an important role in the business communication.Understanding Chinese and western etiquette and their distinctions is of great importance in promoting international business exchanges.With the changing role, China played in the international exchanges, We communicate and cooperate frequently with foreigners.It is the notable position that makes us have a more normative and courteous criteria in the international business communication especially in the business activities with westerners.This paper mainly introduces the different forms of Chinese and Western etiquette reflected in greeting,visiting,negotiation etc, and analyzed the factors that affect the difference of etiquette between East and West Only have a clear understanding of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western etiquette and merge them reasonably effectively,can we build the cultural system etiquette that is suitable for Chinese contemporary society, and achieve the ideal of harmonious society

Key words : business etiquette;distinction;business exchange

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Contents

摘要 ………………........……………………………………………………………...............i Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………..................ii Introduction ………………………………………………………………………..............….1 Chapter One : Definition and Characteristics of Business Etiquette ………………....….........2

1.1 Honesty and tolerance......................................................................................................2

1.2 The principle of moderate equality..................................................................................2

1.3 The principle of sincerity and respect..............................................................................3

1.4 Self-confidence and self-discipline..................................................................................3

Chapter Two : Comparison of Business Etiquette between Chinese and Westerners...............4

2.1 Comparison of Etiquette for Business Greeting.............................................................4 2.1.1 Forms of Address........................................................................................................4

2.1.2 Position titles...........................................................................................................4 2.1.3 Professional title.........................................................................................................4 2.1.4 Nonverbal Greetings...................................................................................................5

2.2 Comparison in Etiquette for Business Visiting................................................................5

2.3 Comparison of Etiquette for Business Negotiation.........................................................6 2.3.1 Comparison of negotiation strategies.........................................................................7 2.3.2.Comparison of Negotiation decisions.......................................................................7 2.3.3 Comparison of the Negotiation goal..........................................................................8 Conclusion.................................................................................................................................9 Works Cited……………………………………………………….........................................10 Acknowledgment ………………………………………………………………....................11

Introduction

Business etiquette is a code of conduct, which embodies mutual respect in the day-to-day business activities.It is also the norms for people who is engaged in commercial activities and business communications, in other words, how to master basic business activities, so you can meet the requirements for business;how to make yourself familiar with the norms and disclose your dignified demeanor;how to avoid the embarrassing questions you encountered : such as dress wrong ,dining at a loss;how to eliminate a small matter ,which will have the unexpected negative image to the individuals or companies.Only have you know some Chinese knowledge and English etiquette all these problems can be easily solved.Therefore business etiquette helps to create good personal image and corporate image.Business etiquette is made up of significantly more important things than just knowing which fork to use at lunch with a client.Unfortunately, in the perception of others, the devil is in the details.People may feel that if you can't be trusted not to embarrass yourself in business and social situations, you may lack the self-control necessary to be good at what you do.Etiquette is about presenting yourself with the kind of polish that shows you can be taken seriously.Etiquette is also about being comfortable around people(and making them comfortable around you)

People are a key factor in your own and your business' success.Many potentially worthwhile and profitable alliances have been lost because of an unintentional breach of manners.Dan McLeod, president of Positive Management Leadership Programs, a union avoidance company, says, “Show me a boss who treats his or her employees abrasively, and I'll show you an environment ripe for labor problems and obviously poor customers relations.Disrespectful and discourteous treatment of employees is passed along from the top.”(Dan McLeod：2008)Which strongly emphasize the importance of courtesy, therefore , it’s necessary to know etiquette, especially the business etiquette.Chapter One The Definition and Characteristics of Business Etiquette

As regional and historical reasons, understandings of people from different regions and ethnic varies , as the development of whole world.Chinese people have attached great importance to the foreigners , especially the westerners ,trading between the two regions is becoming more and more frequent ,establishing good relations with western people is of great importance ,therefore ,knowing the business etiquette is essential.As China's reform and opening up the pace accelerated, people’s living and working in foreign exchanges increased.Understanding the content of foreign-related rituals and requirements, and mastering the skills of contacts with foreigners is particularly important.In the business occasions , how to make business etiquette effect completely and how to create the best interpersonal relationships is closely related to the principles of business etiquette , which can be concluded into four aspects: 1.1 honesty and tolerance

Honesty stresses the principle of credibility , Confucius , a great philosopher ,made the statement : people can’t live without credit , if you affiliate with your friends,honesty should be laid in the first place;Which also emphasize the principle of keeping promises.Trustworthiness is the virtue of the Chinese nation , in particular ,it is necessary to stress punctuality , and people should not delay when they go to the fixed appointments, meetings , talks and conferences, etc.One should not make promise so easily ,unless you are really sure about it ,or else you would end with a bad image of dishonest , especially in the business activity , honesty is of great importance.Tolerance is a great human thinking , the idea of tolerance is a magic weapon to create a harmonious interpersonal relationship in interpersonal exchanges.Tolerate others ,understand others and do not always pursue perfection.For a famous saying goes : failure is the mother of success.All in all ,if you consider things from others’ position , I think you have found the best way to win friends ,to win business guests.1.2 The principle of moderate equality

In the social field ,ritual behavior is always expressed as the two sides , for instance, if you treat your business guests sincerely and thoughtfully , others would show the identical courteous respond to your hospitality ,and they would become the potential regular customers.If you performed impatiently and hasty ,there is no doubt that you would get the same response.The purposes of this protocol must emphasize the principle of equality, equal exchanges between the two parts, for equality is the foundation to establish emotion with other people.If you want to maintain a good interpersonal relationship with your business partners or your customers , you should locate modesty in the first place ,because it is the essential way to make more friends.Moderate principle requires us to measure the criteria of etiquette , in accordance with specific circumstance , specific situation and the exercise of the corresponding ritual.For instance ,when doing business with some people both warm and

urbane are required ,one can not be rude and frivolous ,lively and modest ,but lethargic and sophisticated.1.3 The principle of sincerity and respect

Socrates had made a very famous statement: “ there must not be a gift to a friend, you have to contribute to your sincere love ,learning how to use legitimate means to win a person’s heart.”(Voice of English，2005)Which tells us that if you contact with the people , sincere respect for the ritual is the primary principle.Only you treat others sincerely and courteously ,can you create a harmonious happy relations, for good faith and respect are complementary to each other.Sincerity is a practical and realistic approach to communicate with other people ,especially in the business activities , it can be directly reflected.Sincere and respect for the first performance with some people :do not lie ,not hypocrisy ,do not insult people ,the so called “cheating once ,for life no friends.” also the practical reflection of business dealing.Sincere dedication, be fruitful harvest, only sincere respect for the two sides can be affiliated, friendship for a long time.1.4 Self-confidence and self-discipline

The principle of self-confidence is a mental health principle in the social occasion , especially in the commercial contact.Only someone is self-confident ,can he master things freely.Self-confidence is a very valuable psychological quality, people who have full confidence will not discourage when they encounter difficulties , on the contrary , they will counterattack when they are reduced to a rattrap, they are also willing to show their helping hand to people who are involved in jeopardy.People who are not confident enough will run into snags everywhere , even despair of their life.In the process of social interaction and business communication , establishing a sense of moral values and norms of self-cultivation in the mind to our behaviors.Achieving the balance of self education ,self management and self-confidence correctly , placing a rational and active attitude to fulfill the great obligation the life leaves us , refusing self-righteous and arrogant.Nothing great can be achieved without these traits

Chapter Two Comparison of Business Etiquette between Chinese and

Westerner

With the increasingly close business contacts , people’ conduct in the business exchange reflected more frequently in the past ,the actions and manners in business interactions can be best and directly embodied during their communications ,therefore , learning and understanding the appropriate business behaviors between Chinese and foreigners become special significant.2.1 Comparison of Etiquette for Business greeting

All of us have heard of “start well and end well” sometimes before, so it is very important to make a good first impression in business communication to achieve the purpose desired.In this subsection several aspects in the interaction of business greeting will be examined to see common grounds Chinese and English-speaking peoples share and what dissimilarities they have.2.1.1 Forms of Address

In 2000 Ralph Fasold mentioned “When people use language, they do more than just try to get another person to understand the speaker's thoughts and feelings.At the same time, both people are using language in subtle ways to define their relationship to each other, to identify themselves as part of a social and to establish the kind of speech situation they are in.”From what he said we can conclude that address behavior is governed by politeness and successful maintenance of interpersonal relationships.So far,have been various definitions of address form made by various linguists and other scholars.2.1.2 Position titles

In formal occasion, the chief guest and the host are usually addressed in the way of position titles.To address people by their position titles is to address them according to the positions they hold.This is the unique feature in business setting.People often address others in the manner of title plus name when they address others by their position title.For example, Mr.White.List is the president of IP International Investment Bank.People often address him `President White List'.Equally, businessmen often address ”Hu Jian“(胡建)，the General Manager of ABC Company, as ”General Manager Hu Jian“(胡建总经理).It is worth notice that some former mannish professional form of address gets changed with the social progress.As more and more women achieve inary achievement in many varied areas.For example, it is believed that `Chairman' in English language can serve as an obvious example.A lot of women believe that `Chairman' is a word with sex discrimination.Therefore, people often use ”Chairperson“ instead of ”Chairman“ in many modern businesses activities.2.1.3 Professional title

Businessmen in both China and the west often address others professional title.Compared with the position titles, the professional titles is much smaller.To address people

by way of professional titles is to address them according to what profession they are engaged in to the tradition and development of society some professional titles are regarded as honorific such as professors, doctors while some other are derogatory, such as peddler, waiter, boy.2.1.4 Nonverbal Greetings

Nonverbal greetings include nodding, smile, shaking hands, bowing and kissing.In different situation we choose different nonverbal greetings to show our graciousness and hospitality.American deaf-and-dumb woman once said: ”Hands can keep people thousands miles away;they can also be filled with sunshine and you can feel comfortable...” Shaking hands is the expression of mutual trust and respect, and it's a good way to send greetings in business situation.It is said that it was used by ancient knights to show his amicableness originally.When two knights met in the old times, they would put down the weapon in the hand and offer the hand in which the weapon had been held to each other and shake the hands with each other to show there was no weapon in the hand now.Gradually, this kind of ritual becomes a kind of etiquette of meeting to show friendliness to interact.In order to shake hands correctly in business.2.2 The Comparison in Etiquette of Business visiting

Business visiting plays a very important role in business interactions, but every nation has their own practice when one is paying a visit in business Occasion.In western cultural , the first step prior to visiting is to make an appointment for a visit to make sure whether the host is free or not.Due to the increasingly fast pace of life and work, business person in the west is afraid of interrupting others’ planned schedule unexpectedly, it's a common practice to make an appointment in advance.He/She often discusses the purpose , time and place before visiting.After mutual consultation, the two sides may decide on the time and place.Once the appointment is made, it must be rigidly observed.Chinese businessmen also observes the international practice to make an appointment before a formal visit, especially for the first formal visit in business setting.They, just as illustrated in E.Hall's theory of uncertainty avoidance, belong to those who try to avoid uncertainty.They may like to use “go-between” to get linked for initial business contacts, even though they may also get connected by telephone call or formal letter of request.If two Chinese business people have done business for many times, they will not make an appointment seriously before visiting.Sometimes they make an oral appointment like“我明天去你办公室找你。”or“下午去你办公室看看。”In Chinese tradition, advance notice or appointment is unnecessary between friends.Another reason is that they usually choose a day when the host is not much occupied to pay a visit according to the experience before.In China, hosts rarely ask the guests to take off their gloves and caps although it's polite to put off gloves and caps when entering into the office in western culture.After being asked to sit down, the host may offer something to drink like tea or coffee.The offer is normally

phrased as a question, such as“Would you like a cup of coffee?” The guest is expected to answer honestly, and if they say no, then the host will not offer any drink.If they accept the drink, they will be expected to drink it all before leaving.On the contrary,when the Chinese host ask the Chinese guest, “Would you like something to drink?”, the typical answer is“随便(just any)“.Sometimes, the host will offer a cup of tea to the guest without asking.During the visit, if a visit is for business rather than a socially one, the Westerners expect the visitors to come straight to the point, rather than go through lengthy preliminary chatting.However, Chinese visitors prefer to make some preliminary remarks in business visits to soften the atmosphere, assume close relationship or show concern for the host.After finishing the business affairs, westerners often indulge a couple of minutes' small talk while preparing for leaving: On the other hand, the Chinese guest often stands up suddenly and moves to the door and bids farewell without giving notice in advance.The hosts always insist that the guests stay longer.Some fixed conversational formulas preceding leave-taking are:“请留步”, “不要送了” ,“再见”.And the common way for the host to respond,“请慢走”“请走好”.2.3 Comparison of Etiquette for Business Negotiation

Business negotiations play an important role in foreign trade business between he two sides.However, as cultural differences have a direct impact on all aspects of business negotiations, people who lack sensitivity of cultural differences will evaluate people's actions, viewpoints, customs with their own cultural models, and this often leads to cultural conflict.So culture difference plays a very important role in Sino-U.S.business negotiation.Businessmen have more or less experience of negotiation in business intercourse.To win or lose in business activities always depends directly on people can carve out their way to success negotiation.Therefore, ”Negotiation is everywhere in business circles“ is a proverb that everyone knows in business circle.The negotiation which the businessmen hold is called business negotiation which is one of important activities in business.Broadly business negotiation is a debate between two Businessmen have more or less experience of negotiation in business intercourse.To win or lose in business activities always depends directly on people can carve out their way to success negotiation.Therefore, ”Negotiation is everywhere in business circles“ is a proverb that everyone knows in business circle.The negotiation which the businessmen hold is called business negotiation which is one of important activities in business.Broadly business negotiation is a debate between two parties for the purpose of reaching an agreement;haggling, bargaining and out are resorted to for passing an obstacle and bleaching out a conflict of opinion.According to conventional rules in business, business negotiation is counted as conciliating the conflicts of interest of the parties concerned.Just as John F.Kennedy said ”Let us begin anew一remembering on both sides that civility is not a

sign of weakness, and sincerity is always subject to proof.Let us never negotiate out of fear.But let us never fear to negotiate“

2.3.1 Comparison of negotiation strategies

Based on objective differences, negotiators from different cultures presents the differences in decision-making form a sequential decision-making method and integrated decision-making method of conflict.Chinese-US negotiations, Chinese representatives at the outset by the parties concerned to abide by general principles and discuss common interests.Chinese negotiators think that general principle is the starting point for solving other problems.Only when the General principles identified, possible negotiations on the details of the contract.This ”first principles on details after“ way of negotiating, China's negotiating strategy is one of the most obvious features.Americans believe that the world is made up of facts rather than a concept, so they do not believe too much of something purely rational.Negotiations during them specific rather than General, when faced with a complex negotiation task, sequential decision making method of Americans used to break large tasks into a series of smaller tasks.Price, delivery, warranties and service contracts, problem solving, solving a problem at a time, from beginning to end with concessions and commitments, the final agreement is the sum of a series of small agreements.Negotiations start, they went straight to the point-specific payments.They think the overall principle is optional, only truly to make progress in negotiations on specific issues.Negotiation strategy reflects the difference between the two different ways of thinking.Chinese people attach importance to integrated mode of thinking stems from China's traditional culture.Therefore, the negotiations, the Chinese delegates from the whole to the part, from big to small, from the General to the specific, ”start with matters of principle, after the details".Americans favor a linear way of thinking.Therefore, they tend to pay great attention to details.They are practical, eager to discuss specific amounts at the outset, they regarded the contract which is integrated ,and to be legally binding.2.3.2.Comparison of Negotiation decisions

Different decision mechanisms have their own different reasons.Chinese culture belongs to the high power distance cultures, experience from person to person, position, educational level and other aspects of the different lines of vertical relationships.Member of the Chinese negotiating team can only act in their own right, final decisions are often made by the superiors did not participate in the negotiations.United States culture is a low power distance culture.In the United States under the influence of the concept of equality, relationships are generally horizontal, AC is equal on both sides.Negotiations between business landscape(equal)relationship.They are informal, as equals, on proper business etiquette, civility ,seating and less attention.Negotiations the United States highlighting the role of the individual, will often specify a person solely responsible for the negotiation, is responsible for establishing the 7

necessary decisions and to complete the necessary tasks, while the exercise of the corresponding rights, within its mandate, to make their own decisions.2.3.3 Comparison of the Negotiation goal

Chinese negotiators attached particular importance to the establishment of long-term business relationships.For them, negotiations process is the process of building relationships and negotiations is aimed more for the establishment and development of a long term relationship, signed the contract on behalf of the beginning of a long-term and mutually efficient cooperation.If negotiations fail to establish relations of mutual trust on both sides trading often ended in failure.Americans believe that the ultimate objective of the negotiations was signed the contract for the realization of economic benefits.For the US side, contract signing is the first and fundamental task of the negotiations, is the embodiment of value of their personal interests.They each signed the contract as a separate process.Unlike the Chinese emphasis on friendly and cooperative partnership established, they focus more on the actual value of.In the aspect of negotiation strategies, it is a common way for Chinese businessmen to discuss the general principle and common interest at the of the negotiation.They think the general principle is the point of solving all other problems and it is possible to discuss specific details Only when the is set down.On the western businessmen believe specific details are more important then the general principle.When the negotiation begins, they will go straight to discuss the specific details.When it comes to make decision in negotiation, there are also difference between the east and the west.The Chinese way is that decision comes from the result of collective negotiations.Generally, Chinese businessmen usually avoid making decision individually.Chinese businessmen will exchange their opinion with their colleagues or their leader before and after the negotiation.However, some in the west individual can represent Chinese culture, negotiators pay much attention to establish friendly relationship.They believe the course of negotiation is also the course of establishing relationship.The purpose of negotiation is to establish a long-term corporation.If the both sides fail to build the trust between them, the transaction will end up in nothing.In contrast, western businessmen consider the final result of negotiation is to sign a contract to realize economic benefits.represent the company to make decision after being empowered by the company.Last, thanks all of them again

Conclusion

With the globalization of the world economy, organizations are culturally diverse in handling all kinds of business activities, especially multinational cooperation.More and more business people have become aware of the strong impact from culture.And they should have a good understanding of the other business etiquette culture beforehand, which is beneficial for both sides of the business people.Only in this way will it be possible for them to expand their business and make it more prosperous.This thesis mainly tells us some principles of exchanging in business occasions，which would be beneficial to those who want to do business with people who from different areas and cultures ,meanwhile ,what you should remember is to be courteous and thoughtful to the people around you, regardless of the situation.Consider other people's feelings, stick to your convictions as diplomatically as possible.Address conflict as situation-related, rather than person-related.Apologize when you step on toes.You can't go too far wrong if you stick with the basics you learned in Kindergarten.(Not that those basics are easy to remember when you're in a hard-nosed business meeting!).With the development of society, the business relations are getting wider and wider.A variety of business contacts gradually formed a code of conduct and guidelines, which can help us survive in the society , coordinate human relations and human and social relations.It is also beneficial to promote communication and cooperation.The thesis will be helpful to us;especially to those who would like to engage themselves in international trade and business exchanges.Works Cited

[1]Martin, J.N.and Nakayama, T.K.2004, Experiencing Intercultural Communication: an Introduction [M].McGraw Hill: Boston.[2]De Mente, B.L.1994.Chinese Etiquette and Ethics in Business [M].Lincolnwood, IL;NTC Publishing.Corp.[3]Hsu, F.L.1981.American and Chinese:Passage todifferences.Honolulu [M].University of Hawaii.[4]Hall, E.T.1976.Beyond Culture [M].New York,NY:Random House.[5]胡文仲，1999, 文化与交际[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社.[6]胡文仲，1999, 文化交际学概论[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社.[7]胡文仲，2004, 超越文化的屏障[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社.[8]郭桃桃，2004, 论跨文化交际中的文化障碍[M].湖南师范大学教育科.[9]贾玉新，2003，跨文化交流学[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社.[10]金正昆，1998, 商务礼仪教程[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社.Acknowledgment

At the point of finishing this paper, I would like to express my sincere thanks to all the people who have offered me generous help and valuable suggestions in the course of my writing this paper.My deepest gratitude goes first and foremost to my dear supervisor, whose guidance and useful advice have ensured the accomplishment.In the past Three years, although Miss Xu had never given me lessons and did not know me, she was quite outgoing and kind when we met at the first time, and then gave me much advice about the title and outline of my paper.Later, she not only walk through and modify each draft again and again, but send me some new inform from school in time.Without her consistent and illuminating instruction, this paper could not have reached its present form.Last but not the least, my thanks would go to my beloved family, friends and my colleagues.The forth year may be my busiest year in my university.My loving family and friends offered their substantial support and relevant information to me on many aspects.Because in a foreign company, my colleagues generally told me many different customs and culture, which offered lots of first hand information about the topic of my paper.Finally, thank all of them again.

第三篇：中西方商务礼仪(英文)

Different Business Etiquette between China and the

West

I.Introduction

Business etiquette is a kind of civilization accumulation of human being.It becomes fixed during the business communication, being handed down from generation to generation.It is also a kind of standard behavior observed by the businessmen in their communication.Different countries have different culture traditions, so their business etiquette is also different from one another.There are great cultural differences between the cultural cores of Confucian in China and the cores of Christian in the West, which leads to some differences in the business etiquette between China and West.II.The Influence of Cultural Differences on Business Etiquette Differences Between China and the West

Generally speaking, the differences on business etiquette between China and the West are influenced by several cultural factors, such as values, view of time, view of space, view of diet, verbal habits and nonverbal.The paper mainly focuses on time and space approach.2.1 From the approach of time

Thoreau once said,“If a man does not keep pace with his companions, perhaps it is because he hears a different drummer.”Now, we use the phrase “the beat of a different drummer”to explain any different pace of life.The attitudes toward time vary from culture to culture.And it is understandable that people of different cultures hold different views toward time.When it comes to international business, the view of time can be divided into two types, such as monochromic time and polychromic time.Countries that follow monochromic time perform only one major activity at a time, while countries obeying polychromic time perform several activities simultaneously.(Jeanette S.113)The United States is a monochromic culture.In monochromic culture, time is regarded as something tangible.Time is seen as linear and manageable.Therefore, people concentrate on the task at hand, taking time commitments seriously and being accustomed to short-term relationships.For example, in the West, time is a kind of precious and limited resource.The business people attend the business meeting on time.If someone was late, he would be considered to be lack of honesty.And the U.S.business people always expect to solve their business problems within twenty to thirty minutes.In monochromic cultures, it is considered a rude to do two things at once, such as reading a journal in a meeting or answering the telephone while someone is in your office.Schedules and keeping appointments are consistent with value of people in monochromic cultures.Chinese people are typical example of polychromic cultures.Chinese people are well adapted to doing several things at once and do not mind interruptions.In their opinion, people are more important than schedules to members of polychromic cultures.Their lifestyle is less organized than that of monochromic people.In their eyes time is just like a circle that does not have the end.So Chinese people are highly distracted and subject to interruptions.They consider time to be casual and flexible.For example, to most Chinese today, time simply flows from one day to the next.If a job is not done today, maybe it will be done the next day or the next.And the business meeting would generally last for several hours.Compared with the Westerners, few Chinese equate time with money.When foreign businessmen arrive in China, most Chinese will make them settle down in hotels and give them an opportunity to rest up.Because Chinese do not expect them to immediately rush into business.However, generally this arrangement will be politely but firmly rejected by visitors.When Chinese are involved in international business, they will get familiar with the Western concept“time is money”.But they do not automatically relate it to the pace of business.Besides, Chinese do not pay much attention to the appointment.Sometimes even if there is an appointment, the Chinese would not stick to it seriously.When people of different cultures interact, misunderstandings often arise as a result of different time view.For instance, in the Western countries, the business contact would be pre-arranged within three to four weeks.Business people pre-arrange the business contact at least two weeks in America.The appointment is holy to Americans.In the business communication, if someone asks to have a business contact at the last minute, he will be considered to make trouble or insult the others.On the contrary, the Chinese people pay more attention to relationship.In their business activity, if there is an important person need to be contacted, they could cancel the primary appointment to meet him.It is unacceptable to American business people.This example shows the cultural differences in time sense between China and the West.And it becomes increasingly important as modern business communications put more and more businessmen in daily contact.If we are to avoid misunderstanding, we need to know better about our own cultural biases and those of others.(Wen Yaoqing, 127)2.2 From the approach of space Space, is the physical distance between people when they are interacting.It is deeply influenced by culture.When people are having a conversation, the distance between them changes dramatically from one culture to another.Generally speaking, there are four zones when U.S.people interact: the intimate zone, the personal zone, the social zone, and the public zone.The intimate zone, less than 0.46 meters, is reserved for a close friend.And it appears briefly when the business colleagues shake hands.The personal zone, from 0.46 meters to 1.2 meters, is used for giving instructions to someone in an office.The social zone, from 1.2 to 3.6 meters, is used for impersonal and formal business meeting.The public distance, over 3.6 meters, is the most formal zone.(Lillian H.83)Americans tend to need more spaces than Chinese.When having a conversation with Chinese, Americans will back away for the Chinese partner is standing too close.Standing too close to someone in the United States may leave a bad impression on the others, as it implies the person is upset, overbearing, or he is making sexual advances.These negative positions should be avoided in the United States.In China, people prefer to stand close to each other and they think it is a normal and friendly way to communicate with each other.Besides, the arrangement of desks, chairs, and conference table also feature the different styles of communication.When the United States people are conversing, they prefer the face-to-face arrangement of chairs whereas the Chinese prefer side-by-side arrangement.They like this arrangement because they could avoid direct eye contact through it.IV.Conclusion With the globalization of the world economy, organizations are culturally diverse in handling all kinds of business activities, especially multinational cooperation.More and more business people have become aware of the strong impact from culture.And they should have a good understanding of the other business etiquette culture beforehand, which is beneficial for both sides of the business people.Only in this way will it be possible for them to expand their business and make it more prosperous.References

Du, Li.(2004).Comparison of Wine Culture between China and the West.Culinary Science Journal of Yangzhou University,(l):l-4.Jeanette S.,Martin.Global Business Etiquette.Westport,CT:Praeger,2006.Lillian H., Chaney.Intercultural Business Communication.Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall, 2004.Wen,Yaoqing.“Comparison analysis of multinational business culture”.《International business research》，4（2001）：p121-30

第四篇：中西方建筑差异

一建筑材料的差异

中西方建筑对于材料的选择，除受其自然因素影响外，更重要的是受文化心态的影响。中国建筑自古以来以土木 为主要建筑材料，而西方主要以石头为主要建筑材料。发源于黄河流域和长江流域的华夏文明，由于地理环

境辽阔，而导致各个地域之间存在较大的自然差异，但是无 论民居或者宫殿等建筑，都不约而同地选择了土木为建筑 材料。中国以农业为主的原始经济，使得人们对土地和植物 有着特殊的眷念，造就了中国人自古以来重视人与自然和 谐共处的生活方式，所在从上古时期建筑材料的选择上，人 们自然将十分常见的土木作为最为基本的建筑材料。而后 衍生而成的“天人合一”的宇宙观，更是将人与自然看成一 个整体，可以说，讲求“天人之际，合二为一”的中国古人，将 土木结构作为建筑的最基本的材料，从本质上说是重视生 命亲和关系的体现。

据考证，我国古代的穴居、浅穴居、巢居等建筑，基本上 都是黄土与树木建造而成的。随着人类生产技术的进步，建 筑材料也在不断进步，然而以黄土树木为主要建筑材料的 传统，却依然被沿袭至明清，成为中国传统建筑最基本的特 征。例如，在中国南方，由于气候湿润，植被茂盛，南方民居 除了采用青瓦覆顶，以砖砌墙外，大量的建筑材料都是木 材。以粉墙青瓦、砖木石雕、亭台楼榭、层楼叠院等为主要建 筑基调的徽派，就是一个典型木质结构建筑形态。与此类似 的还有我国云贵高原一带常见的木楼和竹楼。西南地区因 为气候潮湿把民居抬离地面，便有了所谓的吊脚楼，这类民 居所用的材料都是木材。而我国的北方民居却一般多用砖 瓦黄土作为建筑材料，例如西北地区的窑洞，东北地区的土 坯房，都继承了我国古代穴居的传统。

比较之下，位于地中海沿岸的古希腊、古罗马地势崎

岖，河流短促，缺少平原，土质稀松而石材丰富，蕴藏有大量 石灰岩和大理石等石材资源。这也成为古代西方人选择以 石材作为建筑材料的自然环境基础。加之，西方以狩猎为主 的原始经济，造就出西方人以人为中心的文化心态，而后衍 生成为“体分为二”的哲学传统，都影响着西方人的社会文 化。西方人选择石材作为建筑材料，一方面体现其追求真理 的理性精神，一方面在人与自然的关系中，强调人的力量能 够战胜一切。由于生产力的发展和宗教观念的影响，石材隐 喻着宗教的神秘感与神圣美感。这种产生于原始文化中的 “恋石情结”，使得石材建筑成为欧洲自古希腊到西方现代 崛起的20世纪初期，整整2500多年建筑史中的主流建筑 文化。古希腊的神庙、古罗马的斗兽场、中世纪欧洲的教堂 等等，都是以石材为主要建筑材料的建筑。直到文艺复兴时 期的古典主义建筑以及宫殿等官方建筑，都已经以石材为 主要建筑材料。以土木为建筑材料的中国建筑，在质感上偏于朴素、自 然而优美和谐，更富有生命的情调和阴柔之美。而以石材为 主要建筑材料的西方建筑质地坚硬、可塑性很小，给人以力 量感、力度和刚度，体现了一种阳刚之美。二建筑结构的差异

北宋精于修造木塔的喻皓在营舍之法的著作《木经》中 说：“凡屋有三分，自梁以上为上分，地以上为中分，阶为下 分”。这里的“梁以上”指屋顶，“地以下，梁以上”指屋身，屋 身以下阶梯、台基便是屋基。喻皓的这种描述，明确指出了 中国建筑结构的3个组成部分即：屋顶、屋身和屋基。无论 是以木材构架的叠梁式和穿斗式，还是土木混合结构混合 式建筑，作为中国建筑的个体，都是由这3个部分构成。在 空间造型中，中国建筑最显著的结构特征莫过于屋顶之美。传统的中国建筑多采用梁柱支撑屋顶，同时为了防止以土 木为主要材料的构件损坏或腐烂，而采用了斗拱技术使得 屋檐在斗拱的支撑下向外延长，以便阴雨天气将积水排出 屋顶。

梁思成曾有过这样的阐释：“历来被视为极特异、极神

秘的中国屋顶曲线，其实只是结构上直率自然的结果，并没 有什么超出力学原则以外和矫揉造作之处，同时在实用及 美观上皆异常的成功。这种屋顶全部的曲线及轮廓，上部巍 然高耸，檐部如翼轻展，使本来极无趣、极笨拙的实际部分，成为整个建筑美丽的冠冕，是别系建筑所没有的特征。”正 如梁思成所说，中国建筑的屋顶多种多样，并且成为中国建 筑空间造型中最为精彩的一个部分。这种如翼轻展的具有 坡度的屋顶，在不同的历史时期又各具特征，例如在大唐时 期，建筑的屋顶坡度平缓，屋檐出挑深远，在日照之下投下 美丽的阴影，使人深感其自然生动之美。而清代的建筑屋顶 坡度陡峭，让人深感其庄严肃穆。总体上，由于受儒家“中 和”思想的影响，中国建筑多表现出和谐含蓄之美，重视建 筑各个结构部分的协调共生，统一通顺。因此无论是损坏了 建筑中的哪个部分，小到一木一墙，都会给人以残缺不全的 感觉。

比较而言，西方建筑追求一种与自然对立的结构形式。夸张的尺度和精密的几何比例之下的西方建筑，体现了西

方人改造自然的征服精神，这种“数的结构”建筑，处处强调志Writer Magazine 2010 No.4艺术空间 的是人工伟力而非人与自然的和谐。例如古希腊帕提侬神 庙的立面、平面和剖面，在内外部空间都有着相互适宜的几 何比例，从而建造出一种“数的结构”美。

就如中国建筑的屋顶之于中国建筑文化的重要性，西

方的雕塑艺术之于西方建筑，也是一种重要的文化力量。经 过了巴洛克文化和洛可可文化以后，西方建筑开始营造一 种雕塑美。其注重建筑立面的雕塑，而不是结构，这种雕塑 与结构有着密切的联系，可以说结构的美是透过雕塑来创 造的，结构是内在的，雕塑是外在的，因此从外表看，西方建 筑雕塑感十分强烈。这种雕塑感是富有重量和力度的顽强 的美感，伟大崇高而又震撼人心。例如柯布西埃充满激情的 建筑作品“朗香教堂”，实际上是一座令人充满想象的雕塑 品，这部经典创世之作不仅体现了西方建筑追求雕塑感的 建筑文化理念，也在现代建筑文化中，体现了西方建筑对于 传统建筑文化的传承与发展。三建筑空间布局上的差异

中国社会自古以血亲关系作为社会结构的基本单位，这种血亲家族关系对中国建筑的群体布局的影响深远。我 们常见于中国建筑的群体空间布局，多是以“四合院”的形 式出现，讲究以和为贵的中国，建筑上体现了一种家族式集 体的美。王国维曾说：“我们家族之制古矣。一家之中，有父 子，有兄弟，而父子兄弟各有匹偶焉。即就一男子而言，而其 贵者有一妻焉，有若干妾焉。一家之人，断非一室所能容，而 堂与房又非可居之地也„„然欲诸室相接，非四阿之屋不 可。四阿者，四栋也。为四栋之屋，使其堂各各东西南北，于 外则四堂，后之四室，亦自向南北凑于中庭矣„„”王国维 的这段话，说明了中国古代家族制对中国建筑群体布局的 影响，家族结构与建筑布局的相互照应，最常见的庭院是四 合院、三合院、二合院。总的特点是由数座建筑个体与墙、廊 等围合而成，一个院落接着一个院落，构成一个递进式的建 筑群体。多个庭院被组织到一个群体布局之中，表现在出一 种主从分明，轴线齐整。庭院建筑组接的过程中，体现了中 国建筑布局的条理性，也体现了一种根深蒂固的社会秩序 和清醒世俗的理性精神。

与中国建筑不同的是，欧洲建筑不受血亲关系，家族观 念的影响，不再追求中国式的封闭式的建筑文化形式。在西 方，广场是市民生活的一部分，它与城市一起成长，成熟。它 是城市政治、经济与文化交往的中心区域，在广场的四周往 往建有政府大厦、教堂、剧场、商场、神庙等等。广场是一种 富有民族个性的建筑文化，例如文艺复兴时期的意大利圣 马可广场，是威尼斯一个中心广场，周围有市政府大厦、圣 西密尼安教堂，总督府与圣马可图书馆等著名建筑。圣马可 广场为市民们提供一个开放的娱乐休闲场所，是一个人们 用于嬉戏玩耍的露天客厅。广场的开放性，是西方人活泼、好动的个性的体现。

另外，西方建筑在空间布局上呈现出一种高空垂直、挺 拔向上的形态。同时，重视主体意识，强调个体观念的社会 文化心态，这决定着西方建筑重视个体特性的张扬特点，在 空间布局上多努力突出其个性特征，尽可能建造得高大挺 拔。例如法国莱茵河畔的斯特拉斯堡主教堂，高达142米； 德国乌尔姆市教堂高达161米；古罗马的万神庙，其穹顶直 径和顶端高度均达43.3米，混凝土建造的墙体厚度达6.2 米，实为庞然大物。古罗马城的一个平面呈椭圆形的大角斗 场，规模巨大。长188米，短轴156米，观众席立面48.5米，分为四层，可容纳8万观众。这些巍然耸立、雄伟壮观的建 筑个体，在体积和高度上的庞大，突出了西方建筑的个性形 象。这样的建筑空间布局，是西方世界开放民主的社会文化 氛围的有利体现，反映了西方人崇拜神灵的狂热，利用技术 给人一种奋发向上的精神支撑。四精神层次的差异

布鲁诺·塞维在《建筑空间》论一书中，对欧洲建筑文化 的人与神的冲突做了这样的阐释：“埃及=敬畏的时代，那 时的人致力于保存尸体，不然就不能求得复活；希腊=优美 的时代，象征热情激荡中的深思安息；罗马式=武力与豪华 的时代；早起基督教式=虔诚和爱的时代；哥特式=渴慕的 时代；文艺复兴式=雅致的时代；各种复兴式=回忆的时 代。他指出在建筑史上这一主题是不断转换的，从精神层面 上来讲，建筑和其他文化一样，也是以人与神的文化冲突调 和作为文化主题的。

中国建筑文化中提及人与神的关系，当然要从最原始 的天地宇宙观开始说起。上古时代的中国建筑实际上就是 人们心中的宇宙，世人从天地宇宙中划出一个人为的时空 领域，房屋建筑效法人们想象中的天地宇宙的外形。可以说 在古代中国，人与建筑的关系实际上就是人与宇宙的关系，中国天地宇宙起源于建筑文化的起源，原是合二为一的。“人类之初，仅能取天然之物自养而已。稍进，乃能从事于农 牧。农牧之事，资生之物，咸出于地，而其丰歉，则悬系于田。故天文之智识，此时大形进步；而天象之崇拜，亦随之而盛 焉”。早在殷商之际，地上的王权观念放映到“天”上，便形成 了人们心中关于“天帝”的观念。而后“，天帝”，“天”，在殷末 周初被奉为神灵，人们在行事之前，常常问卜于“天帝”。而 古代的皇帝就是“天帝”的替代，帝号统摄天下，进而使得人 们对天地宇宙的崇拜，演变成对建筑营造活动的崇拜。相比较而言，在体现人与神的冲突调和关系时，西方建 筑有着比中国建筑更为明显的特征。例如其宗教建筑，都在 空间的建构中留下了“神”的痕迹。正如黑格尔所说：“自由 地腾空直上，使得它的目的虽然存在等于消失掉，给人一种 独立自足的印象”。“它具有而且显示出一种确定的目的，但 是在它的雄伟与崇高的静穆之中，它把自己提高到超出单 纯的目的而显示它本身的无限”。西方教堂人与神的冲突，基本上是以神的灵光压倒人性为特征，却不等于人性的彻 底毁灭。在神面前，人一方面变得渺小，一方面又把自己的 理想寄寓到神那里。而在中国，由于儒家传统文化的强大和 顽强，中国自古就是一个淡泊宗教的民族，使得中国宗教建 筑，尽可能收敛神的灵光，舒展人的姿态

第五篇：中西方园林差异

中西方园林差异

什么是园林？无论你远渡重洋去过法国的凡尔赛宫，伦敦的丘园，还是纽约的中央公园„„只要你到过被誉为“东方威尼斯”的江南苏州，欣赏过那“甲江南”的苏州园林，就一定会被那清丽的典雅的园景所陶醉；如果你到过曾是九朝国都的北京城，看过故宫、北海、颐和园等辉煌的皇家苑囿，也会被那恢宏的气势，壮丽的屋宇和楼堂所倾倒；如果你曾信步“深山藏古刹”的宗教圣地，那金碧辉煌的殿堂，山明水秀的风景，定使你心旷神怡，超凡脱俗。这些风格迥异，令你流连忘返的人间仙境，就是园林。

园林的概念随着社会历史和人类知识的发展而变化的。不同历史发展阶段有着不同的内容和适用范围，不同国家和地区的界定也不完全一样。历史上，园林在中国古籍里根据不同的性质也称作园、囿、亭、庭园、园池、山池、池馆、别业、山庄等。英美各国则称之为Garden,Park,Landscape, 它们的性质、规模虽不完全一样，但都具有一个共同的特定：即在一定的地段范围内，利用并改造天然山水地貌或者人为地开辟山水地貌，结合植物配景和建筑布置，构成一个供人们观赏、游憩、居住的环境。

在中国的园林发展过程中，由于政治、经济、文化、背景、生活习俗和地理气候条件的不同，形成了皇家园林、私家园林两大派系，它们各具特色。皇家园林主要分布于北方，规模宏伟，富丽堂皇，不脱严谨庄重的皇家风范；私家园林分为江南园林和岭南园林两个分支，江南园林自由小巧，古朴淡雅，具有尘虑顿消的精神境界；岭南园林布局紧凑，装修壮美，追求赏心悦目的世俗情趣。中国园林作为世界园林体系中的一大分支，都是“虽由人作，宛自天开”的自然风景园，都富于东方情调。这个造园系统中风貌各异的两大派系，都表现了中国园林参差天趣，丰富多彩的美。

（1）皇家园林。皇家园林追求宏大的气派和“普天之下莫非皇土”的意志，形成了“园中园”的格局。所有皇家园林内部几十甚至上百个景点中，势必对某些江南袖珍小园的仿制和对佛道寺观的包容，同时，出于对整体宏伟大气势的考虑，必需安排一些体量巨大的单体建筑及组合丰富的建筑群落，这样一来也往往比较明确的轴线关系或主次分明的多轴线关系带入到本来就强调因山就势，巧若天成的造园理法中。

（2）私家园林。

①江南园林：江南园林大多数是宅园一体的园林，将自然山水浓缩于住宅之中，在城市里创造了人与自然和谐相处的居住环境，它是可居、可赏、可游的城市园林，是人类的理想家园。江南园林的叠山、石料以太湖石和黄石为主，能够仿真山之脉络气势做出峰峦、丘壑、洞府峭壁、曲岸石矶，或以散置，或倚墙彻壁山等等，更有以假山作为园林主景的叠山技艺手法高超，称盛时，苏州环绣山庄的假山堪称个中佳作。

②岭南园林：岭南园林亦以宅园为主，一般都做成庭园的形式，叠山多因姿态嶙峋、皴折繁密的英石包镶，很有水云流畅的形象，沿海也有用珊瑚石堆叠假山的，建筑物通透开敞，以装饰的细木雕工和套色玻璃画风长。由于气候温暖，观赏植物的品种繁多，园林中几乎一年四季都是花团锦簇，绿阴葱郁。

西方园林起源可以上溯到古埃及和古希腊，18、19世纪的西方园林可以说是勒诺特风格和英国风格这两大主流并行

(转自“)