第一篇:初中常用知识总结
小说是文学体裁四分法中的一大样式。它是通过塑造人物、叙述故事、描写环境来反映生活、表达思想的一种文学体裁。
小说有三个要素:人物形象、故事情节、环境(自然环境和社会环境)。小说反映社会生活的主要手段是塑造人物形象。小说主要是通过故事情节来展现人物性格、表现中心的。小说就是以塑造人物形象为中心,通过故事情节的叙述和环境的描写反映社会生活。环境包括自然环境和社会环境。
故事情节包括:开端,发展,高潮,结局。小说的三要素:人物形象、故事情节和环境描写。或人物(主要要素),故事情节,环境(简写)。
环境描写的作用:1.社会环境描写的作用:(1)交代人物的生存环境;(2)交代人物的社会关系;(3)交代作品的时代背景2.自然环境描写的作用:(1)渲染故事气氛;(2)烘托人物形象;(3)推动情节发展;(4)暗示社会环境;(5)深化作品主题
(一)先秦时期作家
1孔子:名丘,字仲尼,春秋时鲁国人,思想家,教育家,儒家学派创始人,其思想核心是“仁”。曾整理《诗经》、《春秋》。《论语》是记录孔子及其弟子言行的语录体散文作品,由孔子的弟子及再传弟子编纂,共二十篇。
2.墨子:名翟,春秋时鲁国人,墨家学派的创始人,其政治主张主要是“兼爱”、“尚贤”、“节用”。《墨子》现存五十三篇
3孙子:名武,春秋时齐国人,军事家著有《孙子》十三篇,又名《孙子兵法》,是我国第一部军事著作。
4孟子:名轲,字子舆,战国时邹人,他是继孔子之后的又一位儒家大师。《孟子》一书的思想核心是“仁义”,共七篇。
5庄子:名周,战国时宋人,道家学派代表人物其著作《庄子》一书共三十三篇,又名《南华经》。其代表作品是《逍遥游》。
6.屈原:名平,子原,战国时楚国人,我国第一位爱国诗人,是我国浪漫主义诗歌的奠基人。他用楚地民歌的形式创造了一种新诗体“楚辞体”(又称“骚体”)。其代表作有《离骚》、《九歌》、《九章》、《天问》等。
(二)两汉时期作家
7.司马迁:字子长,西汉史学家、文学家其历史巨著《史记》(又名《太史公书》),是我国第一部纪传体通史。鲁迅赞为“史家之绝唱,无韵之《离骚》”。《陈涉世家》
8.刘向:西汉经学家、文学家,著有《说苑》、《新序》,整理了《战国策》楚辞》。
9.班固:字孟坚,东汉史学家、文学家,其历史著作《汉书》,是我国第一部纪传体断代史。
(三)魏晋南北朝作家
10.曹操:字孟德,三国时政治家、军事家、诗人,“建安文学”的创始人,其代表作有《观沧海》、《龟虽寿》、《短歌行》等。
11.曹丕:字子桓,曹操次子,三国时文学家,代表作为《燕歌行》。其《典论·论文》是我国第一部文学批评专著。
12.曹植:字子建,三国时诗人,曹操曾子,五言诗的奠基人,代表作有《白马篇》、《洛神赋》。宋人辑有《曹子建集》。
13.诸葛亮:字孔明,号卧龙居士。出生在山东沂南县,三国时期蜀汉丞相、政治家、军事家、战略家、散文家、外交家。《出师表》
14.陈寿:字承祚(zuo),西晋史学家,著有纪传体断代史《三国志》。《隆中对》
15.陶渊明:名潜,字渊明,号靖节先生,五柳先生,东晋田园诗人。主要著作有散文《桃花源记》、《五柳先生传》,诗歌《归园田居》、《饮酒》等。
16.谢灵运:南朝山水诗人,著有《谢康乐集》。
17.郦道元:北魏地理学家,文学家《水经注》,富有文学价值的地理著作。《三峡》
18.刘义庆:南朝代表作:《世说新语》是由他组织一批文人编写的。《咏雪》《陈太丘与友期》
19.吴 均:南朝梁文学家。字叔痒。作品:《朱元思书》
20.陶弘景:字通明,号华阳居士,《答谢中书书》
(四)隋唐时期作家
21.王勃:字子安“初唐四杰”之一(其余三位是杨炯、卢照邻、骆宾王),著有《王子安集》,代表作《送杜少府之任蜀州》、《滕王阁序》。
22.陈子昂:字伯玉,代表作《登幽州台歌》。
23.王之涣:字季陵,其诗以描写边塞风光著称,代表作《凉州词》、《登鹳鹊楼》。
24.孟浩然:山水田园诗人,与王维齐名。代表作《过故人庄》、《春晓》。
25.王维:字摩诘,山水田园诗人。世称王右丞。代表作《送元二使安西》、《使至塞上》苏轼称其诗为:“诗中有画,画中有诗。”
26.王昌龄:边塞诗人,代表作《从军行》、《出塞》。
27.李白:字太白,号青莲居士,世称诗仙。著有《李太白全集》,代表作《静夜思》、《渡荆门送别》、《望天门山》、《梦游天姥吟留别》、《行路难》、《蜀道难》、《将进酒》等。
28.杜甫:字子美,号少陵野老,世称杜少陵、杜工部。其诗被成为“诗史”,其人被成为“诗圣”。著有《杜工部集》,代表作《自京赴奉先县咏怀五百字》、《春夜喜雨》、《春望》、《登高》、《茅屋为秋风所破歌》、《兵车行》及组诗“《三吏》(《石壕吏》、《新安吏》、《潼关吏》)《三别》(《新婚别》、《垂老别》、《无家别》。
29.高适:边塞诗人,《燕歌行》。
30.岑参:边塞诗人,《白雪歌送武判官归京》。
31.韩愈:字退之,自谓郡望昌黎,世称韩昌黎,谥文,又称韩文公。唐宋八大家之一,与柳宗元倡导“古文运动”著有《昌黎先生集》。代表作《马说》
32.柳宗元:字子厚,世称柳河东、柳柳州“古文运动”倡导者,唐宋八大家之
一。著有《柳河东集》(《小石潭记》)。
33.刘禹锡:字梦得,代表作《陋室铭》、《酬乐天扬州初逢席上见赠》。
34.白居易:字乐天,号香山居士,代表作《琵琶行》、《长恨歌》、《卖炭翁》《钱塘湖春行》等。
35.王湾:唐。《次北固山下》。
36.李贺:字长吉,继李白之后又一著名浪漫主义诗人,代表作《燕门太守行》、37.杜牧:字牧之,号樊川,文集为《杜樊川文集》。代表作《赤壁》等。
42.李商隐:字义山,与杜牧并称为“小李杜”,文集为《樊南文集》,代表作《无题》、《隋宫》、《夜雨寄北》等。
43.温庭筠:字飞卿,词人,《花间集》。代表作《菩萨蛮·小山重叠金明灭》、《菩萨蛮·南园满地堆轻絮》、《梦江南·梳洗罢》。
44.李煜:字重光,号钟隐,史称南唐后主,代表作《虞美人》、《相见欢》、(五)宋元时期作家
46.范仲淹:字希文,北宋政治家,文学家谥文正,著有《范文正公集》。名词《渔家傲》,名文《岳阳楼记》《渔家傲 秋思》。
47.晏殊:字同叔,北宋著名词人,代表作《踏莎行》、《浣溪沙》。
48.欧阳修:字永叔,号醉翁、六一居士,谥文忠,北宋文学家、史学家、古文运动的领袖、“唐宋八大家”之一,著有《欧阳文忠公集》。代表作《秋声赋》、《醉翁亭记》。
49.苏轼:字子瞻,号东坡居士,北宋文学家、书画家,“唐宋八大家”之一,豪放词风,著有《苏东坡全集》、《东坡乐府》《江城子 密州出猎》、《记承天寺夜游》。
50.司马光:北宋史学家、文学家,谥文正,著有《司马文正公集》,主编我国第一部编年体通史《资治通鉴》。代表作《孙权劝学》
51.王安石:字介甫,号半山,临川人,封荆国公,世称王荆公、王临川,谥文,北宋政治家、文学家,“唐宋八大家”之一,著有《王文公集》《伤仲永》
52.李清照:字易安,号易安居士,南宋女词人,著有《李清照集》、《漱玉词》。《武陵春》
53.陆游:字务观,号放翁,南宋爱国诗人,名诗《游山西村》、《示儿》、《十一月四日风雨大作》。
55.周敦颐:宋代思想家、理学家。字茂叔,号濂溪,人称濂溪先生,《爱莲说》
57.辛弃疾:字幼安,号稼轩,南宋爱国词人,豪放派,与苏轼并称“苏辛”。词集《稼轩长短句》。《破阵子》
58.文天祥:字宋瑞,号文山,南宋政治家、文学家,著有《文山先生全集》。名诗《正气歌》《过零丁洋》。
60.马致远:元,散曲《天净沙·秋思》。
(六)明清时期作家
61.施耐庵:明代小说家,代表作《水浒传》,又名《忠义水浒传》,是我国第一部以农民战争为题材的长篇章回小说。
62.罗贯中:明代小说家,代表作《三国演义》,是我国第一部章回体小说。另有《隋唐演义》
63.宋 濂:字景廉,明代文学家,著有《宋学士文集》。名文《送东阳马生序》。
64.吴承恩:明代小说家,《西游记》是我国第一部神话长篇小说。
69.蒲松龄:字留仙,好柳泉居士,世称聊斋先生,清代文学家,所著《聊斋志异》是我国第一部文言小说集。代表作《山市》《狼》
70.吴敬梓:清代文学家,所著《儒林外史》是我国第一部长篇讽刺小说。《范进中举》
71.曹雪芹:字梦阮,号雪芹,清代文学家,所著《红楼梦》(又名《石头记》、),使我国古代长篇小说发展到了顶峰。
72.龚自珍:,清《己亥杂诗》,73.沈 复:清代文学家,字三白,长洲人。代表作《童趣》
74.林嗣环:,清《口技》
(七)现、当代作家
75.鲁迅:原名周树人,现代思想家、文学家,小说集《呐喊》、《彷徨》、《故事新编》,散文集《朝花西拾》,散文诗集《野草》,杂文集《华盖集》、《而已集》、《二心集》、《南腔北调集》、《且介亭杂文》等。重要作品有《狂人日记》、《孔乙己》、《故乡》、《阿Q正传》、《从百草园到三味书屋》、《风筝》、《社戏》、《阿长与
〈山海经〉》、《藤野先生》、《雪》、《中国人失掉了自信了吗》等。
76.梁启超:字卓如,号任公,饮冰室主人、政治家和学者。《敬业与乐业》
77.毛泽东:伟大的马克思主义者,无产阶级革命家、战略家和理论家,中国共产党、中国人民解放军和中华人民共和国的主要缔造者和领导人。湖南湘潭人。《新闻两则》《沁园春 雪》、《长征》。
78.郭沫若:现代史学家、古文字学家、文学家我国新诗的奠基人,著有新诗集《女神》,剧作《屈原》、《虎符》、《棠棣之花》等。《天上的街市》
81.李大钊:字守常。河北乐亭县人,中国最早的马克思主义者,是国共产党的创始人和早期领导人。《艰难的国运与雄健的国民》
82.朱自清:字佩弦,现代文学家,著有诗文集《踪迹》,散文集《背影》、《欧游杂记》。其优秀散文有:《春》、《背影》、等。
83.闻一多:现代学者、诗人,著有诗集《红烛》、《死水》。
84.老舍:原名舒庆春,字舍予,现代文学家,代表作长篇小说《骆驼祥子》、《四世同堂》,戏剧《茶馆》、《龙须沟》。
85.冰心:原名谢婉莹,现代女作家,代表作《观舞记》《谈生命》《繁星》《春水》《寄小读者》等
86.巴金:现代作家,主要作品有长篇小说《灭亡》、《爱情》三部曲(雾、雨、电)、《激流》三部曲(家、春、秋)、中篇小说《寒夜》、《憩园》,散文集《随想录》。《家》为代表作。1982年获“国际但丁文学奖”。《短文两篇》(《日》《月》)
87.胡适:原名胡洪〔马辛〕,字适之,安徽绩溪人。学者。代表作《我的母亲》
88.臧克家:现代诗人,学者、民主战士。代表作《闻一多先生的说和做》。
90.沈从文:《云南的歌会》
91。孙犁:“荷花淀派”的创立者。《芦花荡》
92.艾 青:原名蒋海澄,现代著名诗人。《我爱这土地》。
93.余光中:他是台湾著名诗人、散文家、评论家、翻译家,出版诗文及译著近四十种。代表作《乡愁》
99.余秋雨:1946年生于浙江省余姚县。我国当代著名艺术理论家、文化史学家、散文家,曾任上海戏剧学院校长。《信客》
(八)重要典籍
150.《诗经》:儒家经典之一。我国第一部诗歌总集,收集西周至春秋中约500年间的诗歌305首,分“风”、“雅”、“颂”三部分,“国风”是精华。主要采用“赋”、“比”、“兴”的创作方法,以四言为主,有重章叠唱的特点。151.《尚书》:儒家经典之一。是我国上古历史文献和部分追述古代事迹著作的汇编。
152.书”、“五经”:儒家经典之一。“四书”指《大学》、《中庸》、《论语》、《孟子》,“五经”指《诗》、《书》、《礼》、《易》、《春秋》。
153.《左传》:儒家经典之一。我国第一部叙事详细、完整的编年体史书,原名《左氏春秋》,也叫《春秋左氏传》。相传为鲁国史官左丘明著,具有极高的文学价值。
154.《国语》:我国最早的国别体史书,相传为左丘明著。
155.《楚辞》:西汉刘向编,收集屈原、宋玉等人的作品,是我国第一部浪漫主义诗歌集。
171.李杜:李白和杜甫。
172.小李杜:李商隐和杜牧。
173.韩柳:韩愈和柳宗元。
175.唐宋八大家:韩愈、柳宗元、欧阳修、苏洵、苏轼、苏辙、王安石、曾巩。176.三苏:苏洵、苏轼、苏辙。
177.苏辛:苏轼和辛弃疾。
180.元曲四家:关汉卿、郑光祖、马致远、白朴。
182乐府双璧:《孔雀东南飞》和《木兰诗》。
184.三吏三别:《石壕吏》、《潼关吏》、《新安吏》和《新婚别》、《垂老别》、《无家别》。
185.四大名著:《三国演义》、《水浒传》、《西游记》、《红楼梦》。
187.元杂剧四大悲剧:《窦娥冤》、《汉宫秋》、《梧桐雨》、《赵氏孤儿》。
第二篇:初中物理知识总结
第一章 声现象知识归纳
1.声音的发生:由物体的振动而产生。振动停止,发声也停止。
2.声音的传播:声音靠介质传播。真空不能传声。通常我们听到的声音是靠空气传来的。
3.声速:在空气中传播速度是:340米/秒。声音在固体传播比液体快,而在液体传播又比空气体快。
4.利用回声可测距离:
5.乐音的三个特征:音调、响度、音色。(1)音调:是指声音的高低,它与发声体的频率有关系。(2)响度:是指声音的大小,跟发声体的振幅、声源与听者的距离有关系。
6.减弱噪声的途径:(1)在声源处减弱;(2)在传播过程中减弱;(3)在人耳处减弱。
7.可听声:频率在20Hz~20000Hz之间的声波:超声波:频率高于20000Hz的声波;次声波:频率低于20Hz的声波。
8.超声波特点:方向性好、穿透能力强、声能较集中。具体应用有:声呐、B超、超声波速度测定器、超声波清洗器、超声波焊接器等。
9.次声波的特点:可以传播很远,很容易绕过障碍物,而且无孔不入。一定强度的次声波对人体会造成危害,甚至毁坏机械建筑等。它主要产生于自然界中的火山爆发、海啸地震等,另外人类制造的火箭发射、飞机飞行、火车汽车的奔驰、核爆炸等也能产生次声波。
第二章 物态变化知识归纳
1.温度:是指物体的冷热程度。测量的工具是温度计, 温度计是根据液体的热胀冷缩的原理制成的。
2.摄氏温度(℃):单位是摄氏度。1摄氏度的规定:把冰水混合物温度规定为0度,把一标准大气压下沸水的温度规定为100度,在0度和100度之间分成100等分,每一等分为1℃。
3.常见的温度计有(1)实验室用温度计;(2)体温计;(3)寒暑表。
体温计:测量范围是35℃至42℃,每一小格是0.1℃。
4.温度计使用:(1)使用前应观察它的量程和最小刻度值;(2)使用时温度计玻璃泡要全部浸入被测液体中,不要碰到容器底或容器壁;(3)待温度计示数稳定后再读数;(4)读数时玻璃泡要继续留在被测液体中,视线与温度计中液柱的上表面相平。
5.固体、液体、气体是物质存在的三种状态。
6.熔化:物质从固态变成液态的过程叫熔化。要吸热。
7.凝固:物质从液态变成固态的过程叫凝固。要放热.8.熔点和凝固点:晶体熔化时保持不变的温度叫熔点。晶体凝固时保持不变的温度叫凝固点。晶体的熔点和凝固点相同。
9.晶体和非晶体的重要区别:晶体都有一定的熔化温度(即熔点),而非晶体没有熔点。
10.熔化和凝固曲线图:
11.(晶体熔化和凝固曲线图)(非晶体熔化曲线图)
12.上图中AD是晶体熔化曲线图,晶体在AB段处于固态,在BC段是熔化过程,吸热,但温度不变,处于固液共存状态,CD段处于液态;而DG是晶体凝固曲线图,DE段于液态,EF段落是凝固过程,放热,温度不变,处于固液共存状态,FG处于固态。
13.汽化:物质从液态变为气态的过程叫汽化,汽化的方式有蒸发和沸腾。都要吸热。
14.蒸发:是在任何温度下,且只在液体表面发生的,缓慢的汽化现象。
15.沸腾:是在一定温度(沸点)下,在液体内部和表面同时发生的剧烈的汽化现象。液体沸腾时要吸热,但温度保持不变,这个温度叫沸点。
16.影响液体蒸发快慢的因素:(1)液体温度;(2)液体表面积;(3)液面上方空气流动快慢。
17.液化:物质从气态变成液态的过程叫液化,液化要放热。使气体液化的方法有:降低温度和压缩体积。(液化现象如:“白气”、雾、等)
18.升华和凝华:物质从固态直接变成气态叫升华,要吸热;而物质从气态直接变成固态叫凝华,要放热。
19.水循环:自然界中的水不停地运动、变化着,构成了一个巨大的水循环系统。水的循环伴随着能量的转移。
第三章 光现象知识归纳
1.光源:自身能够发光的物体叫光源。
2.太阳光是由红、橙、黄、绿、蓝、靛、紫组成的。
3.光的三原色是:红、绿、蓝;颜料的三原色是:红、黄、蓝。
4.不可见光包括有:红外线和紫外线。特点:红外线能使被照射的物体发热,具有热效应(如太阳的热就是以红外线传送到地球上的);紫外线最显著的性质是能使荧光物质发光,另外还可以灭菌。
1.光的直线传播:光在均匀介质中是沿直线传播。
2.光在真空中传播速度最大,是3×108米/秒,而在空气中传播速度也认为是3×108米/秒。
3.我们能看到不发光的物体是因为这些物体反射的光射入了我们的眼睛。
4.光的反射定律:反射光线与入射光线、法线在同一平面上,反射光线与入射光线分居法线两侧,反射角等于入射角。(注:光路是可逆的)
5.漫反射和镜面反射一样遵循光的反射定律。
6.平面镜成像特点:(1)平面镜成的是虚像;(2)像与物体大小相等;(3)像与物体到镜面的距离相等;(4)像与物体的连线与镜面垂直。另外,平面镜里成的像与物体左右倒置。
7.平面镜应用:(1)成像;(2)改变光路。
8.平面镜在生活中使用不当会造成光污染。
球面镜包括凸面镜(凸镜)和凹面镜(凹镜),它们都能成像。具体应用有:车辆的后视镜、商场中的反光镜是凸面镜;手电筒的反光罩、太阳灶、医术戴在眼睛上的反光镜是凹面镜。
第四章 光的折射知识归纳
1.光的折射:光从一种介质斜射入另一种介质时,传播方向一般发生变化的现象。
2.光的折射规律:光从空气斜射入水或其他介质,折射光线与入射光线、法线在同一平面上;折射光线和入射光线分居法线两侧,折射角小于入射角;入射角增大时,折射角也随着增大;当光线垂直射向介质表面时,传播方向不改变。(折射光路也是可逆的)
3.凸透镜:中间厚边缘薄的透镜,它对光线有会聚作用,所以也叫会聚透镜。
4.凸透镜成像:
(1)物体在二倍焦距以外(u>2f),成倒立、缩小的实像(像距:f
(2)物体在焦距和二倍焦距之间(f2f)。如幻灯机。
(3)物体在焦距之内(u
5.光路图:
6.作光路图注意事项:
(1).要借助工具作图;(2)是实际光线画实线,不是实际光线画虚线;(3)光线要带箭头,光线与光线之间要连接好,不要断开;(4)作光的反射或折射光路图时,应先在入射点作出法线(虚线),然后根据反射角与入射角或折射角与入射角的关系作出光线;(5)光发生折射时,处于空气中的那个角较大;(6)平行主光轴的光线经凹透镜发散后的光线的反向延长线一定相交在虚焦点上;(7)平面镜成像时,反射光线的反向延长线一定经过镜后的像;(8)画透镜时,一定要在透镜内画上斜线作阴影表示实心。
7.人的眼睛像一架神奇的照相机,晶状体相当于照相机的镜头(凸透镜),视网膜相当于照相机内的胶片。
8.近视眼看不清远处的景物,需?2增大时,折射角也随着增大;当光线垂直射向介质表面时,传播方向不改变???能使远处的物体在近处成像,其中伽利略望远镜目镜是凹透镜,物镜是凸透镜;开普勒望远镜目镜物镜都是凸透镜(物镜焦距长,目镜焦距短)。
10.显微镜的目镜物镜也都是凸透镜(物镜焦距短,目镜焦距长)。
第三篇:初中英语语法知识总结
英语作文常用谚语、俗语
1、A liar is not believed when he speaks the truth.说谎者即使讲真话也没人相信。
2、A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.一知半解,自欺欺人。
3、All rivers run into sea.海纳百川。
4、All roads lead to Rome.条条大路通罗马。
5、All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.只会用功不玩耍,聪明孩子也变傻。
6、A bad beginning makes a bad ending.不善始者不善终。
7、Actions speak louder than words.事实胜于雄辩。
8、A faithful friend is hard to find.知音难觅。
9、A friend in need is a friend indeed.患难见真情。
10、A friend is easier lost than found.得朋友难,失朋友易。
11、A good beginning is half done.良好的开端是成功的一半。
12、A good beginning makes a good ending.善始者善终。
13、A good book is a good friend.好书如挚友。
14、A good medicine tastes bitter.良药苦口。
15、A mother's love never changes.母爱永恒。
16、An apple a day keeps the doctor away.一天一苹果,不用请医生。
17、A single flower does not make a spring.一花独放不是春,百花齐放春满园。
18、A year's plan starts with spring.一年之计在于春。
19、A young idler, an old beggar.少壮不努力,老大徒伤悲。
20、Better late than never.不怕慢,单怕站。
21、By reading we enrich the mind.读书使人充实,22、Care and diligence bring luck.谨慎和勤奋才能抓住机遇。
23、Confidence in yourself is the first step on the road to success.自信是走向成功的第一步。
24、Custom is a second nature.习惯是后天养成的。
25、Custom makes all things easy.有个好习惯,事事皆不难。
26、Doing is better than saying.与其挂在嘴上,不如落实在行动上。
27、Do nothing by halves.凡事不可半途而废。
28、Don't put off till tomorrow what should be done today.今日事,今日毕。
29、Don't trouble trouble until trouble troubles you.不要自找麻烦。
30、Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.早睡早起身体好。
31、Easier said than done.说得容易,做得难。
32、Easy come, easy go.来也匆匆,去也匆匆。
33、Eat to live, but not live to eat.人吃饭是为了活着,但活着不是为了吃饭。
34、Every man has his faults.金无足赤,人无完人。
35、Every man is the architect of his own fortune.自己的命运自己掌握。
36、Every minute counts.分秒必争。
37、Each coin has two sides.38、Fact speak louder than words.事实胜于雄辩。
39、Failure is the mother of success.失败是成功之母。
40、God helps those who help themselves.自助者天助。
41、Health is better than wealth.健康胜过财富。
42、Honesty is the best policy.做人诚信为本。
43、Hope for the best, but prepare for the worst.抱最好的愿望,做最坏的打算。
44、It is never too old to learn.活到老,学到老。
45、Knowledge is power.知识就是力量
46、Like mother, like daughter.有其母必有其女。
47、No pain,no gain.(不劳无获。)
48、You never know till you have tried.不尝试,不知晓。
49、An idle youth, a needy age.少壮不努力,老大徒伤悲。50、Diligence is the mother of success.勤奋是成功之母。
51、Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy
and wise.早睡早起,使人健康
52、Experience is the best teacher.经验是最好的教师。
53、Nothing in the world is difficult if you set、富裕和聪颖。
54、Where there's a will, there's a way.有志者事竟成。
55、Practice makes perfect .(熟能生巧。)
56、Pride goes before a fall.(骄傲必败。)
Superstar and I It’s common that many students are crazy about those singers and actors.However, liyundi, a pianist, is the superstar in my heart.He is a man of few words and he even looks like the greatest pianist—Chopin.When listening to his music , I can get rid of everything noisy around.What’s more, I can feel his strong love for music.Rome wasn’t built in one day.He achieved the great success through huge effort.I can learn from him that we should never give up to realize our dreams.Superstar and I Her name first appeared as a joke then like a wonder.She is Susan Boyle, the superstar in my heart.Although she’s not beautiful, her voice and spirit moved all the audience, including me.The song ’I dreamed a dream’ that she sang touched everyone’s heart who had a dream and wanted to realize it.She taught me how to go on my dreams as well as never to give up.She is like a sunshine that gives me hope.Where there is a will, there is a way.答:下面是初中英语语法总结,你可参考学习,或许有不全面的地方,欢迎你有不懂的问题再具体提问。另外,我个人认为猜题对于提高考试成绩没有多大作用和意义,并不可取,建议你进行全面复习,打下扎实的基础知识,以不变应万变。顺祝复习顺利!
语法总复习
第一节
名词与代词
名词可分为专有名词和普通名词两类。而普通名词又可分为个体名词、集体名词、物质名词和抽象名词。其中,个体名词和集体名词为可数名词,而物质名词和抽象名词为不可数名词。名词的复数构成通常是在其后加—s;但以-s,-x,-ch,-sh和大部分以o结尾的名词后加-es;以“辅音字母+y”结尾的名词把“y”变成 “i”,再加-es。有些名词的复数构成是不规则的,有其特殊形式。有些名词在不同的情况下,属不同的名词词类,因此有时为可数,有时则为不可数:
名词的格可分为主格(作主语),宾格(作宾语)和所有格(表示所有关系)。代词可分为人称代词,物主代词,反身代词,相互代词,不定代词,指示代词,关系代词,连接代词和疑问代词等九类。
名词的用法
可数名词除非前面有冠词或表示单数的限定词,否则要用其复数形式,例如: If a person disobeys the order,he will be punished severely. The teacher firstly divided his students into four groups.
The reference book can be used to answer questions,to solve problems or to obtain information on a particular topic.
These courses are especially designed for senior students.
有些名词的复数构成是不规则的,如:child-children,foot-feet。goose-geese, mouse-mice, man-men, ox-oxen, tooth-teeth,woman-women等。例如: Every fall geese f1y over the house.
The dentist told him that several teeth of his need to be filled. Mrs.Smith has three children,and Tonny is the youngest one. I think we've got mice in the kitchen.
有些名词的单复数形式是一样的,如:Chinese,Japanese,Burmese(缅甸),Spanish(西班牙),Lebanese(黎巴嫩),Portuguese(葡萄牙),Swiss(瑞士).sheep,deer,swine(猪),fish,carp(鲤鱼),salmon(鲑),means,series,species,aircraft,spacecraft等。例如: The best fish are near the bottom.
When they got to the New World,Spanish constructed their houses with Moorish architectural features.
I saw a white sheep running down the road.
Judging by his language,he must be a Japanese.
在表示一类事物时,介词of后的名词要用复数形式。例如: Beethoven is of the greatest musicians in the world.
The Animal Art Festival is being held at Shanghai zoo, which is one of the most welcome festivals in the city.As one of the countries that bear responsibility for the incident, German Chancellor Schroeder holds that the organization should apologize to Chinese government unconditionally.She is one of the three martyrs who were killed in NATO's bombing on the Chinese Embassy in Yugoslavia.大多数集体名词可作单数,也可作复数,如:army,audience,class,committee,crew(全体船员,乘务员),crowd,faculty,family, government group orchestra,public,team,union等。但有些虽然是单数形式,却用作复数,如:cattle(牡畜)mankind(人类),militia(民兵),people,police,poultry(家畜),staff(全体职员)等。例如:
The president said the Chinese Gowrnment is paying close attention to developments in this matter, and continues to reserve the right to take future action.The cattle, were grazing on the meadow near the farm.The audience were amused by his humorous stories.My family is far away from the school.有些名词只有复数形式,而且也只用作复数,如:clothes,glasses,spectacles,pants,arms(武器),belongings(所有物),customs(海关),goods(货物),suburbs(郊区),papers(文件)等;而有些名词形式为复数,却用作单数,如:electronics(电子学),mathematics(数学),optics(光学),politics,statistics(统计学)等。例如: The shorts he wears are made of leather.Linguistics is a difficult subject to study.He used to study electronics which isn’t his favorite suject. I love to live in the suburbs that are conclusive.
有些名词一般情况下以单数形式出现,表示总体。但如果表示若干、多次或几种时,则要用其复数。这类词有:hair,fruit,pollution,rain,difficulty,success,wind,failure,favour等。例如:
The barber had been cutting human hair for two years before he came to Los Angeles. Mother bought oranges,bananas and other fruits.These caves collapse easily in heavyrains, and great winds. He’s having financial difficulties.
有些名词一般只有单数形式,它们通常是表示物质和抽象概念的不可数名词,像:advice,baggage,bread,corn,clothing,equipment,education,fun,furniture,food,fruit,garbage,grass,happiness,homework,housework,humanity,information,knowledge,landscape,1aughter,machinery,mankind,merchandise,money,music,nonsense,nature,population,progress,scenery,smoke,sweat,strength,traffic,thunder,ink,jewellery,damage,mail,work,soap,sugar,gold,chalk,cloth,anger,applause,cake,chocolate,poverty等。例如:
I must seek the advice of a specialist in the matter of the transfer of property rights. Headache is the most common disease of human.I really get a lot of fun from reading in leisure time.The population of Shanghai is very big.有些名词单复数的含义不同,使用时要根据上下文的意思进行选择。这类词包括:communication(通讯)—communications(通讯系统,通讯工具),cloth(布)--clothes(衣服),content(内容)--contents(目录),convenience(便利)--conveniences(便利设备), humanity(人类)--humanities(人文科学),necessity(需要)-necessities(必需品),wood(木材)-woods(树林),pain(疼痛)—pains(辛劳),ruin(毁灭)-ruins(废墟,遗迹),sand(沙子)--sands(沙滩),work(工作)--works(工厂,著作)等。例如:
“Hometown” is one of Lu Xun’s most famous works.
The insurance company paid $98,700 in damages for the accident. My child enjoys playing on the sands. No pains,no gains. 有些名词只有复数形式。如:fundamentals(基本原则), goods(货物), means(方法),shorts(短裤),sweets(欢乐), valuables(贵重物品)等。
The fundamentals are made to guarantee the social stability Don’t take any valuables there for the sake of safety.The goods were purchased from him aren’t expensive.I think our problem can be solved by means of negotiation.名词做定语时,不能用作复数。例如:
Please check your examination paper carefully after finishing。
The China's Central Television Station supplies weather report everyday,You'd better inform my family members before leaving for Beijing. The United States and Germany are two member states of NATO.复合名词的复数只把其中所包含的主体名词变成复数。如:looker(s)--on,runner(s)-up,son(s)-in-law,editor(s)-in-chief,passer(s)-by,grand-child(ren),armyman(armymen),room-number(s),shoe lace(s),dinner plate(s),blood type(s)等。如果没有主体名词,就在最后一个词上加复数词尾。如:go-between(s),drawback(s)等。注意以man,woman构成的复合名词,全部变成复数。如:man-servant—men-servants, woman-soldier—women-soldiers。例如: Would you bring me some dinner plates? We had a wonderful talk with some women-soldiers.
Don’t regard yourselves as passers-by under such circumstances. We are of different blood types.
名词的所有格一般在词尾加 ’s,已有复数词尾-s的,只加’。例如: We must work hard to fulfil the country’s plans. The school is within a stone’s throw. Nearby are her relatives’ houses. Could you tell me the Smiths’s addres? 名词所有格有时还可以和of构成短语,有以下两种情况:
1)它所修饰的词前面有一个表示数量的词,如:a,two,several,some,any,no,few等。
2)它所修饰的词前面有+个指示代词,使句子表示某种情绪。例如: Several students of Lao Yang’s acted in the play. We saw a play Guo Moro's.At birth,the head of a baby is extremely large in relation to the rest of the body。I have some records of NaYing's.2.代词的用法
1)人称代词有主格人称代词,在句中充当主语:I,you,he,she,it, we,you,they和宾格人称代词,在句中充当宾语:me,you,him,her,it, us,you;them。例如: We haven't seen each other for a long time since he went abroad. Let you and me have an appointment for the next weekend.Have you got any idea about this issue? Tell us whatever you've heard.2)物主代词可在句中作定语,有指人的:my,our,your,his,her和their;有指物的:it,his或her(指国家或轮船)。名词性物主代词作表语、主语、宾语,与of连用可作定语:yours,ours,theirs,mine,her,his,its。例如: Tonny is an old friend of mine.
My dormitory is next to yours,and Mary's is on the third floor. Titanic sank with her several thousand passengers. Next time it's on my treat.
3)反身代词亦称自身代词,可作宾语、表语,作主语或宾语的同位语,还与某些动词连用,与介词连用构成成语。有:myself,yourself,himself,herself,itself,ourselves,yourselves,themselves。例如:
These children are too young to take care of themselves. Don't worry,he will be himself again soon.
Although Uncle George is a bad-tempered man,I think he is a kind man in himself. You should be responsible for yourself.
4)相互代词表示相互关系,有:each other(两者之间)和one another(多者之间)。例如: I met Miss Scott this morning,and we greeted each other. We should learn from one another and make progress together,5)指示代词在句中充当主语、宾语和定语,有:this,that,these,those。Such也是指示代词,可作定语、主语和表语,修饰可数名词时要与a连用。例如:
Nowadays TV programs are much more colorful than those Of the past.
The money spent on entertainment,according to some authorities,has exceeded that spent on public health.
I want to know this:are you talking about the accident I encountered yesterday? His future is closely bound with that of the company。
You shouldn't trust on such a person who never keeps his promise. 6)疑问代词有who,whom,whose,what which。who可作主语和表语;whom作宾语,whose,what,which可作主语、表语、宾语和定语,其中作主语时,要看所代表的人或物是单数还是复数,如果不清楚,则动词一般用单数。Who will see to this matter? Whom have you chosen to be responsible for the work? It is hard to decide whose is better.What’s on your schedule?
Which university did he enter at last? 7)关系代词有who,whom,whose,that,which。which代表事物,that代表人或物;在非限制性定语从句中,不能用that,而用who(m)代表人,用which代表物,或代表主句所说的全部内容。在带有a11,something,nothing,anything,much等的句子中不能用which,而用that。例如:
Our football team was defeated again,which shows our players need much more effort. The factory now has over 1,000 workers,half of whom are women. He promised to tell us all that he knew.
Whose turn to make presentation is bcyond me.8)连接代词有:what,who,whonl,whose,which,用来连接主语从句、宾语从句和表浯从句。Whoever,whomever,whichever,whatever为复合代词。例如: I didn't know what to do at that very moment.
The government sell public houses to whoever provides enough amount Of money. Whomever I worry about is none of your business. Take whichever you like,please.
第二节形容词与副词
形容词和副词在语法结构上都有比较级和最高级,它们的构成方法基本上一样,都与音节多少有关,有些形容词和副词有特殊的比较级和最高级形式。二者基本分为同级比较、比较级和最高级三种形式。
1.形容词与副词的用法
形容词中有词形相近的,也有词义相近的,应注意区别。如:
1)behind(在后的)---hind(后部的),considerate(周到的,体贴的)---considerable(应考虑的),eminent(闻名的)--imminent(紧迫的),gracious(亲切的)---graceful(优雅的),like(有生命的)---alive(活的),industrious(勤劳的)--industrial(工业的),like(同样的)---alike(同样的,仅作表语),opposite(相对的)---opposing(反对的),perspective(透视的)---respective(各自的),sensitive(伤感的)---sensible(明显的),etc。例如:
We did enjoy your staying in Beijing,and Mrs.Yan is really considerate. Professor Li has many world-famous inventions,and he is respectable to us.
As any one knows that we use our front teeth for biting and our hind teeth for chewing. It’s a considerable success for him.
2)elemental(初步的)--fundamental(基本的),eligible(合格的)--capable(能干的),flexible(灵活的)--changeable(可改变的),initial(最初的)--preliminary(初步的,预备的),slack(松弛的)--lazy(懒惰的),valueless(无价值的)--priceless(无价的),vivid(生动的)一living(活的),etc.。例如:
Henry’s speech was so vivid that his audience applauded againand again,It is easier to adapt to new situations if one has a flexible attitude. We have finished the preliminary exam.
Your suggestion is priceless,and 1 will consider carefully. 3)有些词尾为-ly的并非副词,而是形容词,如:lovdy,likdy,deadly,earthly(现世的),leisurdy(空闲的),weekly,yearly,manly(丈夫气概的),brotherly,friendly等。例如: What a lovely girl Jenny is.She is always ready to help others. China Daily is of course a daily newspaper but not a weekly one. He is a very friendly young man.
As he didn't have anyexperience,he was likely to have problems.
以下情况形容词常用于后置:1)形容词短语,即形容词+副词,介词短语或不定式。2)一些表语性形容词要后置,如:present,available,involved,concerned,etc,。3)形容词修饰不定代词something,anything,everything时要后置。例如: There was something nice about my feeling that she knew a11.
For this reason,as well as the additional cost involved,flow force compensation is generally not desirable.
I came across another question hard to answer then. I wondered if there was a room available.
副词的位置为:修饰哪个词就放在哪个词前面;放在系动词和助动词之后,行为动词和分词之前。例如:
I had only five-dollar bill with me when l boarded the townward train. The old law were instituted to protect the long neglected rights of children.I can hardly believe that he is the murderer.
Although he has advantages,it is still too early to say that he is sure to win. 2.比较级与最高级的基本形式和用法
形容词的比较级和最高级的构成为:单音节词一般在词尾加-er和-est。如果以-e结尾,仅加-r和-st;如末尾仅有一个辅音字母,须双写词尾冉加-er和-est;如果以y结尾的,把y变i,加-er,-est;多音节单词和双音节词(其中包括由分词和分词演变而来的形容词,如:known,worn,wounded,shocking,striking,interesting,ect, 则在其前加more和most;有些形容词的比较级和最高级是不规则的,如:good(well)-better-best,bad(ill)-worse-worst,many(much)-more-most,little-less-least,far-farther(further)-farthest(furthest)。有些形容词没 有比较级形式,如:absolute,chief,entire,eternal,excellent,fatal,final,foremost,inevitable,infinite,main,naked,perfect,possible,primary,right,sufficient,supreme,universal,utter,vital,whole,wooden,etc,例如: Mary is the best student in the class.
Further negotiation will be conducted next month. The food we have is sufficient.Needless to say,he is stronger than his opponent.
一般副词的比较级和最高级与形容词一样,单音节的以在词尾加-er和-est构成,多音节的以加more和most的方法构成;有些比较特殊,如:well—better-best,badly-worse-worst,much-more-most,little-less-least。以-ly结尾的副词,在其前面加more,most, 例如: Tonny runs most quickly than any other students in the class.
Which do you like best,Thorn Birds,Gone With the Wind Or Great Expectation? I prefer less sugar in the milk.
She gets more income every month than her husband.
形容词和副词的原级比较由“as+形容词或副词(或后跟名词或短语)+as”构成,“as„as’’前可加not,just,almost,nearly,quite,twice,several times等词修饰。否定式中not后面的as可改为so。例如:
Running for fifteen minutes will burn as many calories as walking for thirty minutes. Henan province is several times as large as Shanghai. Jimmy has as nervous a ways peaking as his father. Getting rid of a bad habit isn't so simple as taking it up. 形容词和副词的比较级形式为:“形容词(副词)比较级+than+„”,应注意than前后相比较的人或物要一致。比较级前可以跟even,much,still等副词修饰比较级,表示强调。例如: Mother worried much more about my younger brother than she did about me. Sound travels faster through water than throughI air.
The economic development in South China is faster than that in North China. My books are much more than Li Ping's. 形容词和副词的最高级的形式分别为:“the+形容词最高级十名词+范围表达”和“副词最高级+名词+范围表达”,副词的比较级和最高级不需要加the。例如:
Our foreign exchange reserve didn't decline despite the worst flood in sixty years. I finisbed the work more successfully than he had expected.
应注意以下表达式的含义:the same„as(和„„一样),no less than(不少于),not less than(只有),had better(最好),less than(不到),more or less(或多或少),other than(除了),rather than(而不是),the more„the more/less(越„„就越„„)例如:
I am sure that the amount of money used in repaying a loan would have the same value as the amount of money borrowed.
You had better finisll your homework today for the teacher will collect it tomorrow.
We have received ten dozen of personal computers which are less than the amount we ordered. The visltors to the exhibition were not less than three hundred,which disappointed them very much.
第三节
从句
从句分为定语从句,状语从句和名词从句三大类。定语从句又分为限定性和非限定性从句两种,由关系代词或关系副词引导,修饰主句的某个成分。状语从句分为时间、结果、让步、原因、条件及行为方式状语从句。名词从句包括主语、宾语、表语和同位语从句及there be句型。1.定语从句
限定性定语从句中that可代表人和事,而which只代表事;二者在从句中作主语或宾语。that作宾语时常可省略,which则不能,而且其后的“不及物动词+介词’’中的介词不能省略。which作宾语时,先行词与which之间的介词不能省。例如: The first doll that could say“mama”was invented in 1830.
The second half of his voyage was by far the more dangerous part,during which he sailed round the Cape Horn.
代表a11,anything,something,nothing,much等词时,用that而不用which,that作宾语可省略。例如:
I care anything that has something to do with it.
You'd better do something he prefers to do to please him.
That is the last time we met each other.
I came across the woman you told me about yesterday.
who和whom引导的从句用来修饰人,分别作从句的主语和宾语。where是关系副词,用于表示地点的定语从句,而when用来表示时间。whose是关系代词,修饰名词作定语。例如: Henry Ford is the person who is most responsible for developing the idea of mass production.
The knee is the joint where the thigh bone meets the large bone of the lower leg.
The next morning, when she came down to breakfast , Mary was beaming with the pleasure of a new,great discovery.
The visiting professor is a famous scientist whose son studies in my department.
在下列情况,限定性定语从句的关系代词可以省略:1)当关系代词在从句中作宾语或表语;或它们在从句中作介词的宾语,而该介词又在句末时;2)当先行词是that,all,only,everything,something,nothing等代词时,或先行词前有一个最高级形容词修饰时;3)当先行词前有only,any,all,first,no,last等修饰时,或先行词就是time,moment,way(anyway),direction,distance等名词时,关系代词即可省略。例如:
The delegation we had been waiting for finally arrived. I met the woman you told me about. She gave me all she could afford.
With TV we can see things happen almost at the exact moment they are happening.
非限定性定语从句,其作用为:对所修饰的成分作进一步的说明,它与主句用逗号隔开。此类从句省略后其余部分仍可成立。在非限定性定语从句中,which可代表前面的整个句子;代表人时只能用who,whom,而不能用that;as也可用作关系代词。例如: The telephone,as we know,was the invention of Alexander Graham Bell.
The Little White House in Warm Springs was the Georgia home President Franklin D.Roosevelt,who died there on April 12,1945.
Living in a damp house for a long time is harmful to one’s health,which is known to everyone. 2.状语从句
状语从句可分为:时间状语从句(主要由when,whenever,after,before,a5,slnce,once,assoonas,Until,while等连词引导),结果状语从句(由so„that和such„that连接),让步状语从句(由though,although, no matter,even if, however,whatever等词引导),原因状语从句(由as,because,since和for引导),条件状语从句(由if, whether,as long as,provided that等词引导),地点状语从句(由where引导),行为方式状语从句(由as引导)。有时条件状语从句中,主句不可以用将来时,而用一般时代替。例如: The small greenish flowers of the elm tree appear in the Spring, long before the leaves grow.QiongYao's novels used to be so popular that her books appeared on best-seller lists.Gas balloon is less safe than hot balloon because it may catch fire.Uniform acceleration(同样的加速)occurs if the rate of change remains the same over successive equal intervals of time.
Thousands of Chinese college students went to the US Consulate Shanghai,where they protested NATO's bombing at China's Embassy in Yugoslavia.状语从句中的 “主语+be”可以省略,前提是:从句主语和主句主语一致,且从句谓语“be”省略后的结构为“连词+现在分词/过去分词介词短语/形容词/名词短语”。)例如: When well fitted, glasses can correct most sight defects in healthy eyes. If necessary,I would like to see you in your office.Although seriously wounded,he never complained. 3.名词从句
名词从句包括主语从句、宾语从句,其中有介词与形容词的宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。主语从句
主语从句常出现在it is+名词、形容词、分词+主语从句”的形式中。例如:
It is reported that Taiwanese pop singer Meng Tingwei will hold a solo concert in Shanghai someday this month.
It must be pointed out that you have failed to meet the deadline. It usually happened that I was late because of traffic jams.主语从句还可用when,where,how,why,whether等连接副词,和who,whom,whose,what,which,whoever,whatever,whichever等连接代词来引起。例如: How to arrange the meeting is not your task.
Whose candidate will win the election is the question both political parties are asking. When I leave is my own decision.Whoever will go to the party won't change my mind of staying at home. 2)宾语从句
宾语从句可由that, 疑问代词或副词how,why和where等引出。例如:To postpone the conference until next month indicated that they were unprepared. Nearly a11 the staff agreed with what I said.
Everyone worried about her because no one was aware of where she had gone. Could you offer more details except that it happened at night? 由what,whether,how引导的宾语从句可用在介词后,而由that引导的从句只跟but,besides,except,in, save之后。例如: I can hardly believe in what they have done.He doesn’t know my phone number except that the city code is 021.一些表语性的形容词,如:alarmed,amazed,annoyed,astonished, certain,confident, disappointed, glad, pleased, proud, sad, shocked, sure, surprised, worried, ect.做表语时,后面可跟由that, how等引导的宾语从句。例如:
I was amazed how he could pass the exam without attending the lectures. He is confident that he will pass the Band 6 examination. She was surprised how simple his problem is.
We are all pleased that he will be able to pass the final examination.3)表语从句
表语从句对主语的内容起解释和阐述的作用;若表语从句用that引起,that起连接作用,不能省略。b表语从句也可用连接词how,when,where,why,what引起。由because引起的表语从句通常只用在“this/that/it is because” 结构中。例如: A logarithm(对数)is what is known in algebra exponent(代数的指数). One thing I admire most about them is that they are hospitable. She works too hard;That is why she is exhausted.
I must point out that where you intend to build a super-market is where the elderly do exercise every day. 4)同位语从句
同位语从句是由两个或两个以上同一层次语言单位组成的结构,其中前项与后项所指相同,句法功能相同。同位语从句由that引导,也可由whether,how,why,where, when等来引导。例如:
She ignored the teacher's instruction that she must study hard.
The question whether or not I should help him in such a case troubled me greatly.
第四节
动词不定式
1.不定式的基本形式与结构
动词不定式指通常由to加上动词原形(如to write)所构成的一种非限定性动词形式,但在有些情况下to可以省略。动词不定式有进行体和完成体(如上to be writing,to have written),也有被动态(如to be written),所有的主动词,不论是及物动词还是不及物动词,也不论是动作动词还是状态动词,都有不定式形式。助动词除be和have外, 没有不定式形式。动词不定式在语法功能上可作主语、宾语、表语、定语和状语。2.不定式的用法 1)不定式结构作主语
Te get contact with his family in Taiwan made him extremely happy since they separated more than 40 years ago.
To finish that task in such a short time is really a challenge.
在上述情况下,如果不定式较长,显得头重脚轻,则可由代词让作形式主语(形式主语it不可由that或this等其他代词代替),而将不定式放到后面。如:
It made him extremely happy to get contact with his family in Taiwan since they separated more than 40 years ago.
John admitted that it is always difficult for him to be on time.
不定式结构所表示的动作是谁做的,即不定式的逻辑主语,通常可以通过for sb.to do sth.结构表达:
It is quite important for us to read good books during a general review. It is not difficult fot those talented students to pass the exam.在某些形容词(如careless,clever,considerate,foolish,good,impolite,kind, naughty,nice,silly,stupid等)作表语时,不定式后可以加of来引导出其逻辑主语: It is very kind of you to tell me the truth. It is stupid of him to do such a silly thing. 2)不定式作宾语
不定式作宾语有两种:一种是及物动词后直接跟带to的不定式, 另一种是“及物动词+疑问词+带to的不定式。及物动词+带to的不定式结构: 只能跟动词不定式的动词,常见的有: afford, agree, aim, appear, ask, believe, care,claim,decide demand, desire, determine, expect, fail, happen, hesitate, hope, intend, learn, long, manage, offer, pretend, promise, prepare, refuse, seek, swear, undertake,want, wish等。He managed to solve the complicated problem.The stranger offered to show me the way.Mr.Smith undertook to build a new plant in South Africa.动词+疑问代(副)词+不定式:
这类动词常见的有advise, decide, find out, forget, inquire, know, learn, see, regard, remember, teach, tell, understand, wonder等。常见的疑问代(副)词有: what, when, where, which, how, whether等。
He does not know when to start.You can decide whether to continue or to stop.I will show you how to deal with it.有时,不定式可由it代替,而把不定式放到后面去。这可以用这一结构表达:动词(如find, think,consider,feel等)+it+ 形容词+不定式。
She considers it necessary to make friends with him.We find it difficult to finish all the homework before 9 o’clock.3)不定式做表语
一种情况为主语是不定式(表示条件);表语也是不定式(表示结果): To see is to believe.To work means to earn a living.
另一种情况为主语是以aim,duty,hope, idea,job, plan,problem, purpose,thing,wish等名词为中心的短语,或以what引导的名词性从句,不定式表语对主语起补充说明作用: His aim is to study abroad in the near future.
The most important thing is to negotiate with them about the price. What I want to say is to forget all the unhappy experience. 4)不定式作定语
不定式结构作名词词组修饰语主要有三种类型:
第一种,被修饰的名词词组是不定式的逻辑宾语。例如: There was really nothing to fear.
He gave me an interesting book to read.
如果不定式是不及物动词,后面就得加相应的介词。例如: Mary needs a friend to play with. That girl has nothing to worry about. They have a strict teacher to listen to.
Although the film had been on for ten minutes, I still was not able to find a chair to sit on. 第二种,被修饰的名词词组是不定式的逻辑主语;例如: Have you got a key to unlock the door? The action to be taken is correct.
There is nothing to be gained by pretending.
第三种,被修饰的名词词组是不定式的同位结构。这类名词通常是表示企图、努力、倾向、目的、愿望、is算、能力、意向等意义的名词:ability, attempt, effort, impulse, inclination,wish等。例如: Her daughter will make an even bigger effort to please her. I have no wishto quarrel withyou.
Neither of them had any inclination to do business with Mary.5)不定式作状语
不定式结构在句中作状语通常都能转换为限制性状语从句。例如作原因状语: They are quite surprised to see the great changes taking place in the area.
They are quite surprised because they see the great changes taking place in the area. He was lucky to arrive before dark.
He was lucky because he arrived before dark. 作目的状语:
She raised her voice to be heared better.
She raised her voice so that she could heard better. We went via Heidelberg to miss the traffic jam.
We went via Heidelberg so that we could miss the traffic jam. 作结果状语:
The French football team played so successfully as to defeat the Brazilians.
The French football team played so successfully that they even defeated the Brazilians. He got to the station only to be told the train had gone. He got to the station and was told that the train had gone. 不带to的不定式的使用 动词不定式通常带to,但在有些搭配中不带to,在另一些搭配中可带to可不带to。归纳起来,以下情况下使用不带to不定式:
1)在can/could, /may/might,will/would,shall/should,must, need,dare等情态动词之后,动词不定式不带to。
2)在表示感觉意义的动词,如see,feel,watch,notice,smell,hear,observe等后,或是表示“致使”意义的动词,如have,let,make等后,动词不定式不带to。例如: I often heard him say that he would study hard. I must have him see his own mistakes.
但是,当这类结构转换为被动语态时,后面的不带to不定式一般转换为带to不定式。例如:
He was often heard to say that he would study hard.
After he had finished speaking,he was made to answer innumerable questions. 3)在动词help之后可用不带to的不定式,也可用带to的不定式。例如: Help the old lady(to)carry the heavy box.4)在had better,would rather,may/might as well,rather than,can not but等搭配之后,动词不定式也不带to。例如:
Unless you feel to ill to go out,I would rather not stay at home tonight. She could not but criticize his foolish behaviour.5)在make do,make believe,let drop,1et fall,1et fly,let slip,let drive,let go off,hear say,hear tell,leave go of等固定搭配中,用不带to的动词不定式。例如: They let go of the rope.他们松开了绳子。
John let fly a torrent of abuse at me.约翰朝我痛骂了一顿。I've heard tell of him.我听说过他。
Some of the faculty were let go for lack of the students.由于生源不足,一些教职员工被解雇了。6)在介词but,except之后,如果其前有动词do的某种形式,其后不定式一般不带to,反之则必须带to,表示“不得不,只能”。例如: He will do anything except work on the farm.
There was nothing left for the enemy to do but surrender.
The spy was both hungry and cold;there was nothing left for him but to give in. I had no choice but to wait till it stopped raining. 下面一些短语是固定搭配,不带to:
can not help but,can not choose but,can not but,do nothing but,have nothing to do but。例如: I can not but admire his courage.如果上述句中有do,to省略:
I did nothing but watch TV last night. 如果是下面一个固定搭配,就带to: I have no choice but to give up my idea.7)紧跟在why或why not之后的动词不定式总是不带to。但是,紧跟在who,what,which,whether等连接词后的不定式带to。例如: Why stand up if you can sit down? Why not ask your teacher when you don't understand the meaning? You needn't decide yet whether to study arts or science. 4.不定式的完成式和进行式 1)构成
完成式:to+ have done 进行式:to+ be doing 2)用法
完成式:如果不定式所表示的动作(状态)发生在主要谓语动作之前,那么不定式就要用其完成式。
进行式:如果主要谓语动作(情况)发生时,不定式所表示的动作正在发生,那么不定式就要用其进行式。例如:
She feels relaxed to have finished writing her thesis before the deadline. The Vikings are believed to have discovered America.
When you called me last night, I happened to be working on the computer. 5.不定式的被动形式
当不定式的逻辑主语是动作的承受者时,不定式要用被动形式,包括它的一般式和完成式。例如:
For twelve years, Spanish censorship did not allow Lorca's name to be mentioned and his work to be published.
The snow was supposed to have been blown off the mountain. 6.不定式的否定形式
否定形式是在不定式的标志to前加not。例如: I decided not to ask him again.
Please remember not to leave the lights on when you are out.
第五节 动名词 1.动名词的形式: 动名词是由动词原形+ing构成(如writing),有完成时态和被动语态(如having written,being written)。
2.动名词的用法
动名词通常在句中作主语和宾语。1)动名词作主语
Going to the college is the little boy's dream.
Keeping studying hard will make you pass the exam. 2)动名词作宾语
有些动词后面只能带动名词作宾语,不能带不定式作宾语。此类动词常见的有:admit,acknowledge,anticipate,appreciate,avoid,consider,contemplate,defer,delay,deny,detest,dislike,ensure,enjoy,escape,excuse,evade,facilitate,fancy,favour,finish,forbid,imagine,include,keep,mind, miss,postpone,practise,resent,resist,risk,suggest,quit,worth等。例如:
John was considering buying a new car.I hope you didn’t contemplate coming with us on this trip. The witness denied having seen the accused man. I would appreciate your keeping it a secret.
3)某些短语后面只能接动名词,不能接不定式。
此类短语常见的有:be(get)used to, be accustomed to, be dedicated to, be devoted to,be busy,be committed to,be suject to,cannot help,cannot resist,cannot stand,confess to,feel like,give up,have trouble(in), have difficulty(in),have a good/hard time(in),have fun(in),have an objection to,it is no good/use,keep on,insist on,look forward to,object to,pay attention to,put off,resort to,succeed in等。例如: I cannot stand getting up early in the morning.
I have no difficulty(in)reaching the top of the mountain.There is no use staying on. I cannot resist(his)bargaining.
Although punctual himself,the professor was quite used to students’being late for his lecture.4)动词或短语后面也可以接动名词的被动形式。用主动形式还是被动形式,要根据句子的意思而定。例如:
Carlos just missed being caught.
That person wore dark glasses to avoid being recognized.
I object to being treated like a child. 3.另一类动词后面可以带动名词做宾语,也可以带不定式作宾语。这类动词又可以分为两种: 1)带动名词作宾语与带不定式作宾语而意义无多大区别的动词
a)在begin,cannot bear,cease,continue,dread,like,love,neglect,omit,prefer,propose等动词之后,如表一般的行为,用动名词作宾语为多;如表示特定的或具体的动作,则用不定式结构作宾语为多。例如:
I don’t like swimming.I don’t like to swim this afternoon.
John prefers doing it his way.John prefers to go outing tomorrow.b)在begin, start等动词之后,如表示有意的动作,用动名词结构为多;如表示无意的动作,用不定式结构为多。例如:
After some hesitation,he began speaking out his own opinion. It has already begun to rain.
c)在attempt,intend,plan等动词之后,用不定式结构与用动名词结构意义相同,但以用不定式较为常见。例如:
He intended to buy a new car.
He intended travelling abroad next summer.d)在encourage,permit,allow,recommend,advise,authorise等动词之后,一般用动名词作宾语,或者用不定式作宾语补足语。即:
encourage/permit/allow/recommend/advise/authorise+doing,或encourage/permit/allow/recommend/advise/authorise+somebody+to do。例如: He advised going out for a walk.
He advised us to go out for a walk.
e)在agree,decide等动词之后,可以直接跟不定式结构,但如果跟动名词,则动词后必须加适当的介词。例如:
He agreed to do me a favor.= He agreed on doing me a favor. In the end the manager decided to double the advertising budget.= In the end the manager decided on doubling the advertising budget.
f)在need,want,require, deserve等动词之后,可以用动名词的主动形式表示被动意义,这相当于用不定式的被动形式。例如:
The house needs repairing.= The house needs to be repaired.The disabled deserve respecting.= The disabled deserve to be respected. 2)带动名词作宾语与带不定式作宾语而意义不同的动词
a)动词remember,forget后可以跟不定式或动名词,但意义有明显区别:跟动名词,其动作发生在“记得”或“忘记”的动作之前;跟不定式,其动作发生在“记得”或“忘记”的动作之后。试比较:
I remember posting this letter.我记得这封信已经寄出了。
I remember to post this letter in the afternoon.我记得下午要将这封信寄走。b)动词regret后可以跟不定式或动名词,但意义有明显区别: regret doing:为做过的事感到抱歉 regret to do:为即将要做的事感到抱歉
试比较:I regret to say that I can not go with you after school.
I regret having criticized you seriously in class. c)动词try,mean,can not help,used to后跟不定式还是动名词,取决于这些动词本身的含义。例如:
You should try to answer the questions by yourself.(try to do:设法或努力去做)We try using this new method.(try doing:试着做某事)I meant to go to the exhibition but I forgot.(mean to do:is算做某事)Success means working very,very hard.(mean doing:意味着做某事)I can't help apologizing.(can not help doing:忍不住做某事)I can't help to apologize for him.(can not help to do:不能帮助做某事)Mr.Smith used to jog in the morning,but now he has stopped.(used to do:过去经常或总是干某事)Inland canals are used to ship farm and factory goods to nearby towns.(be used to do:被用来干某事)I am not used to getting up early in the morning.(be/get used to doing:
习惯于干某事)d)动词stop,continue,go on,leaveoff之后,通常用动名词结构作宾语;如果用不定式结构,则不是宾语而是目的状语,相当于in order to。试比较: They stopped working.他们停止工作(来做其他事)。They stopped to work。他们停止(做其他事)来工作。
The students went on reciting the text.学生们继续背诵课文。
The students went on to recite the text.学生们停下其他事,继续背诵课文。She let off doing the housework.她停止做家务(去干其他事)。She let off to do the housework.她停止(干其他事)来做家务。动名词的逻辑主语问题
动名词,顾名思义,具有名词的特点,即可以加物主代词和名词的属格来表示其逻辑(这时动名词的逻辑主语与句子主语不一致)。如果动名词的逻辑主语就是句子主语,不用加物主代词或名词的属格。例如:
The watchman reported finding the door open.= The watchman reported that he had found the door open.
此处,finding的主语与主句主语一致,都是the watchman,所以finding前不加物主代词。I appreciated very much your helping me through the tough period.此处,helping的主语是you,而主句的主语是I,两者不一致,所以helping前的物主代词your不能省略。
一般说来,能带动名词作宾语的动词都可以根据语义意图在动名词之前加上或略去主语。但有些动词,如excuse,forgive,pardon等,其后的动名词结构总是带有逻辑主语。这些逻辑主语通常由名词或代词宾格表示,也可由名词属格或形容词性物主代词表示。I do mind people smoking in public places.(名词宾格作逻辑主语)We don't understand him needing so much money.(代词宾格作逻辑主语)I will never forgive his betraying me by breaking his promise.(物主代词作逻辑主语)Mary excused the boy’s upsetting the ink.(名词属格作逻辑主语)
第六节分词
1.分词的形式
这里所讲的分词包括-ing分词和-ed分词,即传统意义上的现在分词和过去分词。现在分词由动词原形+-ing构成(如listening);过去分词通常由动词原形+-ed构成(如listened),但也有不规则形式(如go-gone)。现代英语的绝大多数都是规则动词,不规则的只是少数。2.分词的基本用法
分词在句中通常可以用作表语、定语、补语和状语。下面按照现在分词和过去分词的用法分别作介绍。
现在分词的基本用法:
现在分词表示主动的意义;表示一般性的或正在进行的动作;在表现形式上有“一般式”和“完成式”与“主动式”和“被动式”之分,1)作表语
现在分词作表语通常表示主语所具有的特征。例如: This story is quite interesting.
The journey without you will be boring. 2)作定语
现在分词可以单独作定语,也可以构成合成词作定语,但在更多情况下是分词短语作定语,包括限定性和非限定性(用逗号与其他部分分开),在意义上相当于一个定语从句。现在分词作定语通常带有主动意义和未完成意义。例如:
The man following was obviously in a hurry.(现在分词单独作定语)They acted just like a conquering army.(现在分词单独作定语)Do you know the man standing over there by the door?(分词短语作限定性定语)Last night,we caught a thief stealing John’s bike.(分词短语作限定性定语)The name Nebraske comes from the Oto Indian word “ebrathka”,meaning flat water.(分词短语作非限定性定语)3)作宾语补足语 a.表示感觉和心理状态的动词,如hear,feel,find,listen to,look at,watch,notice,observe,smell,see等词的宾语可以用现在分词作宾语补足语。例如: I noticed him slipping away before the end of the meeting. I can smell turkey roasting,and it's making me hungry.
b.表示“致使”等意义的动词,如catch,get,have,keep,leave,set等词的宾语可以用现在分词作宾语补足语。例如:
What I saw just now set me thinking of my childhood in the countryside. Please don't keep the machine running while you are away. 4)作状语
现在分词作状语表示主语在进行一动作的同时所进行的另一动作,它对谓语动词起修饰或陪衬的作用。这时要注意现在分词与其逻辑主语在时态和意义上的统一。例如: Rushing out of the room,he was knocked down by a car.(作时间状语)= When he rushed out of the room,he was knocked down by a car. Working harder,you will pass the entrance exam.(作条件状语)= If you work harder,you will pass the entrance exam. She sat at a window,reading a book.(作伴随状语)=She sat at a window and read a book.
Having won the championship,he was awarded a million dollars.(作原因状语)= Because he had won the championship,he was awarded a million dollars. Even if taking a taxi,I will still be late for the meeting.(作让步状语)= Even if take a taxi,I will still be late for the meeting.
The road is under construction,thus causing the delay.
(作结果状语)= The road is under construction,and thus caused the delay.注意,当现在分词作让步状语时,一般放在句首,常常由although,though,even if, unless等连词引入;作结果状语时,一般放在句末,前面可以加so,thus,hence,thereby等副词。过去分词的基本用法:
与现在分词不同,过去分词表示被动的意义,表示已经完成和被动的动作。在表现形式上,只有一种形式。1)作表语
过去分词作表语表示主浯所处的状态。用作表浯的过去分词大多来自及物动词;不及物动词的过去分词能作表语的只限于少数表示位置转移的动词,如go,come,assemble等,它们用在连系动词之后,表示完成意义,无被动意义。例如: The man looked quite disappointed. He is greatly discouraged by her refusal. His hair is nearly all gone.已经形容词化了的过去分词大多可作表语,常见的有:accomplished,amazed,amused,astonished,broken,closed,completed,complicatcd,confused,crowded,devoted,disappointed,discouraged,drunk,excited,frightened,hurt,interested,lost,satisfied,surprised, worried等。做定语
a)前置定语的过去分词通常来自及物动词,带有被动意义和完成意义。例如: We like skating in the frozen lake in the winter.
= We like skating in the lake which has been frozen in the winter. How many finished products have you got up to now? = How many products that have been finished have you got up to now? 来自不及物动词的过去分词很少能单独用作前置定语,能作这样用的仅限以下几个词,这时仅表示完成意义,不表示被动意义: a retired worker = a worker who has retired
an escaped prisoner = a prisoner who has escaped a faded/withered flower = a flower that has faded the risen sun = the sun that has just risen a returned student = a student who has returned vanished treasure = treasure that has vanished b)用作后置定语的过去分词通常也来自及物动词,表示被动意义和完成意义。这时相当于一个定语从句。例如:
Things seen are better than things heard.
= Things which are seen are better than things which are heard. The lobster broiled over charcoal was delicious.
= The lobster which was broiled over charcoal was delicious.做宾语补足语
a)see, hear, feel,find,think等表示感觉和心理状态的动词可以带过去分词作宾语补足语。例如:
Tom found himself involved in an awkward situation. I saw Tom dressed like a beggar in the street.
Everybody thought the match lost until the last minute.d)make, get, have, keep 等表示“致使”意义的动词可以带过去分词作宾语补足语。例如: I have my clothes washed everyday.Don't get your schedule changed;stay with us in the class. He’s trying to make himself understood.Please keep us informed of the latest price.
c)like,want,wish,order等表示希望、要求、命令等意义的动词可以带过去分词作宾语补足语。例如:
We don't like such topics(to be)discussed in class. I wish this problem(to be)solved this week. 4)作状语
用作状语的过去分词通常来自及物动词。过去分词用作状语时,修饰主句的谓语动词,意义上相当于状语从句,表示时间、条件、原因、伴随状况等。过去分词作状语,前边往往可以加when, while, if,as if, though。一般说来,这种结构的逻辑主语必须与主句的主语一致。例如:
Whenever praised,she blushes.(作时间状语)= Whenever she is praised,she blushes.
United,we stand;divided,we fall.(作条件状语)= If we are united,we stand;If we are divided,we fall. Written in great haste,this book is full of errors.(作原因状语)= Because this book is written in great haste,it is full of errors.
Mary was reading a love story,completely lost to the romantic life.(作伴随状浯)= Mary was reading a love story,and was completely lost to the romantic life.Although born in Germany,John lives and works in U.S.A.(作让步状语)= Although John was born in Germany,he lives and works in U.S.A.3.分词的完成式及被动式
前面提到过,过去分词只有一种形式,所以这里所讲的完成式及被动式均指现在分词的完成式及被动式。
如果现在分词表示的是一般性动作,不表明动作的先后或与谓语动作同时发生,这时要用现在分词的一般形式。例如:
Living in the downtown,we found a lot of amusements. 如果现在分词所表示的动作先于句子谓语发生,就要用现在分词的完成式“(not)having+过去分词”。例如:
Having heard from my father,I was relieved.
Not having received any letter from my family,I was worried.
如果现在分词的逻辑主语是现在分词所表示的动作的对象,则要用现在分词的被动形式,包括其一般形式“(not)being+过去分词”和其完成形式“(not)having been+过去分词”。例如: Upon being questioned,he denied having robbed the bank.
The new method,having been widely used abroad,can increase the working efficiency.4.分词独立结构
如果过去分词或现在分词带有与句子主语不同的主语,这就构成了独立结构,也叫独立主格结构或垂悬结构,通常在句中起状语丛句的作用,表示原因、时间、条件、方式或伴随状况。例如:
The holidays being over,they began to get down to do their work again.(原因状语)= As the holiday was over,they began to get down to do their work again. All things considered,her paper is of greater value than yours.(条件状语)= All things are considered,her paper is of greater value than yours. His homework done,Johan went out to play.(时间状语)= After his homework had been done,Johan went out to play.
The girl was smiling sweetly,her long hair flowing in the breeze.(伴随状语)当独立结构表示伴随状况时,可变为由with引导的介词词组, 而表示否定意义的类似结构便可由without引导。例如上例可变为:
The girl was smiling sweetly with her long hair flowing in the breeze. Without anyone noticing,I slipped out of the room.
独立结构的位置比较灵活,它可以置于句首、句中或句末。另外,独立结构中用作主语的名词之前的限定词有时可以省略。例如:
The manager sat quietly in his office,(his)eyes closed.
He stood in the doorway,(his)wet cloak dripping water on the rug,and waited for some sign of recognition.
第七节
前后呼应 主谓一致的基本原则
主谓一致有以下三条原则:
1)语法一致原则,即在语法形式上取得一致。例如,主语是单数形式,谓语动词也采取单数形式;主语是复数形式,谓语动词也采取复数形式。例如:The students are very young.This picture looks beautiful.
2)意义一致原则,即从意义着眼处理一致关系。例如,主语形式虽是单数但意义是复数,谓语动词也采取复数形式;而有些主语形式虽是复数但意义上看作单数,谓语动词也采取单数形式。
The people in that country are fighting for independence. The crowd deeply respect their leader.
Three years in a strange land seems a long time.
3)就近原则,即谓语动词的单数或复数形式取决于最靠近它的词语。例如: Neither he nor I am going to see the film tonight because we are busy. 2.主谓一致的用法
根据以上三条原则,主谓一致有如下用法: 1)下列结构作主语,谓语动词一般用单数形式
a.表示时间、重量、长度、价值的名词作主语,谓语动词通常用单数形式。例如: Two hundred miles is a long distance. Ten dollars is a high price for that book. b.由anyone,anything,anybody,no one,nothing,everyone,everybody,everything,someone,somebody,each,either,neither等不定代词作主语,谓语动词使用单数形式。例如: Someone is knocking at the door.
Anything is better than going to the movie tonight.
c.由“a series of,a kind of,a portion of +名词”作主语,谓语动词应用单数形式。例如: A series of debates is scheduled to be held next week.
d.由“many a,more than one +单数名词”作主语,尽管意义上表示复数,但谓语动词仍采用单数形式。例如:
Many a person in these circumstances has hoped for a long break. There is more than one answer to your question. e.“名词+and+名词”作主语,表示同一人、同一概念或事物时,谓语动词用单数形式。例如:
A writer and educator is giving a lecture now.(这个人既是作家又是教育家)f.“either(neither)+ of +复数名词(或代词)”作主语,谓语动词用单数形式。例如: If either of you takes a vacation now,we will not be able to finish the work. Neither of them wants to come.
g.在each„and each„,every„and every„等结构之后,谓语动词用单数形式。例如: Each man and each woman has the right to vote.
h.动词不定式、动名词或分句作主语时,谓语动词一般用单数形式。例如: What I want to say is none of your business. Listening to the classical music is enjoyable.
i.以-ics结尾的复数名词指一门学科时,如politics(政治学),mathematics(数学),statistics(统计学),acoustics(声学),linguistics(语言学)等,谓语动词用单数形式。例如: Mathematics is what he majors in. 2)下列结构作主语,谓语动词单复数形式取决于of后的名词。
a.由“a11,none,no,most,half,the last,the rest,the remainder+of+名词”等不定代词作主语,谓语动词单复数形式由of后名词的单复数而定。例如: None of the food is wasted.
None of the students were absent. The rest of the lecture was dull.
The rest of the bikes were on sale yesterday.
b.由“lots of,heaps of,loads Of,scads of +名词”作主语,谓语动词单复数形式由of后名词的单复数而定。例如:
Lots of work is to be done this week.Lots of people are going to swim this afternoon. There is loads of milk on the farm.
There are loads of big red apples on the ground. There is heaps of fun.
c.由“分数或百分数十of +名词或代词”作主语,谓语动词的单复数形式取决于of后名词或代词的单复数形式。例如:
Three-quarters of the area is cultivated.Ninety percent of the students have passed the exam.
3)下列结构作主语,谓语动词的单复数形式根据意义而定。
a.由“the+形容词” 这种结构作主语,根据意义一致的原则决定谓语动词的单复数形式。如果表示一类人(如the rich,the poor,the blind,the deaf,the sick,the young,the old),谓语动词用复数形式;如果表示个人或抽象概念,谓语动词用单数形式。例如: The blind are taught trades in special schools.
(表示一类人)The good in him overweighs the bad.
(表示抽象概念)The departed was a good friend of his.
(表示个人)b.family,crowd,committee,class,audience,group,government,team,public,majority,minority等集合名词作主语,谓语动词单复数形式应根据意义而定。例如: The family like to listen to the music.(the family指这家人,用作复数)The family is small.(the family指这个家庭,用作单数)The committee has considered your proposal.(the committee指委员会,用作单数)The committee were arguing for an hour before they gave their votes.
(the committee指委员会的委员们,用作复数)下列结构作主语,谓语动词一般单复数均可。
a.以数词为名词词组中心词作主语时,谓语动词一般单复数均可。例如: Five and six make/makes eleven. Seven times ten are seventy.
但是:Twenty from thirty leaves ten.
Six sevens are forty-two.b.由”one in/out of +名词”作主语,谓语动词单复数均可。例如: One in ten were/was present.
下列结构作主语,谓语动词用复数形式。
由and或both„and连接两个单数形式的名词词组作主语时,一般谓语动词用复数形式。例如:
A girl and a boy want to go. Both rice and wheat are grown in that country.
6)下列结构作主语,谓语动词单复数形式视具体情况而定。
a.由as well as,together with,besides, like,along with,with but,except,accompanied by,rather than,including连接两个名词作主语,谓语单复数形式应由连接词前的名词而定。例如: The president of the college,together with the deans,is planning a conference for the purpose of laying down certain regulations.
The young mother with her two children is coming now.
The plant manager,like many technicians,is experienced in designing new products. b.“名词+of+名词”作主语,谓语动词单复数形式跟of前的名词一致。例如: The picture of the children brings back many memories of my past experiences. The effects of cigarette smoking have been proved to be extremely harmful.
c.由not only„but also,either„or,neither„nor或or连接的并列主语,通常根据就近一致原则,谓语动词的单复数形式由最接近它的名词词组的单复数形式决定。例如: He or you have taken my pen.
Neither the students nor the teacher knows anything about it. One or two days are enough to visit the city.d.there be句型中的谓语动词单复数形式一般取决于其后的真正主语的单复数形式。例如: There is a garden in front of the house. There are two things I'd like to say here. 7)关于几对容易混淆词组的一致用法
a.由“this/that kind/type of +名词”作主语,谓语动词用单数形式;而由”these/those kind/type of +复数名词”作主语,谓语动词用复数形式。例如: This kind of apples is highly priced. Those kind(s)of tests are good.
b.由“a number of,a total of,an average of +复数名词”作主语,谓语动词用复数形式;由“the number of,the total of,the average of +复数名词”作主语,谓语动词用单数形式。例如: A number of students are waiting for the bus.
The number of the students in this university is increasing yearly.c.one of,the(only)one of的一致用法
This is one of the books that have been recommended.
This is the(only)one of the books that has been recommended. 3.前后呼应的用法 1)当everyone,everybody,no one,nobody,anyone,anybody,someone,somebody,everything,anything,something,nothing等用作主语时,其相应的代词一般用单数形式。例如: If anybody calls,tell him that I'm out. Something strange happened,didn't it? Every passenger has to carry his own luggage.
2)人称代词与名词的呼应:人称代词I(me),he(him),she(her),it(it)都是代替前面的单数名词,而they(them),we(us)则是代替复数名词的,you既可以代表单数,也可以代表复数。但表示泛指的时候,用he或one来表示。例如:
If a young person enters a classical music field only for money,he is in the wrong profession. The leaves of the red maple are highly poisonous to horses and when ingested can kill them within fifteen hours。
3)物主代词与名词的呼应:my,our,his,her,its,their要与代替的名词在数上一致。例如: The welfare department,as well as the other social services,will have its budget cut. Delphins are warm-blooded;that is,their body temperature always stays about the same,regardless of the surroundings.
4)反身代词与其所代成分间的呼应。
Many primitive people believed that by eating an animal they could get some of the good qualities of that animal for themselves.Everybody clings to this illusion about himself. I have just been out to get myself a cup of tea. 5)指示代词与所代名词间的呼应:this和that指代单数名词或不可数名词,these和those指代复数名词(those还可以用作先行词,引导定语从句,表示“那些人”)。例如: She invited all those who had been her former colleagues.
The amount of the pressure caused by the weight of a column of fluid is determined by the height of this column.
6)much和much of后接不可数名词,而many和many of后接可数名词的复数。例如: There is not much coal left.
A great many of the houses were knocked down by the earthquake. 7)表示量的词后面有的接可数名词,有的接不可数名词。接可数名词的有:a number of,a range of,a series of十复数名词;接不可数名词的有:a great deal of,an amount of十不可数名词;既可接可数又可接不可数名词的有:a lot of,a variety of。例如: The government attached a great deal of importance to education. Quite a number of women applied for this job. The college library has a variety of books. An apple is a variety of fruit.
A wide range of disorders can affect the human muscular system.
第八节.反意疑问句 1.反意疑问句的形式
反意疑问句一般有以下四种形式: 肯定陈述句+否定反意疑问。例如: This pencil is red,isn't it?
否定陈述句+肯定反意疑问。例如: This pencil isn't red,is it?
肯定陈述句+肯定反意疑问。例如:
This pencil is red,is it? 否定陈述句+否定反意疑问。例如: This pencil isn't red,isn't it? 前两种形式是主要的,后两种不常见。
2.反意疑问句的用法
1)当陈述部分是there be句型时,反意疑问部分的主语用there。例如: There aren’t a lot of flowers in the garden in winter,are there?
There existed different opinions on this issue,didn’t there?
2)当陈述部分是以不定代词one作主语时,反意疑问部分的主语在正式场合用one,在非正式场合用you。例如:
One cannot succeed at this,can one?
One cannot succeed at this,can you? 3)当陈述部分是I’m„结构时,反意疑问部分一般用aren't I。例如: I am a student,aren’t I? 4)当陈述部分是一个带有that引导的宾语从句的复合结构时,反意疑问部分一般根据主句的主语和谓语动词而定。例如:
You told me(that)I had passed the exam,didn’t you? He says that everybody in our class will attend the meeting,doesn’t he? 但是,当陈述部分的主句是I think,I suppose,I believe等结构时,反意疑问部分则往往由that从句中的主语和谓语动词决定,并且要注意否定的转移。例如: I believe(that)it is going to rain,isn’t it?
I don't think(that)he will come,will he? 5)当陈述部分的谓语动词是have时,反意疑问部分要根据have的意义及形式而定。
a.当have表示“所有”含义时,反意疑问可以用have形式,也可以用do形式。例如: He has a book in his hand,hasn't he? He has a book in his hand,doesn’t he? b.当陈述部分的动词是have的否定形式时,反意疑问部分是用have形式还是用do形式,取决于陈述部分的动词形式。例如: You haven't a car,have you? You don't have any money with you,do you? c.当have不表示“所有”含义而表示其他含义时,反意疑问句则必须用do的形式。例如: We had a good time in the vacation,didn’t we? He has his breakfast at seven everyday,doesn’t he? You have to get up early tomorrow,don’t you? 6)当陈述部分带有never,nothing,nowhere,seldom,hardly,rarely,few,little等否定词或半否定词时,反意疑问部分的动词用肯定形式。例如:
The summit meeting never took place,did it? You can hardly believe what he said,can you? There is little ink in the bottle,is there? Few people know this place,do they? 当陈述部分的谓语动词是带有un-,in-,im-,dis-等否定前缀的动词,则仍然把陈述部分看作肯定句,那么反意疑问部分用否定形式。例如:
He is impolite to the teacher,isn’t he? He distrusted anybody around him,didn’t he? 当陈述部分带有情态动词ought to时,反意疑问部分在英式英语中用ought to形式,在美式英语中用should形式。例如:
You ought to see the new picture,shouldn’t you? Teachers ought to be honoured,oughtn’t they? 8)当陈述部分带有情态动词used to时,反意疑问部分可以用used to形式,也可以用did形式。例如:
She used to live abroad,usedn’t she? There used to be a news stand in the corner of the street,didn’t there? 当陈述部分带有情态动词must时,反意疑问部分需视must的含义而定。a.当must表示“命令或强制”时,反意疑问部分用mustn't。例如: You must do it by yourself,mustn’t you? b.当must表示“有必要”时,反意疑问部分用needn't。例如: You must see him tonight,needn’t you? c.当must表示“一定”或“想必”等推测意义时,反意疑问部分不用mustn't,而要根据must后的动词形式而定。例如: He must be crazy to do so,isn’t he? She must have been there for a long time,hasn’t she? They must have stayed at home last night,didn’t they? 10)当陈述部分带有need时,反意疑问部分需视need的含义而定。如果need用作情态动词,则反意疑问部分用need形式;如果need用作实义动词,表示“需要”,则反意疑问部分用do形式。例如:
You needn't go there,need you? She needs to go there,doesn’t she? Plants need sun to grow,don’t they? 11)当陈述部分带有I'd better或I’d rather时,反意疑问部分用hadn't或wouldn't。例如 : You'd better finish the task before tomorrow,hadn’t you? He’d rather stay with us,wouldn't he? 12)当陈述部分是祈使句时,反意疑问部分一般用will you,won't you,would you。例如: Don't be too late,will you? Close the door,won’t you? Come here,will you?
Open your books,would you? 12)陈述部分是以Let’s开头的祈使句时,反意疑问部分用shall we;若是以Let us开头的祈使句,反意疑问部分则用will you。例如: Let’s have a party tonight,shall we? Let us have a look at your pictures,will you? 注意, 如果祈使句是否定形式,那么反意疑问句只能用will you。例如: Don't forget to bring your notebooks here tomorrow,will you?
第九节
强调句
这里讲的强调句主要是以it为引导词的分裂句。它的结构形式是:It+be的一定形式+被强调成分+ that-/who-分句(只有当被强调成分是句子的人称主语时,连接词才可以用who,此时也可以用that:其余情况下只能用that)。通过这种结构可以强调除谓语动词外的大多数句子成分。例如:
It was Mary that/who needed the cash. It was the cash that Mary needed.
It was from Henry that John bought the car. It was the car that John bought from Henry.
此结构可以强调多种多样的状语成分,例如强调时间状语、地点状语、方式状语,也可以强调由because引导的原因状语分句,但不可以强调由since/as引导的原因状语分句,也不可以强调由although和whereas引导的从属或并列分句。例如:
It was before liberation that our people suffered from the imperialist aggression. It is in Iran that the family members participate in the wedding preparations. It was because he'd never had the opportunity that John hadn't learned to drive.
如果要强调谓语动词,通常采用另一种句型:主语通常是由what引导的名词性分句;分句的主动词通常是do的一定形式;主语补语通常是不定式结构,可带to,也可不带to。例如: The pupils elected him monitor of the class。强调谓语动词elected,变为:
What the pupils did was elect/to elect him monitor of the class.
第十节
虚拟语气
虚拟语气是说话人为表示一种假设的情况或一种主观的愿望,即认为动词所表示的动作或状态并非事实或主观设想时所用的语气。
虚拟语气的形式与用法:
1.有一类虚拟语气的形式称为be型虚拟式,即不管主语是什么人称,动词一律用原形(或should+动词原形)。
以下几种情况必须用be型虚拟式:
1)一些表示命令,要求,决定,建议等概念的动词后由that引导的宾语从句中,必须用be型虚拟式。这类动词有:ask(要求),advise(建议),command(命令),decide(决定),demand(命令),insist(坚持),move(提议),order(命令),propose(提议),recommend(建议),request(要求),require(要求),suggest(建议),urge(极力主张)。例如: We strongly suggest that he(should)be told about it earlier. The doctor insisted that his patient take it easy for three months. I require that they come by ten.
I recommended that each competitor receive $100. The judge ordered that the witness tell the truth.
2)一些表示主张、要求、命令、愿望、建议等概念后的主语从句中,必须用be型虚拟式。此类词主要有:
It is necessary, essential(重要的),advisable(应该的),appropriate(合适的),desirable(值得的),fitting(合适的),important(重要的), imperative(必须的),obligatory(必须的),proper(适当的),strange(奇怪的),urgent(紧要的),vital(极重要的)that„;
It is(was, has been)suggested(decided,desired,ordered,proposed,requested)that„ 例如: It is highly desirable that a new president be appointed.
It is important that everybody have his health checked yearly. I think it advisable that he leave soon.It is decided that you be the first one to do the experiment.
3)一些表示主张、要求、命令等概念的名词后面由that引导的同位语从句中,通常用be型虚拟式。这类词主要有:advice,command,importance,idea,insistence,motion(提议),necessity,order,plan,proposal(建议),recommendation(建议),request,requirement, resolution(决议),suggestion,understanding(协议)。例如:
My suggestion is that he be sent to help this group.
4)在lest,for fear that或in case表示“生怕,以防万一,免得”引导的从句中,从句常常用should。例如:
He studied day and night,lest he should fail in the test.
We dare not play jokes on him for fear that he should become angry. Be quiet in case you should wake the baby.
5)某些表示祝愿、诅咒、禁止等的语句中用be型虚拟式。例如: God bless you!God damn you!Long live Chairman Mao!Heaven forbid!2.下列两种句型,从句总是用一般过去式表示虚拟语气。
1)It is(high)time that(该做„„,必须做„„),丛句用一般过去时。例如: It is time that he went to bed now.
It is high time that this wrong spending was checked.
2)would rather, would sooner, had rather这些表示“宁愿”的短语后面的从句中的谓语动词应使用一般过去时表示虚拟语气。例如:
Don't come today.1 would rather you came tomorrow. He had rather his children didn’t make so much noise. I would sooner we had dinner now.
3.If引导的条件状语从句的虚拟语气用法 If引导的从句的虚拟语气主要有三种结构:
1)与现在情况相反:主句谓语用“would/could/might +动词原形”,从句谓浯用“动词的一般过去式”(be的过去式一律用were)。例如: If I had time,I would go with you.
If I were you,I might refuse the engagement.
2)与过去情况相反:主句谓语用“would/could + havedone'’,从句渭语用“动词的过去完成式”。例如:
If I hadn’t lost my way,I would have caught the last train. They would have arrived earlier if there had been no storm.
3)与将来情况相反:主句谓语用”would/could/might +动词原形”,从句谓语用"were to/should+动词原形”。例如:
If you were to see Mary,what would you tell her? If I were to do it,I would do it in a different way. If it should rain tomorrow,I would stay at home. 4)省略if的虚拟语气句。
虚拟条件从句中的谓语动词如果是were,should,had等词时,可以省略连词if, 但必须将were,should,had等词移至主浯前形成句子倒装。例如:
Had he been given some information about it, he could have answered the question. Were you to get up earlier,you wouldn’t be late. 4.Wish后的宾语从句中的虚拟语气用法
动词wish后跟由that引导的宾语从句(that经常被省略)要用虚拟浯气表示一种不可实现的愿望。
1)宾语从句用过去式表示与现在事实相反。例如: I wish I had enough time to finish my homework today.
My brother is in Europe on vacation,but I wish he were here with me. 2)宾浯从句用过去完成时表示与过去事实相反。例如: I wish 1 had gone to the movies with you last night. I wish Professor Lee had taught me this equation. 3)宾语从句用“would/could +动词原型”表示一种愿望或要求。例如:I wish that you would come next time.
She wishes that you could stay here longer.
5.由as if/as though引导的状语从句表示方式时,意思是“好像”,这时从句中的谓语动词应用虚拟语气。
1)状语从句用过去式(be用were的形式)表示与现在的事实相反。例如: He treats me as if I were a stranger.
2)状语从句用过去完成式表示与过去的事实相反。例如:
He talked as if he had been to Australia.6.介词或介词短语表示虚拟:有时假设的情况并不以条件从句表示出来,而是通过一个介词或介词短语来表示,或通过上下文表示出来。如but for,but that,with,without,otherwise,on condition(that),in case of,supposing,on the understanding that等表示让步假设。例如: If I hadn’t got your help,I wouldn't have found my present job. = Without your help,I wouldn't have found my present job. = But for your help,1 wouldn't have found my present job.
= But that you helped me,I wouldn't have found my present job.
7.错综虚拟条件句:一般来说,主句和从句的谓语动词形式应前后呼应。但是有时主句和从句的动作发生的时间不一致,谓语动词的形式应作相应的调整,如:从句用过去虚拟语气,主句用现在虚拟语气(通常可以根据时间状语而定)。
Had it not been for the timely investment from the general public,our company would not be so thriving as it is.
If Paul had receivd six more votes in the last election,he would be our chairman now. If you had studied the problem carefully yesterday,you would not find any difficulty now.8.此外,还有省略了结果主句的虚拟语气if only结构,一般表示愿望。if only从句中的时态有三种:V+ed;be用were;情态动词用could/would/might+v。例如: If only he saw me now!要是他现在能看到我那该多好!If only she had not been married!要是她没有结过婚就好了!If only the committee would approve the regulations and put them into
第十一节、倒
装
倒装(inversion)是一种语法手段,用以表示一定句子结构的需要和强调某一句子成分的需要。英语的最基本的结构是主、谓结构,倒装就是将这种比较固定的词序加以颠倒。倒装有两种。将主语和谓语完全颠倒过来,叫做完全倒装(complete inversion)。如: How goes the time? Then began a bitter war between the two countries.于是两国之间开始了恶战。只将助动词(包括情态动词)移至主语之前,叫做部分倒装。如: At no time was the entrance left unguarded.
Seldom have we felt as comfortable as here.我们难得像在这里这么舒服。句子结构需要的倒装。为了句子结构的需要而进行倒装的情况有下列几种。1)疑问句。如:
Are you from here? Who was that? 2)祝愿句。如: Long live peace!May you succeed!So be it.就这样吧。3)某些感叹句。如:
There goes the bell.打铃了。Here comes the bus!Judith,how lovely are you![注]由副词there和here引导的倒装感叹句不可用人称代词,如不可说 Here comes he.而须说Here he comes。4)There+be结构。如:
There lived an old peasant in that house.
There seems to be some misunderstanding about the matter. 5)其直接引语位于句首的陈述句。如: “It’s too late,” said Millian.
“ This is the house where Shakespeare was born,”said George.
6)地点状语位于句首、主语为名词而谓语为不及物动词的陈述句。如: From the window came sound of music. 7)某些条件从句。如: Had I the time, I would go.
Were you in my position,you would do the same. She’ll be sixteen come May.到5月她就16岁了。
All right,if stay you must,go and sit down properly over there. 好吧,如你必须留下,那你就在那里坐好。8)某些让步从句。如:
Look as I would up and down,I could see no human being.我尽管望上望下,还是看不到一个人。
Toil as he would,he might fall,and go down and be destroyed!他尽管苦干,还是可能失败、沉沦而被毁灭!Change your mind as you will,you will gain no additional support.你即使改变主意,也不会再得到援助。
9)代词so,neither,nor等副词置于句首时,全句常需倒装。如: If you can do it,so can I. If you don't go,neither shall I.I don't know,nor do I care.
10)Never,seldom,little,nor,hardly,scarcely,no sooner,not only等表否定的副词或连词位于句首时,全句需要倒装。如:
Never in my life have I seen such a thing. Seldom have we felt as comfortable as here. No sooner had he arrived than he fell ill.Scarcely had he arrived when they asked him to leave again.他刚一到来,他们就又请他离去。Not only did he hear it,but he saw it as well.
11)only位于句首并后跟状语时,全句需要倒装。如: Only then did he understand.只有那时,他才明白。由only引导的从句位于句首时,主语亦应倒装。如:
Only when she came home did he learn the news.只有当她回家时他才知道这消息。12)主语部分较长需要后置时,全句需要倒装。如: They erect a bronze tablet on which is carved“The Yellow River Source”.他们立了一面铜牌,上面写着“黄河之源”。(on which…是倒装结构)To this class belongs the most astonishing work that the author accomplished. 属于这一类的有作者所完成的一部最惊人的著作。
Sitting at her desk in deep concentration was my sister Flora.She looked as though she had spend a sleepless night.我妹妹弗洛拉伏案沉思,好像一夜未睡似的。(后一句意义上相等于从句)13)为了上下文的衔接,全句需要倒装。如: “Now,I have no opinion of that policy.” “我可对这项政策没有好感。” “I sure have,”came a sarcastic gravelly growl from the admiral.“我当然有啰,”这是发自海军将军的讥讽而粗哑的咆哮声。(用came...admiral倒装结构是为了和上文相衔接)The girl who loves him so deeply finds herself unable to forgive his mistake.Around this point develops the sketch,which is humorous and full of a strong local flavor.那个钟爱他的姑娘觉得她不能饶恕他的错误。围绕这一点就写成了这一短剧,它不但幽默,而且充满了浓郁的地方风味。(第二句倒装。显然由于句首around this point与上文衔接的缘故)强调需要的倒装
这是为了强调某一句子成分而进行的倒装。这种倒装大致有下列几种。1)谓语置于句首。
a)谓语动词置于句首。如:
I’m going back to Washington to fight for it, believe you me.我要回到华盛顿为此而斗争,你相信我吧。(强调believe)At last he finds himself in a garden,full of beautiful flowers of strange forms,and watered by streams of crystal in which are swimming marvellous fish with scales of rubies and gold.他终于发现自己来到一个花园,这里到处是奇异的花卉,还有那清澈的溪水,里面游着珍贵的具有红玉般和金黄色的鱼鳞的鱼。(这里将谓语are swimming前置也是由于主语较长之故)有时倒装结构为主要动词+主语+助动词。如: Go I can't.我不能去。(强调主要动词go)Yield he would not.屈服他是不干的。(强调主要动词yield)有时倒装结构为主要动词+宾语+主语+助动词,其主要动词 往往是重复前文中的动词。如:
They have promised to finish the work and finish it they will.他们保证完成这项工作,而且他们一定会完成的。(强调主要动词finish)Save him she could not;but she avenged him in the most terrible fashion afterwards.她不能救他,但后来她以最可怕的方式为他报了仇。
(此句中的倒装结构强调主要动词save,其上文虽无save一词,但有与其类似的动词)有时倒装结构为助动词+主语+(主要动词),如:
John was taken completely by surprise by the news, as was Susan.这消息完全出乎约翰的意料,也完全出乎苏珊的意料。
(as后的助动词was置于主语之前,是为强调主语;省去了主要动词)They looked upon him as a trusted friend,as did many others he had deceived. 他们和他所欺骗的许多人一样,也把他看作可以信赖的朋友。(替代词did置于主语之前以强调主语,省去了主要动词)b)过去分词置于句首。如:
Also discussed was a revenue-raising proposal to hike the sales tax…
也讨论了增加销售税的提高税收建议„„(这里倒装是由于主语较长)Also said to be under consideration is a performance in Beijing.据说也考虑在北京上演。(这里过去分词与also连用,全句强调主语performance,倒装亦与上下文衔接有关)c)现在分词+be十主语。如: Covering much of the earth's surface is a blanket of water.地球表面上许多地方都布满了水。Facing the lake was a little inn with its pillared veranda.湖的对面是一个柱廊的小旅店。这种倒装结构多半已变成词序固定的句型。在新闻文体中,现 在进行时的现在分词亦可进行倒装。如:
Throwing the hammer is champion William Anderson,who is a hard-working shepherd in the Highlands of Scotland.正在掷链球的是冠军威廉·安德森,他是苏格兰高地上的一位勤劳的牧民。(这里自然是强调现在分词throwing,但倒装亦与主语较长有关)d)引述动词+主语+直接引语。这种结构常用于新闻体。如: Declared rosecutor Roy Amlot:“It was one of the most callous acts of all time.”检察官罗伊·阿默朗特宣称:“这是最最淡漠无情的行为之一。” Said he:“We confront great evils and we need great solutions.” 他说道:
“我们面对着重大的邪恶,我们需要重大的决策。” 2)表语置于句首。
a)形容词+连系动词+主语。如:
Present at the meeting were Professor Smith,Professor Brown,Sir Hugh and many other celebrities.到会的有史密斯教授、勃朗教授、休爵士以及许多其他知名人士。(这种倒装结构已经定型)Far be it from me to condemn him in any way.我决不会以任何方式谴责他。(这种倒装结构亦已成定型)b)过去分词十连系动词+主语。如: Gone are the days when they could do what they liked to the Chinese people.他们能够对中国人民为所欲为的日子一去不复返了。(强调过去分词gone,同时也是由于主语较长)c)介词短语十be+主语。如:
Among the goods are Christmas trees,flowers,candles,turkeys and toys.货品中有圣诞树、花卉、蜡烛、火鸡和玩具。(这种倒装结构已成定型)Amid the gaseous pollutants they inhale are carbon monoxide,sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide,hydrochloric acid,ammonia and hydrocarbons.在他们所呼吸的污染气体中有一氧化碳、二氧化硫、氮氧化物、盐酸、氨和碳氢化合物。(此种倒装亦已定型)d)不定式+be+主语。如:
First to unfold were the two 14-foot-wide drogue chutes,which criented the craft and continued slowing it.首先要打开的是那两个14英尺宽的拖靶斜槽,这两个东西使飞机定向,并继续使之减速。
3)宾语置于句首。如: “Yes,”said the youth shortly.“是的,”那个小伙子简短地说道。Someone once said Australia is a country born to alcoholism.A man would pay $5 to get drunk and $8 to get home,goes the jest.有人说过,澳大利亚是生性嗜酒的国家。有一个笑话说,那里的人会花5元钱喝醉后,再花8元钱回家。4)状语置于句首。
a)某些副词+倒装结构。如:
Just then a along came Tom.就在这时,汤姆来了。
Just then in walked Isabella with a radiant face.正值此时刻,伊莎贝拉容光焕发地走了进来。[注]短语动词的小品词一般不可前置,如不可说Up cracked the soldier。又,上述例句中如用人称代词则不可倒装,如必须说,In she walked。
Then did I throw myself into a chair,exhausted.这时我累得一下就坐在椅子上了。Only in this way can we learn English.只有这样才能学会英语。[注]副词only后接非状语时则不可倒装。
So bright was the moon that the flowers bright as by day.皓月当空,花朵就像白天那样鲜艳。Crack goes the whip.啪的一声鞭子响了。b)介词短语十倒装结构。如:
By his side sat his faithful dog.在他的旁边蹲着他的忠实的狗。(介词短语表地点)Many a time as a boy have I climbed that hill.我在童年时期曾多次爬过那座山。(介词短语表时间)Up the valleys,down the valleys go they,saying,“Here is a place to build a breast—work;here can you pitch a fort...”他们沿着山谷走上走下,说着,“这里是筑胸墙的地方,这里可以修一堡垒„„”(介词短语表方向)With it was mingled far-away cheering.远处的欢呼声与此融在一起。(介词短语表伴随)c)表示否定的词语十倒装结构。如:
Nor once did he talk to me. 他一次也没有和我谈过。
Never did he speak about his own merits.他从不讲他自己的功绩。
Seldom has a devoted teacher been so splendidly rewarded.一位忠诚的教师很少受到如此好的报答。
Hardly had he arrived when she started complaining.他一到家,她就抱怨起来。
Little did I think that we were talking together for the last time.我没有想到我们这次谈话竟成诀别。
No sooner had he arrived than he went away again.他刚到家就又走了。
Not only did they present a musical performance,but they also gave a brief introduction to the history of Western brass instruments.他们不但做了音乐表演,而且简短地介绍了西方铜管乐器的历史。
[注]但不是所有以not开头的句子都必须倒装,如下面的句子即可不倒装: Not a soul was to be seen.一个人也看不见。Not that I know of.就我所知不是这样。
effect as soon as possible.要是委员会通过这些规定并尽快实施就好了!
有的同学总是抱怨时间紧,根本没时间写作文。其实“写”的形式很多,不一定就写作文才提高写作能力。比如写下你一天中发生的一些重要的事情,或当天学了某一个词组,你可以创设一个语境恰如其份地用上这个词。这样即可帮你记住这个词的用法,又可以锻炼你的写作能力,比如学“wish”一词时,可写一小段如下:
The teacher often asks us what we want to be in the future.My good friend Tom wishes to be a soldier.However,I'm different.I wish I were a teacher in the future.But my mother wishes me to be a doctor.口语是需要技巧的。光靠大胆自信还不够。关键是系统的方法。我是英语专业毕业的,英语八级,现在当翻译,在大学时去英语角,上课发言等都不管用,一度非常苦恼。后来发现口语练习需要系统的方法。建议你按照我的方法做。
买个口语软件,口语宝或者右脑王都不错。
1语音阶段,照软件的内容练,一天俩小时,最多一个月,语音可以过关。无论你的基础怎么样。切记一定要仔细认真模仿纠正模仿在模仿。
2篇章阶段,根据软件上的资料,句子,语音,语调,断句,停顿,高低,节奏,长短等等,越细越好,模仿,对比,模仿,纠正,再模仿。不求量只求质。同样一个月,明显可以提高。3电影阶段,看英语电影。每句话听五遍以上,看看能听懂几个单词。在看汉语五遍,看看能听懂几个词组,再看英语五遍以上。然后倒过来从英语字幕到汉语字幕到无字幕,五遍以上。冰河世纪这部影片够你看两个月,五分钟的影片可以看两小时以上。4与人交流。现在开始舍弃软件,自信大胆的与中国人,别管对错,把自己想说的说出来。与老外更好。记住耐心模仿,细心比较,持之以恒,反反复复,1,2个月以后你的口语一定很棒。
你是外企的白领要经常的说英语哦,这个很正常的哦,如果你要学英语口语的话,那么对如何学习英语口语我有一些经验了。我建议你可以跟我一样报个电话英语培训啊。现在的电话英语还很很好了,电话英语,只通过声音传递内容上课,所以要求学生要有更高的注意力,因此对提高听力有很大的帮助,同时在听他人说话的同时,自己也要开口说话,这种学习方式被认为是锻炼听力和口语的最佳方法,还有,电话英语最大的优势就是将上课内容全程录音可以供课后复习。而且时间安排可以在你的工作空余时间来学习英语口语哦,如何学习英语口语的必备条件—语言环境。口语是交流、是听和说。学习任何一种语言,首先要听懂,然后才学说话。口语不可以自学。学习英语口语必须进入英文语言环境。每天听的都是英文,也必须讲英文。中国学生为什么不会讲英文?因为中国的英文老师大部分不讲英文,用中文上英文课。学生在英文课上不讲英文,大部分还是讲中文。1 如何学好英语口语--学习英文口语最好是英文母语老师—即外教。英文为母语的老师,从小生活在英文的环境里。知道各种生活场景、生活内容的英文用语,并且他们的发音纯正,只有他们才可以教好口语。就像外国人要学中文,一定要请中国的老师。所有这里我向你推荐恩京电话英语培训学校,真是不错的,外教通过电话一对一教授日常口语,商务口语,雅思口语.面试英语,外贸口语,青少年英语等,每天回到家,晚上可以学10-20分钟,而且时间,外教都可以任选,均有指定教材,外教都是很有经验的老师,报名后每位学员在网站上都有专属学习地盘,每晚上课时外教会就你的问题当时提出纠正,上课后会在学员的学习地盘中留下当晚学习的详细评语和学员的进步情况分析,及第二天晚上上课讨论的建议。最重要的是,网站上有学员每晚学习的录音,学员可下载收听对照自己的学习;费用也特别实惠,我一个普通打工族就可以接受。随时随地和外教说英语,不错!2 学习英文还必须了解英文为主的西方文化。学习口语必须知道在什么场合,说什么话?怎么样说话是有礼貌的?什么是外国人忌讳的?就如同中文,从小父母就会教我们在什么场合要说你好、对不起。看见老人、叔叔、阿姨应当怎样称呼?在客人面前该问什么问题?不该说什么话?等等。因为我们的言语得体可以给别人留下良好的印象,不至于造成误会。3 学习口语必须大量地听说练习。我们从小中文是怎么学会的?是每天起床后就不断地听不断地说。每天至少12个小时在中文听说语言环境里。其他语言的学习也是同样的道理。不断地听,不断地说,随时纠正。学生只要在与外国人或学生之间讲英文,就是在学习。
我有啊,奉献给你一些啦,快快学习吧:
Do you have some time tomorrow? 明天有空吧? Yes, I do.有啊。
How about having lunch with me? 一起吃顿中饭怎样? Good idea.好主意。
If you're free, how about lunch? 有空的话一起吃顿中饭如何? When did you have in mind? 你想什么时候呢? I was thinking about Thursday? 我看星期四怎样? That will be fine with me.没问题。
I'm calling to see if you would like to have lunch tomorrow.我打电话给你,是想知道明天一起吃顿中饭怎样? I'm sorry, but this week isn't very convenient for me.对不起,这个星期我都不方便。
Perhaps we van make it later.那么,也许改天吧。That would be better.好啊。
I'm calling to confirm our luncheon appointment.我打电话来,是想确定一下我们约好吃饭的事。
It's tomorrow at twelve o'clock, right? 是明天12点吧? Yes, that's right.是的,没错。I'll be there.我会去的。
I'm sorry, but I have to cancel out luncheon appointment.真抱歉,不过我不得不取消我们午餐的约会。I'm sorry to hear that.真遗憾。
I have pressing business to attend to.我有紧急的事情要处理。
No problem.we'll make it later in the month.没关系,这个月改天再说吧。
一、多“说”。
自己多创造机会与英语教师多讲英语,见了同学,尤其是和好朋友在一起时尽量用英语去问候,谈心情……这时候你需随身携带一个英汉互译小词典,遇到生词时查一下这些生词,也不用刻意去记,用的多了,这个单词自然而然就会记住。千万别把学英语当成负担,始终把它当成一件有趣的事情去做。
或许你有机会碰上外国人,你应大胆地上去跟他打招呼,和他谈天气、谈风景、谈学校……只是别问及他的年纪,婚史等私人问题。尽量用一些你学过的词汇,句子去和他谈天说地。不久你会发现与老外聊天要比你与中国人谈英语容易的多。因为他和你交谈时会用许多简单词汇,而且不太看重说法,你只要发音准确,准能顺利地交流下去。只是你必须要有信心,敢于表达自己的思想。
如果没有合适的伙伴也没关系,你可以拿过一本书或其它什么东西做假想对象,对它谈你一天的所见所闻,谈你的快乐,你的悲伤等等,长此坚持下去你的口语肯定会有较大的提高。
第四篇:初中物理知识总结完美版
第一章《声现象》复习提纲
一、声音的发生与传播
1、一切发声的物体都在振动。振动停止发声也停止。振动的物体叫声源。
2、声音的传播需要介质,真空不能传声。
3、声音在介质中的传播速度简称声速。声音在15℃空气中的传播速度是340m/s。
4、回声是由于声音在传播过程中遇到障碍物被反射回来而形成的。
二、我们怎样听到声音
1、声音在耳朵里的传播途径: 外界传来的声音引起鼓膜振动,这种振动经听小骨及其他组织传给听觉神经,听觉神经把信号传给大脑,人就听到了声音.2、耳聋:分为神经性耳聋和传导性耳聋.3、骨传导:声音的传导不仅仅可以用耳朵,还可以经头骨、颌骨传到听觉神经,引起听觉。这种声音的传导方式叫做骨传导。一些失去听力的人可以用这种方法听到声音。
4、双耳效应:人有两只耳朵,而不是一只。声源到两只耳朵的距离一般不同,声音传到两只耳朵的时刻、强弱及其他特征也就不同。这些差异就是判断声源方向的重要基础。这就是双耳效应.三、乐音及三个特征
1、乐音是物体做规则振动时发出的声音。
2、音调:人感觉到的声音的高低。音调跟发声体振动频率有关系,频率越高音调越高;频率越低音调越低。物体在1s振动的次数叫频率,物体振动越快频率越高。
3、响度:人耳感受到的声音的大小。响度跟发生体的振幅和距发声距离的远近有关。物体在振动时,偏离原来位置的最大距离叫振幅。振幅越大响度越大。
4、音色:由物体本身决定。人们根据音色能够辨别乐器或区分人。
四、噪声的危害和控制
1、当代社会的四大污染:噪声污染、水污染、大气污染、固体废弃物污染。
2、物理学角度看,噪声是指发声体做无规则的杂乱无章的振动发出的声音;环境保护的角度噪声是指妨碍人们正常休息、学习和工作的声音,以及对人们要听的声音起干扰作用的声音。
3、人们用分贝(dB)来划分声音等级。
4、减弱噪声的方法:在声源处减弱、在传播过程中减弱、在人耳处减弱。
五、声的利用
可以利用声来传播信息和传递能量
第二章《光现象》复习提纲
一、光的直线传播
1、光源:定义:能够发光的物体叫光源。
2、规律:光在同一种均匀介质中是沿直线传播的。
3、光线是由一小束光抽象而建立的理想物理模型,建立理想物理模型是研究物理的常用方法之一。
4、应用及现象:
① 激光准直。
②影子的形成。
③日食月食的形成。
④ 小孔成像。
5、光速:C=3×10的8次方m/s=3×10的5次方km/s。
二、光的反射
1、定义:光从一种介质射向另一种介质表面时,一部分光被反射回原来介质的现象叫光的反射。
2、反射定律:反射光线与入射光线、法线在同一平面上,反射光线和入射光线分居于法线的两侧,反射角等于入射角。光的反射过程中光路是可逆的。
3、分类:
⑴ 镜面反射:
定义:射到物面上的平行光反射后仍然平行
条件:反射面平滑。
⑵ 漫反射:
定义:射到物面上的平行光反射后向着不同的方向,每条光线遵守光的反射定律。
条件:反射面凹凸不平。
4、面镜:
⑴平面镜:成像特点:①像、物大小相等
②像、物到镜面的距离相等。
③像、物的连线与镜面垂直
④物体在平面镜里所成的像是虚像。
成像原理:光的反射定理
实像和虚像:实像:实际光线会聚点所成的像
虚像:反射光线反向延长线的会聚点所成的像
三、颜色及看不见的光
1、白光的组成:红,橙,黄,绿,蓝,靛,紫.2、看不见的光:红外线, 紫外线
第三章《透镜及其应用》复习提纲
一、光的折射
1、定义:光从一种介质斜射入另一种介质时,传播方向一般会发生变化;这种现象叫光的折射现象。
2、光的折射定律:
⑴折射光线,入射光线和法线在同一平面内。
⑵折射光线和入射光线分居与法线两侧。
⑶ 光从空气斜射入水或其他介质中时,折射角小于入射角,属于近法线折射。
光从水中或其他介质斜射入空气中时,折射角大于入射角,属于远法线折射。
光从空气垂直射入(或其他介质射出),折射角=入射角= 0 度。
二、透镜
1、名词:薄透镜:透镜的厚度远小于球面的半径。
主光轴:通过两个球面球心的直线。
光心:(O)即薄透镜的中心。性质:通过光心的光线传播方向不改变。
焦点(F):凸透镜能使跟主光轴平行的光线会聚在主光轴上的一点,这个点叫焦点。
焦距(f):焦点到凸透镜光心的距离。
三、凸透镜成像规律
凸透镜成像规律表:
物距 像的性质 像距 应用
倒、正 放、缩 虚、实
u>2f 倒立 缩小 实像 f f2f 幻灯机 u 四、眼睛和眼镜 近视及远视的矫正:近视眼要戴凹透镜,远视眼要戴凸透镜.五、显微镜和望远镜 第四章《物态变化》复习提纲 一、温度 1、定义:温度表示物体的冷热程度。 2、单位: ① 国际单位制中采用热力学温度。 ② 常用单位是摄氏度(℃)规定:在一个标准大气压下冰水混合物的温度为0度,沸水的温度为100度,它们之间分成100等份,每一等份叫1摄氏度 某地气温-3℃读做:零下3摄氏度或负3摄氏度 ③ 换算关系T=t + 273K 3、测量——温度计(常用液体温度计) 温度计的原理:利用液体的热胀冷缩进行工作。 分类及比较: 分类 实验用温度计 寒暑表 体温计 用途 测物体温度 测室温 测体温 量程-20℃~110℃-30℃~50℃ 35℃~42℃ 分度值 1℃ 1℃ 0.1℃ 所 用液 体 水 银煤油(红)酒精(红)水银 特殊构造 玻璃泡上方有缩口 使用方法 使用时不能甩,测物体时不能离开物体读数 使用前甩可离开人体读数 常用温度计的使用方法: 使用前:观察它的量程,判断是否适合待测物体的温度;并认清温度计的分度值,以便准确读数。使用时:温度计的玻璃泡全部浸入被测液体中,不要碰到容器底或容器壁;温度计玻璃泡浸入被测液体中稍候一会儿,待温度计的示数稳定后再读数;读数时玻璃泡要继续留在被测液体中,视线与温度计中液柱的上表面相平。 二、物态变化 填物态变化的名称及吸热放热情况: 1、熔化和凝固 ① 熔化: 定义:物体从固态变成液态叫熔化。 晶体物质:海波、冰、石英水晶、非晶体物质:松香、石蜡玻璃、沥青、蜂蜡 食盐、明矾、奈、各种金属 熔化图象: ② 凝固 : 定义 :物质从液态变成固态 叫凝固。 凝固图象: 2、汽化和液化: ① 汽化: 定义:物质从液态变为气态叫汽化。 定义:液体在任何温度下都能发生的,并且只在液体表面发生的汽化现象 叫蒸发。 影响因素:⑴液体的温度;⑵液体的表面积 ⑶液体表面空气的流动。 作用:蒸发 吸 热(吸外界或自身的热量),具有制冷作用。 定义:在一定温度下,在液体内部和表面同时发生的剧烈的汽化现象。 沸 点: 液体沸腾时的温度。 沸腾条件:⑴达到沸点。⑵继续吸热 沸点与气压的关系:一切液体的沸点都是气压减小时降低,气压增大时升高 ② 液化:定义:物质从气态变为液态 叫液化。 方法:⑴ 降低温度;⑵ 压缩体积。 3、升华和凝华: ①升华 定义:物质从固态直接变成气态的过程,吸 热,易升华的物质有:碘、冰、干冰、樟脑、钨。 ②凝华 定义:物质从气态直接变成固态的过程,放 热 第五章 《电流和电路》复习提纲 一、电流 1、形成:电荷的定向移动形成电流 2、方向的规定:把正电荷移动的方向规定为电流的方向。 3、获得持续电流的条件: 电路中有电源 电路为通路 4、电流的三种效应。 (1)、电流的热效应。(2)、电流的磁效应。(3)、电流的化学效应。 5、单位:(1)、国际单位: A(2)、常用单位:mA、μA (3)、换算关系:1A=1000mA 1mA=1000μA6、测量: (1)、仪器:电流表,(2)、方法: ① 电流表要串联在电路中; ② 电流要从电流表的正接线柱流入,负接线柱流出,否则指针反偏。 ③被测电流不要超过电流表的最大测量值。 ④ 绝对不允许不经用电器直接把电流表连到电源两极上,原因电流表相当于一根导线。 三、导体和绝缘体: 1、导体:定义:容易导电的物体。 常见材料:金属、石墨、人体、大地、酸 碱 盐溶液 导电原因:导体中有大量的可自由移动的电荷 2、绝缘体:定义:不容易导电的物体。 常见材料:橡胶、玻璃、陶瓷、塑料、油等。 不易导电的原因:几乎没有自由移动的电荷。 3、导体和绝缘体之间并没有绝对的界限,在一定条件下可相互转化。一定条件下,绝缘体也可变为导体。 四、电路 1、组成: ①电源②用电器 ③开关④导线 2、三种电路: ①通路:接通的电路。 ②开路:断开的电路。 ③短路:电源两端或用电器两端直接用导线连接起来。 3、电路图:用规定的符号表示电路连接的图叫做电路图。 4、连接方式: 串联 并联 定义 把元件逐个顺次连接起来的电路 把元件并列的连接起来的电路 特征 电路中只有一条电流路径,一处段开所有用电器都停止工作。电路中的电流路径至少有两条,各支路中的元件独立工作,互不影响。 开关 作用 控制整个电路 干路中的开关控制整个电路。支路中的开关控制该支路。 电路图 实例 装饰小彩灯、开关和用电器 家庭中各用电器、各路灯 第七章 《电功率》复习提纲 一、电功: 1、定义:电流通过某段电路所做的功叫电功。 2、实质:电流做功的过程,实际就是电能转化为其他形式的能(消耗电能)的过程。 3、规定:电流在某段电路上所做的功,等于这段电路两端的电压,电路中的电流和通电时间的乘积。 4、计算公式:W=UIt =Pt(适用于所有电路) 对于纯电阻电路可推导出:W= I2Rt= U2t/R 5、单位:国际单位是焦耳(J)常用单位:度(kwh)1度=1千瓦时=1 kwh=3.6×106J6、测量电功: ⑴电能表:是测量用户用电器在某一段时间内所做电功(某一段时间内消耗电能)的仪器。 ⑵ 电能表上“220V”“5A”“3000R/kwh”等字样,分别表示:电电能表额定电压220V;允许通过的最大电流是5A;每消耗一度电电能表转盘转3000转。 ⑶读数:电能表前后两次读数之差,就是这段时间内用电的度数。 二、电功率: 1、定义:电流在单位时间内所做的功。 2、物理意义:表示电流做功快慢的物理量 灯泡的亮度取决于灯泡的实际功率大小。 3、电功率计算公式:P=UI=W/t(适用于所有电路) 对于纯电阻电路可推导出:P= I2R= U2/R 4、单位:国际单位 瓦特(W)常用单位:千瓦(kw) 5、额定功率和实际功率: ⑴ 额定电压:用电器正常工作时的电压。 额定功率:用电器在额定电压下的功率。P额=U额I额=U2额/R ⑵ “1度”的规定:1kw的用电器工作1h消耗的电能。 P=W/ t 可使用两套单位:“W、J、s”、“kw、kwh、h” 6、测量:伏安法测灯泡的额定功率:①原理:P=UI ②电路图: 三 电热 1、实验:目的:研究电流通过导体产生的热量跟那些因素有关。 2、焦耳定律:电流通过导体产生的热量跟电流的平方成正比,跟导体的电阻成正比,跟通电时间成正比。 3、计算公式:Q=I2Rt(适用于所有电路)对于纯电阻电路可推导出:Q =UIt= U2t/R=W=Pt4、应用——电热器 四 生活用电 (一)、家庭电路: 1、家庭电路的组成部分:低压供电线(火线零线)、电能表、闸刀开关、保险丝、用电器、插座、灯座、开关。 2、家庭电路的连接:各种用电器是并联接入电路的,插座与灯座是并联的,控制各用电器工作的开关与电器是串联的。 3、家庭电路的各部分: ⑴ 低压供电线: ⑵ 电能表: ⑶ 闸刀(空气开关): ⑷ 保险盒: ⑸ 插座: ⑹ 用电器(电灯)、开关: (二)、家庭电路电流过大的原因: 原因:发生短路、用电器总功率过大。(三)、安全用电: 安全用电原则:不接触低压带电体 不靠近高压带电体 第六章 《欧姆定律》复习提纲 一、电压 (一)、电压的作用 1、电压是形成电流的原因:电压使电路中的自由电荷定向移动形成了电流。电源是提供电压的装置。 2、电路中获得持续电流的条件①电路中有电源(或电路两端有电压)②电路是连通的。 (二)、电压的单位 1、国际单位: V 常用单位:kV mV、μV 换算关系:1Kv=1000V 1V=1000 mV 1 mV=1000μV 2、记住一些电压值: 一节干电池1.5V 一节蓄电池 2V 家庭电压220V 安全电压不高于36V (三)、电压测量: 1、仪器:电压表,符号: 2、读数时,看清接线柱上标的量程,每大格、每小格电压值 3、使用规则:①电压表要并联在电路中。 ②电流从电压表的“正接线柱”流入,“负接线柱”流出。否则指针会反偏。 ③被测电压不要超过电压表的最大量程。 二、电阻 (一)定义及符号: 1、定义:电阻表示导体对电流阻碍作用的大小。 2、符号:R。 (二)单位: 1、国际单位:欧姆。规定:如果导体两端的电压是1V,通过导体的电流是1A,这段导体的电阻是1Ω。 2、常用单位:千欧、兆欧。 3、换算:1MΩ=1000KΩ 1 KΩ=1000Ω 4、了解一些电阻值:手电筒的小灯泡,灯丝的电阻为几欧到十几欧。日常用的白炽灯,灯丝的电阻为几百欧到几千欧。实验室用的铜线,电阻小于百分之几欧。电流表的内阻为零点几欧。电压表的内阻为几千欧左右。 (三)影响因素: 结论:导体的电阻是导体本身的一种性质,它的大小决定于导体的材料、长度和横截面积,还与温度有关。 (四)分类 1、定值电阻:电路符号:。 2、可变电阻(变阻器):电路符号。 ⑴滑动变阻器: 构造:瓷筒、线圈、滑片、金属棒、接线柱 结构示意图:。 变阻原理:通过改变接入电路中的电阻线的长度来改变电阻。 作用:①通过改变电路中的电阻,逐渐改变电路中的电流和部分电路两端的电压②保护电路 ⑵电阻箱。 三、欧姆定律。 1、探究电流与电压、电阻的关系。结论:在电阻一定的情况下,导体中的电流与加在导体两端的电压成正比;在电压不变的情况下,导体中的电流与导体的电阻成反比。 2、欧姆定律的内容:导体中的电流,跟导体两端的电压成正比,跟导体的电阻成反比。 3、数学表达式 I=U/R 四、伏安法测电阻 1、定义:用电压表和电流表分别测出电路中某一导体两端的电压和通过的电流就可以根据欧姆定律算出这个导体的电阻,这种用电压表电流表测电阻的方法叫伏安法。 2、原理:I=U/R3、电路图:(右图) 五、串联电路的特点: 1、电流:文字:串联电路中各处电流都相等。 字母:I=I1=I2=I3=„„In 2、电压:文字:串联电路中总电压等于各部分电路电压之和。 字母:U=U1+U2+U3+„„Un 3、电阻:文字:串联电路中总电阻等于各部分电路电阻之和。 字母:R=R1+R2+R3+„„Rn 六、并联电路的特点: 1、电流:文字:并联电路中总电流等于各支路中电流之和。 字母: I=I1+I2+I3+„„In 2、电压:文字:并联电路中各支路两端的电压都相等。 字母:U=U1=U2=U3=„„Un 3、电阻:文字:并联电路总电阻的倒数等于各支路电阻倒数之和。字母:1/R=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+„„1/Rn 第八章 《电与磁》复习提纲 一、磁现象: 1、磁性:磁铁能吸引铁、钴、镍等物质的性质(吸铁性) 2、磁体: 定义:具有磁性的物质 分类:永磁体分为 天然磁体、人造磁体 3、磁极:定义:磁体上磁性最强的部分叫磁极。(磁体两端最强中间最弱)种类:水平面自由转动的磁体,指南的磁极叫南极(S),指北的磁极叫北极(N) 作用规律:同名磁极相互排斥,异名磁极相互吸引。 4、磁化: ① 定义:使原来没有磁性的物体获得磁性的过程。 ②钢和软铁的磁化:软铁被磁化后,磁性容易消失,称为软磁材料。钢被磁化后,磁性能长期保持,称为硬磁性材料。 二、磁场: 1、定义:磁体周围存在着的物质,它是一种看不见、摸不着的特殊物质。 2、基本性质:磁场对放入其中的磁体产生力的作用。磁极间的相互作用是通过磁场而发生的。 3、方向规定:在磁场中的某一点,小磁针北极静止时所指的方向(小磁针北极所受磁力的方向)就是该点磁场的方向。 4、磁感应线: ①定义:在磁场中画一些有方向的曲线。任何一点的曲线方向都跟放在该点的磁针北极所指的方向一致。 ②方向:磁体周围的磁感线都是从磁体的北极出来,回到磁体的南极。 5、磁极受力:在磁场中的某点,北极所受磁力的方向跟该点的磁场方向一致,南极所受磁力的方向跟该点的磁场方向相反。 6、分类: Ι、地磁场: ① 定义:在地球周围的空间里存在的磁场,磁针指南北是因为受到地磁场的作用。 ② 磁极:地磁场的北极在地理的南极附近,地磁场的南极在地理的北极附近。 ③ 磁偏角:首先由我国宋代的沈括发现。 Ⅱ、电流的磁场: ① 奥斯特实验:通电导线的周围存在磁场,称为电流的磁效应。该现象在1820年被丹麦的物理学家奥斯特发现。该现象说明:通电导线的周围存在磁场,且磁场与电流的方向有关。 ② 通电螺线管的磁场:通电螺线管的磁场和条形磁铁的磁场一样。其两端的极性跟电流方向有关,电流方向与磁极间的关系可由安培定则来判断。 ③应用:电磁铁 三、电磁感应: 1、学史: 英 国物理学家 法拉第 发现。 2、感应电流: 导体中感应电流的方向,跟 运动方向和 磁场方向 有关。 4、应用——交流发电机 5、交流电和直流电: 四、磁场对电流的作用: 1、通电导体在磁场里受力的方向,跟 电流方向 和 磁场方向 有关。 2、应用——直流电动机 第十章《多彩的物质世界》复习提纲 一、宇宙和微观世界 1、宇宙由物质组成: 2、物质是由分子组成的3、固态、液态、气态的微观模型: 4、原子结构 5、纳米科学技术 二、质量: 1、定义:物体所含物质的多少叫质量。 2、单位:国际单位制:主单位kg,常用单位:t g mg 3、质量的理解:固体的质量不随物体的形态、状态、位置、温度 而改变,所以质量是物体本身的一种属性。 4、测量: 二、密度: 1、定义:单位体积的某种物质的质量叫做这种物质的密度。 2、公式: 变形 3、单位:国际单位制:主单位kg/m3,常用单位g/cm3。这两个单位比较:g/cm3单位大。单位换算关系:1g/cm?0?6=103kg/m?0?6 1kg/m?0?6=10-3g/cm?0?6水的密度为1.0×103kg/m?0?6,读作1.0×103千克每立方米,它表示物理意义是:1立方米的水的质量为1.0×103千克。 4、测体积——量筒(量杯) 5、测固体的密度 第十一章《运动和力》复习提纲 一、参照物 1、定义:为研究物体的运动假定不动的物体叫做参照物。 2、任何物体都可做参照物 3、选择不同的参照物来观察同一个物体结论可能不同。同一个物体是运动还是静止取决于所选的参照物,这就是运动和静止的相对性。 二、机械运动 1、定义:物理学里把物体位置变化叫做机械运动。 2、特点:机械运动是宇宙中最普遍的现象。 3、比较物体运动快慢的方法: ⑴时间相同路程长则运动快 ⑵路程相同时间短则运动快 ⑶比较单位时间内通过的路程。 分类:(根据运动路线)⑴曲线运动 ⑵直线运动 Ⅰ 匀速直线运动: A、定义:快慢不变,沿着直线的运动叫匀速直线运动。 定义:在匀速直线运动中,速度等于运动物体在单位时间内通过的路程。 物理意义:速度是表示物体运动快慢的物理量 计算公式: B、速度 单位:国际单位制中 m/s 运输中单位km/h 两单位中m/s 单位大。 换算:1m/s=3.6km/h。 Ⅱ 变速运动: 定义:运动速度变化的运动叫变速运动。 平均速度:= 总路程总时间 物理意义:表示变速运动的平均快慢 五、力的作用效果 1、力的概念:力是物体对物体的作用。 2力的性质:物体间力的作用是相互的(相互作用力在任何情况下都是大小相等,方向相反,作用在不同物体上)。两物体相互作用时,施力物体同时也是受力物体,反之,受力物体同时也是施力物体。 3、力的作用效果:力可以改变物体的运动状态。力可以改变物体的形状。 4、力的单位:国际单位制中力的单位是牛顿简称牛,用N 表示。 力的感性认识:拿两个鸡蛋所用的力大约1N。 5、力的测量: ⑴测力计:测量力的大小的工具。 ⑶弹簧测力计: 6、力的三要素:力的大小、方向、和作用点。 7、力的表示法 六、惯性和惯性定律: 1、牛顿第一定律: ⑴牛顿第一定律内容是:一切物体在没有受到力的作用的时候,总保持静止状态或匀速直线运动状态。 2、惯性: ⑴定义:物体保持运动状态不变的性质叫惯性。 ⑵说明:惯性是物体的一种属性。一切物体在任何情况下都有惯性。 七、二力平衡: 1、定义:物体在受到两个力的作用时,如果能保持静止状态或匀速直线运动状态称二力平衡。 2、二力平衡条件:二力作用在同一物体上、大小相等、方向相反、两个力在一条直线上 3、力和运动状态的关系: 物体受力条件 物体运动状态 说明 力不是产生(维持)运动的原因 受非平衡力 合力不为0 力是改变物体运动状态的原因 第十二章《力和机械》复习提纲 一、弹力 1、弹性:物体受力发生形变,失去力又恢复到原来的形状的性质叫弹性。 2、塑性:在受力时发生形变,失去力时不能恢复原来形状的性质叫塑性。 3、弹力:物体由于发生弹性形变而受到的力叫弹力,弹力的大小与弹性形变的大小有关 二、重力: ⑴重力的概念:地面附近的物体,由于地球的吸引而受的力叫重力。重力的施力物体是:地球。 ⑵重力大小的计算公式G=mg 其中g=9.8N/kg 它表示质量为1kg 的物体所受的重力为9.8N。 ⑶重力的方向:竖直向下 其应用是重垂线、水平仪分别检查墙是否竖直和 面是否水平。⑷重力的作用点——重心: 三、摩擦力: 1、定义:两个互相接触的物体,当它们要发生或已发生相对运动时,就会在接触面上产生一种阻碍相对运动的力就叫摩擦力。 2、分类: 3、摩擦力的方向:摩擦力的方向与物体相对运动的方向相反,有时起阻力作用,有时起动力作用。 4、静摩擦力大小应通过受力分析,结合二力平衡求得 5、在相同条件(压力、接触面粗糙程度相同)下,滚动摩擦比滑动摩擦小得多。 6、滑动摩擦力: 滑动摩擦力的大小与压力大小和接触面的粗糙程度有关。 7、应用: ⑴理论上增大摩擦力的方法有:增大压力、接触面变粗糙、变滚动为滑动。 ⑵理论上减小摩擦的方法有:减小压力、使接触面变光滑、变滑动为滚动(滚动轴承)、使接触面彼此分开(加润滑油、气垫、磁悬浮)。 四、杠杆 1、定义:在力的作用下绕着固定点转动的硬棒叫杠杆。 说明:①杠杆可直可曲,形状任意。 ②有些情况下,可将杠杆实际转一下,来帮助确定支点。如:鱼杆、铁锹。 2、五要素——组成杠杆示意图。 ①支点:杠杆绕着转动的点。用字母O 表示。 ②动力:使杠杆转动的力。用字母 F1 表示。③阻力:阻碍杠杆转动的力。用字母 F2 表示。 ④动力臂:从支点到动力作用线的距离。用字母l1表示。 ⑤阻力臂:从支点到阻力作用线的距离。用字母l2表示。 3、研究杠杆的平衡条件: 杠杆的平衡条件(或杠杆原理)是: 动力×动力臂=阻力×阻力臂。写成公式F1l1=F2l2 也可写成:F1 / F2=l2 / l14、应用: 名称 结 构 特 征 特 点 应用举例 省力 杠杆 动力臂 大于 阻力臂 省力、费距离 撬棒、铡刀、动滑轮、轮轴、羊角锤、钢丝钳、手推车、花枝剪刀 费力 杠杆 动力臂 小于 阻力臂 费力、省距离 缝纫机踏板、起重臂 人的前臂、理发剪刀、钓鱼杆 等臂 杠杆 动力臂等于阻力臂 不省力 不费力 天平,定滑轮 五、滑轮 1、定滑轮: ①定义:中间的轴固定不动的滑轮。 ②实质:定滑轮的实质是:等臂杠杆 ③特点:使用定滑轮不能省力但是能改变动力的方向。 2、动滑轮: ①定义:和重物一起移动的滑轮。 ②实质:动滑轮的实质是:动力臂为阻力臂2倍的省力杠杆。 ③特点:使用动滑轮能省一半的力,但不能改变动力的方向。 3、滑轮组 ①定义:定滑轮、动滑轮组合成滑轮组。 ②特点:使用滑轮组既能省力又能改变动力的方向 重点难点 l.电功 (1)电功:电流通过电路所做的功。电流做功的实质,实际上是电能转化为其他形式的能的过程,并且电流做了多少功,就有多少电能转化为其他形式的能。 (2)电功的计算:电流在某段电路上所做的功,等于这段电路两端电压、电路中的电流和通电时间的乘积。 即:W=UI (3)电功的单位:电功和我们初二所学的机械功的单位一样,也是焦.常用的电功的单位是“度”,也叫千瓦时,符号是。 注意:在应用电功的公式计算时,电压的单位是伏,电流的单位是安,时间的单位是秒,电功的单位才是J。 (4)电功的测量:生产和生活用电中,用电表测量电功的大小。电能表上电功的单位是 2.电功率P (1)电功率:电流在单位时间内所做的功。基本公式是:P=W/t电功率只表示电流做功的快慢,不表示做功的多少。 (2)电功率的单位:电功率的单位是瓦特,简称瓦,符号是W,注意不要和电功的表示符号W混淆。常用的电功率的单位是千瓦,符号是kW。 (3)电功率的计算:电流在某段电路上的电功率,等于这段电路两端电压和通过这段电路的电流的乘积。即:P=UI 由电功率的定义式P=W/t和电功的公式W=UIt,可以很方便推导出P=UI。 3.电功、电功率和欧姆定律的联系 由于电功和电功率中,基本的物理量还是电压和电流,所以仍然要应用欧姆定律只求出电压、电流,才能进行有关计算。同学们可以自己进行公式的推导,并总结每个公式的适用条件。 由只可得:(当电流相等时使用很方便) 又如:由只可得: 由只可得: 注意:上述导出的公式,只适用于电灯、电热器等纯电阻电路。对含有电动机等非纯电阻电路,还要应用基本公式和进行计算。 4.额定电压和额定功率 (1)额定电压:用电器正常工作的电压。(一般都标在用电器的铭牌上) (2)额定功率:用电器在额定电压下的功率。(标在用电器的铭牌上) 注意:用电器的额定功率是由用电器的内部结构和组成材料决定的,与外加电压和通过的电流无关。用电器两端电压等于额定电压时;用电器的功率等于额定功率;用电器两端电压低于额定电压时,用电器的功率也低于额定功率用电器两端电压高于额定电压时,用电器的功率也高于额定功率,还有可能烧坏用电器。 (3)实际功率:用电器实际发挥的电功率。用电器的叫际功率可以等于额定功率,也可以不等于额定功率。在不引虑温度对用电器电阻的影响的情况下,可以用下列方法进行实际功率的计算:是基本计算方法。或由R=U2额/P额计算出用电器的电阻,再利用R=U2实 /P实计算出用电器的实际功率。(适用于纯电阻电路) (4)电功率是反映电流做功快慢的物理量,不能表示电流做功的多少。电灯发光的亮度决定于电灯的实际功率,因为由可知,电功率越大,在单位时间内电能转化为的内能越多,电灯发光就越亮。不能认为电压越高或电流越大,电灯发光越亮。 5.实验:测定用电器的额定功率和实际功率(伏安法) (1)实验原理: (2)实验方法:利用滑动变阻器改变用电器两端电压同时用电流表测出在不同电压下通过用电器的电流,就可以算出用电器在额定电压下的额定功率和不在额定电压下的实际功率。 ⑶掌握实验电路图和实验连线图。 ⑷付安法则电灯的额定功率和实际功率,是中招电学实验的基本题型。要求从:①实验原理;②实验电路图和实验连线图,包括电表量程的正确选择和滑动变阻器的正确接入;③对实验电路故障的分析等多方面掌握。 6.焦耳定律 ⑴电流的热效应:电流通过任何导体时,导体都要发热的现象。 ⑵焦耳定律:电流通过导体产生的热量跟电流的二次方成正比,跟导体的电阻成正比,跟通电时间成正比。即:公式中,电流、电阻和时间的单位分别是安、欧和秒。 电流产生的热量的单位是J。 注意:焦耳定律的基本形式是,但当电流做功全部转化为内能时(即纯电阻电路),所用计算电功的公式,都可以用来计算电热.但当含有电动机等非纯电阻电路,电流产生的热量只能用进行计算。 注意:电功和电功率的联系:由,可以变形为,在已知条件满足的情况下。使用起来很方便.单位有两套: 常见题型总结: 方法1:利用用电器的铭牌 例 1、(2008年济宁市)李明的妈妈买来了一只电热水壶,装满水后就要插到电路中使用。李明发现后说:“别慌!”接着他先后看了电热水壶的铭牌和家中的电度表如图1所示,又看了家中此时正在工作的用电器有:100W电视一台、300W电冰箱一台、200W电脑一台、380W洗衣机一台。请你帮他计算说明: (1)此时电热水壶还能接入电路中使用吗? (2)一天晚上,李明用电热水壶烧水,发现比白天烧开一壶水用的时间长,爸爸告诉他:现在是用电高峰期,电路电压低.李明用电压表测得电路电压仅200伏.请你帮他计算,此时通过电热水壶的电流和电热水壶的实际功率各是多少? 解析:(1)若将电热水壶接入电路中,则电路的总功率: P总100W300W200W380W1000W1980W。 电路中的电流: IP总/U1980W/220V9A 因9A<10A,所以可以接在电路中使用。(2)电热水壶的电阻: 2RU额/P额(220V)2/1000W48.4 通过电热水壶的实际电流: IU实/R200V/48.44.13A。 电热水壶的实际功率: P实U实I实200V4.13A826W。 点拨:给定用电器的额定电压和额定功率,实际上也就给出了额定电流和工作电阻,在计算其实际功率时,一般要用到电阻不变这个条件. 方法2:根据灯的亮度来判断的方法 例 2、(2008年宁波市)如图2所示,闭合开关,发现灯泡甲比灯泡乙亮.在该电路中,关于电流、电压、电阻和消耗的电功率大小的判断,正确的是()A.I甲I乙 C.R甲R乙 B.U甲U乙 D.P甲P乙 解析:灯的亮度取决于灯的实际功率,两灯串联时,电流相等,灯的两端电压和实际功率与电阻成正比,故电阻大的灯更亮一些,电压也更高,故正确的答案是(A). 方法3:改变电路结构的方法 例 3、(2008年山东省)电热饮水机有加热和保温两种工作状态(由机内温控开关S0自 动控制),从说明书上收集到如下数据及图3所示的电路原理图. (1)请分析说明温控开关S0断开时,饮水机处于哪种工作状态? (2)求电阻R2的阻值. (3)求电热饮水机在加热状态下的工作电流. 解析:(1)当S0断开时,只有R2连入电路;当S0闭合时,R1和R2均被连入电路,且并联.两种情况相比,当S0断开时饮水机的工作电流较小,根据P=UI可知,此时饮水机消耗的电功率也较小,故当S0断开时饮水机处于保温状态. (2)当S0断开时,饮水机处于保温状态,可以得出电阻R2的阻值: 2U额R2P保(220V)2121040W (3)当S0闭合时,饮水机处于加热状态.由公式P=UI得出工作电流为: 点拨:改变电路结构一般有两种方法:1是滑动变阻器滑片的移动,2是开关的断开或闭合,很多计算题依此为基础进行变通,解答的关键是要把前后的等效电路作出来,分析各个状态的条件进行对比分析. 方法4:运用比例关系解决电功率问题 例 4、(2008年巴中市)两个电热丝R1、R2,R1:R2=2:3,若将它们串联在电路中,它们两端的电压之比U1:U2=________,在相同的时间里,产生的热量之比Q1:Q2=________;若将它们并联在电路里,通过它们的电流之比I1:I2=________。 解析:运用比例关系时最重要的是发现等量关系,如串联电路中电流相等,可知电功、电功率、电流通过导体产生的热量都与电阻成正比,并联电路中电压相等,可知电功、电功率、电流通过导体产生的热量都与电阻成反比.熟悉电学中的各种比例关系可以提高解题效率. 答案:2:3 2:3 3:2 方法5:电热器的档位问题 例 5、(2008年河北省)某电热毯只有一个挡位.使用不方便.小明想用一电阻丝作发热体与其串联,将它改造成有两个挡位的电热毯.已知原电热毯的额定电压为220 V,为了测定它的额定功率,小明把它与一个标有“220 V,25 W”灯泡串联在家庭电路中如图4所示,电压表的示数为176 V.(电源电压恒为220 V,不考虑温度对电阻阻值的影响),求: IP1400W1.82AU220V。 (1)原电热毯的额定功率多大? (2)为了使改造后的电热毯(如图5所示)在低温挡位时的总发热功率为原电热毯额定功率的五分之三,小明需一个阻值多大的电阻丝?(保留一位小数)(3)改造后的电热毯,在低温挡位时工作10 min,R0消耗多少电能? 解析:(1)灯泡的电阻 RLU2/PL(220V)2/25W1936。R0两端的电压U0UUL220V176V44V 由于R0与灯泡L串联,所以 R0U0RL/UL44V1396/176V484 原电热毯的额定功率 2P额U额/R0(220V)2/484100W (2)改造后的电热毯在低温挡时,R0与Rx串联总发热功率P3P额/560W,电路的总电阻 RU2/P(220V)2/60W806.7电阻丝的阻值RxRR0322.7(3)W0P0tI2Rt(P/U)2R0t(60W/220V)24841060s21600J 点拨:对于电热器的高、中、低挡或加热挡和保温挡,电功率最大时为高挡,电功率最小时为低挡,如果电压不变(如在家庭电路电压下工作的用电器),当电路中电阻最大时,电功率最小为低挡,当电路中电阻最小时,电功率最大为高挡. 方法6 电路安全问题的解法 例 6、(2008年青岛市)如图6所示电路中,电源电压6 V恒定,电流表的量程为0—0.6 A,电压表的量程为0—3 V,灯L1和L2的规格分别为“6 V,1.8 W”和“6 V,1.2 W”,滑 动变阻器R的规格为“50Ω,1.5 A”,不计温度对灯丝电阻的影响.求: ①滑动变阻器的滑片P放在a端时,闭合开关S1、S2、S3后,电流表的读数是多少? ②若只闭合开关S1、S2,且要求电路元件安全使用,在滑片移动过程中,求整个电路消耗的最小功率. 解析:①滑动变阻器的滑片P移到a端时,电路中只有两灯并联且都正常工作,电流表 的读数是: II1I2P1/UP2/U1.8W/6V1.2W/6V0.3A0.2A0.5A ②灯L1的电阻为: R1U1/I16V/0.3A20 若只闭合开关S1、S2,则滑动变阻器与灯L1串联且要求电路元件安全使用,电压表测量的是滑动变阻器的电压且不超过3 V,此时灯L1的两端电压也为6 V-3 V=3 V,电路中的电流小于灯泡的额定电流和电流表及滑动变阻器的安全电流,此时整个电路消耗的功率最小,滑动变阻器的电压为3 V时的电流是: IU1/R13V/200.15A 电路消耗的功率最小为: P最小UI6V0.15A0.9W。 点拨:电路安全一定要考虑全面,不仅要注意不要超过电表的量程,还不能超过用电器的额定值,也不能超过滑动变阻器允许通过的电流最大值等.第五篇:初中电功率知识和题型总结