互联网金融对传统金融业的影响外文文献翻译

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文献出处: Ramsey;Labored.Internet Finance's Impact on Traditional Finance [J].The Journal of International Finance, 2014, 16(2): 31-49.原文

Internet Finance's Impact on Traditional Finance

Ramsey;Labored.Abstract

As the advances in modern information and Internet technology, especially the develop of cloud computing, big data, mobile Internet, search engines and social networks, profoundly change, even subvert many traditional industries, and the financial industry is no exception.In recent years, financial industry has become the most far-reaching area influenced by Internet, after commercial distribution and the media.Many Internet-based financial service models have emerged, and have had a profound and huge impact on traditional financial industries.“Internet-Finance” has win the focus of public attention.Internet-Finance is low cost, high efficiency, and pays more attention to the user experience, and these features enable it to fully meet the special needs of traditional “long tail financial market”, to flexibly provide more convenient and efficient financial services and diversified financial products, to greatly expand the scope and depth of financial services, to shorten the distance between people space and time, and to establish a new financial environment, which effectively integrate and take use of fragmented time, information, capital and other scattered resources, then add up to form a scale, and grow a new profit point for various financial institutions.Moreover, with the continuous penetration and integration in traditional financial field, Internet-Finance will bring new challenges, but also opportunities to the traditional.It contribute to the transformation of the traditional commercial banks, compensate for the lack of efficiency in funding process and information integration, and provide new distribution channels for securities, insurance, funds and other financial products.For many SMEs, Internet-Finance extend their financing channels, reduce their financing threshold, and improve their efficiency in using funds.However, the cross-industry nature of the Internet Finance determines its risk factors are more complex, sensitive and varied, and therefore we must properly handle the relationship between innovative development and market regulation, industry self-regulation.Key Words :Internet Finance;Commercial Banks;Effects;Regulatory 1 Introduction The continuous development of Internet technology, cloud computing, big data, a growing number of Internet applications such as social networks for the business development of traditional industry provides a strong support, the level of penetration of the Internet on the traditional industry.The end of the 20th century, Microsoft chairman Bill Gates, who declared, “the traditional commercial bank will become the new century dinosaur”.Nowadays, with the development of the Internet electronic information technology, we really felt this trend, mobile payment, electronic bank already occupies the important position in our daily life.Due to the concept of the Internet financial almost entirely from the business practices, therefore the present study focused on the discussion.Internet financial specific mode, and the influence of traditional financial industry analysis and counter measures are lack of systemic research.Internet has always been a key battleground in risk investment, and financial industry is the thinking mode of innovative experimental various business models emerge in endlessly, so it is difficult to use a fixed set of thinking to classification and definition.The mutual penetration and integration of Internet and financial, is a reflection of technical development and market rules requirements, is an irreversible trend.The Internet bring traditional financial is not only a low cost and high efficiency, more is a kind of innovative thinking mode and unremitting pursuit of the user experience.The traditional financial industry to actively respond to.Internet financial, for such a vast blue ocean enough to change the world, it is very worthy of attention to straighten out its development, from the existing business model to its development prospects.“Internet financial” belongs to the latest formats form, discusses the Internet financial research of literature, but the lack of systemic and more practical.So this article according to the characteristics of the Internet industry practical stronger, the several business models on the market for summary analysis, and the traditional financial industry how to actively respond to the Internet wave of financial analysis and Suggestions are given, with strong practical significance.2 Internet financial background Internet financial platform based on Internet resources, on the basis of the big data and cloud computing new financial model.Internet finance with the help of the Internet technology, mobile communication technology to realize financing, payment and information intermediary business, is a traditional industry and modern information technology represented by the Internet, mobile payment, cloud computing, data mining, search engines and social networks, etc.)Produced by the combination of emerging field.Whether financial or the Internet, the Internet is just the difference on the strategic, there is no strict definition of distinction.As the financial and the mutual penetration and integration of the Internet, the Internet financial can refer all through the Internet technology to realize the financing behavior.Internet financial is the Internet and the traditional financial product of mutual infiltration and fusion, the new financial model has a profound background.The emergence of the Internet financial is a craving for cost reduction is the result of the financial subject, is also inseparable from the rapid development of modern information technology to provide technical support.2.1 Demands factors Traditional financial markets there are serious information asymmetry, greatly improve the transaction risk.Exhibition gradually changed people's spending habits, more and more high to the requirement of service efficiency and experience;In addition, rising operating costs, to stimulate the financial main body's thirst for financial innovation and reform;This pulled by demand factors, become the Internet financial produce powerful inner driving force.2.2 Supply driving factor Data mining, cloud computing and Internet search engines, such as the development of technology, financial and institutional technology platform.Innovation, enterprise profit-driven mixed management, etc., for the transformation of traditional industry and Internet companies offered financial sector penetration may, for the birth and development of the Internet financial external technical support, become a kind of externalization of constitution.In the Internet “openness, equality, cooperation, share” platform, third-party financing and payment, online investment finance, credit evaluation model, not only makes the traditional pattern of financial markets will be great changes have taken place, and modern information technology is more easily to serve various financial entities.For the traditional financial institutions, especially in the banking, securities and insurance institutions, more opportunities than the crisis, development is better than a challenge.3 Internet financial constitute the main body 3.1 Capital providers Between Internet financial comprehensive, its capital providers include not only the traditional financial institutions, including penetrating into the Internet.In terms of the current market structure, the traditional financial sector mainly include commercial Banks, securities, insurance, fund and small loan companies, mainly includes the part of the Internet companies and emerging subject, such as the amazon, and some channels on Internet for the company.These companies is not only the providers of capital market, but also too many traditional so-called “low net worth clients” suppliers of funds into the market.In operation form, the former mainly through the Internet, to the traditional business externalization, the latter mainly through Internet channels to penetrate business, both externalization and penetration, both through the Internet channel to achieve the financial business innovation and reform.3.2 Capital demanders Internet financial mode of capital demanders although there is no breakthrough in the traditional government, enterprise and individual, but on the benefit has greatly changed.In the rise and development of the Internet financial, especially Internet companies to enter the threshold of made in the traditional financial institutions, relatively weak groups and individual demanders, have a more convenient and efficient access to capital.As a result, the Internet brought about by the universality and inclusive financial better than the previous traditional financial pattern.3.3 Intermediaries Internet financial rely on efficient and convenient information technology, greatly reduces the financial markets is the wrong information.Docking directly through Internet, according to both parties, transaction cost is greatly reduced, so the Internet finance main body for the dependence of the intermediary institutions decreased significantly, but does not mean that the Internet financial markets, there is no intermediary institutions.In terms of the development of the Internet financial situation at present stage, the third-party payment platform plays an intermediary role in this field, not only ACTS as a financial settlement platform, but also to the capital supply and demand of the integration of upstream and downstream link multi-faceted, in meet the funds to pay at the same time, have the effect of capital allocation.Especially in the field of electronic commerce, this function is more obvious.3.4 Large financial data Big financial data collection refers to the vast amounts of unstructured data, through the study of the depth of its mining and real-time analysis, grasp the customer's trading information, consumption habits and consumption information, and predict customer behavior and make the relevant financial institutions in the product design, precise marketing and greatly improve the efficiency of risk management, etc.Financial services platform based on the large data mainly refers to with vast trading data of the electronic commerce enterprise's financial services.The key to the big data from a large number of chaotic ability to rapidly gaining valuable information in the data, or from big data assets liquidation ability quickly.Big data information processing, therefore, often together with cloud computing.4 Global economic issues FOR much of the past year the fast-growing economies of the emerging world watched the Western financial hurricane from afar.Their own banks held few of the mortgage-based assets that undid the rich world’s financial firms.Commodity exporters were thriving, thanks to high prices for raw materials.China’s economic juggernaut powered on.And, from Budapest to Brasília, an abundance of credit fuelled domestic demand.Even as talk mounted of the rich world suffering its worst financial collapse since the Depression, emerging economies seemed a long way from the centre of the storm.No longer.As foreign capital has fled and confidence evaporated, the emerging world’s stockmarkets have plunged(in some cases losing half their value)and currencies tumbled.The seizure in the credit market caused havoc, as foreign banks abruptly stopped lending and stepped back from even the most basic banking services, including trade credits.Like their rich-world counterparts, governments are battling to limit the damage(see article).That is easiest for those with large foreign-exchange reserves.Russia is spending $220 billion to shore up its financial services industry.South Korea has guaranteed $100 billion of its banks’ debt.Less well-endowed countries are asking for help.Hungary has secured a EURO5 billion($6.6 billion)lifeline from the European Central Bank and is negotiating a loan from the IMF, as is Ukraine.Close to a dozen countries are talking to the fund about financial help.Those with long-standing problems are being driven to desperate measures.Argentina is nationalising its private pension funds, seemingly to stave off default(see article).But even stalwarts are looking weaker.Figures released this week showed that China’s growth slowed to 9% in the year to the third quarter-still a rapid pace but a lot slower than the double-digit rates of recent years.The various emerging economies are in different states of readiness, but the cumulative impact of all this will be enormous.Most obviously, how these countries fare will determine whether the world economy faces a mild recession or something nastier.Emerging economies accounted for around three-quarters of global growth over the past 18 months.But their economic fate will also have political consequences.In many places-eastern Europe is one example(see article)-financial turmoil is hitting weak governments.But even strong regimes could suffer.Some experts think that China needs growth of 7% a year to contain social unrest.More generally, the coming strife will shape the debate about the integration of the world economy.Unlike many previous emerging-market crises, today’s mess spread from the rich world, largely thanks to increasingly integrated capital markets.If emerging economies collapse-either into a currency crisis or a sharp recession-there will be yet more questioning of the wisdom of globalised finance.Fortunately, the picture is not universally dire.All emerging economies will slow.Some will surely face deep recessions.But many are facing the present danger in stronger shape than ever before, armed with large reserves, flexible currencies and strong budgets.Good policy-both at home and in the rich world-can yet avoid a catastrophe.One reason for hope is that the direct economic fallout from the rich world’s disaster is manageable.Falling demand in America and Europe hurts exports, particularly in Asia and Mexico.Commodity prices have fallen: oil is down nearly 60% from its peak and many crops and metals have done worse.That has a mixed effect.Although it hurts commodity-exporters from Russia to South America, it helps commodity importers in Asia and reduces inflation fears everywhere.Countries like Venezuela that have been run badly are vulnerable(see article), but given the scale of the past boom, the commodity bust so far seems unlikely to cause widespread crises.The more dangerous shock is financial.Wealth is being squeezed as asset prices decline.China’s house prices, for instance, have started falling(see article).This will dampen domestic confidence, even though consumers are much less indebted than they are in the rich world.Elsewhere, the sudden dearth of foreign-bank lending and the flight of hedge funds and other investors from bond markets has slammed the brakes on credit growth.And just as booming credit once underpinned strong domestic spending, so tighter credit will mean slower growth.Again, the impact will differ by country.Thanks to huge current-account surpluses in China and the oil-exporters in the Gulf, emerging economies as a group still send capital to the rich world.But over 80 have deficits of more than 5% of GDP.Most of these are poor countries that live off foreign aid;but some larger ones rely on private capital.For the likes of Turkey and South Africa a sudden slowing in foreign financing would force a dramatic adjustment.A particular worry is eastern Europe, where many countries have double-digit deficits.In addition, even some countries with surpluses, such as Russia, have banks that have grown accustomed to easy foreign lending because of the integration of global finance.The rich world’s bank bail-outs may limit the squeeze, but the flow of capital to the emerging world will slow.The Institute of International Finance, a bankers’ group, expects a 30% decline in net flows of private capital from last year.This credit crunch will be grim, but most emerging markets can avoid catastrophe.The biggest ones are in relatively good shape.The more vulnerable ones can(and should)be helped.Among the giants, China is in a league of its own, with a $2 trillion arsenal of reserves, a current-account surplus, little connection to foreign banks and a budget surplus that offers lots of room to boost spending.Since the country’s leaders have made clear that they will do whatever it takes to cushion growth, China’s economy is likely to slow-perhaps to 8%-but not collapse.Although that is not enough to save the world economy, such growth in China would put a floor under commodity prices and help other countries in the emerging world.The other large economies will be harder hit, but should be able to weather the storm.India has a big budget deficit and many Brazilian firms have a large foreign-currency exposure.But Brazil’s economy is diversified and both countries have plenty of reserves to smooth the shift to slower growth.With $550 billion of reserves, Russia ought to be able to stop a run on the rouble.In the short-term at least, the most vulnerable countries are all smaller ones.There will be pain as tighter credit forces adjustments.But sensible, speedy international assistance would make a big difference.Several emerging countries have asked America’s Federal Reserve for liquidity support;some hope that China will bail them out.A better route is surely the IMF, which has huge expertise and some $250 billion to lend.Sadly, borrowing from the fund carries a stigma.That needs to change.The IMF should develop quicker, more flexible financial instruments and minimise the conditions it attaches to loans.Over the past month deft policymaking saw off calamity in the rich world.Now it is time for something similar in the emerging world.Conclusions Internet financial model can produce not only huge social benefit, lower transaction costs, provide higher than the existing direct and indirect financing efficiency of the allocation of resources, to provide power for economic development, will also be able to use the Internet and its related software technology played down the traditional finance specialized division of labor, makes the financial participants more mass popularization, risk pricing term matching complex transactions, tend to be simple.Because of the Internet financial involved in the field are mainly concentrated in the field of traditional financial institutions to the current development is not thorough, namely traditional financial “long tail” market, can complement with the original traditional financial business situation, so in the short term the Internet finance from the Angle of the size of the market will not make a big impact to the traditional financial institutions, but the Internet financial business model, innovative ideas, and its apparent high efficiency for the traditional financial institutions brought greater impact on the concept, also led to the traditional financial institutions to further accelerate the mutual penetration and integration with the Internet.译文

互联网金融对传统金融的影响

作者:罗萨米;拉夫雷特

摘 要

网络的发展,深刻地改变甚至颠覆了许多传统行业,金融业也不例外。近年来,金融业成为继商业分销、传媒之后受互联网影响最为深远的领域,许多基于互联网的金融服务模式应运而生,并对传统金融业产生了深刻的影响和巨大的冲击。“互联网金融”成为社会各界关注的焦点。

互联网金融低成本、高效率、关注用户体验,这些特点使其能够充分满足传统金融“长尾市场”的特殊需求,灵活提供更为便捷、高效的金融服务和多样化的金融产品,大大拓展了金融服务的广度和深度,缩短了人们在时空上的距离,建立了一种全新的金融生态环境;可以有效整合、利用零散的时间、信息、资金等碎片资源,积少成多,形成规模效益,成为各类金融服务机构新的利润增长点。此外,随着互联网金融的不断渗透和融合,将给传统金融行业带来新的挑战和机遇。互联网金融可以促进传统银行业的转型,弥补传统银行在资金处理效率、信息整合等方面的不足;为证券、保险、基金、理财产品的销售与推广提供新渠道。对于很多中小企业来说,互联网金融拓展了它们的融资渠道,大大降低了融资门槛,提高了资金的使用效率。但是,互联网金融的跨行业性决定了它的风险因素更为复杂、敏感、多变,因此要处理好创新发展与市场监管、行业自律的关系。关键词:互联网金融;商业银行;影响;监管 1 引言

互联网技术的不断发展,云计算、大数据、社交网络等越来越多的互联网应用为传统行业的业务发展提供了有力支持,互联网对传统行业的渗透程度不断加深。20世纪末,微软总裁比尔盖茨就曾断言,“传统商业银行会成为新世纪的恐龙”。如今,随着互联网电子信息技术的发展,我们真切地感受到了这种趋势,移动支付、电子银行早已在我们的日常生活中占据了重要地位。由于互联网金融的概念几乎完全来自于商业实践,因此目前的研究多集中在探讨互联网金融的具体模式上,而对传统金融行业的影响力分析和应对措施则缺乏系统性研究。互联网与金融行业一向是风险投资的主战场,是思维模式的创新实验田,因此各种商业模式层出不穷,很难用一套固定的思维去分类、界定。互联网与金融的相互渗透与融合,是技术发展与市场规律要求的体现,是不可逆转的趋势。互联网带给传统金融的不仅仅是低成本与高效率,更在于一种创新的思维模式和对用户体验的不懈追求。而传统金融行业要去积极应对。互联网金融,对于这样一片足以改变世界的巨大蓝海,是非常值得投入精力去理顺其发展脉络,去从现有的商业模式中发现其发展前景的。

“互联网金融”属于最新的业态形式,对互联网金融进行探讨研究的文献不少,但多缺乏系统性与实践性。因此本文根据互联网行业实践性较强的特点,对市场上的几种业务模式进行概括分析,并就传统金融行业如何积极应对互联网金融浪潮给出了分析与建议,具有较强的现实意义。2互联网金融的产生背景

互联网金融是以互联网为资源平台,以大数据和云计算为基础的新金融模式。互联网金融借助于互联网技术、移动通信技术来实现资金融通、支付和信息中介等业务,是传统金融业与以互联网为代表的现代信息科技(移动支付、云计算、数据挖掘、搜索引擎和社交网络等)相结合产生的新兴领域。不管是互联网金融还是金融互联网,只是战略上的区别,并没有严格定义区分。随着金融与互联网的相互渗透与相互融合,互联网金融可以泛指一切通过互联网技术来实现资金融通的行为。互联网金融是互联网与传统金融相互渗透和融合的产物,这种崭新的金融模式有着深刻的产生背景。互联网金融的出现既源于金融主体对于降低成本的强烈渴求,(百度文库所有,完整译文请到百度文库)也离不开现代信息技术迅猛发展提供的技术支撑。2.1 需求型拉动因素

传统金融市场存在严重的信息不对称,极大的提高了交易风险;移动互联网的发展逐步改变了人们的金融消费习惯,对服务效率和体验的要求越来越高;此外,运营成本的不断上升,都刺激着金融主体对于金融创新与改革的渴求;这种由需求拉动的 因素,成为互联网金融产生的强大内在推动力。2.2 供给型推动因素

数据挖掘、云计算以及搜索引擎等技术的发展、金融与互联网机构的技术平台的革新、企业逐利性的混业经营等,为传统金融业的转型和互联网企业向金融领域渗透提供了可能,为互联网金融的产生和发展提供了外在的技术支撑,成为一种外化的拉动力。在互联网“开放、平等、协作、分享”的平台上,第三方融资与支付、在线投资理财、信用评审等模式的不断涌现,不仅使得传统的金融市场格局发生了巨大的变化,也使现代信息科技更加便捷地服务于各金融主体。对于传统金融机构,特别是银行、证券和保险机构而言,机遇大于危机,发展胜过挑战。

3互联网金融的构成主体 3.1 资金供给者

介于互联网金融的综合性,其资金供给者不仅包括传统的金融机构,也包括渗透进入的互联网企业。就目前的市场结构而言,传统金融机构主要有商业银行、证券、保险、基金和小额贷款公司,而新兴主体主要包括部分互联网企业,如亚马逊,还有一些以互联网为渠道的综合型公司。这些企业不仅是市场资金的供给者,更是将许多传统所谓的“低净值客户”纳入市场资金的供给方。在操作形式上,前者主要借助互联网将传统业务进行外化,后者主要通过互联网渠道将业务进行渗透,无论是外化还是渗透,二者都通过互联网渠道实现了金融业务的创新与改革。3.2 资金需求者

互联网金融模式下的资金需求者虽然没有突破传统的政府、企业和个体的范畴,但在惠及范围上却有着很大程度的改变。互联网金融的兴起和发展,特别是互联网企业的进入使得被排挤在传统金融机构门槛之外的、相对弱势的组织和个体需求者,有了一个更加便捷和高效的资金获取渠道。因此,互联网金融所带来的普惠性和包容性更胜以往的传统金融模式。3.3中介机构

互联网金融依靠高效、便捷的信息技术,极大降低了金融市场上存在的信息不对称,交易双方通过互联网直接对接,交易成本也大大降低,因此互联网金融主体对于中介机构的依赖性明显减弱,但并非意味着互联网金融市场就没有中介机构。就现阶段互联网金融的发展状况而言,第三方支付平台扮演了该领域中介机构的角色,不仅充当资金结算的平台,更是对资金供需的上下游环节进行多方位的整合,在满足资金支付的同时,起到资金配置的作用。尤其是在电子商务领域,这一功能更加明显。3.4 大数据金融

大数据金融是指集合海量非结构化数据,通过对其进行深度挖掘与实时分析,掌握客户的交易信息、消费信息和消费习惯等,进而准确预测客户行为,使相关金融机构在产品设计、精准营销和风险管理等方面的效率得到极大提高。基于大数据的金融服务平台主要指拥有海量交易数据的电子商务企业所开展的金融服务。大数据的关键是从大量无序的数据中快速攫取有价值信息的能力,或者是从大数据资产中快速变现的能力。因此,大数据的信息处理往往与云计算结合在一起。4全球经济问题

过去一年的大部分时间里,高速发展的新兴国家一直在远处观望着西方国家的金融风暴。他们的银行仅持有少量抵押资产,而类似的资产已经破坏了发达国家的金融公司。商品出口商因为原材料的高价格而日渐富有。中国不可抗拒的经济力量已然开启,而且信贷刺激的内需从布达佩斯到巴西利亚都表现得非常充足。尽管大萧条后关于西方国家受难于金融崩塌的话题与日俱增,但新兴国家似乎距离金融风暴的中心还有一段距离。

不过目前的情况不再是那样了,随着境外资本的流失和经济信心的消失,新兴国家股市暴跌(有些地区已经腰斩),本币迅速贬值。由于外国银行突然中断贷款,并且收缩了包括贸易信贷在内的基础银行服务,新兴国家的信贷市场突发混乱,并引发了一场浩劫。

新兴国家的政府和发达国家的政府一样都在为控制损失程度而奋斗。不过对于外汇储备充足的国家来说难度会小一些:俄罗斯斥资2200亿美元重振金融服务行 业;韩国政府担保了1000亿美元的银行债务。而那些储备并不充足的国家正在四处求援:匈牙利成功向欧洲央行求得了50亿欧元(约66亿美元)的生命线,同时也在同国际货币基金组织协商借款事宜,同时向国际货币基金组织求援的还有乌克兰。近一打儿的国家在向基金组织求助。

有持续问题的国家正棋行险招:阿根廷正在将私人养老金国有化,意图阻止违约的发生。即使强有力的国家也表现出虚弱一面:本周公布的数字表明今年中国的增长率在第三季度减缓为9%,虽然增速还算快,但是与近些年的两位数增率相比缓慢了不少。

众多新兴经济的意愿并不相同,但是累计在一起的影响力却非同一般。最明显的就是这些国家的表现将会决定世界经济所面临的是一个较为缓和的衰退还是更可怕的情况。在过去18个月的全球经济增长中,新兴经济贡献了75%。但是他们的经济命运也会有一些政治后果。

在类似东欧的很多地区,金融混乱目前的打击目标是软弱的政府;但强硬的政权同样会尝到苦果。一些专家认为中国每年需要7%的增长率来阻止社会动荡的发生。总体来说,如此争端必将影响全球经济一体化的讨论。与以往数次新兴经济危机不同,这次的混乱始于发达国家,很大程度上要归咎于一体化的资本市场。一旦新兴 经济崩溃,无论是货币危机还是剧烈的经济萧条,大家对于金融全球化是否属明智之举会有更多的质疑。

幸运的是上述恐怖的场景没有发生在全球的每个角落:所有的新兴经济都会减缓发展速度,有一些也必将面临深度萧条;但是更多的国家在面临当下危机的时候却拥 有比以往任何时候都强壮的形式,用充足的储备、弹性的货币和强大的预算武装自己。新兴国家及发达国家良好的政策可以避免大灾难的发生。

至少有一个原因值得抱有希望:发达国家此次灾难的直接经济影响还是在可控的范围内。欧美锐减的需求对出口来说无疑是一个打击,特别是对亚洲和墨西哥。商品 价格走低:原油价格与巅峰时期比较已经下降了60%,很多粮食和金属类商品跌幅更大。这两个现象有混合效果:尽管从俄罗斯到南美的商品(能源)出口企业备 受打击,但却帮助了亚洲的商品(能源)进口商,并且缓和了各地对通胀的恐惧。委内瑞拉的情形一直很糟糕,也很脆弱;不过由于过去极度的繁荣,商品价格下跌 目前还不会引发大范围传播的危机。

比商品价格更令人震惊的事情发生在金融领域。由于资产价格的下降,财富水平正在被挤压缩水。以中国房价为例,目前已经开始下跌。尽管新兴国家的消费者比发达国家的负债水平低很多,上述情况还是会挫伤国内的经济信心。在其他方面,国外银行借款骤然匮乏、对冲基金以及其他投资者逃离债券市场,这些因素给信贷增长踩了一脚急刹车。正如发达的信贷曾经强力支撑国内支出那样,信贷紧缩将意味着增长放缓。

需要再次重申的是,冲击的表现会因国家的不同而有所区别。多亏中国和海湾产油国经常项目下的巨额顺差,新型经济整体还不断的向发达国家输送资本。但是80 多个国家的财政赤字已经超过GDP的5%,其中的多数是那些依靠国外救助过活得贫困国家;不过也有一些依靠私人资本的大国。对于类似土耳其和南非的国家来 说,突然减缓的境外融资迫使其进行大幅调整。东欧的情况特别令人担忧,那里的不少国家赤字水平已经达到了两位数。另外,象俄罗斯这样处于顺差的国家,其银 行也逐渐适应了可以轻易从外国取得的贷款,原因自然是全球金融一体化。发达国家的救助计划也许可以限制财富被挤压的水平,但资本流向新兴世界的速度无疑会 减慢。国际金融研协会预测私人资本的净流量比去年回减少30%。

信贷紧缩必将令人生畏,不过多数新兴市场可以躲过一劫,最大的市场形势还相当不错。比较脆弱的市场可以(也应该)得到帮助。

在那些坚强的巨人中,中国卓然不群:手握2万亿美元的储备,经常项下的顺差状态,与国外银行罕有关联,过剩的预算给推动支出留有足够空间。鉴于国家领导人 已经明确表示将不惜一切代价为经济增长减速缓冲,中国的经济增长应该会减缓到大约8%的水平,但是决不会崩溃。虽然这不足以挽救世界经济,但是该增长率将 会为商品价格建底并帮到新兴世界的其他国家。

其他的经济大国会受到更大的冲击,不过应该可以禁受住风暴侵袭。印度的财政赤字巨大,巴西很多公司面临巨大的外汇风险。但巴西经济已经实现多样化,同时上 述两个国家拥有充足的储备来平稳过渡到缓慢的增长。俄罗斯掌握着5500亿美元的储备,应该能够阻止对卢布的抢购。至少在短期内,小国家才是最弱不禁风的。

受到紧缩信贷压力进行的调整必然带来痛苦,但快速的国际援助是明智之举,因为这会让结果很不相同。一些新兴国家已经向美联储求援以缓解流动性问题;有一些 则希望中国可以拯救他们与水火。更佳的求救路线莫过于国际货币基金组织,因为它掌握大量的专门知识和2500亿美元的可出借款项。不幸的是人们认为向基金 借款有辱其名,国际货币基金组织应该推出更快捷、更灵活的金融工具,同时实现借贷条件最小化。过去数月中,机敏的决策驱散了发达国家的灾难。现在也正是新 兴世界发生类似事情的时候了。5结论

互联网金融模式不仅能够产生巨大的社会效益,降低交易成本,提供比现有直接和间接融资更高的资源配置效率,为经济发展提供动力,还能够借助互联网及其相关软件技术淡化传统金融业的专业分工,使得金融参与者更加大众普通化,风险定价期限匹配等复杂交易也趋于简单化。由于互联网金融所涉足的领域主要集中在传统金融机构当前开发并不深入的领域,即传统金融的“长尾市场”,能够与原有的传统金融业务形成补充态势,所以短期内互联网金融从市场规模角度并不会对传统金融机构带来很大冲击,但是互联网金融的业务模式、创新思路以及其显现出来的高效率对于传统金融机构在理念上带来了较大的冲击,也带动了传统金融机构进一步加速与互联网的互相渗透与融合。

第二篇:互联网金融对传统券商的影响

互联网金融对传统券商的影响

作为一种互联网与金融业相结合的垂直领域,互联网金融在很大程度上改变传统货币金融理论及金融行业业务方式。

随着互联网的发展,传统行业互联网化正在成为一种潮流,不断冲击线下各个行业。作为一种互联网与金融业相结合的垂直领域,互联网金融在很大程度上改变传统货币金融理论及金融行业业务方式。在大的发展趋势下,传统券商迟早会被互联网化。本文讨论想一下是什么导致传统券商衰落及传统券商如何应对互联网的侵略,拓展既得利益。

互联网金融将提前终结券商通道盈利模式

1)业务种类较少:

传统证券公司的业务结构主要包括证券经纪业务、证券承销业务、基金销售、资金管理业务、保荐业务、财务顾问业务以及投资咨询业务。就中国目前实行金融、证券、保险分业经营的分业监管,意味着目前的证券公司不能涉足其他金融领域,例如商业银行业务和保险业务。因此传统证券公司从事的业务十分有限,只有从事以一级市场的发行承销以及二级市场的经纪、自营、资产管理等业务。传统证券公司在之前之所以能发展及立足,迎合中国人口红利所带来的销售渠道的垄断。未来,证券公司一但失去线下销售渠道,势必会冲击真个券商行业。

2)业务收入集中

从各大券商2012年的业务结构来看,业务主要集中在证券经纪和证券承销两方面。其中,证券经纪业务均占了最大的比重,证券公司的业务收入过于集中,导致证券经纪业务一旦被市场所抛弃,就会威胁到券商的存亡。

传统证券公司收入过于单一,并且由于受到国家政策因素及人口红利的影响,无法从传统金融行业内进一步拓展业务。因此,互联网金融的出现,即使是传统券商改革的机遇,也是威胁其存亡的危机。

互联网金融兴起,加速传统券商灭亡

互联网金融体系中影响证券业商业模式,改变传统业务结构。许多券商和基金公司争先恐后地设立网上销售平台。但是,证券销售渠道的电子化不是互联网金融真谛,仅仅把线下销售业务原封不动的搬到线上。互联网的本质则在于打破信息壁垒减少金融的交易成本、提高市场效率。

第三篇:交通运输外文翻译外文文献

交通事故分析的可能性和局限性

S.Oppe 关键字:后果;目的;描述;限制;关注;事故分析;可能性

摘要:交通事故的统计数字,尤其国家一级的数据对监控和预测事故的发展,积极或消极检测事故的发展,以及对定义安全目标和评估工业安全特别有益。事故分析是应用非常有限的分析,是前瞻性分析和回顾性分析,能够对新开发的交通安全系统和特殊过程的安全措施进行评价。目前迫切需要一个将实时事故分析与研究相结合的行为。将自动检测和视频录制相结合的研究交通事故的科研论文会比较容易接受。这种类型的研究最终会对交通理念有个完善的认识。

1.简介

本文主要是基于个人的经验,研究有关交通安全、安全分析以及事故分析等在研究中的作用。由这些经验推导出的哲学思考就像通过研究和统计得出的实践观点。而这些调查数字已经在其他地方发表了。

在缺少直接观察的事故中,许多方法论问题的产生,导致不能直接测试对结果持续讨论。通过看事故视频来讨论是富有成效的。事实证明,用来解释事故的大部分有关信息就是事故中缺少的记录。深入研究还无法回忆起所有的必要的用来测试有关事故发生的假设数据。尤其是车-车相撞发生的车祸,这是在荷兰城市道路交叉口录制的视频,一辆从岔路驶来的汽车与主干路的汽车相撞,下列问题可以问:为什么汽车来自次干路上,突然加速后又几乎停止,撞上了在左侧主路的一辆汽车呢?为什么没有注意到正在驶来的车?是不是因为两车从右边驶来,司机因为前面的交叉为他们提供了可能性而斤斤计较?难道他向左看过,但他认为停在拐角处的绿色货车能让他停下来?当然,交通状况并不复杂。目前这个事故中没有骑自行车或行人在拥挤路口分散他的注意。如果停着的绿色车能够在五分钟内消失,这两辆车可能就不会相撞。在事故发生的相关条件下,几乎不可能观察下一个交通行为,因为交通事故是不可预见的。由于新的视频设备和自动检测事故设备的不断发展,如在收集数据方面不需要很高的成本就能变得越来越逼真。必要的增加数据类型也能更好的解释交通中存在的危险因素。关于事故分析的可能性和限制性的问题是不容易回答的,我们不能确切的分析交通事故。因为事故分析涵盖了每一个活动中的不同背景,并根据不同的信息来源范围来补充资料,特别是收集事故的数据,背景资料等,我们首先要看看在交通安全领域的活动周期然后再回答事故分析的可能性与限制。这些行为主要是与交通系统的安全管理有关,有些则是相关的研究活动。

应该用下面的步骤来加以区分: ——检测交通安全问题;

——描述问题和它的主要特征; ——分析其原因分析和改进建议; ——选择和执行安全措施; ——评价所采取的措施。

虽然这个周期可以由同一人或一群人做出来,而问题在每个阶段(政治/管理或科学)都有不同的背景。我们用事故分析来描述这一阶段。做这个决定是重要的。很多关于分析结果的方法的讨论由于忽视之间的区别而成为徒劳的。政治家或道路管理人员对道路的个别事故不是很留意。他们对事故的看法往往都是一视同仁,因为总的结果比整个事故中的每个人的因素重要。因此,每次事故看做一个个体,之间相互协调就会达成安全的结果。

研究人员研究事故发生时一连串事件中每个人的兴趣。希望从中得到关于每次事故的详细信息并能发现其发生的原因和有关的条件。政治家们希望只是因为细节决定行动。在最高一级事故总数减少。信息的主要来源是国家数据库及其统计学处理系统。对他来说,统计意外数字及其统计的波动来进行事故分析。这适用于事故分析中的交通安全领域。因此,我们将首先描述了事故的这些方面。2.事故的性质和它们的统计特性

事故基本概念是意外,不管是其发生的原因还是引起事故出现的过程。两个简单的假设通常是来描述交通事故的形成过程:

-事故发生的概率与以往发生的事故之间是独立;-事故发生在时间上是同性质的

如果这两个假设成立,那么事故是泊松分布。第一个假设与大多数的批判不符。事故是罕见的事件,因此不会受到以前事故的影响。在某些情况下,有一个直接的因果链(例如,大量的车开到一起)这一系列的事故被认为是一个个体事故但包含许多的车。这个假设并不适用于统计人员伤亡。伤亡人数往往与同一事故有关,因此,独立性假设不成立。第二个假设乍一看似乎不太容易理解。穿越空间或在不同地点发生的的事故同样具有可能性。然而,假设需要很长一段时间并且没有缓缴期。其性质是根据理论的假设。如果其短时间内能成立,那么它也适用于长时间,因为泊松分布变量的总和,即使他们的泊松率是不同的,但也属于泊松分布。对于这些时期的总和泊松率则等于为这些地方的泊松率的总和。假设与一个真正的情况相比较计数,无论是从一两个结果还是总情况来看都有一个基本情况比较符合。

例如,对比在一年中特定的一天例如下一天,下一个星期的一天发生的交通事故。如果条件是相同的(同一时间,交通情况相同,同样的天气条件等),那么由此产生的意外数字是相同的泊松过程的结果。这一假设可以通过估算进行测试的两个观测值的基础上(估计是两个值的平均值)的速度参数。概率理论能够

考虑到这两个观察值的平均,用于计算的平等假设的可能性。这是一个相当强大的统计过程。泊松假设是研究了很多次,来获得证据支持。它已经应用于许多情况,数的差异表明在安全性的差异然后确定是否发生意外。这一程序的主要目的是检测在安全分歧。这可能是一个时间上的差异,或不同的地方或不同的条件。这种差异可以指导改进的过程。由于主要关注的是,以减少意外的发生,这种分析可能导致对治疗中最有前途的领域。为这样一个测试应用程序的必要条件是,那意外的数字进行比较是大到足以证明存在的分歧。在许多地方情况下,一个应用程序是不可能的。事故黑点分析往往阻碍了这一限制,例如,如果应用这种测试,找出事故是否在特定的位置数是高于平均水平。该程序的描述,也可以使用,如果发生意外乃根据数的特点找到有前途的安全目标。不仅聚集,而且还与分类泊松假设成立,而意外数字可以相互测试的泊松假设的基础。这种测试是相当麻烦的,因为每个特定的情况下,每一个不同的泊松参数,即,对所有可能结果的概率必须计算应用测试。然后,泊松分布近似为正态分布,均值和方差等于泊松参数。一旦均值和方差的正态分布,给出了所有的测试可以改写了标准零均值和

方差的正态分布条件。没有任何更多的必要计算,但测试统计,需要利用表绘制。3.行车安全政策事故统计的应用

分析那些假设的基础上描述的测试程序的类型及其优点。这种应用最好的例子是为一个国家或地区进行超过一年的安全监测,用事故的总体数据(最终的特定类型,如死亡事故)与前几年的数据相比较。根据数年的事故序列,能够分析出它的发展趋势,并大致预测以后几年的事故数量。一旦建立了这样一种趋势,那么在误差范围内未来一年或几年都可以预见。从一个给定趋势的偏差也可以进行预测新的事件。最有名的是斯米德在1949年进行的分析。我们将讨论这个事故类型分析更详细的内容。

1、该测试应用推广到高阶分类。Foldvary和Lane(1974),在衡量强制佩戴安全带的效果,谁是最早应用于值的4路表高阶相互作用的总卡方分配的。

2、测试不局限于总体影响,但卡方值就可以分解模型内子假说。另外,在双向表,卡方总可以分解成零件表互动的作用。对1的优势。和2。比以前的情况是,这对许多相互关联的(子)表和相应的智广场卡方检验是由大量分析,取而代之的是一个一卡方的确切划分。

3、投入更多关注的是参数估计。例如,在卡方分割使人们有可能以测试有关行参数的线性或二次限制或趋势的不连续性。

4、分析的单位是从数到广义加权计数。这对于道路安全分析,那里一段时间,道路使用者的数量,地点或公里数的车辆往往是必要的修正有利。最后一个选项是没有发现在许多统计软件包。安徒生1977年给出了一个用于道路双向安全分析表的例子。工资保障运动的一个计算机程序。这一级没有说明事故原因分

析。它会尝试检测安全问题需要特别注意。所需的基本信息包括事故数字,来形容不安全总额,暴露的数据来计算风险,并找到一个高风险的情况下或(团体)道路使用者。

4.事故分析研究目的

交通安全的研究是有关的事故及其后果的发生。因此,人们可能会说,研究对象是意外。然而研究人员的兴趣较少集中在这个最后的结果本身,而是多在进程更多的结果(或不结果)的事故。因此,最好是把作为他的研究对象,在流量的重要事件。一个在交通意外的过程,结果是,该实际发生是由研究者未落观测研究的主要问题。

调查一宗交通意外,他将努力重建了间接来源的事件,如涉及的道路使用者,所提供的资料或目击者有关情况,车辆,道路和司机的特点。因此这不是科学独特的,也有一个间接的研究对象的研究更多的例子。但是,第二个困难是,该研究的对象不能被诱发。有系统的控制实验手段研究只对问题方面的可能,而不是问题本身。

间接观察和缺乏系统的控制组合使调查人员很难发现在什么情况下造成事故的因素。虽然研究人员主要是在事故处理领导有兴趣,他几乎完全信息的后果,它的产品,意外。此外,事故背景是复杂的。一般来说,可分为以下几个方面:

-考虑到交通系统,交通量和组成国家,道路使用者,他们的速度,天气条件下,路面情况,车辆,道路使用者和他们的相互作用的演习,意外可以或无法预防。

-由于发生事故,也对这样的速度和车辆质量的因素,大量的不同,碰撞角度,对道路使用者和他们的脆弱性,影响等位置的保护,伤害是严重或或多或少物质损失是多还是少可观。虽然这些方面不能独立研究从理论的角度看,它也从由此产生的结果的优势,区分交通情况有潜在危险的数字,是由有一个意外的可能性,在这种潜在的危险局势,给定一个特定事故。

这个概念框架是对风险的关于个别道路使用者,以及上级的决定控制器的决定制定的一般基础。在风险的数学公式,我们需要一个明确的概率空间的介绍,基本事件(的情况),可能导致事故组成,每个类型的事件的概率,最终收在一次事故中,最后的具体成果,损失,鉴于事故的类型。

另一种方法是看事故特征组合,然后找出关键因素。这种类型的事故分析是通过分析事故的共组或子群来开展。事故本身是一个研究的单位,但也要研究道路因素:道路位置,道路设计(如一个弯道)等。

原文出处:SWOV institute for road safety research Leidschendam(会议记录),记录者,S.Oppe.POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF ACCIDENT

ANALYSIS

S.Oppe Keyword:Consequences;purposes;describe;Limitations;concerned;Accident Analysis;possibilities Abstraet:Accident statistics, especially collected at a national level are particularly useful for the description, monitoring and prognosis of accident developments, the detection of positive and negative safety developments, the definition of safety targets and the(product)evaluation of long term and large scale safety measures.The application of accident analysis is strongly limited for problem analysis, prospective and retrospective safety analysis on newly developed traffic systems or safety measures, as well as for(process)evaluation of special short term and small scale safety measures.There is an urgent need for the analysis of accidents in real time, in combination with background behavioural research.Automatic incident detection, combined with video recording of accidents may soon result in financially acceptable research.This type of research may eventually lead to a better understanding of the concept of risk in traffic and to well-established theories.1.Introduction.This paper is primarily based on personal experience concerning traffic safety, safety research and the role of accidents analysis in this research.These experiences resulted in rather philosophical opinions as well as more practical viewpoints on research methodology and statistical analysis.A number of these findings are published already elsewhere.From this lack of direct observation of accidents, a number of methodological problems arise, leading to continuous discussions about the interpretation of findings that cannot be tested directly.For a fruitful discussion of these methodological problems it is very informative to look at a real accident on video.It then turns out that most of the relevant information used to explain the accident will be missing in the accident record.In-depth studies also cannot recollect all the data that is necessary in order to test hypotheses about the occurrence of the accident.For a particular car-car accident, that was recorded on video at an urban intersection in the Netherlands, between a car coming from a minor road, colliding with a car on the major road, the following questions could be asked:Why did the driver of the car coming from the minor road, suddenly accelerate after coming almost to a stop and hit the side of the car from the left at the main road? Why was the approaching car not noticed? Was it because the driver was preoccupied with the two cars coming from the right and the gap before them that offered him the possibility to cross? Did he look left before, but was his view possibly blocked by the green van parked at the corner? Certainly the traffic situation was not complicated.At the moment of the accident there were no 5

bicyclists or pedestrians present to distract his attention at the regularly overcrowded intersection.The parked green van disappeared within five minutes, the two other cars that may have been important left without a trace.It is hardly possible to observe traffic behaviour under the most relevant condition of an accident occurring, because accidents are very rare events, given the large number of trips.Given the new video equipment and the recent developments in automatic incident and accident detection, it becomes more and more realistic to collect such data at not too high costs.Additional to this type of data that is most essential for a good understanding of the risk increasing factors in traffic, it also important to look at normal traffic behaviour as a reference base.The question about the possibilities and limitations of accident analysis is not lightly answered.We cannot speak unambiguously about accident analysis.Accident analysis covers a whole range of activities, each originating from a different background and based on different sources of information: national data banks, additional information from other sources, specially collected accident data, behavioural background data etc.To answer the question about the possibilities and limitations, we first have to look at the cycle of activities in the area of traffic safety.Some of these activities are mainly concerned with the safety management of the traffic system, some others are primarily research activities.The following steps should be distinguished:description of the problem and its main characteristics;selection and implementation of safety measures;the probability of an accident to occur is independent from the occurrence of previous accidents;-the occurrence of accidents is homogeneous in time.If these two assumptions hold, then accidents are Poisson distributed.The first assumption does not meet much criticism.Accidents are rare events and therefore not easily influenced by previous accidents.In some cases where there is a direct causal chain(e.g., when a number of cars run into each other)the series of accidents may be regarded as one complicated accident with many cars involved.The assumption does not apply to casualties.Casualties are often related to the same accident and therefore the independency assumption does not hold.The second assumption seems less obvious at first sight.The occurrence of accidents through time or on different locations are not equally likely.However, the assumption need not hold over long time periods.It is a rather theoretical assumption in its nature.If it holds for short periods of time, then it also holds for long periods, because the sum of Poisson distributed variables, even if their Poisson rates are different, is also Poisson distributed.The Poisson rate for the sum of these periods is then equal to the sum of the Poisson rates for these parts.The assumption that really counts for a comparison of(composite)situations, is whether two outcomes from an aggregation of situations in time and/or space, have a comparable mix of basic situations.E.g., the comparison of the number of accidents on one particular day of the year, as compared to another day(the next day, or the same day of the next week etc.).If the conditions are assumed to be the same(same duration, same mix of traffic and situations, same weather conditions etc.)then the resulting numbers of accidents are the outcomes of the same Poisson process.This assumption can be tested by estimating the rate parameter on the basis of the two observed values(the estimate being the average of the two values).Probability theory can be used to compute the likelihood of the equality assumption, given the two observations and their mean.This statistical procedure is rather powerful.The Poisson assumption is investigated many times and turns out to be supported by a vast body of empirical evidence.It has been applied in numerous situations to find out whether differences in observed numbers of accidents suggest real differences in safety.The main purpose of this procedure is to detect differences in safety.This may be a difference over time, or between different places or between different conditions.Such differences may guide the process of improvement.Because the main concern is to reduce the 7

number of accidents, such an analysis may lead to the most promising areas for treatment.A necessary condition for the application of such a test is, that the numbers of accidents to be compared are large enough to show existing differences.In many local cases an application is not possible.Accident black-spot analysis is often hindered by this limitation, e.g., if such a test is applied to find out whether the number of accidents at a particular location is higher than average.The procedure described can also be used if the accidents are classified according to a number of characteristics to find promising safety targets.Not only with aggregation, but also with disaggregation the Poisson assumption holds, and the accident numbers can be tested against each other on the basis of the Poisson assumptions.Such a test is rather cumbersome, because for each particular case, i.e.for each different Poisson parameter, the probabilities for all possible outcomes must be computed to apply the test.In practice, this is not necessary when the numbers are large.Then the Poisson distribution can be approximated by a Normal distribution, with mean and variance equal to the Poisson parameter.Once the mean value and the variance of a Normal distribution are given, all tests can be rephrased in terms of the standard Normal distribution with zero mean and variance one.No computations are necessary any more, but test statistics can be drawn from tables.3.The use of accident statistics for traffic safety policy.The testing procedure described has its merits for those types of analysis that are based on the assumptions mentioned.The best example of such an application is the monitoring of safety for a country or region over a year, using the total number of accidents(eventually of a particular type, such as fatal accidents), in order to compare this number with the outcome of the year before.If sequences of accidents are given over several years, then trends in the developments can be detected and accident numbers predicted for following years.Once such a trend is established, then the value for the next year or years can be predicted, together with its error bounds.Deviations from a given trend can also be tested afterwards, and new actions planned.The most famous one is carried out by Smeed 1949.We will discuss this type of accident analysis in more detail later.1.The application of the Chi-square test for interaction is generalised to higher order classifications.Foldvary and Lane(1974), in measuring the effect of compulsory wearing of seat belts, were among the first who applied the partitioning of the total Chi-square in values for the higher order interactions of four-way tables.2.Tests are not restricted to overall effects, but Chi-square values can be decomposed regarding sub-hypotheses within the model.Also in the two-way table, the total Chisquare can be decomposed into interaction effects of part tables.The advantage of 1.and 2.over previous situations is, that large numbers of Chi-square tests on many interrelated(sub)tables and

corresponding Chi-squares were replaced by one analysis with an exact portioning of one Chi-square.3.More attention is put to parameter estimation.E.g., the partitioning of the Chi-square made it possible to test for linear or quadratic restraints on the row-parameters or for discontinuities in trends.4.The unit of analysis is generalised from counts to weighted counts.This is especially advantageous for road safety analyses, where corrections for period of time, number of road users, number of locations or number of vehicle kilometres is often necessary.The last option is not found in many statistical packages.Andersen 1977 gives an example for road safety analysis in a two-way table.A computer programme WPM, developed for this type of analysis of multi-way tables, is available at SWOV(see: De Leeuw and Oppe 1976).The accident analysis at this level is not explanatory.It tries to detect safety problems that need special attention.The basic information needed consists of accident numbers, to describe the total amount of unsafety, and exposure data to calculate risks and to find situations or(groups of)road users with a high level of risk.4.Accident analysis for research purposes.Traffic safety research is concerned with the occurrence of accidents and their consequences.Therefore, one might say that the object of research is the accident.The researchers interest however is less focused at this final outcome itself, but much more at the process that results(or does not result)in accidents.Therefore, it is better to regard the critical event in traffic as his object of study.One of the major problems in the study of the traffic process that results in accidents is, that the actual occurrence is hardly ever observed by the researcher.Investigating a traffic accident, he will try to reconstruct the event from indirect sources such as the information given by the road users involved, or by eye-witnesses, about the circumstances, the characteristics of the vehicles, the road and the drivers.As such this is not unique in science, there are more examples of an indirect study of the object of research.However, a second difficulty is, that the object of research cannot be evoked.Systematic research by means of controlled experiments is only possible for aspects of the problem, not for the problem itself.The combination of indirect observation and lack of systematic control make it very difficult for the investigator to detect which factors, under what circumstances cause an accident.Although the researcher is primarily interested in the process leading to accidents, he has almost exclusively information about the consequences, the product of it, the accident.Furthermore, the context of accidents is complicated.Generally speaking, the following aspects can be distinguished: Given an accident, also depending on a large number of factors, such as the speed and mass of vehicles, the collision angle, the protection of road users and their vulnerability, the location of impact etc., injuries are more or less severe or the material damage is more or less substantial.Although these aspects cannot be studied independently, from a theoretical point of view it has advantages to distinguish the number of situations in traffic that are potentially dangerous, from the probability of having an accident given such a potentially dangerous situation and also from the resulting outcome, given a particular accident.This conceptual framework is the general basis for the formulation of risk regarding the decisions of individual road users as well as the decisions of controllers at higher levels.In the mathematical formulation of risk we need an explicit description of our probability space, consisting of the elementary events(the situations)that may result in accidents, the probability for each type of event to end up in an accident, and finally the particular outcome, the loss, given that type of accident.A different approach is to look at combinations of accident characteristics, to find critical factors.This type of analysis may be carried out at the total group of accidents or at subgroups.The accident itself may be the unit of research, but also a road, a road location, a road design(e.g.a roundabout)etc.

第四篇:1300外文文献翻译

Agricultural Land and Regulation in the Transition Economy of Russia Ekaterina Gnedenko1 & Michael Kazmin2 Published online: 7 July 2015 # International Atlantic Economic Society 2015 JEL Classification C10.L33.O57.Q00 This research note explores the link between farmland conversion and existing land regulation in Russia.We conclude that land regulation is lagging the new market trends in the transition economy of Russia.As market forces continue to penetrate the economy, apparent managerial and statutory problems with regard to local land-use planning and regulation preclude more effective use of land.Responding to the need for attracting investment in agriculture, the Russian Ministry of Science and Education provided funds for our research project that involves primary data collection and econometric analysis of the interdependencies between governmental policies and farmland loss.Our unique dataset contains socioeconomic, demographic and spatial geographic 2010 data for 39 municipal districts in the Moscow metropolitan region.The econometric analysis of this data set is used to explore the relationship among farmland quantity, its assessed value, the share of privatized farmland, farmland tax,and land-use zoning in the simultaneous equations framework.While the Russian market for real estate has developed quickly, the market for agricultural land is still thin.Farmland deals are limited, partly because of the lingering uncertainty about farmland property rights.The state-owned farmland is still significant.Our Moscow regional data suggest a strong positive relationship between the fraction of privatized farmland and farmland acreage, although the fraction of individually and collectively privatized farmland is only 57 %.The direct sale of farmland to foreigners is prohibited decreasing potential foreign investment as well.As a result, the area occupied by agricultural lands has been steadily decreasing and deteriorating in quality.During the period 1990 to 2005, tillable lands in Russia have shrunk by 10.5 million hectares(7.9 % of tillable lands).Lacking experience and adequate knowledge, local governments are stuck with the land conservation policies available to the former USSR.In particular, in an attempt to contain the loss of prime farmland, the regulators retain old land-use zoning laws prohibiting the change of land status.However, strong development pressures and widespread corruption often annihilate the desirable effect of zoning.The results of our econometric analysis indicate that the proximity to Moscow city and population growth both have a significant negative effect on the amount of farmland, even in the strictlyzoned-for agriculture districts, suggesting strong urban pressure in the capital region of Moscow.The estimated elasticity of farmland acreage with respect to population growth is −0.3.A corrupt practice of illegal changes in land status is reflected in the fact that the lands still classified as farmland in the Federal Register of Land are turned into residential or industrial areas.This signals a management problem which could be perhaps resolved by the introduction of more flexible zoning and an increase in the range of responsibilities of local governments and their property rights to land.The other economic instrument indispensable in land policy, land assessment, is also based on the former practices of the Communist period following a federally mandated general formula that takes into account soil productivity criteria, topographic features of the landscape, and the presence of irrigation, but still has little in common with the market price of farmland.When the agricultural land tax is calculated as the percentage of the assessed value of farmland, which is often below its real market value, local authorities are not interested in developing local agricultural infrastructure or increasing agricultural land base because they will not be able to reap any significant tax benefits from it.Coupled with the low federally mandated upper limits on tax rates(0.3 % of the assessed value of agricultural and residential lands)this leads to insufficient local tax revenues and overreliance on intergovernmental transfers.According to our data for the Moscow region, although localities tend to impose the maximum allowable tax rate, the average share of land tax revenues in local budgets is a mere 5 %.It is not surprising as the average assessed value of farmland across municipalities is 1000 times less than the ongoing average sales price, according to data we collected.The insignificant local land tax revenues caused by the underestimated land value lead to insufficient local infrastructure investment, which further suppresses the value of farmland and hastens its conversion.The results of the econometric analysis indicate lack of statistical significance between the assessed value of farmland and farmland quantity in the Moscow region, making the farmland tax rate an ineffective instrument in land policy.This missing link between the farmland quantity and existing land policies may render these policies not just ineffective but even wasteful.Innovative approaches such as the retention of development rights by the government might represent a temporary solution.The increasing reliance on local governance in solvinglocal problems would imply improved land-use and public finance planning and,perhaps, a slower farmland conversion trend.俄罗斯经济转型中的农业用地与监管

Ekaterina Gnedenko1 & Michael Kazmin2。在线出版:2015年7月7日。国际大西洋经济学会2015。冻胶分类C10。L33。O57。Q00 本研究报告探讨了俄罗斯农地转换与现有土地规制之间的关系。我们的结论是,土地监管滞后于俄罗斯转型经济的新市场趋势。由于市场力量继续渗透经济,在地方土地利用规划和管理方面显然存在管理和法律问题,妨碍了更有效地利用土地。为了应对吸引农业投资的需要,俄罗斯科学和教育部为我们的研究项目提供了资金,该项目涉及对政府政策和农田损失之间相互依赖关系的主要数据收集和计量分析。我们独特的数据集包含社会经济、人口和空间。2010年莫斯科都市地区39个市辖区的地理数据。通过对该数据集的计量分析,探讨了在联立方程框架下,耕地数量、其评估值、私有化耕地占比、农地税和土地利用区划之间的关系。

虽然俄罗斯房地产市场发展迅速,但农业用地市场仍很薄弱。农田交易是有限的,部分原因是土地产权的不确定性挥之不去。国有农田仍然很重要。我们的莫斯科地区数据显示,私有化耕地和耕地面积的比例之间存在着强烈的正相关关系,尽管单独和集体私有化耕地的比例仅为57%。禁止向外国人直接出售农田,也禁止减少潜在的外国投资。因此,农地占用的面积一直在稳步下降,质量也在不断恶化。在1990年至2005年期间,俄罗斯的可耕种土地减少了1050万公顷(占耕地面积的7.9%)。

由于缺乏经验和足够的知识,地方政府只能依靠前苏联提供的土地保护政策。特别是,为了遏制主要农田的流失,监管机构保留了禁止改变土地状况的旧土地用途分区法。然而,强大的发展压力和广泛的腐败往往会消灭分区制的理想效果。我们的计量分析结果表明,靠近莫斯科城市和人口增长对农田的数量有显著的负面影响,即使是在严格的农业地区,这表明莫斯科的首都地区的城市压力很大。在人口增长方面,耕地面积的估计弹性为0.3。非法改变土地状况的一种腐败做法,反映在土地仍然被归为联邦土地登记册上的土地的土地被转变为住宅或工业区的事实。这标志着一个管理问题,也许可以通过引进更灵活的分区和增加地方政府的责任范围和土地的财产权来解决。

其他经济工具不可或缺的土地政策、土地评估,也是基于前实践后共产主义时期的联邦法律规定的一般公式,考虑土壤生产力标准,地貌景观的灌溉的存在,但仍然没有与市场价格的农田。农业土地税计算时的评估价值的百分比农田,这通常是低于其实际市场价值,当地政府发展当地的农业基础设施不感兴趣或增加农业用地基地,因为他们将无法获得任何重大税收优惠。再加上联邦政府规定的低税率(占农业和居住用地评估价值的0.3%),这将导致当地税收收入不足,并过度依赖政府间转移。根据我们对莫斯科地区的数据,虽然地方倾向于征收最高允许的税率,但地方预算的土地税收收入的平均份额仅为5%。据我们收集的数据显示,由于各城市的农田平均分摊价值比目前的平均销售价格低1000倍,这并不令人惊讶。

由于土地价值被低估而导致的地方土地税收不显著,导致地方基础设施投资不足,进一步抑制了农田价值,加快了土地流转。经济计量分析结果表明,在莫斯科地区,耕地和耕地数量的评估价值缺乏统计意义,使得农地税率在土地政策中是无效的。耕地数量和现有土地政策之间缺失的联系可能使这些政策不仅无效,甚至是浪费。政府保留发展权利等创新办法可能是一种临时解决办法。在解决地方问题上日益依赖地方治理,将意味着改善土地利用和公共财政规划,也许还会减缓农地转换的趋势。

第五篇:园林景观外文文献翻译

景观设计风格和园林价值保护之间的关系:德国魏玛历史公园的案例研究

Martin Kümmerling, Norbert Müller 景观管理与生态恢复部门以及URBIO总公司,德国埃尔福特应用技术大学

关键词:生物多样性;历史公园;园艺;城市公园;植被; 摘要:

城市公园可以通过被引入植物的种植成为入侵源。另一方面,城市公园作为生物多样性的热点地区,可以支持保护濒危和罕见的分类单元。即使历史城市公园首先被评估为遗产,但它们依然为生态系统和积极的审美以及社会价值服务。

虽然在欧洲有许多研究是关于设计的,公园的哲学和历史背景就像生物多样性的研究一样,几乎没有研究提出景观设计原则如何影响了公园的生物保护价值。因为在欧洲,公园的景观风格是一个最具影响力的历史景观设计风格,我们将我们的研究集中在德国魏玛的“伊尔姆河畔公园”。它创建于18世纪晚期,并且在1998年被联合国教科文组织列为世界遗产的一部分。

我们的研究问题是: 1.哪些设计原则、植物原料和技术实施被使用在创建和管理公园的过程中?

2.对于公园的生物保护尤其是濒危植物物种和栖息地的保护来说,当前什么才是具有价值的?

3.设计原则和现代公园的价值之间是什么关系?

我们将我们的结果与类似的公园景观做一对比,并对未来可持续的公园设计和公园恢复管理给出建议。

1.引言

园艺是植物物种入侵的一个主要来源(Dehnen-Schmutz, Touza,Perrings, & Williamson, 2007;Mack & Erneberg, 2002;Reichard & White, 2001)。城市公园可以被入侵源通过种植引入分类单元而入侵(Saumel Kowarik,& Butenschon,2010)。另一方面,在城市地区公园可以作为生物多样性的热点地区(Cornelis & Hermy,2004),可以支持保护濒临灭绝的稀有类群(Kowarik, 1998;Kunick, 1978;Li, Ouyang, Meng, & Wang, 2006;Reidl, 1989)。尽管历史悠久的城市公园作为文物古迹是它最重要的价值,但它们在生态系统服务和积极的审美以及社会价值方面的作用也是被肯定的(e.g.Bolund & Hunhammar, 1999;Chiesura,2004)。

虽然在欧洲有许多关于设计的研究,公园的哲学和历史背景(e.g.Gothein,1928;Turner, 2005)以及生物多样性(e.g.Cornelis & Hermy, 2004;Ignatieva & Konechnaya, 2004;Nath, 1990)的研究几乎没有提出景观设计原则的问题如何影响了公园的生物保护价值。在18世纪末和19世纪初我们把研究的焦点放在了公园,因为在欧洲公园景观风格是最具影响力的历史景观设计潮流之一。位于德国蔚玛的“伊尔姆河畔公园”创建于18世纪晚期,自1998年以来,被联合国教科文组织列为世界遗产的一部分,它被称作“经典魏玛”。我们选择它来研究是因为: 1.这是那个时期一个“典型”的公园; 2.拥有几个世纪以来没有更改的设计风格;

3.在公园设计上有丰富的历史资料并且使用了有质疑的植物。在图林根的公共档案局初始搜索(自1567年以来都位于公园附近)证实了这种怀疑。我们的研究问题是: 1.哪些设计原则、植物原料和技术实施被使用在创建和管理公园的过程中? 2.对于公园的生物保护尤其是濒危植物物种和栖息地的保护来说,当前什么才是具有价值的?

3.设计原则和现代公园的价值之间是什么关系?

我们将我们的结果与类似的公园景观做一对比,并对未来可持续的公园设计和公园恢复管理给出建议。

2.研究地点

“伊尔姆河畔公园”坐落在德国中部的魏玛(215m.a.s.l.),公园的起源可以追溯到1778年。对于许多欧洲的历史公园来说,“伊尔姆河畔公园”是建在以前的一个规整花园的位置上(几何式的),它被设计在卡尔奥格斯特公爵的宫殿旁边。当时公园位于魏玛的郊区,1860年魏玛城开始扩展,公园便开始位于城市边界内。

在魏玛公爵的城市宫殿、北部的城市中心、现在oberweimar的suburbanised村以及南方的高级住宅区之间,公园形成了伊尔姆河的泛滥平原的一部分(图一为公园概况)。它周长1.5公里,占地约0.48平方公里。泛滥平原的土壤是冲积土,山谷两边所包含的钙质材料就像Keuper和含有石灰物质的贝壳。

图1 “伊尔姆河畔公园”栖息地地图

3.方法

3.1.设计的历史、植物引种和公园管理

通过历史文献研究来获得重要的设计原则信息,植物材料(包括引进外来观赏物种的起源和时间)和被用于“伊尔姆河畔公园”的创建和发展过程之中的管理技术。这些未发表的文件包括被保存在图林根公共档案馆的申请报告、管理笔记和前任园丁和设计师的相关档案,以及再版的历史性的蚀刻画和魏玛经典基金会收集的图纸。

另外魏玛经典基金会(特别是Beyer & Seifert, 1995)中的地方文献被用来将历史性文件中的发现与它们所处的时代联系起来。还非正式访谈了现任和前任园丁关于管理技术和植物使用的情况。

3.2.生物保护的评价 3.2.1 植物区系和植被的实地测绘

目前对植被和植物区系进行的实地测绘是在2006年五月—十月,用来对公园的植物多样性进行评估。公园分为不同的生境类型:草坪、草地和草场、灌灌丛、林地、生态交错带(草地边缘)、墙壁/岩石、路径和车道上的植物群落、河岸和水体,然后对每种生境类型进行随机采样。样品的数量基于每个栖息地的大小类型而不同(图3)。样本块的大小是用最小面积方法决定的(Dierschke,1994),每个样地植物种类的频率记录参照“Braun-Blanquet”方法(Dierschke,1994)。总共436个采样点建立,此外,在2006年五月—十月和2007年三月—五月进行了20次检测,记录了所有自发的维管植物类群。

436个样本块是用来确定最常见的种类,木本植物只有种子和树苗被计算。魏玛经典基金会登记(1996 —2007年出版)的公园的树被用来计算成年树木的分布频率。

植物的命名通常遵循Jager和Werner(2005)原则,但在公园里发现的分类群不列在这里,Erhardt、Gotz、Bodeker and Seybold(2002)被使用。3.2.2 在区域和欧洲级别上评价生物保护状态

评估生物保护公园的贡献方面,我们编制了在公园发现的濒危植物和栖息地,用于当地的图林根的红色数据列表(Korsch & Westhus,2001;Westhus & van Hengel,2001)中。此外我们调查了被图林根自然保护法(ThürNatG,2006)和欧洲栖息地的指令保护的植物物种和栖息地(欧盟委员会,2007年)。

评价公园作为植物入侵的潜在来源(生物入侵的定义遵循Richardson et al.,2000),我们将我们的数据与图林根州环境杂草的地区列表(Müller, Westhus, & Armft,2005)做了比较。

4.结果

4.1.设计的历史,引进的植物和管理

4.1.1 有关生物多样性的设计原则

随着欧洲景观设计的流行,Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach的Carl August公爵(1757 至1828)决定建设一个公园作为一个理想的田园景观,包括不同类型的景观:大小不同的开放和密闭空间、视觉上和周围的景观连接的形状和结构。它是根据英国经典景观公园原则——隐藏公园与自然的界限而设计,这些观点也应该在步行或骑马穿过公园时随处可见。

因此公园的主要设计原则是使用现有的自然地形和文化景观,它由在泛滥平原上暂时淹没并且经常收割和放牧的草原(草地和牧场)组成,还有在山坡上的果园和草地以及因山坡太陡而不能用于粮食生产的小树林斑块。公园规模增加时,新的景观被加载到之前的耕地上,因此这些栖息地可以定义为人为创造出来的。公园内森林栖息地的范围扩大到可以创造一个更好的氛围以及更大的并且多种多样的风景。

典型的设计元素是远景,通常延长这些切线来通过公园内森林地带,它有连接特殊节点(雕塑和展馆)和从不同位置打开新视野的特性。

公园里从来没有封闭的围栏或高墙,使得建立一个和周围环境之间无缝过渡的公园。“伊尔姆河畔公园”、蒂尔福特公园和贝尔维迪宫,加上一些沿伊尔姆河残存的森林形成的绿色走廊穿过魏玛,这就是公爵自修建公园以来的意图。4.1.2 引进的植物

因为大面积的公园是由现有的泛滥平原森林发展而来,并且草地原生植物多样性得到了保护。新的森林斑块、乔灌木树种原生林的出现是来自公园内靠近魏玛中部的公爵森林和种植在公爵苗圃的(图林根的公共档案馆未发表)。

由于视觉捕捉(特别指设计)和对植物的好奇心在19世纪第二阶段特别流行,非原生植物被引入与原生植物作比较。主要在有代表性的建筑和纪念碑附近种植了外来植物,也沿着公园开放区域的边缘种植。外来树种包括许多所谓的“英国木材”,从北美进口的树种像红花槭、赤栎、北美乔松。蔷薇属的许多品种种植的数量不多仅仅用于装饰目的,罗贝里草被种植在小池塘。

二战后公园里的植物苗圃被关闭了,从那时就开始大量的从欧洲以及海外引进植物材料。

4.1.3 管理技术

在历史时期,草地和树林是由当地的农民和牧民管理的,他们放牧绵羊、山羊和牛以及生产干草,观赏植物床周围的建筑物是由园丁和短工管理。

目前,部分河滩上的草地和山谷东部的斜坡仍每年收割两次,干草被卖给农民或用于堆肥。河滩上的草地用来给绵羊和山羊放牧仍然是公园的一个管理方式,车道的植被用除草剂来控制,墙植被定期清除。如果有必要,树的维护和复兴树林只是保障游客的安全和保护一些重要的优美景观,没有被游客使用和没有重要景观的地区则没有管理。

20世纪下半叶以来,增加娱乐用途和缺乏资金导致公园的集约化管理。例如在西部所有不同的草地一些经常割草坪(每年收割两次)和一些在泛滥平原的已经转化为频繁的收割草地(每年收割二十次次)。这一直持续到今天,已经导致草地丰富的植物多样性产生了重大的损失。

4.2.植物和栖息地多样性

公园植物区系的调查取得了479类维管植物。在这些里约59%(281分类群)都是本地图林根州的;15%是非原生植物(74)和26%的非本地种植的类群(124)。与图林根州的地区植物区系相比(Korsch et al.,2002)公园含有18%(355分类群)。

比较植物类群的起源及其在采样点的分布频率,(比较图2)很明显最常见的物种更多的还是本地的(主要是无处不在的类群和公园主要栖息地的类群特征)并不是非原生种群。车前子主要亚种主要是最常见的非原生类群,1500年前在德国被引入种植(Jager & Werner, 2005),是践踏植物群落、草坪、牧场和河岸栖息地的特征种类。下一个出现最频繁的非原生类群是小凤仙花、紫凤仙、雪果、欧洲七叶树和红瑞木。两种凤仙花在图林根被认为是杂草(Müller et al., 2005)。雪果、欧洲七叶树和红瑞木是观赏种,迄今为止它们还没有完全适应图林根。但它们已经在公园内种植,并通过管理控制使它们不再出现问题。

图2自然类群(N=306)的样地内记录(N=436),按照出现频率分组

在“伊尔姆河畔公园” 魏玛经典基金会记录了94个类群的3192 种树(最后更新到2006)。原生和非原生种群的数量比例是28%(26)和72%(68),但个体的比例和数量是原生的为73%(2344)非原生的为27%(848)。最常见的原生种是白蜡(409株)、欧洲小叶椴(305)、挪威槭(281)。白蜡和挪威槭在再生树种中也是最常见的。也是最常见的树种的再生。最常见的非原生种群是欧洲七叶树(273株)、刺槐(78)和加拿大杨(70)。这三个类群在公园里繁殖,后者只能通过分株来繁殖。这三个物种占主导地位,其它非原生树种种植只存在非常少的数量。

草地和森林栖息地作为公园的主导,覆盖面积分别为近三分之二和三分之一(见图1为栖息地分布概况)。这是栖息地中在物种总数和种数平均增幅方面拥有最高植物多样性的物种(图3)。由于被作为各种风景景观的组合而设计,所以公园里有许多交错的群落。它包含许多不同的植被类型,实际上物种总数是高的(图3),虽然每个样地里的平均物种数量很低。所有现存的其它栖息地,即水体、墙壁和岩石、践踏植物群落(车道、路径)和观赏种植园占据的区域小得多。

图3栖息地的植物物种丰富度

4.3.植物和栖息地的生物保护的价值

4.3.1 濒危、珍稀物种

图林根红色名单中列出了公园里包含的三个本地物种(Korsch & Westhus,2001):欧洲黑杨(极度濒危)、Rosa jundzillii Besser和葡萄风信子(都是脆弱的)。被归为非本地的暗花老鹳草也列为濒危物种。欧洲黑杨很少出现在伊尔姆山谷内的冲积森林山谷,R.jundzillii和葡萄风信子在森林公园以外也很少被发现。在歌德避暑别墅的花园中暗花老鹳草经常出现在群落交错区和干草原,但公园的其他地方没有发现。

公园里有一种典型的罕见种类是紫叶山毛榉。根据这个公园的历史文件,野生的各种欧洲山毛榉是在图林根北部的山区被发现的,在卡尔奥格斯特公爵执政时期它被作为一个特色植物带到公园。

四个受法律保护的植物物种(ThurNatG,2006)出现在欧洲中部公园里的山毛榉森林和它们的郊区:大花头蕊兰、雪割草、卵叶对叶兰和 凹鸽巢兰。还常青树紫杉是珍稀保护物种,可定期在山毛榉森林中被发现。两个报春花,欧洲报春和野生郁金香在几个世纪前被引进用作观赏目的,现在已经被归为受法律保护的濒危物种。

在“伊尔姆河畔公园”中并没有发现栖息地法规附件II中的植物种类(欧盟委员会,2007)。4.3.2 濒危和罕见的栖息地

图林根的介子草地和广袤的干湿草原作为具有历史文化性的濒危物种栖息地景观被列入红色名录(Westhus & van Hengel,2001),被图林根的法律(ThurNatG,2006)和欧洲栖地法规的附件1所保护(欧盟委员会,2007年)。

这些濒危物种栖息地占据三分之一的“伊尔姆河畔公园”。最古老的和最不受区域干扰的公园之一是“蛇草甸”,历史记录显示甚至在公园创建前草原也并没有被破坏。它是介子草地和干草原的结合体并在两者之间转换,也是在整个公园中具有最高植物多样性的地区(见图3,草地和牧场的柱状图)。因此“蛇草甸”表明公园可能是当代对具有历史文化性的栖息景观地重要的保护。这个草地是18世纪原始设计中一个非常重要的部分。这个公园的创造者的目的是让草地看起来尽可能的自然。

公园最频繁的交错群落类型之一是一种喜温树种,在图林根的红色名录中被列为弱势树种(Westhus & van Hengel,2001)并且受到法律保护(ThurNatG,2006)。4.3.3 环境杂草

在图林根州公园里有七个外来种,被认为是环境杂草(Müller et al., 2005)。只有3种被种植在公园:欧洲黑松、刺槐和加拿大杨。前两个被认为是栖息地多样性的威胁,而在图林根州第三个被认为是基因多样性的严重威胁。在公园的建设中这三个物种仅仅因为好奇心而被种植的数量并不多,但后来种植的数量有所增加。例如常绿杨是在18世纪末被首次引入的,但更多的是在20世纪下半叶为取代倾倒的欧洲黑杨标本而种植,因为他们便宜而且容易获得。

另有四种偶然出现的环境杂草即瘤果匙荠、紫凤仙、加拿大一枝黄花和虎杖,在公园创建的不同阶段并没有种植它们,但可能是在以后某个时间有意或无意的被引进了。紫凤仙在公园里是一个严重的问题,因为它密集地生长在河岸,覆盖了原生河岸植被。

图林根州环境杂草的列表(Müller et al.,2005)还包括分类群,被分成了潜在的环境杂草和对生境多样性的威胁。这个列表上有9个分类群在公园里出现,它们中的六个种植的数量已经很少了:臭椿、灰桤木、美国黑樱桃、复叶槭、亮叶十大功劳和欧丁香。最后的三种不被认为是对栖息地有害的种而在公园里被再次种植。其它3个类群大狼杷草、大型一枝黄花、小凤仙花是公园里最常见的非原生植物,但因为它被森林植被限制并且在原生植被后生长(早花隐芽植物)所以不被认为是一种公园生物多样性的威胁。

4.4.从前的景观设计和当前在生物保护价值之间的关系

我们发现如下一些公园设计和现代生物多样性保护价值之间的关系。历史公园“伊尔姆河畔公园”的主要设计原则是基于欧洲历史文化和自然景观的一种理想景观的发展,源自并根植于现代文化景观和它的生境以及与之匹配的公园现有景观。各种与远景相连的景观的组合导致了各种不同尺寸的林地和草地生境成一种类似马赛克状的分布。这就会产生大量的边缘效应(过渡带)从而创建各种各样的生态位。

因此在超过两个世纪保持连续性的管理制度是维持设计和公园里物种丰富的历史文化景观的一个重要因素。年龄以及干扰和园艺领域的物种丰富度之间的联系已经被其他作者指出(Li et al., 2006;Zerbe et al., 2003)。

前者泛滥平原森林地区及周边草地的大部分已被纳入景观设计并且被整合在公园里。周围的森林和草原上大部分用于种植的植物,在品种数量和特性上,都是本土物种。在大多数情况下非原生植物的每个种只种植了很少的数量。今天在图林根州有七种被认为是环境杂草的种植在公园里。在大多数情况下,它们对生物多样性是没有威胁的因为通过积极的管理可以预防它们再生。

5.讨论

除了大量的灰色文献,现在很少有评价英国园林风格的公园存在的价值。在柏林面积为0.67平方公里的“孔雀岛”被Sukopp调查(1968),面积为0.27平方公里的奥格斯堡“西本蒂施公园” Müller 和 Waldert 调查(1998),波茨坦公园的无忧宫、巴贝尔斯堡和诺伊尔加滕的草原总规模为5.07平方公里(Peschel, 2000)。几个在圣彼得堡的公园及其郊区被Ignatieva和Konechnaya调查(2004)。包括:帕夫洛夫斯基公园、在皇村的Ekaterininsky 和Alexandrovsky公园、奥拉宁鲍姆公园、在彼得夏宫的亚历山大公园、加特契纳公园和Shuvalovsky公园。上述所有文件(和我们自己的研究)显示了这些历史公园丰富的原生植物物种和栖息地的多样性以及濒危生物多样性维持的能力。这些在中欧和东欧历史公园植物区系的调查也证明传统草原和一般草本植物的价值不如树木和灌木。然而,我们的研究与其他欧洲研究结果证明,草原和珍稀物种和历史悠久的设计风格有直接的关系,也有植物方面和历史方面的意义。

我们的研究和俄罗斯的景观公园(Ignatieva & Konechnaya,2004)的比较也显示出相似之处不仅在设计原则方面(设计与自然),而且在管理和维护制度(割草和放牧)方面也类似。在德国和俄罗斯公园存在的某些相似的物种表明这两个国家之间种子可能通过经常在德国圣彼得堡工作过的园丁而发生了混合和交换。

所有上述公园的各种栖息地对历史文化的濒危栖息地景观都起到了保护作用,因为他们体现在在今天的农村风景。对“伊尔姆河畔公园”、“Siebentischpark”和“波茨坦的公园”的特殊保护价值是具有多种类型的濒危草原。每个历史公园都有自己的珍稀濒危植物以及独特的植物群落。例如,像湿地和原始森林的自然栖息地对 “孔雀岛”来说尤为重要。唯一管理开放草原的是帕夫洛夫斯基公园。有非常罕见的Poa chaixii 和 Luzula Luzuloides组成的地被在奥拉宁鲍姆公园应该被保护,而在加特契纳公园只有在公园范围内生长,在周围景观中很少被发现。

对于历史公园生物多样性的一个普遍观点(Kowarik,1998)强调现存的自然栖息地的重要性(例如水栖息地和露出的岩石)。

用和“伊尔姆河畔公园”一样的方式,作为濒危和珍稀(而且往往受法律保护)植物物种避难所的重要性在上述公园中确定。在俄罗斯公园中所有的珍稀濒危植物都有标出,以确保在恢复项目中被保护和保存。

欧洲和世界其它地区的现代园林景观经常采用英国园林风格设计原则的简化版本,全部使用相同的植物,并导致区域生物多样性和身份的丧失(Ignatieva,2010),研究表明历史的英国园林景观风格公园有助于维护该区域生物多样性和特性。

我们研究的目标之一也是提高参与历史公园恢复的从业者的意识,以及公民和政客(使用公园者)对一个公园生态系统的所有组成部分的生物多样性的重要性的认识。人们应该接受关于保护草原和稀有植物作为一个独特的资产的重要性。我们的结论应作为负责管理历史公园的专家的指导。在全球化和致密化的城市环境下,历史公园的价值应该等同于花园和公园艺术的纪念碑以及区域生物多样性的热点地区。

6.结论

历史悠久的英国风景园林风格公园是一个例子,告诉我们合理的可持续设计如何在城市工业区内提供重要的生物保护区域。从我们的研究结果来看,对未来公园设计和历史公园的恢复提出如下建议:

1.现有的地形和土壤条件以及现有栖息地(如中欧的森林和草地斑块)必须集中在一个公园的设计或在公园修复项目中进行,而不是从头开始。2.公园内使用的绝大多数的种子和植物应该(甚至土生土长得更好)是原生的来支持本地生物多样性以及区域特性。

3.相比之下非本土的观赏植物应只是少量运用而不是公园的主要组成部分。4.使用已经认识或被怀疑的非本地植物时必须避免环境杂草的使用。5.低强度公园的管理,尤其是自然或半自然栖息地中,区域生物多样性至关重要。

对于今后恢复或重建项目的规划者应该知道所有的珍稀濒危植物物种的位置并且他们应该在所有施工过程中采取措施尽量避免或减少对这些物种的损害。

致谢

本文的主题来自2010年5月在日本名古屋召开的第二届URBIO会议上关于“景观设计对生物多样性的影响”的介绍。我们感谢Maria Ignatieva(瑞典),Glenn Stewart(新西兰)和两个匿名评论者提出的宝贵意见。我们也要感谢魏玛古典基金会在对“伊尔姆河畔公园”数据收集时的支持与合作。

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