第一篇：八年级英语语法专题教案
八年级英语语法专题教案
语法专题
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简单句：由一个主语（或并列主语）和一个谓语（或并列谓语）构成。
一五种基本句型：
．
主语＋系动词＋表语（S+V+P）Heishapp
2．主语＋不及物动词＋（状语）
Heissiing
3．主语＋及物动词＋宾语＋（状语）
Isahiustn
4．主语＋及物动词＋间接宾语＋直接宾语
Shelenteabie，主语＋及物动词＋直接宾语＋间接宾语
Shelentabiete
．
主语＋及物动词＋宾语＋宾语补足语
Thegdnesadeushapp
二练习：写出下列句子的基本成分。
．
Heliesusiveruh
2．Thesuptastessalt
3．Shersverhard
4．teaherasedetealittleearliernexttie
．
fatherbughteaputer
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宾语从句：以一个句子作为宾语的复合句。
一宾语从句的时态：
主句
从句
一般现在时
要根据具体情况选择所需要的时态
一般过去时
相应的过去时态
一般过去时
客观真理或自然现象时，从句用一般现在时态
egHesasthatheisgingttheinea
Hesaidthatheuldn’tfinishtherntie
Theteahertldusthattheearthgesarundthesun
二宾语从句的语序：陈述句的语序。
三宾语从句的引导词：
陈述句
that
一般疑问句
if/hether
特殊疑问句
疑问词
egHesasHeliespainting----Hesasheliespainting
IsheAerian?Heased----Heasedif/hetherheasAerian
hereistheinea?Idn’tn----Idn’tnheretheineais
四练习：把下列句子改为宾语从句。
Thestrisverinteresting
hatdidusa?
heredesheefr
Isurfatheradtr?
Hassheseenthefil?
HanIgettthehspital
Heisplaingputergaes
Theillhaveaeetingtrr
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动词不定式（td）和动名词（v-ing）
有些动词后面需加td或-ing来把意思补充完整。接td的单词多为“打算”、“计划”、“希望”之类的动词，而这些动词都表示未来。接-ing形式的动词要么表示是正在进行，要么表示一般性或经常性行为。有的动词既可以接td，也可以接-ving。一
接
td的动
词
有
：ant,uldlie,agree,refuse,deide,learn,need,ffer,affrd,ish,hpe,as等。
二接-ing的动词有：feellie,eep,en,finish,pratie等。
三既可以接td，也可以接-ving的动词有：hate,lie,lve,begin,start（意思一样），reeber,frget,ntinue,stp,tr,gn（意思不一样）等。
四练习：用所给词的适当形式填空。
uldulie_____________aupftea?
I’vertired,let’sstp_____________arest
Iasedhhesiled,butheuldn
’treeber_________________ate
Heants_____________anebie
uusteep_____________________________Englisheverda
Haveufinished_____________theb?
Ideide______________theGreatallthishlida
sisterens_______________tusi
Helearnt______________allbhiself
0
fatheragreed____________eaputer
Ifrgt_____________thedresterda
Ihate______________
Theteaherising,estp_____________
etried______________therntie
Sallrefused______________duringthefinalpratie
Heffers____________eithther
Shean’taffrd______________aditinar
Ihpe_____________abrad
Daeiased____________theputergaenfather’sputer
Hestarted_______________hisnradiprgraerattheageffifteen
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一
由if引导的条状语从句
句子结构
主句+if从句
If从句,主句
时态变化
主句
从句
一般将来时
ill
n’t
一般现在时
v
dn’t+v
v-s
desn’t+v
启使句
v
Dn’t+v
eg:
Ifu
tsasething，up,please
=
IfLil
thegift,she
verhapp
=
Ifshe
uplate,she
thebus
=
=Sheshuld ,r
二
感叹句
hat+a/an/+ad+n!
eg:
leanlassrit!
hnestidT!
terriblenesthis!
fantastinertsthe!
funnplaeeentesterda!
H+ad+主语+be!
H+adv+主语+v!
H+ad/adv+从句!
eg:改写上面的句子
第二篇：八年级英语语法
学习是把知识、能力、思维方法等转化为你的私有产权的重要手段，是“公有转私”的重要途径。你的一生，无法离开学习，学习是你最忠实的朋友，它会听你的召唤，它会帮助你走向一个又一个成功。语法是学号英语的关键。下面就是小编为大家梳理归纳的内容，希望能够帮助到大家。
八年级英语上册语法归纳
感叹句的类型：
⑴ What a∕an+adj+可数名词单数(+主语+谓语)!
What +adj+可数名词复数∕不可数名词(+主语+谓语)!
What a fine day(it is)!多么好的天啊!(day为可数名词单数)
What an interesting book it is!多么有趣的一本书啊!(book为可数名词单数)
What beautiful flowers they are!多么漂亮的花啊!(flowers为可数名词复数)
What bad weather it is!多么糟糕的天气啊!(weather为不可数名词)
⑵ How +adj +主语+(谓语中的)系动词!How +adv +主语+(谓语中的)实义动词!
How happy I am!我多麽高兴啊!(happy为adj,am为系动词)
How hard they are working!他们工作多么努力啊!(hard为adv,work为实义动词)
点拨：陈述句改为感叹句，可以采用“一判、二定、三移”。
一判：是判断出陈述句谓语动词后的中心词的词性(adj∕adv∕n);
二定：是根据判断出来的结果来确定引导词(中心词为名词用What;中心词为形容词或副词用How;)
三移：就是把主语和谓语移到后面。
注意：在感叹句中，不得出现so,very，very much等表示程度的单词。
例如：①Our school is beautiful.一判：beautiful为形容词;二定：beautiful为形容词，用How 来引导;三移：把Our school is移到Howbeautiful后面，即为感叹句How beautiful our school is!
②He is a clever boy.一判：boy为名词;二定：boy为名词，用What来引导;三移：把He is移到What a clever boy 后面，即为感叹句What aclever boy he is!
③He studies English well.一判：well为副词;二定：well为副词，用How 来引导;三移：把He studies移到How well后面，即为感叹句How well hestudies!
练习：将下列句子变为感叹句。①The room is very bright.② We live a happy life today.③It is a nice present.④This is difficult problem.⑤She played the piano wonderfully.1.the(best)way to do sth:做某事的()方法
2.thanks for+名词V?ing:为什么而感谢
3.take a trip参加郊游，at the end of this month在本月底
4.go back to+地点：回到某地 He will go back to Beijing in 2 days.两天后他将回北京。
5.have a surprise party for sb为某人举办一个惊喜的晚会
6.without+名词代词 V?ing：没有… He can't finish the work without ourhelp.(help为名词)
He went to school without having breakfast.他没有吃早饭就去上学。(have为动词)
7.look forward to +名词代词V.ing：期待，盼望
8.hear from sb.收到某人的来信 = receive a letter from sb.9.the opening of… ：开幕/开业
10.在具体哪一天的上午、下午、晚上用on,比较：
in the morning在早晨 on Sunday morning在星期天的早晨
11.invite sb to +地点:邀请某人去某地(invite--invitation)invite sb to do sth邀请某人做某事
12.reply to sth / sb：回答某事/回答某人 go shopping 购物，do homework做家庭作业
学习一般将来时will do sth。
一般将来时由“助动词will / shall +动词原型”构成，表示将来某个时间要发生的动作或存在的状态，常与表示将来的时间状语如tomorrow、next week，in 2days(2天之后)等连用。(Shall用于第一人称，will可以用于各种人称。)(will not= won't)
一般疑问句：把肯定句中的will 提到句首即可。以上两句的一般疑问句为：
Will you visit the old man next week? Yes,we will.No, we won't.否定句：把肯定句中的will 变为won't即可。以上两句的否定句为：
We won't visit the old man next week.She won't finish the work in 2weeks.不定代词和不定副词的用法：
(1)左边的some、any、every、no与右边的body、one、thing构成不定代词，some、any、every、no与右边的疑问副词where构成不定副词;
(2)一般情况下以some开头的不定代词和不定副词用于肯定句，以any开头的不定代词和不定副词用于否定句、疑问句;以no开头的不定代词和不定副词表示否定含义(noone为两个单词);
(3)不定代词或不定副词和形容词连用时，形容词放在后面。
He has something important todo.他有重要的事情要做。(肯定句用something，形容词important放后)
Did you buy anything special?(一般疑问句用anything，形容词special放后)
Did you go anywhere interesting last month?上个月你去令人感兴趣的地方了吗?
(一般疑问句用不定副词anywhere，形容词interesting放后)
(4)不定代词和不定副词做主语时，后面的动词用单数形式。Everone is here today.今天每个人都在这里。
八年级上册英语语法归纳
1.what 与 which 都是疑问代词，都可以指人或事物，但是what仅用来询问职业。如：
What is your father? 你父亲是干什么的?
该句相当于：
What does your father do?
What is your father's job?
Which 指代的是特定范围内的某一个人。如：
---Which is Peter? 哪个是皮特?
---The boy behind Mary.玛丽背后的那个男孩。
2.What...?是泛指，所指的事物没有范围的限制;而 Which...?是特指，所指的事物有范围的限制。如：
What color do you like best?(所有颜色)
你最喜爱什么颜色?
Which color do you like best, blue, green or yellow?(有特定的范围)你最喜爱哪一种颜色?
3.what 与 which 后都可以接单、复数名词和不可数名词。如： Which pictures are from China?
哪些图片来自中国?
4)频度副词的位置
1.常见的频度副词有以下这些：
always(总是，一直)
usually(通常)
often(常常，经常)
sometimes(有时候)
never(从不)
2.频度副词的位置：
a.放在连系动词、助动词或情态动词后面。如：
David is often arrives late for school.大卫上学经常迟到。
b.放在行为动词前。如：
We usually go to school at 7:10 every day.我们每天经常在7：10去上学。
c.有些频度副词可放在句首或句尾，用来表示强调。如：
Sometimes I walk home, sometime I rides a bike.有时我步行回家，有时我骑自行车。
3.never放在句首时，主语、谓语动词要倒装。如：
Never have I been there.5)every day 与 everyday
1.every day 作状语，译为“每一天”。如：
We go to school at 7:10 every day.我们每天7：10去上学。
I decide to read English every day.我决定每天读英语。
2.everyday 作定语，译为“日常的”。
She watches everyday English on TV after dinner.她晚饭后在电视上看日常英语。
What's your everyday activity?
你的日常活动是什么?
6)什么是助动词
1.协助主要动词构成谓语动词词组的词叫助动词(Auxiliary Verb)。被协助的动?a href='//www.xiexiebang.com/yangsheng/shipu/' target='_blank'>食谱髦饕?Main Verb)。
助动词自身没有词义，不可单独使用，例如：
He doesn't like English.他不喜欢英语。
(doesn't是助动词，无词义;like是主要动词，有词义)
2.助动词协助主要动词完成以下功用，可以用来：
a.表示时态，例如：
He is singing.他在唱歌。
He has got married.他已结婚。
b.表示语态，例如：
He was sent to England.他被派往英国。
c.构成疑问句，例如：
Do you like college life? 你喜欢大学生活吗?
Did you study English before you came here?你来这儿之前学过英语吗?
d.与否定副词not合用，构成否定句，例如：
I don't like him.我不喜欢他。
e.加强语气，例如：
Do come to the party tomorrow evening.明天晚上一定来参加晚会。He did know that.他的确知道那件事。
3.最常用的助动词有：be, have, do, shall, will, should, would
7)forget doing/to do与remember doing/to do
1.forget to do 忘记要去做某事。(未做)
forget doing 忘记做过某事。(已做)
The light in the office is still on.He forgot to turn it off.办公室的灯还在亮着，它忘记关了。(没有做关灯的动作)
He forgot turning the light off.他忘记他已经关了灯了。(已做过关灯的动作)
Don't forget to come tomorrow.别忘了明天来。(to come动作未做)
1.主语的第三人称单数形式，即可用“he, she, it”代替的。如： he, she, it
my friend, his teacher, our classroom, Tom, Mary's uncle
2.名词有单数名词和复数名词。如：
man(单数)---men(复数)banana(单数)---bananas(复数)
3.动词有原形，第三人称单数形式，-ing分词，过去式，过去分词。如： go---goes---going---went---gone
work---works---working---worked---worked
watch---watches---watching---watched---watched
当主语为第三人称单数的时候，谓语动词必须用相应的第三人称单数形式。如：
The boy wants to be a sales assistant.Our English teacher is from the US.Their daughter makes her breakfast all by herself.1.主语的第三人称单数形式，即可用“he, she, it”代替的。如： he, she, it
my friend, his teacher, our classroom, Tom, Mary's uncle
2.名词有单数名词和复数名词。如：
man(单数)---men(复数)banana(单数)---bananas(复数)3.动词有原形，第三人称单数形式，-ing分词，过去式，过去分词。如： go---goes---going---went---gone
work---works---working---worked---worked
watch---watches---watching---watched---watched
当主语为第三人称单数的时候，谓语动词必须用相应的第三人称单数形式。如：
The boy wants to be a sales assistant.Our English teacher is from the US.Their daughter makes her breakfast all by herself.1)leave的用法
1.“leave+地点”表示“离开某地”。例如：
When did you leave Shanghai?
你什么时候离开上海的?
2.“leave for+地点”表示“动身去某地”。例如：
Next Friday, Alice is leaving for London.下周五，爱丽斯要去伦敦了。
3.“leave+地点+for+地点”表示“离开某地去某地”。例如：
Why are you leaving Shanghai for Beijing?
你为什么要离开上海去北京?
2)情态动词should“应该”学会使用
should作为情态动词用，常常表示意外、惊奇、不能理解等，有“竟会”的意思，例如：
How should I know? 我怎么知道?
Why should you be so late today? 你今天为什么来得这么晚?
should有时表示应当做或发生的事，例如：
We should help each other.我们应当互相帮助。
我们在使用时要注意以下几点：
1.用于表示“应该”或“不应该”的概念。此时常指长辈教导或责备晚辈。例如：
You should be here with clean hands.你应该把手洗干净了再来。
2.用于提出意见劝导别人。例如：
You should go to the doctor if you feel ill.如果你感觉不舒服，你去看医生。
3.用于表示可能性。should的这一用法是考试中常常出现的考点之一。例如：
We should arrive by supper time.我们在晚饭前就能到了。
She should be here any moment.她随时都可能来。
第三篇：英语语法 教案
教
案
课程名称
英语语法
Lecture 1 Sentence Structure
教学重点及难点：
1.The classification of bound morpheme and the frequently applied bound morphemes;
2.The basic clause types and their transformation and expansion
教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Basic Concepts of morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and sentences;2.Ways of word-formation: affixation, derivation and composition;3.Ways of sentence analysis: one ways is to divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.The other way is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication.4.Basic clause types include SVC, SV, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, and SvoO.An affirmative clause can be transformed into a negative;a statement into a question, and a active clause into a passive.All these add varieties to the basic clause types.Lecture 1 Sentence structure Owing to the fact that sentences in authentic language differ structurally in thousands of ways, what is described here as sentence structure, sentence elements, or sentence patterns is only concerned with the simple sentence, or rather with the clause.1.1 clause elements As has been pointed out before, the clause or the simple sentence is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.That is to say, the clause or the simple sentence is not just an agglomeration of phrases;it is a group of phrases organized into a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.1)Subject and predicate A full-fledged clause can generally be divided into two parts: the subject and the predicate.The subject is the topic or theme of the sentence, which tell of what the sentence is about.The predicate says something about the subject and bear the new information which the speaker or writer wants to transmit to the listener or reader.The subject is generally realized by a noun phrase or an equivalent of noun phrase, while the construction of the predicate, which is more complicated, generally consists of a verb phrase with or without complementation.2)Two ways of sentence analysis To facilitate description of how English language works, sentences can be analyzed in two ways.One way is to divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.These elements together with the subject make the five clause elements.The other ways of sentence analysis is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication.The operator is usually the auxiliary or the first auxiliary in a complex verb phrase, while the predication comprises the main verb with its complementation(object, complement or adverbial).1.2 basic clause types and their transformation and expansion In terms of the different combinations of clause elements, English clauses can be classified into seven basic types.Innumerable authentic sentences are structured on the basis of these clause types.1)Basic clause types The seven basic clause types are SVC, SV, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, and SVoO.These seven combinations of clause elements are wholly or largely determined by the main verb in the clause.The main verb in an SVC pattern is a linking or copula verb which must be followed by a subject complement.The main verb in an SV pattern is an intransitive verb which is not to be followed by any obligatory element except for a limited number of intransitive verbs which require an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVA.The main verb in an SVO pattern us a monotranstitive which must be followed by an object, and with some monotransitives the object must again be followed by an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVOA.The main verb in an SVOC pattern is a complex transitive verb which must be followed by an object+ object complement.The main verb in an SVoO pattern is a ditransitive verb which is to e followed by two objects: indirect and direct object.2)Transformation and expansion of basic clause types The basic clause types are all affirmative statements with verbs in the active voice.An affirmative clause can be transformed into a negative;s statement into a question;and an active clause into a passive.All these add varieties to the basic clause types.The basic clause types and their variants can also be expanded into larger grammatical units through adding modifiers at various levels, and these larger units can again be expanded through coordination and subordination into compound, complex and compound-complex sentences.Lectures 2&3 Subject-verb Concord
教学重点及难点： 1.The appliance of grammatical, notional and proximity concords in some special conditions;
2.Problems of subject-verb concord.教 学 基 本 内 容
1.The concepts of three principles guiding subject-verb concord: grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity concord.2.Problems of concord with a coordinate subject: concord with ―and‖ or ―both…and‖, concord with ―or‖/ ―either…or‖, ―nor‖/ ―neither…nor‖, ―not only…but also‖;
3.Problems of concord with expressions of quality as subject: concord with expression of definite quality as subject, concord with expression of indefinite quality as subject;
4.Other problems of subject-verb concord: problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject, subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause or subject, subject-verb concord in relative clauses, cleft-sentences, and existential sentences.Lecture 2 Subject-verb Concord(I)2.1 Guiding principles
1)Grammatical concord
2)Notional concord
3)Proximity 2.2 Problems of concord with nouns ending in-s Disease and game names ending in –s
They are mostly treated as singulars.A few such names can be used either as singular or as plural.Subject names ending in –ics
Such names are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names.Geographical names ending in –s
Plural except for a few treated as singular when used as country names.4)
Other nouns ending in –s Disease and game names ending in –s
They are mostly treated as singulars.A few such names can be used either as singular or as plural.Measles, mumps, rickets, shingles, diabetes, arthritis, phlebitis, AIDS, etc.Subject names ending in –ics
Such names are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names.Acoustics, classics, electronics, informatics, linguistics, mechanics, optics, plastics, thermodynamics, etc.Geographical names ending in –s
Plural except for a few treated as singular when used as country names.Other nouns ending in –s
Calipers, compasses, flares, forceps, glasses, jeans, pants, pincers, pliers, scales, scissors, shades, shorts, suspenders, spectacles, etc.2.3 problems of concord with collective nouns as subject 1)Collective nouns usually used as plural
People, police, cattle, militia, poultry, vermin, etc.2)Collective nouns usually used as singular
Foliage, cutlery, poetry, machinery, equipment, furniture, merchandise, etc.3)Collective nouns used either as plural or as singular
Couple, crew, government, majority, opposition ,etc 4)A committee, etc + plural noun
A committee / board / panel of
Lecture 3
Subject-verb Concord(II)Teaching Contents 3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subject 3.2 Problems of concord with expressions of quantity as subject 3.3 Other problems of subject-verb concord
3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subject Coordination by “and” or “both …and”
It is usually treated as plural when it refers to two or more than two persons/things, but it is singular when referring to one person or thing.e.g.Baseball and swimming are usually summer sports.Your friend and adviser has agreed to lend me his money.After “each… and each…” or “every… and every…”, the verb is also in the singular form: e.g.Each man and each woman is asked to help.Every flower and every bush is to be cut down.The indefinite pronouns anybody/anyone, everybody/everyone, nobody/no one, and somebody/someone combine with singular verb forms, even though co-referent pronouns and determiners may be plural forms.e.g.[Everybody]‘s doing what they think they‘re supposed to do.Nobody has their fridges repaired any more, they can‘t afford it.each/every… he/she/they
e.g.At the moment each of the girls was too busy thinking about her own personal safety to care much about the luggage.But ―each/every+ singular n.… they/their‖ is right as well.e.g.Each of the students should have his/their own books.Every member brings their own lunch.In such exams as TOEFL, the pronoun referring to
―nobody/everybody/everyone/someone/somebody/anybody/anyone/no one‖ can only be he/his instead of they/their.However, as English learners it must be known that ―everyone…they‖ is used more often than ―everyone…he‖.e.g.Everyone warned you, didn‘t they?
Has anybody brought their camera? No one could have blamed themselves for that.Every one / each / each one /*every one of the students should have their/his own books.2)Coordination by “or” / “either…or”, “neither…nor”, “not only...but also” Here the problem is dealt with according to the principle of proximity.e.g.My sisters or my brother is likely to be at home.Either my father or my brothers are coming.Informally we can have the following use: e.g.Neither he nor his wife have arrived.In formal cases, especially in exams, ―neither‖ is used with singular verb.e.g.Neither of them is bright.When used with plural nouns in informal cases, ―neither‖ can also be used with plural verb.e.g.Neither of the books are/is very interesting.---I can‘t swim.----Neither can I.---He didn‘t like the play.---Nor did we.Neither is usually in formal cases, but nor is often used in spoken English.3)Subject + as well as, as much as, rather than, more than, no less than;with, along with, together with, in addition to, except + Verb(determined by the form of the subject e.g.Some of the workers, as well as the manager, were working during the holidays.No one except two students was late for the dinner.3.2 Problems of concord with expressions of quantity as subject 1)Concord with expression of definite quantity as subject
a)When regarded as a single unit, the verb is singular;when regarded as the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form.e.g.Twenty years in prison was the penalty he had to pay.b)a fraction/percentage + of-phrase+(<--)verb e.g.Thirty-five percent of the doctors were women.c)“A + B /A×B” + Verb(singular/plural);“A－B/A÷B”+ Verb(singular)e.g.Forty minus fifteen leaves twenty-five.40-15=25
d)one in/out of + Plural noun + Verb(fml.Singular;infml.plural)e.g.One in ten students has/have failed the exam.2)Concord with expression of indefinite quantity as subject.a)all of/some of/ none of /half of/most of + noun phrase of indefinite quantity +(<--)verb e.g.Most of the money was recovered by Deputy Player.Usage is fairly evenly divided between singular and plural concord with none of: e.g.None of us has been aboard except Vinck.None of us really believe it‘s ever going to happen not to us, she said at last.[Fiction] However, none alone shows a distinct preference for singular concord: e.g.[None] describes him/herself as such in the party‘s official literature.(NEWS)Plural concord is the norm in conversation, while in the written registers there is an overall preference for singular concord.None of + N.+ V 1)当none与不可数名词连用或指代不可数名词时，其谓语动词总是用单数。e.g.I wanted some more coffee, but there was none left.2)当none与复数名词连用或指代复数名词时，传统语法规定其谓语动词必须用单数。此用法得到英语教材和各类英语实体的肯定和强调。但是，实际应用中人们往往使用―概念一致‖原则，用动词的复数形式。所以，Quirk说：―用复数动词较为常见，并且，在正式用法中也为人们普遍接受。‖ e.g.None of the books has/have been placed on the shelves.None but the brave deserves the fair.唯有勇者才配得上美女。
None are so deaf as those who will not hear.不愿听从的人是最聋的人。
no one 单独使用时只用于指人。
e.g.No one should pride themselves on this result.但是，no one之后接-of短语时，既可指人也可指物。e.g.No one of you could lift it.I reach three books on this subject, no one of which was helpful.None 既可指人也可指物。
e.g.How many elephants did you see? None.No one of them really understands the problems.No one 与no-one在英语里是并存的，目前尚未统一形式。No-one 为英国英语，而no one是美国英语
b)lots of/heaps of/loads of/scads of/plenty of + noun phrase +(<--)verb e.g.Lots of stuff is going to waste.c)a portion of/a series of/a pile of/a panel of + noun phrase + verb(singular)e.g.A substantial portion of reports is missing a collection of + pl.n.+ singular verb
There is a collection of pictures at the Town Hall.a great deal / a great many
a great(good)deal之后要加介词of才能与名词连用，而a great(good)many可以直接与名词连用。另外，a great deal of跟不可数名词连用，而a great many则与可数名词连用。
e.g.The chest contained a great/good deal of money.A great deal还可作形容词或副词比较级的修饰语 e.g.That job was a great deal easier.a lot of 既可跟不可数名词也可跟可数名词，谓语动词决定于名词的单复数。e.g.There is a lot of beer in those bottles there.lots of 与amounts of , quantities of 不同，后两者是中心词而非修饰语。
e.g.Large amounts of money were spent on the bridge.Quantities of food were on the table.a variety of + n.做主语时，其谓语动词决定于名词的数，也就是说，此处起作用的是概念一致原则。
e.g.A great variety of books were recently published.a wide range of + pl.n.充当主语时，其谓语动词应用单数；a bouquet of flowers也是用单数。
e.g.A wide range of washing-machines and refrigerators is displayed in our showroom.A bouquet of flowers was presented to the vicar‘s wife.a set of + pl.n.做主语时，人们使用谓语动词的形式并不是很一致。
e.g.There is a set of rules that you must follow if you are going mountain-climbing.There are set of unscrupulous scoundrels.d)determiner + species nouns(kind/type/sort)of + noun phrase(singular countable noun/uncountable noun)+verb(singular)e.g.This kind of apples is highly priced.With countable nouns there tends to be agreement in number between the species noun and the following noun(e.g.that kind of thing v.all kinds of things).But we also find: Singular species noun + pl.noun e.g.I don‘t know what kind of dinosaurs they all are.I mean, do we want these kind of people in our team?
Pl.species noun + singular noun e.g.Thieves tended to target certain types of car he said.e)many a + noun phrase + verb(singular)
more than one + singular noun + singular verb
more pl.noun + than one + pl.verb e.g.Many a man has sacrificed his life.More than one member has protested against the proposal.More persons than one have been involved.f)In “an average of/a majority of + noun phrase(pl.)+ verb”, when noun is regarded as the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form;otherwise, it is singular.e.g.A majority of the town's younger men are moving to the city.A majority of three votes to one was recorded.3.3 Other problems of subject-verb concord 1)Problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject When the subject is a nominal clause introduced
by what, which, how, why, whether, the verb usually takes the singular form.But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and or both…and, a plural verb is used.e.g.What I saw was a car.What I saw and think are no business of yours.In SVC construction with a what-clause as subject，when the subject complement is plural, or when the what-clause is plural in meaning, the verb of the main clause can be plural.e.g.What they want are promises.2)Subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause as subject Generally speaking, the verb is singular.But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and, the verb of the main clause is singular when the subject refers to one thing, and is plural when the
subject refers to separate things.e.g.To eat well is all he asks.3)Subject-verb concord in relative clauses one of + plural noun + relative clause(verb)the(only)one of + plural noun + relative clause(singular verb)4)Subject-verb concord in cleft-sentences Here the verb is determined by the number of the focal element functioning as subject in the clause.I----am;me---third person singular number e.g.It is I who am to blame.It is me that is to blame.5)Subject-verb concord in existential sentences Generally the verb is determined by the notional subject.When the notional subject is a coordinate construction, the verb form goes with the first coordinate element of the notional subject.But in informal style, esp.in spoken language, the verb is often singular.e.g.There is a book on the desk.There is many people in the street.There is more grace and less carelessness.American and Dutch beer are much lighter than British.The short term and the long term loan are handled differently.按英语惯用法，一个单数名词受前置限定时，如果此名词表示两个或两个以上的事物，根据概念一致的原则，其谓语动词用复数；但是当此类名词受后置限制时，其谓语动词用单数。
e.g.Beer from America and Holland is much lighter than British beer.majority
许多英美出版的语法书和惯用法都指出，majority和minority不能与不可数名词连用。T.Wood 的―Current English Usage‖(p161)说： ―Majority may be used only for number with countable nouns, not for amount or quantity with mass nouns: The majority of the eggs were bad is correct;The majority of the butter was bad is not.Similarly, we cannot speak of the majority of the land/time/one‘s wealth.We must use most, or the greater part‖.但是，Practical English Usage(1980)有一例： e.g.The majority of the damage is easy to repair.建议按照T.Wood的观点来使用the majority of。
Majority虽然在语法上是个单数名词，但在概念上却具有复数的意义：most, almost all, many。因此一般与复数动词连用。e.g.The majority of children like sweets.The majority of doctors believe smoking is harmful to health.若后面没有-of短语时，the majority 作主语时。如果泛指多数（与少数相对），谓语单复数均可。Eg，The majority is /are doing its/their best。//in favor of the plan。//against him。
1．如果指整体、统一体，majority 常被看作单数。
The majority is always able to impose its will on the minority。// is for him。2.如果指多数中的各个成员, majority 被看成复数。
The majority are of different minds on the matter 3．如果指多出的数目，majority 看成单数。
Her Majority was 5 vote //His majority was a big(small)one..the rest(+of noun)+verb 遵循概念一致原则，而非语法一致原则。e.g.The rest are to wait for us.The rest needs no telling.the + adjective 做主语：
1）当表示一类人的整体时，e.g.the young, the old, the poor, the rich, the blind, the dead, 谓语动词用复数。
e.g.The wise look to the wiser for advice.2）当表示具体的人，而不是某一类人的整体，谓语动词用单数形式。e.g.The deceased is my uncle.3）表示抽象的概念或某种笼统的东西时，谓语动词用单数形式。e.g.The best is yet to come.The unknown is always something to be feared.Worth + of + pl.noun , 其谓语动词形式
取决于上下文和所表达的真正意思。当充当of宾语 的名词具有重要意义时，谓语动词用复数形式，当 所表达的价值具有重要意义时，则谓语动词用单数 形式。
e.g.Nearly a thousand pounds‘ worth of cigarettes were stolen.（此处重要的是香烟被盗）大约价值1000英镑的香烟被盗。
There is nearly a thousand pounds‘ worth of cigarettes on that shelf.（此处重要的是香烟的价值）在那个架子上的香烟价值大约为1000英镑
Lesson 4
Noun and noun phrase
教学重点及难点：
Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper noun.教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Classification of nouns: simple, compound and derivative nouns, proper and common nouns, count and noncount nouns.2.Number forms of nouns: regular and irregular plural forms of nouns;
3.Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper noun: number forms of the collective noun, number forms of the material nouns, number forms of the abstract noun, number forms of the proper noun;
4.Partitives: the definition of partitives, general partitives, partitives related to the shape of things, partitives related to volume, partitives related to the state of action, Partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks.Lecture 4 Noun and Noun Phrase
Teaching Contents 4.1 Classification of nouns and function of noun phrases 4.2 Number forms of nouns 4.3 Partitives 4.1 Classification of nouns and function of noun phrases 1)Classification of nouns a)Simple, compound and derivative nouns: by word-formation b)Common and proper nouns: by lexical meaning C)Countable noun and uncountable noun This classification is based on the grammatical features of nouns instead of whether they are countable.Regarding grammatical features, uncountable nouns cannot have numeral before them(*two information), have no plural forms(*informations)and cannot be modified by ―how many‖ but by ―how much‖
2)Functions of noun phrases Nouns can function as all the elements in a sentence except the predicative verb.e.g.They elected him chairman of the board.He returned last night.A photo is taken each time this button is pushed
The general pattern of noun phrase is
(Determiner)+(premodifier)+noun+(postmodifier)The premodifier of noun phrase can be noun as well as adj.or participle.e.g.a table leg, water supply, the life sciences When noun is used as premodifier, it can be either singular, plural, or both.(1)Singular noun as premodifier e.g.table legs = legs of a table / tables
a shoe store = a store that sells shoes
a car race = a race between cars
a kitchen sink = a sink in a kitchen When the plural noun in the postmodifier is changed into premodifier, it usually becomes singular.e.g.a cloth for dishes = a dish cloth
decay of teeth = tooth decay
a station for buses = a bus station
a pocket for trousers = a trouser pocket
a tray for ashes = an ash tray(2)Singular or plural noun as premodifier
a.There is ambiguity here.foreign language(s)department= department of foreign languages
(foreign language department = department of a foreign language)soft drinks manufacturer = manufacturer that produces several kinds of soft drink soft drink manufacturer = manufacturer that produces one kind of soft drink b.different meanings
e.g.an art degree = a degree in fine art an Arts degree = a degree in the humanities(3)Only plural noun as premodifier e.g.a customs officer, a goods train, clothes hanger, sales technique, contents bill, savings bank
It is more popular to use plural nouns as premodifiers in British English than in American English.Now it tends to increase.(4)When the head of the noun phrase is collective noun or name of an organization, the plural noun as the premodifier can have two forms, but the same meaning.e.g.Scientists(‘)Institute for Public Information But the singular noun is seldom used.e.g.Yibin Teachers/ Teachers‘/ *Teacher‘s College 4.2 Number forms of nouns
Number is a grammatical distinction which determines whether a noun or determiner is singular or plural.1)Regular and irregular plural The regular is formed by adding –s or –es to the base, while the irregular is formed by changing the internal vowel or by changing the ending of the noun.Irregular plurals also include some words of foreign origin, borrowed from Greek, Latin or French.Their plural forms are known as ―foreign plurals‖, e.g.basis—bases, criterion—criteria.Some borrowed words have two plural forms: a foreign plural and an English one.e.g.medium—media – mediums For some, their singular and plural number share the same form，A)Animal names Singular form and regular plural coexist: Antelope, elk, fish, flounder, herring, reindeer, shrimp, woodcock（羚羊，麋，鱼，比目鱼，鲱鱼，驯鹿，虾，丘鹬（别名山鹬）e.g.He caught several fish/three little fishes.They went catching shrimp/shrimps.I shot two elk/elks.b)Singular form is usually used: bison, grouse, quail, salmon, swine（野牛 , 松鸡，鹌鹑，鲑（大麻哈鱼），猪）e.g.The farmer raises many quail/quails and chickens.c)Singular form is always used: cod, deer, mackerel, trout, sheep.（鳕，鹿，鲐鱼，真鳟）e.g.This is a deer.Those are deer.B).Nationality nouns Some words ending in sound /z/ or /s/ use singular form: Chinese, Japanese, Lebanese, Portuguese, Sinhalese, Vietnamese, Swiss e.g.I am a Chinese.There are four Chinese in the training class.C)Quantitative nouns(hundred/thousand/million/billion)a)Cardinal numeral + hundred/thousand/million/billion +n.e.g.two hundred / *two hundred of years ago That‘s going to take hundreds of/*hundreds years.Cardinal numeral + million + n.Cardinal numeral + millions of + n.e.g.three millions of dollars
three million dollars When the noun is omitted, if it is not monetary unit, the singular form is more often used than the plural form;if it is, the regular plural form is used.e.g.The population rose to four million / millions.The firm had to pay three millions.b)several/many/a few + singular / plural(of)+ n.e.g.He has played the part several hundred times / several hundreds of times.some + regular plural + n.e.g.He has played the piano some hundreds of times / many, many times.(some hundred times = about a hundred times)c)dozen, score e.g.She bought three score(of)eggs.I have been there dozens of times.He has already asked me several dozens of/ many scores of times.2)Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper nouns a)Number forms of the collective noun Some are countable, while some are not.Countable nouns behave like individual nouns.An uncountable one has no plural form;if we want to count the number, we will use a kind of individual noun related semantically to the collective, e.g.poetry—poem.Some collective nouns can be used in either singular or plural sense.The following verb is determined by the singular or plural sense.b)Number forms of the material noun Generally they are [U] and have no plural form.However, some items can be used either uncountably or countably.Some material nouns can take plural endings to convey the large quantity or scope , e.g.sand/sands, snow/snows
Sometimes material nouns are [C] to express ―one type of‖ or ―various types of‖ this material.e.g.I n Britain tea is usually drunk with sugar in it.I‘d like to have a famous tea.We hardly bought wine at lunch time.We like wines and liquors.Some material nouns become [C] to express ―packet of ‖, ―cups of‖.e.g.How many beers were you wanting?
How many tins of beer were you wanting? When referring to the material itself, they are [U];otherwise, they are [C], e.g.stone, rubber
c)Number forms of the abstract noun Mostly they are [U] and cannot take such determiners as a/one or plural forms.A few are [C], e.g.victory—victories.Some are not [C], although they have plural endings, e.g.*several difficulties.The addition of a plural ending to some can change the meaning of the base, e.g.experience—experiences.Some can only use singular form with ―a‖, some only plural form, some both.e.g.He has a dislike/dread/hatred/horror/love of cats.He had a good knowledge of mathematics.Give my best regards to your parents.He refused with much regret / many regrets.I have a suspicion / suspicions that he‘s right.Some abstract nouns can have indefinite article to express ―a type of‖ or ―an example of‖.a)Some can have an indefinite article only if modifier exists.e.g.They are doing *a business / a brisk business.I attach an exaggerated importance/importance to regular exercise.b)If modifier is implied, ―a/an‖ can appear.e.g.She has had an education(= a good education).c)Some can have ―a/an‖ regardless of modifier.e.g.A knowledge/ A good knowledge of English is essential.d)Number forms of the proper noun They have no plural forms, except for such proper name as the United States, the Philippines, the Netherlands.When one takes a plural ending, it takes on some characteristics of a common noun, e.g.the Browns
4.3 Partitives
They are also called unit nouns and used to denote a part of a whole or the quantity of an undifferentiated mass.1)general partitives: piece, bit, item, article 2)partitives related to the shape of things: cake, bar, drop, ear, flight, grain, head, loaf, lump 3)partitives related to volume: bottle, bowl, pail, bucket, handful, spoonful.4)partitives related to the state of action: a fit of anger/coughing/laughter/fever 5)partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks: pair, herd, litter, swarm, bench, troupe, shoal.Lesson 5 Genitive noun
教学重点及难点：
1.The differences between ‗s genitive and of genitive;
2.The use of independent genitive and double genitive
教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Formation of genitive nouns, meanings of genitive nouns as possessive genitive, subjective genitive, objective genitive, genitive of origin, time, distance, etc, descriptive genitive;
2.Use of genitive nouns: genitive nouns are mostly used as central determiners and therefore perform the same function as ―possessive determiners‖;
3.Independent genitive and double genitive: independent genitive is used when the missing noun ahs occurred somewhere in the context, when the missing noun refers to somebody‘s house or residence, church, school, or other public buildings.The formation of double genitive and the difference between double genitive and of genitive.Lecture 5
Genitive Noun Teaching Contents 5.1 Formation, meanings and uses of genitive nouns
5.2 Independent genitive and double genitive
Case is a grammatical category and denotes the changes in the form of a noun or a pronoun showing its relationship with other words in a sentence.As modern English is basically an analytic language, English nouns have not a complicated case system like that of Latin, German, or modern Russian.The different grammatical functions of English nouns in a sentence are mostly determined by the word order, not by case form.It is in this sense that the genitive case may be viewed as a relic of the old case system.The genitive was traditionally labelled as the possessive case.Two Case systems: the unmarked common case and the marked genitive case: boy, boy‘s
The genitive case: the inflected genitive(the –s genitive)(屈折所属格）and the periphrastic genitive(the of-genitive)（迂回所属格）e.g.the children‘s toys，the toys of children 5.1 Formation, meanings and uses of genitive nouns 1)Rules of formation of the –s genitive a)adding ‘s to singular nouns and to those plural nouns that don‘t end in –s , e.g.my mother‘s arrival, women‘s clothes
b)adding an apostrophe to plural nouns ending in –s, e.g.the teachers‘ college, the workers‘ achievements
c)adding ‘s to the compound nouns or to the end of a postmodified noun phrase, e.g.my brother-in-law‘s friend, a cat and dog‘s life, [the teacher of music]‘s room
d)In coordinate nouns, the genitive ending is added to each of the coordinate elements when denoting respective possession, and only to the last coordinate element when denoting common possession, e.g.America‘s and England‘s problems(respective);
America and England‘s problems(in common)
Coordinated genitive
1.The head of the noun phrase is singular: Charles and Louise‘s / Charles‘s and Louise‘s child is really lovely.(The child is a joint offspring of Charles and Louise.)2.The head of the noun phrase is plural: Charles and Louise‘s / Charles‘s and Louise‘s children are really lovely.(The children are joint offspring of Charles and Louise.)
3.John‘s and Mary‘s children:
A.the children who are offspring of John and Mary B.John‘s child and Mary‘s child C.John‘s children and Mary‘s child D.John‘s child and Mary‘s children E.John‘s children and Mary‘s children Coordinated genitives are formal.Tom and his brother‘s children F
4.How to avoid ambiguity? a.I‘m interested in Henry and Herbert‘s book(s)/ the book(s)of Henry and Herbert.b.Henry‘s house and Mr.Jones‘s are not far from here.5.―Or‖ only connects coordinated genitive Is that a lady‘s or gentleman‘s wrist-watch? Is that a wrist-watch of a lady or gentleman? I wonder whether it is Tom‘s or Peter‘s house / the house of Tom or Peter.e)In the construction of ―noun phrase + appositive‖, the genitive ending is added to the end of the appositive, or both to the end of the noun phrase and to the appositive, e.g.Where is my classmate Nancy‘s car? Tom has gone to Basel‘s, the blacksmith‘s shop f)In personal names ending in sibilant /z/, the genitive ending can either be ‘s or an apostrophe only, but it can only be ‘s when personal names end in other sibilant sounds，e.g.Burns‘ / Burns‘s poem(sibilant /z/);
Ross‘s poem
2)Meanings of genitive nouns The genitive is chiefly used to denote possession, and therefore, is traditionally called ―possessive case‖.But genitive meanings are by no means restricted to possession, as shown in the following: a)Possessive genitive，e.g.my son‘s wife, Mrs.Johnson‘s passport
b)Subjective genitive, e.g.the student‘s application
c)Objective genitive e.g.the family‘s support d)Genitive of origin e.g.the girl‘s story
e)Descriptive(Classifying)genitive(not of-genitive)e.g.a women‘s college
(=college for women/*of women)f)Genitive of measure e.g.a four days‘ journey, two dollars‘ worth of apples
3)Uses of genitive nouns Genitive nouns are mostly used as central determiners and therefore perform the same function as ―possessive determiners‖,(traditionally called possessive pronouns), e.g.the boy‘s father= his father Mary‘s letter = her letter
a)As central determiners, genitive nouns can‘t collocate with other central determiner, nor can they be preceded by a premodifier.e.g.Mary‘s letter, * a Mary‘s letter;
Mary‘s interesting letter, * interesting Mary‘s letter
This, however, does not apply to some other genitive nouns such as the descriptive genitive and the genitive that denotes time, distance, value or measure.These genitive nouns are not used as determiners but as premodifiers in the noun phrases, e.g.a/the children‘s book, a pleasant three day‘s journey
Classifying genitive differ in a number of respects from specifying constructions.1)They respond to the question ―What kind of …?‖ rather than ―whose …?‖, which displays their similarity to adjectives and other such noun premodifiers, rather than to determiners.In fact, they cannot be replaced by possessive determiners.2)They can be preceded by determiners and modifiers of the whole noun phrase, rather than of the genitive noun alone: a new children‘s book.This again is true also for adjective and noun premodifiers of nouns.3)They form an inseparable combination with the following noun and do not usually allow an intervening adjective: *children‘s new book.4)They are frequently paraphrased by a for-phrase rather than an of construction, as in books for children.Compare again constructions with noun premodifier like baby clothes.These characteristics reflect the close bond between a classifying genitive and the following head noun.b)The choice of genitive
The –s genitive is favoured by the animate nouns in particular persons and animals with personal gender characteristics.The of-genitive is chiefly used with nouns denoting lower animals and with inanimate nouns.The main factor governing the choice of the one or the other genitive form is the animate or rather the personal quality of the noun.But there is considerable overlap in the use of the two forms.The animate nouns normally take the –s genitive, but the of-genitive is also possible in most cases.Inanimate nouns regularly take the of-genitive, but a great many occur with the –s genitive.The four classes of animate nouns normally take the –s genitive, but the of-genitive is also possible a)Personal names---George Washington‘s statue, Susan‘s pupils b)Personal nouns---the boy‘s new shirt, my sister-in-law‘s hat
c)Collective nouns---the government‘s conviction, the majority‘s choice d)Higher animals
---the horse‘s neck, the tiger‘s strips
The –s genitive is also used with certain kinds of inanimate nouns a)Geographical names---continents: Europe‘s future---countries: China‘s development
---states: Minnesota‘s immigrants
---cities/towns: Hollywood‘s studios, London‘s water supply
---universities: Harvard‘s Linguistics Department b)Locative nouns denoting regions, heavenly bodies, institutions:---the world‘s economic organization, the moon‘s interior, the school‘s history c)Temporal nouns---a week‘s holiday
d)Nouns of special interest to human activity---my life‘s aim, love‘s spirit, the novel‘s structure, the wine‘s character, television‘s future
The use of the –s genitive and of-genitive(1)We must use the –s genitive when…
a)the noun modified is followed by a post-modifier or an appositive.---The monitor‘s brother, an actor was here then.b)it is a classifying genitive.---Have you a copy of the teacher‘s book?
c)the –s genitive is used in some set expressions:---a wolf in sheep‘s clothing
People don‘t get their money‘s worth.*People don‘t get the worth of their money.We must use the of-genitive when…
a)the noun in the of-phrase is followed by some modifiers or appositives---Some sentences have been changed at the suggestion of the teachers present in the meeting.b)the definite article +-ed participle or adjective denoting a class of people in the of-phrase structure---the life of the poor c)the prepositional complementation in the of-phrase expresses the origin of the headword modified
---the joy of his return(The joy derives from his return)
d)the genitive is used to express the possessive relationship between part and whole---the middle of the night---the back of the classroom---the top of the page---the bottom of the ladder e)there are determiners before the two nouns---their knowledge of her feeling---this dog of the country
The difference between the –s genitive and the of-genitive(a)The –s genitive : regularity and continuity
the of-genitive : contingency of things---my last week‘s article(每周一次的连载文章）---my article of last week(偶尔刊登的文章）(b)The –s genitive: informal
the of-genitive: formal---the woman next door‘s husband---the foreign policy of China
(c)The –s genitive: literal sense(字面意义）
the of-genitive: extended meaning(引申意义）and symbolic meaning(象征意义）
---the tree‘s top（树梢）
---the top of the tree(出类拔萃）---the table‘s top(桌面）
---the top of the table（上座，首席）
5.2 Independent genitive and double genitive 1)Independent genitive When the genitive occurs without a following head, i.e.with the head of the noun phrase omitted, and functions independently as an element, it is called independent genitive.a)The noun occurring in the context can be retrieved---My car is faster than John‘s(car).b)Names and nouns referring to persons which denote residence:
See you at Harry‘s tomorrow.---Shall we meet at his brother‘s(house).c)Proper nouns for certain well-known buildings:
St.Paul‘s(Cathedral), Queen‘s(College)St.James‘s(Palace)The noun: church, school, public buildings---He lives near St.Paul‘s(Cathedral)in London.d)Words for shops denoted by the type of shopkeeper: the baker‘s/butcher‘s/grocer‘s/greengrocer‘s commercial firms---I buy my meat at Johnson‘s(shop).2)Double genitive An independent genitive when functioning as prepositional complementation is called post-genitive.The prepositional phrase with a post-genitive as complementation is called double genitive.---a friend of my father‘s 1)The use of the double genitive a)Partitive meaning denoting ―one of…‖---This is a book of my mother‘s.(one of …)
b.indefinite, definite, personal---a friend of the doctor‘s(*the cover of a book‘s)Attention to some points a)Noun head with ―this, these, that, those‖: it has emotional colouring : praise, disapproval, pleasure, displeasure---That child of his sister‘s is very clever.---That son of Henry‘s is a rascal.a boy of a girl 一般的of短语用来修饰或限制前面的名词的，但是，在此处：限定词+名词1+of + a/an + 名词2，of短语与前面的名词构成同位关系，而且名词2是概念的中心，of短语是对名词2进行修饰的，就像一个形容词：
an angel of a wife = an angelic wife;the fool of a policeman = the foolish policeman a boy of a girl 一个男孩气的女孩子 *一个女孩气的男孩 a palace of a house 宫殿般的房子
a great elephant of a woman 一个庞大如象的女人
此结构的特点是：名词2前必须使用不定冠词，而名词1前可用任何限定词(a, this, that, her, your)e.g.that dog of a landlord 狗地主
that great pig of a Louis XVIII 大肥猪路易十八
this / a / their palace of a house *these palaces of a house
b)Difference between double genitive and of phrase---He is a friend of my father‘s.(many, one of them)---He is a friend of my father.(in good terms)A: Who told you that? B: A friend of your father‘s.A: If he says such things, he is not a friend of my father.c)The noun head: picture, portrait, printing, photograph, bust, statue The double genitive---the picture that one keeps The of phrase---the picture of one‘s own---This is a portrait of Mr.Black‘s---This is a portrait of Mr.Black d)The noun head: criticism, opinion, judgment，---a criticism of William‘s = a criticism offered by William---a criticism of William = a criticism about William Correct the errors of the genitives if any: 1.Where‘s the dictionary of Cathy‘s?
2.I don‘t know whether this is a lady or a gentleman‘s wrist-watch.3.Her love of a child took the fancy of all of us.4.The poem of Shelly‘s he recited a hundred times was Ode to the West Wind.5.Andrew and Horatia‘s eyes met.1.that dictionary of Cathy‘s
2.a lady‘s or(a)gentleman‘s wristwatch 3.T 4.T 5.T
Lesson 6 Determiners(I)
教学重点及难点：
1.collocations between determiners: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.2.A Comparative study of some determiner usage: some, any, every ,much, etc.教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Collocations between determiners and nouns: determiners with all three classes of nouns, with singular count nouns, plural count nouns, noncount nouns, etc;
2.Collocations between three kind of determiners: the category of predeterminer ,central determiner and postdeterminer, word order of three subclasses of determiners: predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer;
3.A Comparative study of some determiner usage: many, much, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a few, a little, some, any, all, both, every, each, either, neither.Determiners, as a class of words, include: article(definite article, indefinite article, and zero article), possessive determiners, genitive nouns, demonstrative determiners, relative determiners, interrogative determiners, indefinite determiners, cardinal and ordinal numerals, fractional and multiplicative numerals, and other quantifiers 6.1.Collocations between determiners and nouns
The choice of determiners is closely related to what might be called the three classes of nouns: singular count nouns, plural cont nouns and noucount nouns.These tree classes of nouns demand appropriate determiners to collocate with.Determiners with all three classes of nouns
Determiners such as possessive determiners, genitive nouns and the definite article as well as some any, no, the other, and whom can go with all the three classes of nouns, eg: The car the cars the money His car his cars his money Some book some books some money No book no books no money Whose book whose books whose money Determiners with singular count nouns only Determiners such as a(n), one, another, each, every, either, neither, many a ,such a can only collocate with singular count nouns, eg: Each worker every student Either book neither book Another book such a book Determiners with plural count nouns only Determiners such as, two, three, etc, another, two/ three, many,(a)few, several, these, those, a(great)number of can only collocate with plural count nouns, eg: Both workers
(a)few words Several girls
these / those tourists A number of men
many students Determiners with noncount nouns only Determiners such as a(little)bit of ,a great amount of ,a great deal of ,(a)little, much, less ,least can only collocate with noncount nouns, eg: Much noise(a)little courage A bit of fun
a large amount of money Less oil
(the)least oil Determiners with singular and plural count nouns only Determiners such as the first, the second, the last, the next can go with wither singular or plurals count nouns, eg‖ The first rose/ roses The last man/ men The next meeting/ meetings Determiners with singular and noncount nouns only Determiners such as this that can collocate with either singular or noncount nouns, eg: This/ that job
this / that work determiners with plural and noncount nouns only Determiners such as a lot of , lots of , plenty of, enough, most, such, other can go with plural and noncount nouns, but not with singular nouns,eg: Enough copies
enough bread More essays
more time Most people
most work This class of determiners may also include less and least, which, as has been mentioned above, normally occur with noncount nouns, but in present day English, especially in formal style, may occasionally occur with plural nouns,eg: Less and less people can afford to go abroad for their holidays.Political programs on TV attract the least viewers.This use of less and least is regarded by some as non-standard.6.2)Collocations between determiners
As has been mentioned before, besides the collocations between determiners and nouns, there is the problem of word order between determiners if a noun 0phrase contains more than one determiner.Central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers According to their potential, determiners fall into three subclasses: central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers.Central determiners included: the article;demonstrative determiner;possessive determiners;genitive nouns;some, any, no, every, each, either, neither, enough;what(ever),which(ever),whose, etc.Note that central determiners are mutually exclusive and that no two members of the above-cited items ever occur together in a noun phrase.Predeterminers are those hat precede central determiners.Predeterminers are also mutually exclusive.They include: all, both, half, double, twice, three times, etc.one-third, two-fifths, etc;what, such(a/an).Postdeterminers refer to those that follow central or predeterminers.Postdeterminers are not mutually exclusive, that is to say, two or more such items can co=occur in a noun phrase.This subclass includes: cardinal numerals;ordinal numerals;next, another ,etc;many much,(a_ few,(a)little, fewer,(the)fewest, less(the)least, more, most;several, plenty of , a lot of lots of , a great/large/good number of, a great/good deal of , a large/ small amount of ,such.Word order of three subclasses of determiners
When a noun phrase contains all three subclasses of determiners, their normal order is ―predetermine + central determiner + post determiner(s)‖: All the four students All these last few days Both his two sisters If the noun phrase contains only two of the subclassed, they follow the same order, ie ―predeterminer + central determiner‖:
Half his income Both his parents All the tourists ―central determiner+postdeterminer‖: the author‘s last books some such alloy his last few words ―predeterminer+postdeterminer‖: all three books all other students half such people
―postdeterminer+postdeterminer‖ several hundred tourists three other girls many more copies 6.3)A comparative study of some determiner usage many, much, a lot of ,lots of, plenty of
Lesson 7 Determiners(II)--Articles
教学重点及难点：
1.Articles in use with different classes of nouns;
2.Some phrases applied with definite, indefinite and zero articles
教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Generic and specific reference: generic reference, specific reference, anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference.2.Articles in use with different classes of noun: articles in use with the proper noun, articles in use with the common noun and other use of articles;
3.Some phrases applied with definite, indefinite and zero articles: phrases with zero articles as at anchor, in force, out of hand etc, phrases with definite articles as for the time being, on the spot, in the long run, etc, and examples with indefinite articles as before person‘s names, or before the non-finite element, etc.Lecture 7 Determiners(ii)---articles In the previous lecture we touched upon the fact that articles are the most typical of determiners.Now we will concentrate on this topic.English has two articles: the definite and the indefinite article.As we know, all English common nouns have article contrast, so with plural count nouns and noncount nouns, the absence of an article signals the presence of another kind of article---the zero article.It is in this sense that we may also say that English has three articles---the definite, the indefinite, and the zero articles.7.1 generic and specific references In discussing the use of article, we must distinguish between generic and specific reference.generic reference When we say the reference is generic, we are talking about any membe4r representative of a class of people of things.All the three forms of article can be used generically to refer to members of a class as a whole.In certain contexts, the definite article followed by a singular count noun often performs a generic function.The same function can also be performed by the definite article combining with certain adjectives or adjectival participles.Generic reference can also be denoted by the indefinite article followed by a singular count noun.This is especially common in giving definitions.In so doing, we can also use plural and noncount nouns without the presence of any determiner.This may be referred to as the generic use of the zero article.specific reference Specific reference is different from generic reference in that it does not refer to a class of people or things in general but to a particular specimen of the class.Specific reference falls into two kinds: definite specific reference and indefinite specific reference.Definite specific reference implies that a person or an object can be identified uniquely in the context or according to the common knowledge shared by speaker and hearer.The definite article is most frequently used in this sense.In the case of indefinite specific reference the person or thing referred to is also a specific object, but is not definitely identified.This kind of referential meaning is most commonly expressed by the indefinite article.In certain contexts and situations the zero article can perform the same function.anaphoric, anaphoric and situational reference Definite specific reference can be anaphoric, anaphoric, or situational.The word anaphoric means ―pointing backward‖.When what is referred to occurs in a previous context and the definite article has to point backward for its meaning, this is known as ―anaphoric reference‖.The anaphoric use of the definite article is called ―anaphoric THE‖.Anaphoric reference is also a kind of definite specific reference.The word means ―pointing forward‖.When the referential meaning of the definite article is determined by what follows the articles and the head, and the article has to point forward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference.Situational reference is a kind of definite specific reference that depends not on any referent that has occurred in the context but solely on the common knowledge shred by speaker and hearer on a specific situation in which the reference is made clear.Situational reference is most commonly denoted by the definite article, but in certain situations the same function can also be performed by zero.Lesson 8 & 9 Pronouns(I, II)
教学重点及难点：
1.Pronouns concord in number, gender and case;2.The usage of personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns.教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Pronouns concord in number, gender and case.In number: pronoun concord with every-,some-, any-compounds as antecedent, with coordinate construction as antecedent, with collective nouns antecedent, and with ―plural noun/ pronoun +each‖ as antecedent.In gender, Pronoun concord with male/female noun as antecedent, with common gender noun as antecedent, and with neutral gender noun as antecedent, etc;
2.Choice of pronoun forms: choice between subjective and objective case, choice between adjective and genitive case;
3.Possessive pronoun, reflexive pronoun, and generic use of personal pronouns;
4.Pronoun reference: anaphoric, cataphoric, situational reference, personal reference, and demonstrative reference.Teaching Contents 8.1 Pronoun concord in number 8.2 Pronoun concord in gender 8.3 Pronoun concord in person
Pronouns are a varied closed-class words with nominal function.English has a developed pronoun system, comprising:
1.personal pronouns 2.possessive pronouns 3.reflexive pronouns 4.reciprocal pronouns 5.demonstrative pronouns 6.interrogative pronouns 7.relative pronouns 8.indefinite pronouns 8.1 Pronoun concord in number Personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding determiners have their singular and plural forms.The number contrast of pronouns differs from that of nouns in that pronoun number contrast is morphologically unrelated, as in I/we, he/they, as opposed to the typical regular formation of noun plurals: boy/boys.The choice of pronoun number forms is generally determined by the number of its antecedent, that is, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number.---They haven‘t yet made up their own mind.1)Pronoun concord with every-, some-, any-compounds as antecedent:
everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody，take the singular form(grammatical)---Everybody looked after himself.---Nobody wants to go there, does he? In informal style, the plural form, esp.everyone or everybody:---Everybody knows what they have to do.everything, something, anything, nothing: singular---Everything is ready, isn‘t?
2)Pronoun concord with coordinate construction as antecedent(notional concord)---I bought bread and butter at the shop, and they cost 50c.---She likes bread and butter, but this is too thick.3)Pronoun concord with collective noun as antecedent(notional concord)---The government is doing its best to boost production.---The government have discussed the matter for a long time but they have shown no sign of reaching an agreement.4)Pronoun concord with ―plural noun / pronoun + each‖ as antecedent
The choice of the number forms of the pronoun and corresponding determiner depends on the position of the appositive ―each‖: before the verb---plural form;
after the verb---singular form---We each are accountable for our own families.---We are each responsible for his own family.8.2 Pronoun concord in gender Gender is a grammatical category.It is a set of grammatical forms of nouns, determiners and adjectives that tell of the distinctions of sex.English nouns have four genders: masculine(man), feminine(woman), neutral(book)and common(student).But we do not mean any overt grammatical forms that show the distinctions of sex, but the differences of natural sex denoted by the lexical meaning of nouns.1)Pronoun concord with male / female noun as antecedent---When Paul met Mary, he asked her to go to town.2)Pronoun concord with common gender noun as antecedent Some common gender nouns, such as doctor, teacher, engineer, lawyer, parent, student…… they can either be male or female.When they are used in the singular for generic
reference, these nouns are generally referred to as HE, a kind of practice that is opposed by feminists.---If a person breaks the law, he will be punished.---The parent of a teenage child often wonders where he went wrong.---Parents of teenage children often wonder where they went wrong.(plural form)---When a customer calls, ask him to leave his phone number.---When a customer calls, be sure to ask for a phone number.(No pronoun or determiner is used.)In formal writing as in legal documents, ―he or she‖, ―his or her‖ can also be used.---The parent of a teenage child often wonders where he or she went wrong.(2)Some common gender nouns such as baby, infant, and child are intermediate between personal and non-personal.When the speaker does not know , or is not interested in the sex of the baby or infant, he may use the neutral IT:---The baby was sleeping in its cot.But if the speaker is the baby‘s mother, she is unlikely to refer to her baby as IT:---Watch out!The baby is trying to put the toy watch into his mouth.3)Pronoun concord with neutral gender noun as antecedent When the antecedent is a singular noun of neutral gender, a noun denoting an inanimate or non-personal object, the neutral pronoun or the corresponding determiner is generally used.(it / itself / its)---That book has lost its cover.I will put a new one on it.(2)Just as a baby may be designated it, so a number of nonhuman species may be designated he or she.(car, ship)---The car needs some petrol.Let‘s fill her / him up at the next garage.(3)When the antecedent is an animal noun, it is generally referred to as it in nonexpert contexts.If the anima is spoken of with emotion or is personified, it may be referred to as he or she.---The cat is a useful animal because it eats rats.---The cat leaped onto my bed and coiled herself there.This is also true of the names of celestial bodies or abstract ideas: sun, moon, earth, nature, history, war, death---The sun is shining in all his splendid beauty.---Nature, the greatest artist, makes her common flowers in the common view.(4)Names of countries may be treated either as feminine or neutral.When used as geographical units, they are treated as inanimate and therefore neutral:---China is in East Asia.It is one of the largest countries in the world.If used as political or economic units, the names of countries are often feminine, she or her is generally used:---China has a history of over 5000 years.She is proud of her culture.8.3 Pronoun concord in person By pronoun concord in person, we mean two things: Pronoun concord in person on sentential level In a sentence, the person of a pronoun is determined by the person of its antecedent.---My brother has sold his car.If the antecedent is a coordinate construction containing a first or second person pronoun, the referring pronoun should be first and second person in plural number.---My friend and I are reading the manuscript.We‘ll be through in half an hour.---You and the accountant are familiar with him.You can both see him.2)Pronoun concord in person on textual level In a text pronouns should be consistent in person from beginning to end.This is a matter of speaking or writing from what point of view, from the speaker‘s or writer‘s point of view or from that of a third party.A consistent point of view is a guarantee of clarity in writing.Teaching Contents 9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms
9.2 Reflexive pronouns
9.3 Pronoun reference 9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms
9.2 Reflexive pronouns
9.3 Pronoun reference Pronoun reference is a kind of reference realized through the use of pronouns.When a pronoun is used it must refer to somebody or something.What is referred to is called antecedent.It is the antecedent that indicates the referential meaning of the pronoun.anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference According to the relative position of the antecedent, pronoun reference can be anaphoric or cataphoric.When the antecedent occurs before the pronoun, which has to point backward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference.---John has moved to a new house.He had it built last year.If the antecedent appears after the pronoun, and the pronoun has to point forward for its meaning, that is cataphoric reference.---When she has finished her work, Mary left the office.If the antecedent does not occur anywhere in a linguistic context, and the pronoun only refers to somebody or something indicated by an extra linguistic situation in which the utterance is given, that is situational reference.---How hard he studies English.When a pronoun is used, it can only refer to one antecedent.If a pronoun has two or more possible antecedents, that will lead to ambiguity.---He introduced me to the pilot who had looked after him when he was in hospital.---He introduced me to the pilot whom he had looked after in the hospital…
2)Personal reference Personal reference is established by personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding determiners.Personal reference is generally anaphoric.It may occur within the sentence boundary or across sentences.---When Mary has finished her work, she left the office.---John has moved to a new house.He had it built last year.Personal reference can also be cataphoric, but under limited conditions.Generally speaking, cataphoric personal pronouns usually occur in subordinate constructions, and where cataphoric reference occurs, anaphoric reference canbe used instead, but not conversely.---When she had finished her work, Mary left the office.(cataphoric)---When Mary had finished her work, she left the office.(anaphoric)---Mary bought a new dress, but she didn‘t like it.---She bought a new dress, but Mary didn‘t like it.3)Demonstrative reference Demonstrative reference is established by demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative determiners.All the demonstratives can be freely used in anaphoric reference.---The man gad been drinking too much;this explain his unsteady walk.A: I like the polar bears.These are my favorites.B: Those are my favorites too.---Our daughter got a bad sun-burn yesterday.That‘s why we couldn‘t come.As for cataphoric demonstratives, they are restricted to this and these, which are commonly used to refer to a following clause or sentence or a group of sentences.---―The great difficulty is this,‖ said the psychologist, ―you can move about in all directions of space, but you can‘t move about in time.‖
―That‖ and ―these‖ are rarely used cataphorically.When occasionally so used, they often take on sarcastic meanings.---How do you like that? He stabs you in the back and then professes to be your friend.Lesson 10 Verb and verb phrase
教学重点及难点：
1.The difference between finite and non-finite verb;
2.The classifications and usage of some phrasal verbs
教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Classification of verbs.According to different standards, verbs and verb phrases may falls into six types grammatically, semantically: Main verbs and auxiliaries, transitive verbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs, dynamic verbs and stative verbs, single-word verbs and phrasal verbs, finite and non-finite verbs, regular and irregular verbs;
2.A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood: tense and aspect, active and passive voice, finite and non-finite phrases.3.The classifications and usage of some phrasal verbs: V.+ Prep, V.+ adverb particle, V.+ adverb particle + prep.The usage of phrasal verbs as pride oneself on, take pride in and be proud of, etc.Lecture 10 Verb and Verb Phrase Teaching Contents 10.1 Classification of verbs(I)10.2 Classification of verbs(II)10.3 A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood
10.1 Classification of verbs(I)1)Main verbs and auxiliaries
According to different roles played in the formation of verb phrases verbs are divided into two classes: main verbs and auxiliaries.As we know, a verb phrase may consist of a main verb only;this is called a simple verb phrase.A verb phrase may also take the form of a verb preceded by one or more auxiliaries;this is called a complex verb phrase.Main verbs are also called notional verbs functioning as the head and indicating the basic meaning of a verb phrase.Auxiliaries fall into three categories: primary auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries and semi-auxiliaries.a)Primary auxiliaries: be, do, have.Without lexical meanings of their own, these auxiliaries have only grammatical functions or grammatical meanings.Be is usually used to help the main verb to form the progressive aspect or the expressive voice.Auxiliary do is used to help the main verb to express negative meanings or to form question, and sometimes to help express the emphatic affirmative.The function of auxiliary have is to help the main verb to form the perfective or the perfective progressive aspect.b)Modal auxiliaries: can/could, may/might, will/would, shall/should, must, ought to, dare, need, used to.They express modal meanings.In a finite verb phrase, we can use only one modal auxiliary which is invariably followed by the bare infinitive or the base form.c)Semi-auxiliaries: have to, seem to.They can help the main verb to form the complex verb phrase and express the modal meaning on the one hand, and can, when preceded by other auxiliaries, function as main verbs on the other.2)Transitive verbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs Verbs are divided in accordance with whether or not they must be followed by obligatory elements functioning as complementation and what kind of elements that must follow.a)Transitive verbs must be followed by an object.Some are followed by two objects, i.e.indirect object and direct object;.some by an object and an object complement;some by an object and an obligatory adverbial b)Intransitive verbs do not require an object.c)Linking verbs are followed by a subject complement.3)Dynamic and stative verbs a)Dynamic verbs refer to actions.They can be subclassified into three categories:
durative verbs, transitional verbs and momentary verbs.b)Stative verbs refer to present or past states, i.e.to a relatively stable state of affairs.They are normally incompatible with the progressive except in certain cases where there is a transfer of meaning.They can be classified into four categories.The first includes main verbs ―be‖ and ―have‖.The second includes verbs that include, as part of their meaning, the notion of being and having, such as apply to, belong to, differ from, cost, weigh, measure.The third includes verbs that refer to a sense perception, such as hear, see, feel, taste, smell.The fourth subclass includes verbs that refer to a feeling, a state of mind or an opinion, such as assume, believe, consider, detest, wish.Stative verbs are not used in progressive aspect, otherwise, they will be changed into dynamic verbs, such as be, have.e.g.He is being foolish(=is acting foolishly).We‘re having a wonderful time(= are enjoying ourselves).The verbs resemble and cost are stative verbs when they are used to mean respectively ―be like‖ and ―be worth‖, but when used in other meanings, these two verbs just like dynamic verbs can occur in the progressive.e.g.He resembles his father.He is resembling his father(= is becoming more and more like his father)as the years go by.Perception verbs when used in a non-volitional sense are stative verb, but when used in a volitional sense are dynamic verbs.e.g.I can taste pepper in it.I‘m tasting this soup.Attitudinal verbs such as think, imagine, understand are stative verbs, but they can occasionally be used dynamically to express different meanings, e.g.Be quiet.I‘m thinking(= giving thought to a problem).There are also cases of a special polite use of the progressive with verbs like want, hope, wonder.e.g.Were you wanting to see me? 10.2 Classification of verbs(II)According to word formation and grammatical form, English verb may be divided into single-verbs and phrasal verbs, finite verbs and non-finite verb, regular verbs and irregular verbs.4)Single-word verbs and phrasal verbs
A phrasal verb is a verb that is composed of two or more words.They can be classified into three categories: a)Verb + preposition e.g.The police are looking into the case.b)Verb + adverb particle e.g.The meeting has been called off.c)Verb + adverb particle + preposition e.g.I don‘t want to come down with the flu again.Phrasal verbs are verbal idioms which are equivalent to single-word verbs, transitive or intransitive, and which are different from simple verbal combination where the meanings are easily guessed from the parts.Some constructions such as verb + noun + preposition and verb + noun are also grouped under the category of phrasal verbs e.g.She soon realized that she was being made fun of.5)Finite and non-finite verbs Finite main verbs have tow finite forms and three non-finite forms.The two are the present tense and the past tense;the three are the infinitive, the –ing participle and the –ed participle.Finite verbs are marked for tense, and non-finite verbs have no tense distinctions.Most auxiliaries have the present and past tense forms but not all the three non-finite forms except for the primary auxiliary be.The modals do not have the non-finite forms or the base.6)Regular and irregular verbs Verbs whose past tense and –ed participle forms are derived by adding –ed are regular verbs, and otherwise they are irregular verbs.10.3 A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood 1)Tense and aspect
Tense is a grammatical form associated with verbs that tells of the distinctions of time;that is, tense and time are related and different.Time is a universal concept with three divisions: past, present and future times.The notion of time is common to all mankind, when expressed linguistically, it is tense.Chinese is not an inflectional language and has its own ways to express tense.Aspect is also a kind of verb form which represents the action or the process expressed by the verb as something going on or completed at a given time.English has two aspects: the progressive and the perfective aspects.The uses of tense and aspect Tense:
present
past Aspect: progressive
perfective 1.A tense can be used independently:
1)simple present, 2)simple past 2.A tense can be combined with an aspect:
3)present progressive, 4)past progressive
5)present perfective, 6)past perfective 3.A tense can be combined with two aspects:
7)Present perfective progressive
8)Past perfective progressive
2)Active voice and passive voice
Voice is a grammatical category, showing whether the subject of a sentence acts or is acted on.English has two voices: the active and passive voices.When the subject is the agent or doer of an action, the verb takes the active voice;if the subject is the recipient of the action, the verb takes the passive voice and the sentence is called passive sentence.The passive voice is formed by the auxiliary be +-ed participle of the transitive verb.Since be can take different forms of tense and aspect, we have six passive forms: the simple present, the simple past, the present progressive, the past progressive, the present perfective and the past perfective.Of the three non-finite form, the infinitive and the –ing participle can occur in the passive, simple and perfective.―Modal auxiliary / semi-auxiliary + infinitive‖ are made passive by using a passive infinitive, which may occur in the simple or in the perfective form.When the passive is formed by get +-ed participle, it is called get-passive, distinguished from be-passive.But get isn‘t an auxiliary and cannot be used as operator in a negative statement or in a question.Get-passive usually used to denote sudden and unexpected happenings in contexts initiated by such expressions as ―in the end, eventually, at last‖.3)Indicative, imperative and subjunctive mood Mood, as a grammatical category, is a finite verb form that indicates whether an utterance expresses a fact(indicative mood), a command or request(imperative mood), or a non-fact and hypothesis(subjunctive mood)
4)Finite and non-finite verb phrases Depending on whether the first element in a verb phrase is finite or non-finite, a distinction is made between finite verb phrases and non-finite verb phrases.Lesson 11 Tense and aspect(I)教学重点及难点：
1.The difference between the present perfect and the present perfect progressive;
2.The use of simple present, the present progressive, and present perfect
教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Use of simple present.The simple present can be used to denote: timeless present, habitual present, momentary and instantaneous present, simple present referring to the future, simple present referring to the past;
2.Use of present Progressive.The present progressive has the following uses: to denote an action in progress at the moment of speaking, an action in progress at a period of time including the present, a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement and other meanings;
3.The two chief uses of the present perfective/progressive and how the present perfective/progressive distinguished in meaning from the simple past.Lecture 11 Tense and Aspect(I)In this and the next five lectures we are going to deal with features of tense, aspect, voice and mood expressed by the verb phrase.We will start with uses of the simple present, the simple past, the present progressive and the past progressive.11.1 Uses of simple present The simple present is the present tense form which is not accompanied by the category of aspect, that is , which is not marked for the progressive or the perfective aspect.The simple present can be used to denote the following meanings with greater restrictions on verbs:
Timeless present
The most common use of the simple present is found in the expression of eternal truths and proverbs, as well as in scientific, mathematical, geographical and other statements made for all time.This use of the simple present mostly applies to stative verbs, eg:
Honesty is the best policy.A rolling stone gathers no moss.London stands on the River Thames.Habitual present
A second use of the simple present, that of habitual or recurrent use, is typically associated with dynamic verbs, eg:
Percy often goes to his office by underground.Father doesn‘t smoke.Momentary and instantaneous present
The simple present can also be used to denote a momentary phenomenon that exists at the time of speaking.This phenomenon usually has some duration and therefore is mostly associated with stative verbs, eg:
What‘s the matter with you? What do you think, Jane?
A less common use.The simple present can be used to imply that the event takes place singly and once-for-all within the moment of speaking.Unlike momentary present, this kind of happening has little or no duration and therefore is confined to dynamic verbs denoting short actions.The use of the instantaneous present is rather restricted, occurring normally in certain speech situations such as radio and television commentaries of fast-moving sports, the running commentary of conjurors and demonstrators, and some formal declarations, eg:(page184)
Simple present referring to the future
The simple present can also be used to denote future time.This use is limited to future events conceived of as ―certain‖, either because they are determined in advance by calendar of timetable, or because they are part of a plan or an arrangement thought of as unalterable.This kind of future expression will be elaborated on in lecture 13.In the present lecture, we will just mention some subclauses in which the simple present is commonly used in the future sense.These subclauses include the that-clause following ―I hope‖, ―I bet‖, etc;the that-clause following such constructions as ―see to it‖, ―make sure‖, ―make certain‖;and the conditional / temporal clauses introduced by if /when, eg: I hope you have a good time.I bet it rains tomorrow.I‘ll see(to it)/ make sure/ make certain(that)you don‘t get lost.Simple present referring to the past
In addition to the meanings discussed above, the simple present can occasionally be used to denote past time.This use of the simple present is usually found with ―communication verbs‖ such as tell, say, hear, learn, and write to express the present effect of information received in the past, eg:
Alice tells me you‘re entering college next year.I hear poor old Mrs.Smith has lost her son.Simple present is also used as a device of story-telling and news reporting to add vividness to the description.This use of the simple present to refer to the past is what we call ―historic present‖, eg:
…I was just dozing off in front of the television when my wife rushes in shouting that the kitchen is on fire.11.2 Uses of simple past
The simple past is the past tense form which is not marked for the progressive or the perfective aspect.This tense form can be used to denote the following meanings:
Past event and past habit
The basic use of the simple past is to denote a simple event or state that happened or existed at a definite point or period of time in the past.This is what we call the event/state past, eg:
He left ten minutes ago.This town was once a beauty spot.The simple past can also be used to denote a habitual or recurrent action in the past, known as the habitual past, eg: In those days they sowed wheat by hand.He worked in a bank all his life.Neither the event/state pas nor the habitual past has any connection with the present moment, so what is denoted by the simple past must be something no longer existent at the moment of speaking.Compare: His father was an English teacher all his life.(―He is now dead.‖)His father has been an English teacher all his life.(―He is still alive.‖)
Attitudinal and hypothetical past
In specific contexts, the simple past can also denote the present or the future time.There are two uses.One is known as the attitudinal past, that is , the past tense is associated with the present time in independent clauses expressing a question, request or suggestion.Its effect is to make the question / request/suggestion less direct, implying a polite, somewhat tentative attitude on the part of the speaker, eg:
A: Did you want me? B: Yes, I wondered if you could give me some help.The other is what we call the hypothetical past.In this use, the simple past refers not to a fact but to a non-fact, and is typically found in that-clause following such constructions as ―It‘s time…‖, ―I wish…‖, ― I‘d rather…‖, etc., and in adverbial clauses of rejected condition, i.e.a condition which is not likely to be fulfilled, eg:
It‘s time you had a holiday.I wish you lived closer to us.I‘d rather you went now.If I had the money now, I‘d buy a car.11.3 Uses of present progressive
The present progressive(am/is/are+-ing participle)has the following uses:
To denote an action in progress at the moment of speaking
To denote what is going on at the present moment, we commonly use the present progressive, generally associated with durative dynamic verbs, eg:
A: What are you doing? B: I‘m writing a letter.The difference between the simple present and the present progressive referring to present time is that the former carries a permanent meaning and the latter a temporary meaning.Compare:
He lives in shanghai(permanent residence)He is now living in Shanghai.(temporary residence)
To denote an action in progress at a period of time including the present
The present progressive can also express an action that is gong on over a period of time including the present but not necessarily at the moment of speaking, that is, a temporary habit as distinguished from the permanent habit denoted by the simple present.Compare:
He works in a chemical factory.He is working in a chemical factory these days.Note that the present progressive when accompanied by an adverbial of frequency such as always, continually, constantly, or forever often imparts an emotional coloring, often of annoyance or disapproval.By contrast, the simple present lacks the subjective, emotional tone of the present progressive and states a fact objectively.Compare: She complains about the house.She is constantly complaining about the house.To denote a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement
The present progressive used to refer to the future, more often than not the near rather than distant future, in connection with a definite plan, arrangement of program, usually occurs in situations with obvious future reference, eg:
Mr.Cameron is leaving China in a few weeks.I‘m going to Qingdao for the summer holiday.The present progressive denoting futurity also occurs in temporal and conditional clauses, on condition that there is future reference in the main clause, eg.:
I‘ll think about it while you‘re writing the report.If you are standing at the corner, I‘ll give you a lift.To denote other meanings
Apart from the above-mentioned meanings, the present progressive may also be used to denote an action in the immediate past which is generally expressed by communication verbs such as tell, talk, say, exaggerate, etc, eg: You don‘t believe it? You know I‘m telling the truth.I don‘t know what you are talking about.The present progressive may also be used to make even politer requests than does the attitudinal past with such few verbs as hope, wonder dealt with in 11,2.2, eg:
I‘m hoping you‘ll give us some advice.I‘m wondering if I may have a word with you.As mentioned before, the present progressive is commonly associated with durative dynamic verbs.With momentary verbs, i.e.verbs denoting actions of very short duration, the use of the present progressive will be understood to express repetition or a series of momentary actions, rather than just a single action.11.4 Uses of past progressive
The use of the past progressive(was/were+-ing participle)has much in common with that of the present progressive, only the time reference being pushed back to the past, often overtly expressed by a time-when adverbial.The following are the uses of the past progressive.To denote an action in progress at a definite point or period of past time
This is the most common use of the past progressive.In this use, the past time reference is usually indicated by a temporal adverbial or implied by the context.In the past progressive, the notion of incompleteness is more clearly indicated than in the present progressive, eg:
What were you doing yesterday at seven p.m.? They were building a dam last winter.It is based on this use that the past progressive may have the effect of surrounding a particular event by a temporal frame, or serve, at the beginning of a text, as the background in past time narrative, eg:
The students were still laughing when the teacher stepped in.To denote a past habitual action
The habitual action denoted by the past progressive is most clearly characterized by its temporariness, in contrast with the past habit denoted by the simple past, eg:
George was getting up at five every day that week.As in the case of the present progressive, the past progressive can also collocate with such adverbials of frequency as always, constantly, continually, forever, to express emotional feelings, especially feelings of annoyance or disapproval on the part of the speaker, eg:
My brother was always losing his keys.To denote futurity in the past
In specific contexts, the past progressive can be used to denote a future action in the past according to a definite plan or arrangement.This use is also found in some adverbial clauses of time or condition, eg:
They were leaving a few days later.He told me to wake him up if he was sleeping.To make polite requests and express hypothetical meanings
The past progressive has a similar function to that of the simple past and of the present progressive as described in 11.2.2 and 11.3.4.Of the three forms, the past progressive is the most tentative in making polite requests.Compare: I hope you can send me some books.I hoped that you could send me some books.I am hoping you can send me some books.I was hoping you could send me some books.To express hypothetical meanings, the past progressive only occurs in certain conditional clauses and in subclauses after ―I wish‖, ―I‘d rather‖, ―it‘s time‖, etc:
I wish they were not talking so loudly.I‘d rather you were going at once.Would you stay a little longer, if you were enjoying yourself? If they were leaving tonight, I‘d like to go with them.It is time we were leaving.Contrast between past progressive and simple past
In the previous sections we have touched upon notional differences between the simple past and the past progressive.There are a few more points to note.To denote an action in completion, we use the simple past;to denote an action in progress, we use the past progressive.To state a mere past fact, we use the simple past;to lay emphasis on the duration of the action, we use the past progressive.When two actions co-occur in a sentence, the action of shorter duration is to be denoted by the simple past, while that of longer duration by the past progressive.In colloquial speech, the past progressive is sometimes used to show what one says is casual, unimportant and aimless, whereas the use of the simple past means differently.Compare: I was talking to Margaret the other day.I talked to Margaret the other day.Compare the time sequence of the two actions in the following sentences:
When we arrived, she was making some fresh coffee.When we arrived, she made some fresh coffee.In the first sentence, the action of making coffee was already in progress when we arrived, whereas in the second sentence, the action of making coffee followed our arrival in time sequence.Lesson 12 Tense and aspect(II)
教学重点及难点：
1.Differences between present/past perfective and present/past perfective progressive.2.Perfective aspect and since-clause, perfective aspect vs.have got/have got to.教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Present perfective has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use.The former refers to the present result of a past event still operative at the present moment, while the latter one denotes that an action or state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment.2.Past perfective progressive also has ―finished‖ and ―unfinished‖ use, only with time reference back-shifted to a specified past moment.3.There are a few more points that merit our attention concerning the use of the perfective aspect: perfective aspect and since-clause, perfective aspect vs.have got/have got to and perfective aspect in ―It is/will be the first time + that-clause‖.Lecture 12 Tense and Aspect(II)The perfective aspect can combine with the two tenses, forming present perfective and past perfective, which can again combine with the progressive aspect, resulting in present perfective progressive and past perfective progressive.12.1 uses of present perfective(progressive)
This section deals with the two chief uses of the present perfective(progressive)and how the present perfective(progressive)is distinguished in meaning from the simple past.Present perfective
Present perfective, a combination of the perfective aspect with the present tense(have / has+-ed participle), has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use.This ―finished‖ use refers to the present result of a past event still operative at the present moment.The ―unfinished‖ use of the present perfective denotes that an action or state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment, possibly extending into the future as well.The difference between these two uses manifests itself in the fact that in the ―unfinished‖ use, the present perfective is commonly accompanied by an adverbial expressing duration, but no such accompanying adverbial is present in the ―finished‖ use.Compare:
He‘s turned off the light.(―The light is still off now.‖)
He‘s lived here since 1960.(―The period of residence extends either to the present—the usual interpretation—or to some specified date in the past.‖)
Present perfective progressive
The use of the present perfective progressive(have/has been +-ing participle)has much in common with the ―unfinished‖ use of the present perfective.Compare:
I‘ve been writing letters for an hour(and I‘ve still got some more to do).I‘ve been sitting in the garden(and have just come indoors).There are cases, however, where these two forms are not interchangeable in that the present perfective progressive has also the meanings of continuousness, temporariness and incompleteness.Compare:
Who‘s been eating my dinner?(―Some of it is left.‖)Who‘s eaten my dinner?(―It‘s all gone.‖)
Contrast between present perfective(progressive)and simple past
As has been pointed out, the action or state denoted by the present perfective(progressive), though referring to some indefinite happening in the past, has some connection with the present.Hence, if an action or state happened in the past and has no connection with the present, it will have to be expressed by the simple past or the past progressive.Compare:
His sister has been an invalid all her life.(―she is still alive.‖)His sister was an invalid all her life.(she is now dead.)
12.2.Uses of past perfective(progressive)
Let us now turn to the uses of the past perfective(progressive).Past perfective
The past perfective also has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use, only with time reference back –shifted to a specified past moment.In the ―finished‖ use, the past perfective denotes an action or state already in completion before a specified past，and in its ―unfinished‖ use, an action or state extending over a period up to a past moment and possibly into the future in the past, e.g.:
I had written the article when he came.By six o‘clock they had worked twelve hours.Past perfective progressive
The past perfective progressive is basically similar in use to the present perfective progressive, only with time reference back-shifted to a specified past.The chief use of the past perfective progressive has also something in common with the ―unfinished‖ use of the past perfective, and, therefore, in many cases, these two forms can be used interchangeably, though in colloquial speech, the past perfective progressive is more frequently used than the past perfective.Compare:
I‘d been working for three hours when he called.I‘d worked for three hour when he called
Past perfective in sentences with when-/ before-/after-/ until-clauses
Subordinators such as when, before, after, until can sometimes be used interchangeably when they connect clauses where two actions happen one after another.The general rule is that the earlier happenings are expressed by the past perfective and the later happening by the simple past.Compare:
When I reached the station, the train had already left.I reached the station after the train had left.I didn‘t reach the station until after the train had left.The train had left before I reached the station.
第四篇：八年级下册 英语语法总结
八年级下册 英语语法总结（全书）
初二语法复习
1.so+谓语+主语：…也一样.谓语:be动词/助动词/情态动词
2.so+主语+谓语:的确如此,真的这样.3.help yourself/yurselves to．．．请随便吃点．．．
4.发现sb做sth : find sb doing sth
5.不完全同意I don’t really agree.完全不同意I really don’t agree.6.或者．．或者．．．either…or…..就近原则
既不．．也不．．neither…nor….就近原则
既．．．．又．．．both…and….谓语用复数
7.看起来，似乎It seems/seemed that…..8.由于．．．而闻名be famous for….更详细的语法可以看这里：）
第五篇：八年级上册英语语法总结
八年级上册英语语法总结
1)leave的用法
1.“leave+地点”表示“离开某地”。
例如：When did you leave Shanghai?你什么时候离开上海的？
2.“leave for+地点”表示“动身去某地”。
例如：Next Friday, Alice is leaving for London.下周五，爱丽斯要去伦敦了。
3.“leave+地点+for+地点”表示“离开某地去某地”。
例如：Why are you leaving Shanghai for Beijing?你为什么要离开上海去北京？
2)情态动词should“应该”学会使用
should作为情态动词用，常常表示意外、惊奇、不能理解等，有“竟会”的意思。例如：How should I know? 我怎么知道？
Why should you be so late today? 你今天为什么来得这么晚？ should有时表示应当做或发生的事。
例如：We should help each other.我们应当互相帮助。
我们在使用时要注意以下几点：
1.用于表示“应该”或“不应该”的概念。此时常指长辈教导或责备晚辈。例如：You should be here with clean hands.你应该把手洗干净了再来。
2.用于提出意见劝导别人。
例如： You should go to the doctor if you feel ill.如果你感觉不舒服，你最好去看医生。
3.用于表示可能性。should的这一用法是考试中常常出现的考点之一。例如：We should arrive by supper time.我们在晚饭前就能到了。
She should be here any moment.她随时都可能来。
3)What...? 与 Which...? 1.what 与 which 都是疑问代词，都可以指人或事物，但是what仅用来询问职业。
如：What is your father?
= What does your father do?
=What is your father's job? 你父亲是干什么的？
Which 指代的是特定范围内的某一个人。如：
---Which is Peter? 哪个是皮特？---The boy behind Mary.玛丽背后的那个男孩。
2.What...?是泛指，所指的事物没有范围的限制；而 Which...?是特指，所指的事物有范围的限制。如：What color do you like best?（所有颜色）你最喜爱什么颜色？
Which color do you like best, blue, green or yellow?（有特定的范围）你最喜爱哪一种颜色？ 3.what 与 which 后都可以接单、复数名词和不可数名词。如：Which pictures are from China?哪些图片来自中国？
4)频度副词的位置
1.常见的频度副词有以下这些：
always（总是，一直）usually（通常）
often（常常，经常）sometimes（有时候）
never（从不）
2.频度副词的位置：
a放在连系动词、助动词或情态动词后面。
如： David is often arrives late for school.大卫上学经常迟到。b放在行为动词前。
如：We usually go to school at 7:10 every day.我们每天经常在7：10去上学。c有些频度副词可放在句首或句尾，用来表示强调。
如：Sometimes I walk home, sometime I rides a bike.有时我步行回家，有时我骑自行车。d.never放在句首时，主语、谓语动词要倒装。如：Never have I been there.5)every day 与 everyday 1.every day 作状语，译为“每一天”。
如： We go to school at 7:10 every day.我们每天7：10去上学。
I decide to read English every day.我决定每天读英语。
2.everyday 作定语，译为“日常的”。
如：She watches everyday English on TV after dinner.她晚饭后在电视上看日常英语。
What's your everyday activity?你的日常活动是什么？ 6)什么是助动词 1.协助主要动词构成谓语动词词组的词叫助动词。被协助的动词称作主要动词。
助动词自身没有词义，不可单独使用。例如：He doesn't like English.他不喜欢英语。
（doesn't是助动词，无词义；like是主要动词，有词义）
2.助动词协助主要动词完成以下功用，可以用来：
a.表示时态，例如：He is singing.他在唱歌。
He has got married.他已结婚。
b.表示语态，例如：He was sent to England.他被派往英国。c.构成疑问句，例如：Do you like college life? 你喜欢大学生活吗？
Did you study English before you came here?你来这儿之前学过英语吗？
d.与否定副词not合用，构成否定句，例如：I don't like him.我不喜欢他。a.加强语气，例如：Do come to the party tomorrow evening.明天晚上一定来参加晚会。
He did know that.他的确知道那件事。
3.最常用的助动词有：be, have, do, shall, will, should, would 7)forget doing/to do与remember doing/to do 1.forget to do 忘记要去做某事。(未做)forget doing 忘记做过某事。
(已做)
The light in the office is still on.He forgot to turn it off..办公室的灯还在亮着，它忘记关了。(没有做关灯的动作)
He forgot turning the light off.他忘记他已经关了灯了。(已做过关灯的动作)
Don't forget to come tomorrow.别忘了明天来。
(to come动作未做)
2.remember to do 记得去做某事
(未做)
remember doing 记得做过某事
(已做)
Remember to go to the post office after school.记着放学后去趟邮局。（未去）
Don't you remember seeing the man before? 你不记得以前见过那个人吗?（已做）8)It's for sb.和 It's of sb.1.for sb.常用于表示事物的特征特点，表示客观形式的形容词，如easy, hard, difficult,interesting, impossible等：
It's very hard for him to study two languages.对他来说学两门外语是很难的。
2.of sb 的句型一般用表示人物的性格，品德，表示主观感情或态度的形容词，如good, kind, nice, clever, foolish, right。
It's very nice of you to help me.你来帮助我，你真是太好了。
3.for 与of 的辨别方法：
用介词后面的代词作主语，用介词前边的形容词作表语，造个句子。如果道理上通顺用of，不通则用for.如：You are nice.(通顺，所以应用of)。
He is hard.(人是困难的，不通，因此应用for。)9)对两个句子的提问
例如：句子：The boy in blue has three pens.提问：1.Who has three pens?
2.Which boy has three pens? 3.What does the boy in blue have? 4.How many pens does the boy in blue have? 10)so、such与不定冠词的使用
1.so与不定冠词a、an连用，结构为“so+形容词+a/an+名词”。如： He is so funny a boy.Jim has so big a house.2.such与不定冠词a、an连用，结构为“such+a/an+形容词+名词”。如：It is such a nice day.That was such an interesting story.11)使用-ing分词的几种情况
1.在进行时态中。如： He is watching TV in the room.They were dancing at nine o'clock last night.2.在there be结构中。如：There is a boy swimming in the river.3.在have fun/problems结构中。如： We have fun learning English this term.They had problems getting to the top of the mountain.4.在介词后面。如： Thanks for helping me.Are you good at playing basketball.5.在以下结构中：enjoy doing sth
乐于做某事
finish doing sth
完成做某事 feel like doing sth 想要做某事
stop doing sth 停止做某事
forget doing sth 忘记做过某事
go on doing sth 继续做某事
remember doing sth 记得做过某事
like doing sth 喜欢做某事
keep sb doing sth 使某人一直做某事
find sb doing sth 发现某人做某事
see/hear/watch sb doing sth 看到/听到/观看某人做某事
try doing sth 试图做某事 need doing sth 需要做某事 prefer doing sth 宁愿做某事 mind doing sth 介意做某事 practice doing sth 练习做某事 be busy doing sth 忙于做某事 can't help doing sth 禁不住做某事 miss doing sth 错过做某事
12)英语中的“单数”
1.主语的第三人称单数形式，即可用“he, she, it”代替的。
如： he, she, it
my friend, his teacher, our classroom, Tom, Mary's uncle 2.名词有单数名词和复数名词。
如： man（单数）---men（复数）banana（单数）---bananas（复数）3.动词有原形，第三人称单数形式，-ing分词，过去式，过去分词。如：go---goes---going---went---gone
work---works---working---worked---worked
watch---watches---watching---watched---watched 当主语为第三人称单数的时候，谓语动词必须用相应的第三人称单数形式。如：
The boy wants to be a sales assistant.Our English teacher is from the US.Their daughter makes her breakfast all by herself.13)名词的复数构成的几种形式
名词复数的构成可分为规则变化和不规则变化两种。
I 名词复数的规则变化
1.一般在名词词尾加-s。
如：pear---pears hamburger---hamburgers
desk---desks
tree---trees 2.以字母-s,-sh,-ch,-x结尾的名词，词尾加-es。如：class---classes dish---dishes
watch---watches box---boxes 3.以字母-o结尾的某些名词，词尾加-es。
如： potato---potatoes tomato---tomatoes
Negro---Negroes hero---heroes 4.以辅音字母加-y结尾的名词，将-y变为-i,再加-es。如：family---families dictionary---dictionaries city---cities country---countries 5.以字母-f或-fe结尾的名词，将-f或-fe变为-v，再加-es。如： half---halves leaf---leaves thief---thieves knife---knives
self---selves wife---wives
life---lives wolf---wolves
shelf---shelves loaf---loaves
但是：scarf---scarves(fes)roof---roofs serf---serfs gulf---gulfs
chief---chiefs proof---proofs
belief---beliefs II 名词复数的不规则变化
1.将-oo改为--ee。如： foot---feet tooth---teeth 2.将-man改为-men。如： man---men woman---women policeman---policemen postman---postmen 3.添加词尾。如：child---children 4.单复数同形。如：sheep---sheep deer---deer
fish---fish people---people 5.表示“某国人”的单、复数变化。即“中日瑞不变英法变，其它国把-s加后面”。
如：Chinese---Chinese Japanese---Japanese
Swiss---Swiss
Englishman---Englishmen Frenchman---Frenchmen
American---Americans Australian---Australians
Canadian---Canadians Korean---Koreans
Russian---Russians Indian---Indians 6.其它。如：mouse---mice apple tree---apple trees man teacher---men teachers 14)肯定句变否定句及疑问句要变化的一些词 1.some变为any。
如：There are some birds in the tree.→There aren't any birds in the tree.但是，若在表示请邀请、请求的句子中，some可以不变。如：
Would you like some orange juice?
与此相关的一些不定代词如something, somebody等也要进行相应变化。2.and变为or。
如：I have a knife and a ruler.→I don't have a knife or a ruler.3.a lot of(=lots of)变为many或much。如： They have a lot of friends.（可数名词）
→They don't have many friends.There is lots of orange in the bottle.（不可数名词）
→There isn't much orange in the bottle.1.already变为yet。
如： I have been there already.→I haven't been there yet.16)in与after in 与 after 都可以表示时间，但二者有所区别。
2.in 经常用于将来时的句子中，以现在为起点，表示将来一段时间。如： He will leave for Beijing in a week.一周后他会动身去北京。
3.after 经常用于过去时的句子中，以过去为起点，表示过去一段时间。如：He left for Beijing after a week.一周后他动身去了北京。4.不过，如果after后跟的是具体的时刻，它也可用于将来时。
如： We will finish the work after ten o'clock.十点后我们会完成工作的。5..注意区分以下的in的用法。
I'll visit him in a week.一周后我会去拜访他。
I'll visit him twice in a week.一周内我会去拜访他两次。17)不定冠词a与an的使用 1.a 用在以辅音音素开头的单词前。如： There is a “b” in the word “book”.单词book中有个字母b。
类似的字母还有：c, d, g, j, k, p, q, t, u, v, w, y, z。
She has a small knife.她有一把小刀。2.an 用于以元音音素开头的单词前。
如： There is an “i” in the word “onion”.单词onion中有个字母i。
类似的字母还有：a, e, f, h, l, m, n, o, r, s, x。
如： Do you have an umbrella?你有一把雨伞吗？
3.以元音字母开头的单词前面不一定都用an；以辅音字母开头的单词前面也不一定都用a。如：a useful book a universe
a one-letter word
an hour
an uncle an umbrella
an honest person 18)如何表达英语中的“穿、戴”？
英语中表示“穿、戴”的表达方法有好几种，常见的有以下这些： 1.put on 主要表达“穿”的动作。
如： He put on his coat.他穿上了他的外套。
You'd better put on your shoes.你最好穿上你的鞋子。2.wear 主要表示“穿、戴”的状态。
如： The old man wears a pair of glasses.老人戴着一副眼镜。
The girl is wearing a red skirt.那女孩穿着一条红色的短裙。
3.dress 可作及物动词，有“给......穿衣”的意思，后接“人”，而不是“衣服”。如： Please dress the children right now.请立即给孩子们穿上衣服。
dress 也可作不及物动词，表示衣着的习惯。
如：The woman always dresses in green.那位妇女总是穿绿色的衣服。4.be in 表示穿着的状态
。如：
John is in white today.约翰今天穿白色的衣服。19)a little, a few 与 a bit(of)a little, a few 与 a bit(of)都有“一些、少量”的意义。他们的区别在哪里呢？
1.a little 意为“一些、少量”，后接不可数名词。
如：
There is a little water in the bottle.瓶子里有一点水。
还可以接形容词。
如： He is a little shy.他有些害羞。
2.a few 意为“一些、少数”，后接复数的可数名词。
如： There are a few people in the room.房间里有一些人。
3.a bit 意为“一点儿”，后接形容词。如：
It's a bit cold.有点冷。
a bit of 后接不可数名词。
如：
He has a bit of money.他有一点儿钱。
4.a little 表肯定意义，little 表否定意义；a few 表肯定意义，few 表否定意义。如：There is a little soda in the glass.杯子里有一点儿汽水。
There is little soda in the glass.杯子里几乎没有汽水了。
I have a few Chinese friends.我有一些中国朋友。
Few people like him.几乎没有人喜欢他。
5.a little = a bit of, 后接不可数名词；
a little = a bit = a little bit = kind of, 后接形容词，意为“有点儿”。
20)关于like的用法
like 可以作动词，也可以作介词。
1.like 作动词，表示一般性的“爱好、喜欢”，有泛指的含义。如：
Do you like the color?你喜爱这种颜色吗？
like 后可接不定式（like to do sth），也可接动词的-ing分词（like doing sth），有时意思不尽相同。如： She likes eating apples.她喜爱吃苹果。（习惯）
She likes to eat an apple.她喜爱吃一粒苹果。（平常不喜欢吃）
like 与 would 连用，后接不定式，表示愿望或客气的请求。如：
Would you like a cup of tea?您愿意喝杯茶吗？
“喜欢某人做某事”可以用结构“like sb to do sth/doing sth”。
如： They all like me to sing/singing English songs.他们都喜欢我唱英文歌。2.like 作介词，可译成“像......”。
如： She is friendly to us like a mother.她对我们友好，就像母亲一样。
It looks like an orange.它看起来像个桔子。
3、区分以下句子：
A.What does he look like? 为“他长相如何？”指一个人的外貌特征
B.What is he like? 译为“他人怎么样？”指人的性格特点。
C.The boy like Peter is over there.D.A boy like Peter can't do it.A句指外貌相似，而D句指性格相似。
如：
The book speaks of my hometown.那本书提到我的家乡。
talk 意为“谈话、讲话”，如果只有一方对 21)stop to do sth 与 stop doing sth 1.stop to do sth 意为“停下来去做某事”。
如：
The students stop to listen to their teacher.学生们停下来去听他们老师讲话。
2.stop doing sth 意为“停止做某事”。
如：
The students stopped talking.学生们停止了谈话。
与它们相反的句式是：go on to do sth “继续做某事（与刚才一事不同）”和 go on doing sth “继续做某事（与刚才同一件事）”。
如：
He finishes his homework and goes on to study English.他完成了作业，接着继续去念英语。
They went on playing games.他们继续玩游戏。22)tell, speak, say 与 talk 1.tell 意为“告诉、讲述”，指某人把某一件事、一条信息传送给别人或讲述一件事。如：
He tells me that he wants to be a teacher.他告诉我说他想成为一位教师。
Father always tells interesting stories to us.爸爸总是给我们讲有趣的故事。
tell sb sth 意为“告知某人某事”。
如：
He told me something about his past.他告诉我一些他的往事。
tell sb to do sth 意为“告诉某人去做某事”。
如： David told his son to do the homework.大卫要他的儿子去做作业。
1.speak 意为“说话、讲话”，后面主要接语言。
如：
He can speak English and a little Chinese.他能讲英语和一点汉语。
2.speak to 意为“和.....讲话、谈话”。
如： Can I speak to Mr Zhang? 我能和张先生讲话吗？
3.speak of 意为“提到、说起”。另一方说话时，一般用 talk to；如果双方或多方交谈，多用 with。如：
Please talk to him right now.请立即同他谈话。
He is talking with his friend.他在和朋友交谈。
talk about 意为“谈论......”。如：
They are talking about the movie.他们在谈论那部电影。
have a talk with 意为“与......交谈”。
如： Can I have a talk with you? 我可以和你交谈吗？
4.say 意为“说”。
如：
Can you say it in English once more? 你能用英语再说一遍吗？
say to 意为“对......说”。
如： He said to his students that they would have a test.他对他的学生说他们将有一个测试。
It is said that...意为“据说”。
如： It is said that he could stay under the water for a long time.据说他能呆在水里很长时间。23)Excuse me!与 I'm sorry!
1.Excuse me!意为“打搅了！对不起！”，一般是为了与陌生人搭话，或者要打断对方所说（做）的事。如：
Excuse me, is there a hotel in the neighborhood?请问，附近有旅馆吗？
Excuse me, could I say something?打搅一下，我能说一些吗？
2.I'm sorry!意为“对不起！”，表示道歉。如：
I'm sorry, Mr Zhang.I won't do it again.对不起，张先生。我不会这么做了。
表示时间的in, on 与 at 都可以和表示时间的词（组）连用。
1.in 表示时间的一段或较长的时间。如：
in the morning 在上午
in May, 2004 在2004年五月
in a week 在一周之内（后）
2.on 主要指在具体的一天。如： on Sunday 在星期天
on May Day 在“五一”节
on a hot afternoon 在一个炎热的下午
3.at 表示时间的一点或比较短的时间。如： at 8:00 在八点
at noon 在中午
25)Other及其用法
Other 及其相近的词（组），如 others, the other, the others, another, any other 等，一直是中学生朋友们比较困扰的问题，平常的考试、作业中经常出错。下面是它们的一些用法：
1、other 指其余的人或物，所有格是 other's，复数形式是 others，the other 指“两个人或物中的另一个”，其复数形式是 the others，others 相当于“other + 名词”，所以不能充当定语，修饰名词。others指整体中去掉一部分后剩余的部分，但不是全部的，即 some...others（一些...其余的人...）。the others 强调整体中除去一部分后剩余的全部，即some...the others.2、another 泛指三个以上的不定数目中的“另外一个”。由 an 和 other 合并构成，所以不能和冠词连用。another 修饰单数名词，比如：another pencil.3、any other 指除去本身以外的“任何其他的人或物”，后面要用名词的单数形式。26)look 短语
常见的look短语有以下这些： 1.look at 朝......看
Please look at the map of China.请看中国地图。(look at=have a look at)2.look for 寻找
The old man is looking for his dog.老人在寻找他的狗。1.look like 看起来像
Nancy looks like her mother.南希看起来像她母亲。2.look the same 看上去一样
Li Ping and Li Jing look the same李萍和李晶看上去一样。5.look up 查找
Please look up the word in the dictionary.请在词典中查找这个单词。6.look over 仔细检查
The doctor looked over Mary carefully.医生仔细检查了玛丽。7.look after 照顾，照看
You must look after your old father.你必须照顾你的老父亲。8.look around 到处寻找、查看
We looked around, but we found nothing strange.我们四处查看，但是我们没有发现奇怪的东西。27)too，also与either 1.too用于肯定句和疑问句，一般放在句尾，其前常加逗号。如： We are in the same school, too.我们也在相同的学校。2.also用于肯定句和疑问句，一般位于实义动词前、be动词后。如：Sandra is also a Korean student.Sandra 也是一个韩国学生。3.either用于否定句，一般放在句末。
如： They don't know the answer, either.她们也不知道答案。4.as well as也有“也”的意思。
如：We have great mushroom pizza as well as soda.He is a happy boy as well.28)hard与hardly 1.hard既可作形容词，也可作副词。
如： It's a hard(adj.)question.(=difficult)
这是一个难的问题。The boy studies very hard(adv.).那男孩学习非常努力。句子结构：It's hard for sb to do sth 做某事对某人来说是难的。如：It's hard for him to finish the work.完成那项工作对他来说很难。
注意区分：hard work 困难的工作
work hard 努力工作
2.hardly是频度副词，表示否定的意思。（=almost not）通常用在形容词、副词和动词之前。如：I can hardly see it.我几乎看不到它。
29)sometime,sometimes,some time与some times 1.sometime是时间副词，指不确定的将来或过去某一点时间（某时候或任何时候），不指一段时间。如： We'll go to Beijing sometime next month.我们下个月某一时候会去北京。2.sometimes是频度副词，指“有时”、“不时”的意思（=at times）。
如：Sometimes I get up very late on Sunday morning.有时候我在星期天早晨起得很晚。3.some time是名词词组，指一段时间（一些时间或若干时间）。
如：It took him some time to finish the book.她花了一些时间去完成作业。4.some times指“几次”。
如： He met the woman some times last month.上个月他见过那妇女几次。30)exercise的一些用法
1.作不及物动词，译为“运动，锻炼”。
如： David exercises every morning.大卫每天早晨进行锻炼。1.作及物动词，译为“训练”。
如：Swimming exercises the whole body.游泳能使身体得到全面的锻炼。2.作名词，译为“体育锻炼、运动、体操、练习题”等。
如：It's good to do eye exercises every day.每天做眼保键操对眼睛有好处。Please do more exercise from now on.从今以后请多做运动吧。
4.注意：exercise指具体运动或体操时是可数名词，复数形式为exercises；泛指运动时是不可数名词。31)maybe与may be 1.maybe是副词，译为“也许、可能”，相当于“perhaps”。
如：Maybe he can answer the question.也许他能回答那个问题。He maybe is from the USA, too.他可能也来自美国。2.may be中的may为情态动词，译为“可能是......”。如：He may be from the USA, too.他可能也来自美国。
32)same与different 1.same指“相同的”，前面通常要有一个定冠词the，但是如果same前面已经有this，those等词，就不能再与the连用了。
如：We are in the same class.我们在同一个班级。
结构：the same as 与......一样
如： His mark is the same as mine.他的分数和我的分数一样。2.different译为“不同的”，其后的可数名词应为复数形式 如：We are in different classes.我们在不同的班级。
结构：be different from 与......不同
如：This sweater is different from that one.这件毛衣与那一件不同。
different的名词形式为difference, 复数形式为differences。33)动词want的用法 1.want sth.想要某物
They want some help.他们需要一些帮助。2.want sb.to do sth.想要某人去做某事
My father wants me to help him on the farm.我父亲要我在农场上帮他。3.want to do sth.想要做某事
I want to study English in England.我想要在英国学习英语。4.want doing 需要...Your sweater wants washing你的运动衣该洗了。34)be good(bad)for、be good at的相关用法
1.be good for 对......有益
Doing morning exercises is good for your health.做早操对你们的建康有益。
2.be good at 擅长于......Li Ping is good at basketball.= Li Ping is good at playing basketball.李平擅长于篮球。
be good at = do well in 如：
I'm good at math.= I do well in math我擅长于数学。
3.be good to 对......好
Parents are always good to their children.父母亲总是对他们的孩子好。35)how many与how much 1.how many表示“多少”，对数量提问，后面接可数名词的复数形式。如：There are four people in my family.---How many people are in your family? 你家里有几个人？
We have seven classes every day.---How many classes do you have every day? 你们每天上几节课？ 2.how much也是表示“多少”，但它对不可数名词进行提问。如：There is some milk in the bottle.---How much milk is there in the bottle? 瓶子里有多少牛奶？ 3.how much还可以对价格提问，表示“多少钱”的意思。如： The yellow T-shirt is only 35 yuan.---How much is the yellow T-shirt? 那件黄色的T恤衫多少钱？ 36)with的几个用法
1.with表“和、同、与”。
如： Can you go to the park with me? 你能和我一起去公园吗？ 2.with表“用、以、被”。
如：Don't write with the red pen.不要用那支红色的钢笔写字。3.with表“随着”。
如： Climate varies with the time of the year.气候随着时令的不同而不同。4.with表“带有、有......的”。
如： The girl with long hair is my classmate.长头发的女孩是我的同学。5.with表“因为、由于”。
如：They were angry with hard work.他们因为艰难的工作而生气。6..一些with结构：play with
与......一起玩
be angry with
对......生气
talk with
与......交谈
get on well with
与......相处融洽 37)a lot of(lots of)与many,much 1.a lot of意为“许多、大量”。相当于lots of。它既可以修饰可数名词，又可以修饰不可数名词。如：I have a lot of friends in China.我在中国有很多朋友。The old man has lots of money.那位老人有很多的钱。2.many意为“许多”。它用来修饰可数名词。
如：Do you have many beautiful skirts?你有很多漂亮的裙子吗？ 3.much意为“大量”。它用来修饰不可数名词。
如：There is much water in the lake.湖里有大量的水。
4.a lot of（=lots of）用在肯定句中，而many，much不受限制。如果将一个含有a lot of（=lots of）的肯定句改为否定句或疑问句，要将它们改为many或much。如：We can see a lot of birds in the tree.---We can't see many birds in the tree.我们在树上看不到很多鸟儿。He wants lots of soda.---Does he want much soda? 他需要许多汽水吗？
38)help用法举例
help既可以作名词，也可以作动词。1.help作名词，意为“帮助”。
如：He needs some help.他需要一些帮助。2.help作动词，也是“帮助”的意思。如：Can you help me? 你能帮帮我吗？ 3.help的结构： help sb(to)do sth
帮助某人做某事 =help sb with sth
帮助某人做某事
如：They want to help the boy carry the heavy box.=They want to help the boy with the heavy box.他们想要帮助那位男孩搬那个重箱子。39)well的用法
well可以作副词，也可以作形容词。1.well作副词，意为“（某事干得）好”。如：The boy draws very well.男孩画得很好。2.well作形容词，意为“健康、安好”。如：I'm not feeling well 我觉得不舒服。40)ago与before ago与before都表示“......以前”，但用法有所区别。
1.ago意为“以前”，表示从此刻算起的若干时间之前，常用于过去时的句子中。如： He took a photo a week ago.他一周前照了一张相片。2.before作为副词时表示：
a.从过去某一时刻算起的若干时间以前，用于过去完成时的句子中。
如： The boy had already seen the comedy before.那男孩以前已经看过那部喜剧片了。
b.笼统的“以前”，用于一般过去时或现在完成时的句子中，一般单独使用，而ago不可以单独使用。如：He's read this novel before.他以前读过这部小说。41)need的用法
1.need作实义动词，意为“需要”。
如：Do you need to stay at home? 你要呆在家里吗？ 2.need作情态动词，一般用于对must的否定回答。如：---Must he leave now?
他必须离开吗？
---No, he needn't.不，他不必。
3.区分：a.need作实义动词。
b.need作情态动词，一般不用于肯定句。42)decide的几种句式
1.decide to do sth
决定去做某事
They decide to fly kite on weekend.他们决定在周末去放风筝。
2.decide on doing sth
决定做某事
They decide on flying kites.他们决定放风筝。
3.decide on sth
就某事决定......Betty decided on the red skirt.贝蒂选定了那条红裙子。
2.decide的名词形式为decision，结构：make a decision，意为“做决定” 如：He has made a decision.他已经做一个决定了。
43)too many,too much与much too 1.too many意为“太多”，用于修饰可数名词的复数。
如： There are too many students in our class.我们班上有太多的学生。2.too much意为“太多”，用于修饰不可数名词。
如：We have too much work to do.我们有太多的工作要做。3.much too表示“太”，用来修饰形容词或副词。
如：The box is much too heavy, so I can't carry it.箱子太重了，所以我搬不动它。44)can的用法 1.表示能力。
如：We can carry the heavy box.我们可以搬得动箱子。Who can sing an English song?谁会唱英文歌？
2表示惊讶、不相信等态度，主要用于否定句和疑问句中。如：Can it be true?这会是真的吗？ You can't be serious? 你不会当真吧？3.表示允许，意思与may相近，主要用于口语中。如： Can I smoke here? 我可以在这儿吸烟吗？ Can I go with him?我可以跟他一起去吗？
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