第一篇：大学英语实用翻译课后部分题（定稿）
1英汉句式结构差异主要表现在哪些方面“汉语被认为是一种“意合”的语言。不受严格的语法约束，也没有固定的句式结构，其表达方式一般按时间顺序或逻辑顺序，先发生的事先说，后发生的是后讲，先因后果，先假设，后结果，先条件后结论。英语是一种形合语言，英语句子严格遵守语法规则，句中主谓宾定状补井然有序，句子成分可以通过语法结构进行层层分析。
英语句子的特点汉语句子的特点主-谓-宾结构排列紧密结构排列松散 定语有的前置，有的后置，句子较长。前置，句子较短。语段结构严谨，流散铺排，词或词组避免重复出现，多用代称。常重复出现，多用实称2什么是语境,简述语境与翻译的关系；语言活动的环境，包括时间空间语言交际参与者及语言活动的目的等，在文章或言谈中话题的上下文。（2）非语言环境，第三、翻译与语境的关系，关系：语境是一切语言活动存在的前提，离开语境就没有语言活动；就没有一定的上下文，文字翻译也就无从谈起。英语词义的褒贬不像汉语截然分明，同一个词语有时候可能产生两种截然不同的意义，需要根据不同的语境做出正确的判断。
词干来辨析词义，macrospacetransship=macro巨型的+space太空+trans转运+ship船即 巨型空间转运飞船b 根据上下文语境或词语搭配确定词义c 依据不同学科或专业类型确定词义
4英汉词字主要有哪几种对应关系：完全对应，（专有名词、技术词汇）computer计算机，部分对应storytelling说书，无对应词teenager13至19岁的青少年 5直译：指的是在语言条件许可下，在译文中不仅传达原文的内容，还尽可能完整地保留原文的修辞风格及组句形式。意译：是指原文的有些内容与形式不宜用汉语直接表达，而是经过解析后以另外的形式表达出来，也就是说更着重于意思的翻译，而不拘泥于表面文字。
6翻译中为什么要进行词类转换：。英汉两种语言在语言特点和表达形式方面有着显著的差异，往往不能照搬原文的词类或句子结构，需要根据汉语的表达需要，进行词类转换
7在实际翻译中能做到与原文完全一致，不增不减？原作对于原文读者来说很少有语言文化上的障碍，而译文读者确没有这样的便利，因此译者往往需要把原文中隐含的一些东西增补清楚，以便读者理解。
8翻译中为什么要进行结构调节：由于英汉不同的造句结构和表达习惯，翻译中有时需要打破原文句式结构，对译文进行结构调节以符合汉语的表达习惯。9常见的英译汉结构调整重要有哪几种a顺序法b逆序法Tt is easy to see what weight can be overcome and what thrust is necessary to maintain finght.要知道应该抵消多大的重力并需要多大推力才能保持飞行，这很容易c时序法 d拆分法 they,not wnexperctedly,did not respond。他们没有答复这完全是意料之中的事E重组法10英译汉正反交替的手段：肯定译否定Just make yourself at home.否定译肯定I couldn’t agree more with you.双否定译肯定He is not unequal to the duty.他并非不称职。正反移位 I don’t think he will come.译为部分否定Not all minerals come from mines.对号入座has never been clear从来就模糊不清、否定转移was not designed for不是为了…..而设计
第二篇：大学英语翻译课后题
Unit One
我们接到通知，财政部长将于次日接见我们。
We are informed that the Minister of Finance will meet us the next day.我觉得很奇怪，他似乎不记得自己的生日。
I felt odd that he didn’t seem to remember his own birthday.学期论文最迟应在下星期二交来，可是至今大部分学生却几无进展。
The term papers should be handed in next Tuesday at the latest, but most of the students have hardly made a dent.看到学生人数不断减少，校长心里很难受。
The headmaster was pained when he noticed the number of the students was continuously being cut into.在那个国家一般用现金付账，但支票变得普遍起来了，不久会代替现金作为人们结账的一种方式。
Normally, the payment is in cash in that country, but checks are becoming widespread gradually, and soon, it will take the place of cash as a way of settling accounts.该公司声称，这条河流的污染不是它造成的。
The company claims that it is not responsible for the pollution in the river.Unit Two
比尔已是个成熟的小伙子，不再依赖父母替他做主。
Bill has been mature, so he does not depend on his parents to decide everything for him any longer.这个地区有大量肉类供应，但新鲜果蔬奇缺。
In this area, there is a good supply of meat, but fresh fruit and vegetables are quite scarce.工程师们依靠工人们的智慧，发明了一种新的生产方法，使生产率得以提高。
Depending on the intelligence of the workers, the engineers invented a new production method to improve productivity.他花了许多时间准备数学考试，因此当他获知自己只得了个B时感到有点失望。
He had spent much time preparing for the maths examination, and therefore, he felt somewhat disappointed when he learned he only got a grade B.我们有充裕的时间从从容容吃顿午饭。
We have ample time to have lunch leisurely.地方政府不得不动用储备粮并采取其他紧急措施，以渡过粮食危机。The local government had to draw on its grain reserves and take other emergency measures so as to pull through the food crisis.Unit Three
萧伯纳在他一个剧本的前言中提出这样的看法：今天人们比在中世纪时更加迷信。
Bernard Shaw put forward such an opinion in the preface to one of his plays that people are more superstitious today than they were in the Middle Age.丈夫死后，她只好独自挑起抚养五个孩子的经济重担。
After her husband died, she had to shoulder the economic burden of bringing up five children alone.证明或驳斥某个论点的最好办法之一是从亲身经历中举出例子。
One of the best ways to prove or refute a point is to cite examples from your own experience.亨特说贝蒂老是夸大他的缺点，这话很可能会引起一场争吵。
Henry says Betty always exaggerates his shortcomings.Such statements might well cause a quarrel.我当时对她绝对信任，无论她告诉我什么，我都会相信。
I trusted her so much that I would believe whatever she told me.一家人聚拢来讨论经济问题时，父亲一开头就说，每月存点钱是绝对必要的，遇到紧急情况，我们可以依靠积蓄。
When the whole family gathered to discuss economic problems, father started off by saying that it was absolutely necessary for us to save some money every month, so that we could fall back on it when we met with emergency situations
Unit Five
我确信这项所谓明智的决定，与期望相反，会带来极其严重的后果。
I’m sure this so-called intelligent decision will bring about extremely grave consequences, which are contrary to what has been expected.诚然，他曾欺骗你，但他已经承认自己做错了，并道了歉。所以你不应该老是以怀疑的态度对待他。
Honestly, he once deceived you, but he already realized he was wrong and apologized for it.Hence, you should not always treat him with suspicion.他在这个问题公开进行辩论之前就已表明了自己的立场。
He had taken his stand before the issue was debated openly.在调查过程中，他们发现了种种形式的政治腐败，并揭露了许多贪官污吏。
In the course of investigation, they found various forms of political corruption and exposed many corrupt officials.玛丽的两难处境是：把真相告诉老板从而失信于她的同事，还是让老板蒙在鼓里从而辜负他的信任。
Mary’s dilemma was whether to tell the boss about the truth, to lose the credibility of her colleagues or to keep the boss in the dark to betray his trust.首先，是什么使你认为这项规划会促进改革？其次，你怎么知道这些改革会让全县得到好处？
In the first place, what make you think this programme will promote the reform? In the second place, how do you know these reforms will benefit the whole country?
Unit Six
那位卫生部副部长一再强调把中西医结合起来是多么重要。
The vice minister of health has emphasized time and again how important it is to integrate traditional Chinese medicine with western medicine.热天很难保藏食品，使之保持新鲜与食品安全。很自然，许多人觉得在夏季还是不上饭店为好。
In hot weather it is difficult to preserve foods, to keep them fresh and assure their edibility.Naturally, most people think they had better not go to the restaurant in summer.阅读时在作者强调的论点底下划线，对我们会有所裨益。
It will do us good to underline the points emphasized by the author while reading.经过好几天侦查，警方终于弄清这起谋杀案和新近发生的越狱事件有关。
After several days’ inquiry, the police made it clear, at last, that the murder tied up with the recent escape from prison.我想劝说他们采纳我们的计划，首先因为这一计划所需资金较少，其次，不会造成环境污染。
I want to persuade them to adopt our plan.In the first place, it is because fewer funds will be needed in this plan.In the second place, it will not pollute the environment.父亲用绳子把芹菜扎在一起，放在河里浸了浸，然后拿到菜场去卖。
Father tied up celery with rope, dipped it into the river and then took them to the food market for sale.
第三篇：英语翻译第二章课后题参考答案
Task 1
1.delicate skin娇嫩的皮肤
2.delicate porcelain 精致的瓷器
3.delicate living奢侈的生活
4.delicate health虚弱的身体
5.delicate stomach容易吃坏的胃
6.delicate vase易碎的花瓶
7.delicate diplomatic question微妙的外交关系
8.delicate difference 细微的差别
9.delicate surgical operation复杂的/难做的外科手术
10.delicate sense of smell灵敏的嗅觉
11.delicate touch 生花妙笔
12.delicate food美味的食物
Task 2
1.申请书 letter of application
2.报告书 report
3.协议书 agreement
4.说明书 directions/instruction
5.旅行委托书 booking form
6.成交确认书 sales confirmation
7.电视机使用说明书 TV operation guide
8.白皮书 white book/statement, document
9.家书 letter(from)home
10.文凭/毕业证书 diploma/degree certificate
Task 3
1.他只要听到几句恭维话就会得意忘形。
A little flattery would set him carried away.2.答英语卷越认真越好。
You can never be too careful in answering an English paper.3.公费吃喝是群众反映强烈的不良之风之一。
Sumptuous banquets, financed by state money, have long been a bane on Chinese society.4.要筹集2万5千英磅她完全无力办得到。
The raising of twenty-five thousand pounds was a task altogether beyond her powers.5.不屑于干自己工作的人终有一天会发现自己不配干那份工作。
The man who is above his business may one day find his business above him.6.有钱能使鬼推磨。
Money can make a mare go.7.他非常讨厌多愁善感无病呻吟。
He has a strong dislike for the sentimental.8.你认为我幼稚可欺吗?
Do you see any green in my eyes?
第四篇：期末英语翻译部分
补全句子： 1.（应该适合人类，并有助于人机合一)Should serve man and contribute to cybernetics 2.（不断发新产品，并具备以前计算机所不具备的功能）design new machines continuously, which are capable of doing work that earlier computers could not;（在平常活动中肩负起更多的责任）take over more functions in daily life.3.（预测产品和服务的市场可接受度）predict which products and services the market will bear;（评估产品生命力的宝贵工具）an invaluable tools for assessing the viability of a product 4.（每当DOS执行一个程序）each time DOS executes a program;（当你正在通过Microsoft Windowws执行多个程序时）when executing multiple programs via Microsoft Windows 5.（当工作难找的时候）When jobs are scarce;（常常被有经验的工人排挤）tend to be pushed out in favor of experienced workers 6.（在这些更强大的目标导向的工具方面进行投资是有意义的）it is a good time to invest in these more powerful , goal-directed tools 7.（为用户进行内容定制）it executes the user’s custom contest;（将处理后的内容转换到所用的特定设备）it then loads the content onto the designated device in use 8.（不懂得与时俱进）do not keep up with regulations;（只会束缚人们的手脚）haue their hand tied 9.1.(是一个富于变化的领域，包括许多相互作用的组成部分)a diverse field with many interacting components;（赋予信息，激发对话）imparts information, stimulates dialogue 10.（从食品，动物到植物健康部门的各种专家）a diverse range of experts from the food, animal and plant health sectors 11.（从某种程度上）to a certain extent;（我国土地资源的后续利用，食品安全和生态环境）follow-up utilizing of land resource, food security and ecological environment of our country 12.（细菌太小，肉眼看不见).Bacteria are too
small to see with the naked the eye;（以避免细菌污染）avoid contamination with bacteria 13.（常被用作奶油的代用品）often used as a
substitute for butter
14.（转基因食品）genetically modified food;（转
基因食品优点）the merit of GM food 15.（加强食品监督与管理）strengthen the
supervision and administration of food safety;（维护好食品市场的秩序）maintain a good order of the food market
16.（采取了一项方案，就是在其投入英国市场食
品上做标注）introduced a labeling scheme for their products in the British market
17.（停止进口诸如火腿，肉制品等）suspend the
import of meats such as ham, pork products and others
18.（没能说服数百人改掉这一恶习）has failed to
convince hundreds of millions of people to abandon the bad habit 19.（令人质疑）raise eyebrows
20.（延伸覆盖大范围的市场）stretches across a
wide range of markets
21.（擦亮品牌）burnished the brand name 22.（为总裁们完成了一项最大的采购）have
made the ultimate acquisition for chief executives;（大手笔的花掉220亿美元财富的一部分）splashed some of the $22bn fortune 23.（使谷歌在未来几年里成为不可忽视的力量）
keep Google the force to be reckoned with for years to come
24.（以13.99的优惠价格抢购最新、最喜欢的Ｔ
恤衫）snap up your latest favorite T-shirt on sale for $13.99
25.（你将或多或少不得不面对数额巨大的出价）
you will be faced with a huge number of offers, to varying degrees
26.（使你在行业中处于更有利的地位）give you
a competitive advantage in your industry 27.（占谷歌所有搜索查询的四分之一）accounts
for a quarter of all Google search queries 28.（尝试区分人类访客和自动化访问者或机器
人）try to distinguish human visitors from automated visitors or robots
29.（富于创新精神的搜索引擎）innovative search engines 30.（提出设计）come up with a design 31.（坚守社会责任和保护自然环境的承诺）commitment to social responsibility and protecting the environment 32.（为订立国际条约和行动纲领建立共识）builds consensus towards international treaties and programmes of action 33.（在我们的短暂一生中，最好贡献莫过于此了）I don’t know of any better service to offer for the short time we are in the world 34.（我们要竭尽全力确保《京都议定书》生效）We should make every effort to ensure the Kyoto Protocol to come into force 35.（对生态环境影响相对较小）relatively little effect on the ecological environment;（一项重要政策）an important policy 36.活着的树木可以吸收碳）Living trees absorb carbon;（大气中碳的释放）the release of carbon into the atmosphere 37.（受由污染引起的酸雨影响）is affected by the acid rain caused by pollution 38.（尽管氮无毒且很大程度上不活泼）Although nitrogen is nontoxic and largely inert 39.（由清水状态转变为藻类过量繁殖状态）from a clear –water state to an algal bloom 40.（毁灭一个地理上孤立的小族群）wipe out a geographically isolated group 整句翻译：
41.为实现这些目标，在1997年签署了《京都议定书》，并于2005年开始强制生效。The Kyoto Protocol, which set about realizing those aims, was signed in 1997 and came into force in 2005.42.如果不能重新拟定新的国际公约，人类将没有任何机会来防治严重的气候突变问题。Without a new global agreement , there is not much chance of averting serious climate change.43.人们担忧的是对碳排放征税将使商业和经济受到创伤。What is worrying is that carbon taxes will hurt business and the economy.44.请你举一个具体的例子，说明你是怎样对你所处的环境进行评估并找到重点，以获得你所期望的结果的。Provide an example of how you assessed a situation and achieved good results by focusing on the
most important priorities.45.我们决心将每一个项目的成本降到最低，尽量提高效益。We are determined to minimise the cost of each and every project and to maximize
cost-effectiveness.41.（智商体现一种遗传的，即可继承的特质，或
者是文化传播的特质，该特质受家长和社会经济地位的影响。无论是哪一种，测试智商都不能影响社会的流动性）.IQ measures a genetic, and therefore heritable, traits or a culturally transmitted trait, influenced by parents and socio-economic status.Either way, testing IQ could not influence social mobility.42.（数据已经添加或更新在数据库中，但由于没
有达到从属记录源中的标准而将无法显示）43.The data was added or updated in the database，but will not be displayed because it does not satisfy the criteria in the subordinate record source.44.（没有一种学科方法证明，暴露于10ppm某
种污染达24小时是“安全的”，而暴露在超过那个污染程度便是“危险的”）There no scientific way to demonstrate that exposure to a pollutant in a concentration of one hundred parts per million for twenty-four hours is “safe”, while
exposures
above
that
level
ale
“dangerous”.45.（香港大学非常重视研究工作，专门成立了研
究生院协调各学院的研究教学工作，确保研究教育的质量）With much emphasis on research activities, Hong Kong university has established a Graduate School to co-ordinate research among faculty members and to ensure quality research and education.46.（传统的看法人为错误消息框的作用是在用
户错了时通知他们。实际上，大多数错误公告的作用是在计算机对指令感到不明时向用户报告）Conventional wisdom has held that error messages tell users when they have made a mistake.Actually, must error bulletins report when the computer gets confused.47.（由于某种原因，越来越多的人逐渐重视饮食
问题。无论因为情绪上的压力或是身体上的意外创伤，还是由于自信心的缘故，人们似乎都从饮食上寻求慰藉，而不是去寻求专业帮助）More and more people are developing eating issues for many different reasons.Whether it is because of emotional stress, traumatic incidents, or self-confidence issues ,people seem to run to food for comfort instead of seeking professional help
48.（其他人争论说，粮食匮乏不是粮食产量的问题，而是政府忽视了农业发展，未能有效利用粮食援救。而且保护性的贸易壁垒使消除饥饿更加困难）Others argue that food insecurity is not an issue of a shortfull in food production but rather that governments have neglected agricultural development ,made ineffective use of food aid ,and ,through protective trade barriers, made hunger alleviation more difficult to attain.49.你是否想过为什么快餐连锁店能够立刻做好你所点的菜，而在家里妈妈总是要花费几个小时的时间做饭？答案很简单。快餐连锁店使用了能够加快烹饪过程的物质，而科学证明，这些物质有害人体健康，如果长期食用，会产生严重的危害。Have you ever wondered as to why the fast food joint are able to provide you with your order in no time whereas mom at home takes hours to cook? The answer lies in the simple fact that in fast food joints substances that enhance the cooking process are used.It has been scientifically proved that these substances are very harmful to health and pose serious threats on continuous consumption.50.这看上去好像是科幻小说中的情节：政府已经宣称克隆动物所产的肉和奶是安全的，而今，克隆食品赫然出现在了全国的食品供应链中。It sounds like a scenario from a science-fiction novel: The government has declared that meat and dairy from cloned animals is safe.and now cloned products can show up in the nation’s food supply.53 51..如今，食品和药物管理局（ＦＤＡ）将要求进口商能够证实他们外国的供应商正在采取必要的安全防范措施。换句话说，他们应该能够确定来自智利的黑鲈与来自缅因州的龙虾符合同样的安全标准。Now, the FDA will
require importers to be able to verify that their foreign suppliers are taking the necessary safety precautions.In other words ,they’ll be able to make sure that sea bass from Chile meets the same safety standards as lobster from Maine.整句翻译：
52.如果该公司能够迎接复杂的、高度精密的生产
和极端期限的挑战，它不仅能提高自身作为行业翘楚的声誉，而且还会打开其他机会之门。If this company can meet the challenge of the complex, high-precision production and the tight deadline, it will not only burnish its reputation as industry leader but open up other opportunities.53.ＢＰ（英国石油）令人吃惊的谈到其在中国扩
张的雄心。不多，分析师们警告称，中国炼油行业盈利能力不佳意味着在该行业的任何投资到头来都可能是不具吸引力的。BP has raised eyebrows by talking about its ambitions for expansion in China.However, analysts warned that the poor profitability of China’s refining industry meant that taking a stake in the sector might prove unattractive.54.即使经过几年温和增长，股票期权也能使投资
者获得可观收益。Even after a few years of moderate growth, stock options can produce a handsome return for investors.55.空中客车公司（Airbus）与波音公司一直就世
界军事飞机合同进行一场长期的殊死战斗。就在一个月前在美国，ＥＡＤＳ，空中客车的母公司，拿走了波音公司一个将近四百亿美元的空中加油机合同。Airbus have been fighting a long and bruising battle with Boeing for military aircraft contracts around the world.Just a month ago in the U.S., EADS, the parent company of Airbus , snatched away a nearly 40 billion air tanker contract from Boeing.56.在现在所有语言中没有一个词可以准确地描
述信息技术对人类生活的巨大影响。No word in all languages exists to describe the great impact of information technology on human life.
第五篇：专业英语翻译部分
仅供参考！发现错误请及时指出！
15页
Climate plays a very important role in the genesis of a soil.On the global scale, there is an obvious correlation between major soil types and the Koppen climatic classification systems major climate types.At regional and local scales, climate becomes less important in soil formation.Instead, Pedogenesis is more influenced by factors like parent material, topography, vegetation, and time.The two most important climatic variables influencing soil formation are temperature arid moisture.Temperature has direct influence on the weathering of bedrock to produce mineral particles.Rates of bedrock weathering generally increase with higher temperatures.Temperature also influences the activity of soil microorganisms, the frequency and magnitude of soil chemical reactions, and the rate of plant growth, moisture levels in most soils are primarily controlled by the addition of water via precipitation minus the losses due to evapotranspiration.If additions of water from precipitation surpass losses from evapotranspiration, moisture levels in a soil tend to be high.If the water loss due to evapotranspiration exceeds inputs from precipitation, moisture levels in a soil tend to be low.High moisture availability in a soil promotes the weathering, of bedrock and sediments, chemical reactions, and plant growth.The availability of moisture also has an influence on soil pH and the decomposition of organic matter.气候在土壤形成过程中扮演了重要角色。从全球尺度来看，主要的土壤分类和科彭气候分类法确定的主要的气候类型有明星的联系。在区域和地方性的范围内，气候显得不是那么重要。取而代之的是母质，地形，植被和时间。温度和湿度是影响土壤形成的两个重要的变量。温度直接影响基岩风化产生矿物颗粒。温度越高，基岩转化为矿物颗粒的比例越大。温度同样影响土壤微生物的活跃度，土壤化学反应的频率和数量，植物生长的比例。大多数的土壤湿度是由降水减去蒸发作用控制的。如果降水超过蒸发作用消耗的水，土壤湿度就会很高。如果降水少于蒸发作用，土壤的湿度就会变低。土壤内大量的可用的水气会提升母岩温度和沉积，化学反应，还有植物生长。微生物也会影响土壤的PH和有机物的分解。
Living organisms have a role in a number of processes involved in pedogenesis including organic matter accumulation, profile mixing, and biogeochemical nutrient cycling.Under equilibrium conditions, vegetation and soil are closely linked with each other through nutrient cycling.The cycling of nitrogen and carbon in soils is almost completely controlled by the presence of animals and plants.Through litterfall and the process of decomposition, organisms add humus and nutrients to the soil which influences soil structure and fertility.Surface vegetation also protects the upper layers of a soil from erosion by way of binding the soils surface and reducing the speed of moving wind and water across the ground surface.成土作用过程中，生命体参与了其中的有机物积累，属性混合和生物化学养分的循环。在平衡条件下，植被和土壤通过彼此的养分循环紧密联系在一起。土壤中的碳氮循环几乎都需要动物和植物的参与控制。通过落叶和分解过程，微生物把腐殖质和营养成分带给土壤，也因此影响了土壤的结构和肥力。表层植物也可以固定表层土壤来保护上层的土壤不被途经的风和水带走。
Parent material refers to the rock and mineral materials from which the soils develop.These materials can be derived from residual sediment due to the weathering of bedrock or from sediment transported into an area by way of the erosive forces of wind, water, or ice.Pedogenesis is often faster on transported sediments because the weathering of parent material usually takes a long period of time.The influence of parent material on pedogenesis is usually related to soil texture, soil chemistry, and nutrient cycling.母质是指土壤形成所在的岩石和矿物质。岩床的风化或者由侵蚀力（比如风，水，冰）带来的沉积物都可以变为形成母质需要的物质。外来的沉积物形成的成土作用通常都比较快，因为风化母质需要很长一段时间。母质在成土过程中的影响就是它参与了土壤的质地，土壤化学和养分循环。
The distribution of precipitation on the Earth's surface is generally controlled by the absence or presence of mechanisms that lift air masses to cause saturation.It is also controlled by the amount of water vapor held in the air, which is a function of air temperature.A figure is presented that illustrates global precipitation patterns.气体上升聚集达到饱和，是否存在这种饱和基本上决定了地球表面降水的分布。同时，大气中包含水蒸气的含量也影响了降水，水蒸气的含量是由大气温度控制的。下面的一组数字将阐明全球降水模式。
41页
Evaporation and transpiration are the two processes that move water from the Earth’s surface to its atmosphere.Evaporation is movement of free water to the atmosphere as a gas.It requires large amounts of energy.Transpiration is the movement of water through a plant to the atmosphere.Scientists use the term evapotranspiration to describe both processes.In general, the following four factors control the amount of water entering the atmosphere via these two processes: energy availability;the humidity gradient away from the evaporating surface;the wind speed immediately above the surface;and water availability.Agricultural scientists sometimes refer to two types of evapotranspiration: Actual Evapotranspiration and Potential Evapotranspiration.The growth of crops is a function of water supply.If crops experience drought, yields are reduced.Irrigation can supply crops with supplemental water.By determining both actual evapotranspiration and potential evapotranspiration a farmer can calculate the irrigation water needs of their crops.蒸发作用和蒸腾作用是把水从地表带到大气的最主要的两个过程。蒸发是空余的水变成蒸汽进入大气的移动过程。这个过程需要大量的能量。蒸腾作用是水通过植物进入大气。科学家用蒸散作用来统称这两个过程。通常情况下，下面四个因素影响了这两个过程：可利用的能量、蒸发表面的温度梯度、蒸发表面即时风速、可用的水。农业科学家认为蒸散作用有两种方式：实际的蒸散和潜在的蒸散。农作物生长是供水的过程。如果作物经历了干旱，就会导致减产。灌溉可以给作物提供附加的水。如果知道了实际蒸散和潜在蒸散的量，农民就可以计算作物灌溉需要的水量。
Infiltration is the movement of water from precipitation into the soil layer.Infiltration varies both spatially and temporally due to a number of environmental factors.After a rain, infiltration can create a condition where the soil is completely full of water.This condition is, however, only short-lived as a portion of this water quickly drains(gravitational water)via the force exerted on the water by gravity.The portion that remains is called the field capacity.In the soil, field capacity represents a film of water coating all individual soil particles to a thickness of 0.06 mm.The soil water from 0.0002 to 0.06 mm(known as capillary water)can be removed from the soil through the processes of evaporation and transpiration.Both of these processes operate at the surface.Capillary action moves water from one area in the soil to replace losses in another area(biggest losses tend to be at the surface because of plant consumption and evaporation).This movement of water by capillary action generally creates a homogeneous concentration of water throughout the soil profile.Losses of water stop when the film of water around soil particles reaches 0.0002 mm.Water held from the surface of the soil particles to 0.0002 mm is essentially immobile and can only be completely removed with high temperatures(greater than 100 degrees Celsius).Within the soil system, several different forces influence the storage of water.渗透是水从降水进入土壤层的过程。渗透由于一些自然的因素会发生空间的和暂时的变化。下完雨之后，渗透会形成一个土壤完全充满水的情况。但是这种情况只是暂时的，一部分雨水会由于重力作用排出。留下的那一部分雨水被称为土地含水能力。土地含水能力展示给我们一个水薄膜，在这个薄膜里，所有相互独立的土壤粒子被厚度仅仅为0.06毫米的水包裹着。土壤中0.0002到0.06毫米的水都可以通过蒸散作用排出。所以这些过程都发生在表面。毛细作用把水从一个地方搬运到另一个流失水的地方（最大的水流失应该就是植物表面的蒸腾和蒸发）。这种毛细作用可以报证土壤内的水的浓度是均匀的。土壤粒子包被的水薄膜到0.0002毫米时，水就停止流失。这时的水本质上除了超过100摄氏度的情况是不可移动的。在土壤系统内部，这几种力量影响了水的短缺度。
Population Structure / Population Pyramids
The population structure for an area shows the number of males and females within different age groups in the population.This information is displayed as an age-sex or population pyramid.Population pyramids of LEDCs typically have a wide base and a narrow top.This represents a high birth rate and high death rate.Population pyramids of MEDCs typically have a roughly equal distribution of population throughout the age groups.The top obviously gets narrower as a result of deaths.Population pyramids for every country in the world can be found here.Population pyramids are used to show the structure of the population according to age and sex.一个地方的人口结构告诉我们该地不同年龄段男性和女性的人口数量。这些信息展示出了一个年龄-性别或者人口数量的金字塔。发展中国家的人口金字塔通常有很大的根基和很窄的塔尖。这体现了这些国家的高出生率和高死亡率。发达国家的人口金字塔在不同年龄段大概是均匀分布的。塔尖由于死亡的原因会稍微窄一些。世界上所有国家的人口金字塔在这里都可以找到。人口金字塔通常用来展示人口在年龄和性别上的结构。
56页
The increase of greenhouse gases are the primary causes of the human-induced component of warming.Because of burning of fossil fuels, land clearing and agriculture, the amount of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have increased by more than a third.Changes this large have historically taken thousands of years, but are now happening over the course of decades.温室气体增加的主要原因是人类-诱导气温的上升。因为化石燃料的燃烧，大地没有植被以及农业，大气中二氧化碳和其他温室气体的排放量已经上升了1/3。经历这么大的变化曾经需要数千年，但是现在只在近十年内就完成了。
57页
Sea Level Rising.With the melt of ice cap and glaciers, sea level has rised 0.8 to 3.0 millimeter.With large numbers of cities located in coastal areas, this causes serious problems.Beach erosion takes place, particularly on steep banks.Wetlands are lost.This is a picture of Shanghai at present, while this may be the picture of Shanghai several years later.Another serious problem is the threat of salt water intruding into underground fresh water in coastal areas.Millions of people will be forced to leave their homes and homelands.海平面上升。随着冰盖和冰川的融化，海平面已经上升了0.8到3.0毫米。由于很多城市坐落在沿海地区，这就可能带来灾难性的问题。海岸侵蚀开始出现，尤其是在陡峭的海岸。湿地逐渐消失。这正是上海现在发生的，也可能是几年以后上海出现的景象。另一个严重的问题是盐水侵入沿海地区的底下淡水。数以万计的人民不得不背井离乡。
59页
They dominate the country in influence and are the national focal-point.Their sheer size and activity becomes a strong pull factor, bringing additional residents to the city and causing the primate city to become even larger and more disproportional to smaller cities in the country.However, not every country has a primate city, as you'll see from the list below.他们通过影响力支配这个国家，是整个国家的焦点。他们的规模大小和活动变成一股强大的推动力，带来额外的居民，让这些首位城市变得更大，以至于跟国内的其他小城市相比有些不协调。但是，并不是所有国家都有这样一个首位城市，你可以从下面的表里看出来。
Some scholars define a primate city as one that is larger than the combined populations of the second and third ranked cities in a country.This definition does not represent true primacy, however, as the size of the first ranked city is not disproportionate to the second.一些学者定义首位城市就是比排名第二和第三位城市人口总和还要多的城市。但是这个定义没有体现从城市规模的角度分析，排名前两位的城市也是不成比例的，所以并不被认可。
The law can be applied to smaller regions as well.For example, California's primate city is Los Angeles, with a metropolitan area population of 16 million, which is more than double the San Francisco metropolitan area of 7 million.Even counties can be examined with regard to the Law of the Primate City.这个法则可以用到小的区域。举个例子，加州的首位城市是洛杉矶，城市人口达到1600万，比旧金山的700高出甚多。甚至村庄也可以用首位城市法则来分析。
69页
Scope of land consolidation schemes（本段蓝字为不确定部分）
Land consolidation has always been regarded as an instrument or entry point for rural development.Early concepts of rural development were virtually the same as agricultural development because of the predominant role of agriculture in rural areas at the time.Improving the agrarian structure was viewed as being identical to maintaining the social viability in rural areas;what was good for the farmers was good for rural areas.An overall objective of early projects was thus to increase the net income from land holdings by increasing the volume of production and decreasing its costs.With this focus on agricultural development, these projects served to consolidate parcels and enlarge holdings and included provisions such as irrigation and drainage infrastructure to improve water management, construction of rural roads, land levelling, soil improvement measures and changes to land use such as converting agriculturally inferior land into forest land or wetlands.土地合并经常被认为是发展农村的一个手段或者切入点。早期的农村发展概念基本上和农业发展一样的，因为那时候的农业生产占据了农村的主导地位。改进农业结构看起来是和保留农村地区社会生存能力一样的事情。对农民好也就是对农村地区好。因此早期项目的总体目标是通过增加产量和减少成本，以此增加从土地获得的净收益。随着注意力转移到农业发展上，这些项目服务于巩固捆绑，增大资产，还这些规定：修建灌溉和排水基础设施来提升用水管理能力，修建农村公路，土地平整，土壤改良措施以及改变土地用途比如说把贫瘠的土地转变为森林或者湿地。
Such agricultural improvements are still essential but rural space is now no longer regarded as one of agricultural production alone.Concepts of rural development have become much broader and have expanded to include increased environmental awareness and a wide range of nonagricultural applications.The emphasis of land consolidation projects has shifted from a focus on restructuring agriculture to one of achieving more efficient multiple use of rural space by balancing the interests of agriculture, landscape, nature conservation, recreation and transportation, especially when land is required for the construction of major roads.这些农业进步仍然是必不可少的，但是现在农村地区不再仅仅是农业生产的区域了。农村发展的概念已经变得更加广阔，已经拓展到包含环境意识和非农业应用的领域。土地合并的项目的重点已经不再只关注农业重组，它上升到通过平衡农业利益，地形，自然保护，娱乐和运输(尤其是需要修建主要干道的时候)来获取最大的利益。
Environmental conditions are being given increasing priority.Roads are being constructed to suit the landscape.Water bodies are being restored, often with buffer zones.Land consolidation projects are also used for the protection of wetlands and to change land use patterns especially in areas endangered by frequent floods or soil erosion.人们把环境情况作为优先考虑。修路需要符合地形。水体被修复，一般都还有缓冲区。土地合并项目经常用于保护湿地，还有改变土地利用模式，特别是在因为频发的洪水和水土流失致使土地濒临消失的地方。
99页
Leakage
The direct income for an area is the amount of tourist expenditure that remains locally after taxes, profits, and wages are paid outside the area and after imports are purchased;these subtracted amounts are called leakage.In most all-inclusive package tours, about 80% of travelers' expenditures go to the airlines, hotels and other international companies(who often have their headquarters in the travelers' home countries), and not to local businesses or workers.In addition, significant amounts of income actually retained at destination level can leave again through leakage.消费者的支出除去税费，利润，支出的工资以及进口所需剩下的一部分，就是旅游目的地的直接收入，也叫做渗漏。在大部分全包价旅游中，旅游者支出的80%付给了航空公司，酒店和其他国际公司（通常在旅游者来源国有分支部门），并不是当地的商店或者工人。此外，大量的达到目标水平的收入一般会经过渗漏再次离开当地。101页
Tourism development and the related rise in real estate demand may dramatically increase building costs and land values.Not only does this make it more difficult for local people, especially in developing countries, to meet their basic daily needs, it can also result in a dominance by outsiders in land markets and in-migration that erodes economic opportunities for the locals, eventually disempowering residents.In Costa Rica, close to 65% of the hotels belong to foreigners.Long-term tourists living in second homes, and the so-called amenity migrants(wealthy or retired people and liberal professionals moving to attractive destinations in order to enjoy the atmosphere and peaceful rhythms of life)cause price hikes in their new homes if their numbers attain a certain critical mass.旅游业的发展和相关切实需要的房地产需求可能戏剧性的促进了建筑造假和土地价值。不止是这些造成了当地居民-特别是在发展中国家-难以得到基本日常所需，还会导致外来者在土地市场和迁移这些对当地人属于经济侵略的领域处于支配地位。在哥斯达黎加，近60%的酒店属于外国人，长期的游客住在第二个家，这些所谓的美化城市的居民（富人或者退休的人，还有那些想要享受平静生活和优美环境的自由主义者）的数量如果达到一个临界值，就会引起他们新家附近的价格飞涨。
106页
Storm structure
The process by which a disturbance forms and subsequently strengthens into a hurricane depends on at least three conditions.Warm waters and moisture are mentioned above.The third condition is a wind pattern near the ocean surface that spirals air inward.Bands of thunderstorms form, allowing the air to warm further and rise higher into the atmosphere.If the winds at these higher levels are relatively light, this structure can remain intact and allow for additional strengthening.一股躁动气流随后加强成为飓风的过程需要至少3个条件。温水和降水是必不可少的，第三个条件是在海洋表面有内螺旋的空气所形成的风。雷电风暴的形成，让空气温度升高，然后上升到大气。如果在这个更高高度的风是相对轻的，这个结构还会保持完整然后继续加强。
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