英语语法教案第三章(虚拟语气定稿)

第一篇：英语语法教案第三章(虚拟语气定稿)

虚拟语气

第一部分：语气的定义和种类 语气(mood)语气是动词的一种形式，表示说话人对某一行为或事情的看法和态度。2 语气的种类

陈述语气：表示动作或状态是现实的、确定的或符合事实的，用于陈述句、疑问句和某些感叹句。如： There are two sides to every question.每个问题都有两个方面。Were you busy all day yesterday?昨天一整天你都很忙吗？ How good a teacher she is!她是多好的一位老师啊！祈使语气：表示说话人对对方的请求或命令。如： Never be late again!再也不要迟到了。

Don’t forget to turn off the light.别忘了关灯。

虚拟语气：表示动作或状态不是客观存在的事实，而是说话人的主观愿望、假设或推测等。如： If I were a bird, I could fly in the air.如果我是一只小鸟，我就能在空中飞行。I wish I could pass the examination.我希望我能通过考试。May you succeed!祝您成功！

虚拟语气在语法里算得上是个难点。让我们就从最简单的开始吧。

第二部分：虚拟语气的用法

I.简单句中虚拟语气的用法

一、动词的过去式用于现在时态时，表示说话人的谦虚、客气、有礼貌、或委婉的语气，常用于日常会话中。如：Would you be kind enough to show me the way to the post office? 请你告诉我去邮局的路好吗？

It would be better for you not to stay up too late.你最好别熬夜到很晚。

二、表示祝愿。

1、常用“may+动词原形”表示祝愿，此时may须置于句首（多用于正式文体中）。May good luck be yours!祝你好运！May you be happy!祝你快乐！

May you do even better!祝你取得更大成就！May you have a good time.祝愿你玩的痛快。

May the friendship between us last long.祝愿我们的友情天长地久。May you be happy.(注意那个be)祝你幸福。

2、用动词原形。例如：

(1)Long live the people!人民万岁！

(2).“God bless you,”said the priest.牧师说：“愿上帝保佑你！”

(3).Have a good journey!祝愿你旅途愉快！

3、表示强烈愿望。（该类型虚拟语气谓语仅用动词原形，第三人称单数也不加“s”）(1).God save me．(2).Heaven help us．

第三部分：名词性从句中的虚拟语气

I.宾语从句中的虚拟语气

一、在动词wish后的宾语从句中的虚拟语气

在动词wish后的宾语从句中的虚拟语气，常省去宾语从句的引导词that。

1、表示与现在的事实相反，wish后宾语从句中的谓语动词用过去式或过去进行式(时间上是同时的)。1)I wish(that可省略,下同)I knew the answer to the question.我希望知道这个答案。(事实上是不知道)2)I wish it were spring in my hometown all the year around.但愿我的家乡四季如春。(事实上不可能)3).I wish I were a bird.但愿我是只小鸟。(事实上不可能)4).When she was at the party, she wished she were at home.(wished,过去虚拟动词were)(事实上并不在家)5).Now that he is in China, he wishes he understood Chinese.(wishes,过去虚拟动词understood)现在他在中国，他希望能懂得中文。(事实上并不懂)6).When we begin the trip, they will wish they were with us.(事实上并不和我们在一起)

2、对过去情况的虚拟（和过去的事实相反）：Wish后宾语从句的谓语动词用过去完成时，或would, could, might+现在完成时。例：

1）I wish(that可省略，下同)I hadn't wasted so much time.我后悔不该浪费这么多时间。(事实上已浪费了)2）He wishes he hadn't lost the chance.他真希望没有失去机会。(其实已失去)3）We wished he had spoken to us.(事实上他并没同我们讲)4）I wish you had called earlier.(事实上已迟了)5）They will wish they had listened to us sooner.(事实上并不如此)例题分析：I wish I ______ longer this morning, but I had to get up and come to class.A.could have slept B.slept C.might have slept D.have slept 动词wish后面接从句，表达不可能实现或与事实相反的情况时，谓语动词要用虚拟语气，即用过去式（表示现在发生的动作）或过去完成式（表示过去发生的动作）。本题后半句谓语动词have用的是过去时had to get up and come, 所以前面要用过去完成时表示过去发生的动作。所以, 选项A（could have slept）是答案

3）、对将来情况的虚拟(表示将来的主观愿望)：

如果wish表示对将来事情的愿望。宾语从句谓语动词用“would/should/could/might + 动词原形”(时间上较后)(请注意：主句和从句的主语不相同)。

1）.I wish it would stop raining.我希望雨能停止。(事实上雨还在下着呢)2）.I wish you would be quiet 我希望你安静一些。(事实上那家伙还在吵着呢)3）.You wished she would arrive the next day.你希望她第二天会到。(事实上她还没到)4）.I wish she would change her mind.我希望她会改变主意。(呵呵，女孩子可没那么容易就改变主意喔)5）.He will wish we would join him the following week.(只是希望我们和他在一起，实际上还没在一起)注意：.如果将wish改为过去式wished, 其后that 从句中的动词形式不变。例如： I wished I hadn't spent so much money.我要是那时没有花掉那么多钱就好了。

2.如果wish后宾语 从句中用would , 一般表示对现状不满或希望未来有所改变或请求 I wish he would answer my letter.I wish prices would come down.I wish you would help me.I wish you would stop asking silly questions.二、在表示建议、命令、要求、忠告等动词的后面的宾语从句中的虚拟语气的用法

由于这些动词本身隐含说话者的主观意见，认为某事应该或不应该怎样，这些词语后面的“that”从句应用虚拟语气，且均以“should+动词原形”表示这种语气，但事实上“should”常被省略，故此从句中谓语动词用原形，常用的此类动词有：

表示“要求”的：ask, desire, request, demand, require, beg 表示“提议、劝告、建议”的：move, propose, suggest, recommend, advise, vote 表示“决定、命令”的：decide, order, command, demand 表示“主张”的：maintain, urge 表示“同意、坚持”的：consent, insist 例如：

1.The doctor suggested that he(should)try to lose his weight.2.He insisted that we(should)tell him the news.3.When I suggested that he(should)try shaving cream, he said, “The razor and water do the job.”(当我建议他用刮胡膏时，他说“剃刀和水就行了”。)4.He pursued various theories for several days until I suggested we take the toy apart to see how it did work.(他费了几天功夫寻找理论根据，直到我建议拆开看看它是如何转动的。)

三、在expect, believe, think, suspect等动词的否定或疑问形式后的宾语从句中，我们经常用“should＋动词原形(或完成形式)”，表示惊奇，怀疑，不满等。

I never thought that he should be such a brave young soldier.我们从来没想到他是个如此勇敢的小战士。

四、在would rather，would sooner，had rather，would(just)as soon，would prefer之后的宾语从句中的虚拟语气的用法

would rather , would sooner, had rather, would(just)as soon，would prefer（希望）也用来表达主观愿望，它们之后的宾语从句中需用虚拟语气。谓语动词用过去式表示现在或将来，用过去完成式表示与过去事实相反。表示”宁愿做什么”或“对过去做的事的懊悔”。

(1).I would rather he came tomorrow than today.(2).John would rather that she had not gone to the party yesterday evening.(3).I would rather everything hadn' t happened in the past.(4).The manager would rather his daughter did not work in the same office．经理宁愿她女儿不与他在同一间办公室工作。

(7).To be frank，I'd rather you were not involved in the case．坦率地说，我希望你不要卷入这件事。

(8).You don't have to be in such a hurry．I would rather you went on business first．你没有必要这么着急，我宁愿你先去上班。

(9).I'd rather you didn't make any comment on the issue for the time being．我倒希望你暂时先不要就此事发表意见。

(10).Frankly speaking，I'd rather you didn't do anything about it for the time being．坦白地说，我宁愿你现在对此事什么也不要做。

(11).Wouldn't you rather your child went to bed early？为什么你不愿让你的孩子早点上床呢？(12).I would just as soon you had returned the book yesterday．我真希望你昨天把这本书还了。注：若某人愿自己做某事，would rather后用动词原形 I would rather stay at home today． would rather．．．than．．．中用动词原形 I would rather stay at home than go out today．

II：主语从句中的虚拟语气

一、“It is(was)+形容词（或过去分词）+that„„”结构中的虚拟语气的用法

在“It is(was)+形容词（或过去分词）+that„„”结构中，某些表示愿望、建议、请求、命令、可能、适当、较好、迫切、紧近、重要等形容词后的主语从句中的谓语也用虚拟语气。其表达形式为should ＋动词原形或省略should直接用动词原形（美国英语中省去should）常用的形容词： natural(自然的), appropriate(适当的), advisable(合适的), preferable(更可取的), better(更好的)，necessary(必须的), important(重要的), imperative(急需的), urgent(急迫的), essential(本质的), vital(必不可少的)probable(很可能的), possible(可能的)，desirable(极好的)，advisable（合理的），compulsory（必须的），crucial（紧急的），desirable（理想的），essential（必要的），imperative（迫切的），incredible（惊人的），necessary（必要的），possible（可能的），strange（奇怪的），urgent（紧迫的）。

常用的过去分词(Past Participle): required(需要的), demanded(要求), requested(被请求的), desired(要求)，suggested(建议), recommended(推荐)，ordered(命令)1.It is necessary that we(should 可省略, 下同)have a walk now.2 It was necessary that we(should)make everything ready ahead of time.3.It is required that nobody(should)smoke here.(表示要求不要在此抽烟)4.It is important that every pupil(should)be able to understand the rule of school.(表示重要的是学生都能了解校规)5.It's important that we(should)take good care of the patient.6.It is natural that she should do so.7.It is essential that these application forms（should）be sent back as early as possible． 这些申请表应尽早地寄回，这是很重要的。

8.It is vital that enough money（should）be collected to fund the project． 重要的是募集足够的钱，为这个项目提供资金。

9.It is desired that we（should）get everything ready this evening． 希望我们今晚一切都准备就绪。

注：在上述所列形容词后面用that引出的宾语从句中，谓语动词也要用虚拟语气。

10.I don't think it advisable that Tom（should）be assigned to the job since he has no experiences.汤姆缺乏经验，指派他做这项工作我认为是不恰当的。

二、在It is ＋名词＋that„的主语从句中的虚拟语气

在It is ＋名词＋that的主语从句中，常用虚拟语气，表示建议、命令、请求、道歉、怀疑、惊奇等。这类名词有：advice，decision，desire，demand，idea，motion，order，pity，proposal, recommendation，requirement，resolution，shame，suggestion，surprise，wish，wonder等。It is my proposal that he be sent to study further abroad．我建议派他去国外进一步学习。III.虚拟语气用在表语从句或同位语从句中

当某些表示建议、请求、命令等主观意向的名词作主语时，其后的表语从句或同位语从句需用虚拟语气，其表达形式为should ＋动词原形或直接用动词原形。这类名词常见的有：

demand(要求), desire(请求), requirement(要求), advice(劝告), recommendation(建议), suggestion(建议)order(命令)necessity(必要地), preference(优先)proposal(计划), plan(计划), idea(办法)，recommendation等。

We are all for your proposal that the discussion be put off．我们都赞成你提出的将讨论延期的建议。

The suggestion that the mayor present the prizes was accepted by everyone．由市长颁发奖金的建议被每个人接受。

The advice is that we(should 可省略，下同)leave at once.My idea is that we(should)get more people to attend the conference.I make a proposal that we(should)hold a meeting next week.IV.虚拟语气用在It is（about ／high）time ＋that定语从句中 在It is（about／high）time ＋that从句中需用虚拟语气，表示“该做„„的时候了”，其动词形式用一般过去时或should ＋动词原形。

It's already 5 o'clock now．Don't you think it's about time we went home？现在已经5点钟了，你不认为我们应该回家了吗？

注：在this is the first time ／second time that．．．句型中，从句中谓语动词用陈述语气完成时态。例如：

Is this the first time that you have visited Hongkong？这是你第一次参观香港吗？ V.虚拟语气用在as if（as though）引导的方式状语从句中。

（一）在as if（as though）引导的方式状语从句中，常用虚拟语气，其动词形式与wish后接宾语从句中的形式相同。Alan talked about Rome as if he were a Roman．艾伦谈起罗马来好像他是个罗马人一样。2 He pretends as if he didn't know the thing at all, but in fact he knows it very well.（用过去式表示与现在事实相反的假设）

3．The old man looked at the picture, he felt as though he had gone back to 20 years ago.(用过去完成式表示与过去相反的事实)那老人看着照片，他觉得仿佛回到20年前了。

4。They talked and talked as if they would never meet again.(would + 原形动词meet，表示与将来事实相反)他们谈了又谈，仿佛他们不会再相见的样子。

（二）虚拟语气用在lest，for fear that及in case引导的目的状语从句中。

在由lest等引导的目的状语从句中需用虚拟语气，表示“以防，以免” 等意思，其谓语动词多由should＋动词原形构成，should也可省略。

He was punished lest he should make the same mistake again．他被处以惩罚以免他再犯。VI、虚拟语气在条件从句中的用法： 条件从句有两类：（1）真实条件句；（2）虚拟条件句。如果假设情况有可能发生的，就是“真实条件句”。如： If time permits, we'll go fishing together.(如果有时间的话，我们就一起去钓鱼。)如果假设的情况与事实相反，则为“虚拟条件句”。如：

If it had rained yesterday, we would have stayed at home.如果昨天下雨的话，我们就会留在家里。）

这种句子一般由“从句”（Subordinate Clause）和“主句”(Main Clause)组成。如上例：

If it had rained yesterday, we would have stayed at home.“If it had rained yesterday” 就是“从句”；“we would have stayed at home” 则为主句。无论从句或主句的谓语都要用虚拟语气。它们所用的动词有三种时态(Tenses)，就是： 现在时态、过去时态、将来时态。

.一、与现在事实相反的假设(事情的发生都在同一时间内): 从句中用：if + 主语 + 动词的过去式(be 用 were)主句中用：主语 + would(should, could , might)+ 动词原形

例如：1.If I were you, I would go with him.2.If I were you, I should buy it.3.If I had time, I would study French.(如果有时间，我会学习法文。)（从句用过去式动词had，主句用动词原形 study）

4.If she knew English, she would not ask me for help.(如果她懂英文，她就不必要我帮了。)(从句用过去式动词knew, 主句用动词原形ask)注意：如果动作在进行中，主句要用：“主语 + would be + 进行式动词 ” 5.If they were here, he would be speaking to them now.(从句用过去式动词were, 主句用 would be speaking)

二、与过去事实相反的假设(假设从句的事实为过去的事)： 从句用：If + 主语 + had +过去完成式动词

主句用：主语 + would(should, could, might)+ have +过去完成式动词 +„„ 1.If you had studied harder last term, you could have passed exam.(从句动词用had studied, 主句动词用have passed)如果你在上个学期用功一些，你就会在考试中过关了。

2.If you had taken my advice, you wouldn't have failed in the exam.(从句动词用had taken, 主句动词用have failed)如果你当时听从我的劝告的话，你就不会在考试中失败了。

3.If you had got up earlier, you could have caught the train.(从句动词用had got up, 主句动词用 have caught)如果你起身得早一点，你就会赶得上火车了。

4.If it had snowed, I would have skied in the park.(从句动词用had snowed, 主句动词用 have skied)如果下雪的话，我就可在公园里滑雪了。

注意：如果动作在进行中，主句要用：“主语 + would + have + 完成进行式动词 5.If they had been here, he would have been speaking to them.(从句动词用had been, 主句动词用 have been speaking)

三、与将来的事实可能相反(对将来的事实实现的可能性不大)： 句：If + 主语 + should(或were)+ 动词原形 +„„

句：主语 + would(could, should, might)+ 动词原形 +„„ 1.If it should rain, the crops would be saved.(从句动词用should rain，主句动词用 be)如果天下雨，庄稼可能就收获了。

2.If he were to go tomorrow, he might tell you.(从句动词用were to, 主句动词用 tell)如果明天他走的话，他可能会告诉你。

3.If he were here, I would give him the books.(从句动词用 were, 主句动词用 give)如果他在这儿，我可能会把书给他。

注意：如果动作在进行中，从句(不是主句喔)要用：”If + 主语 + 过去进行式动词+„„“ 4.If she were staying here now, I would let her ride my horse.(从句动词用 were staying, 主句动词用 let)如果她现在留在这儿，我可能会让她骑我的马。

从句的 If 有时可省略，那么从句中的动词(were, had, should)就得移到主语前面： 1.原句：If she were younger, she would do it.去If：Were she younger, she would do it.(把动词were移到主语she的前面)2.原句：If he had tried it, he could have done it.去If：Had he tried it, he could have done it.(把had移到主语he的前面)

四、错综条件句（混合型条件句）中虚拟语气的用法有时虚拟条件句的从句和主句的动词动作时态会不一致：

（一）从句表示过去，主句表示将来：

If they had started the early morning yesterday, they would be here now.（二）从句表示将来，主句表示过去：

If I were not to make a preparation for my experiment this afternoon, I would have gone to see the film with you last night.（三）从句表示过去，主句表示将来： If we hadn't made adequate preparations, we shouldn't dare to do the experiment next week.（四）从句表示将来，主句表示现在：

If we shouldn't have an exam this afternoon, I would go shopping now.（五）省略了条件句的虚拟语气的用法（隐含型条件句）

有时候句中省略了条件句，而用 without / but for / in the absence of ”要不是“、”如果没有"，表示条件虚拟句：

1.Without air, nothing could live.要是没有空气，什么也不能生存。

2.But for your assistance, we could not accomplish it.要不是你的帮忙，我们是难有成就的。

3.In the absence of water and air, nothing could live.如果没有水和空气，什么也不能生存。

The exercises for subjunctive mood

1.He acted ____ he had never lived in China before.a.as though b.even if c.as d.since 2.____ to the doctor right away, he might have been alive.a.If he went b.Were he gone c.Should he have gone d.Had he gone 3.If you were older, I ____ you to go there yesterday.a.will allow b.should allow c.would have allowed d.had allowed 4.The secretary suggested that they ____ the men in at once.a.had brought b.should have brought c.brought d.bring 5.I wish I ____ able to tell him all about it last night.a.was b.were c.had been d.should be 6.If we ____ here ten minutes earlier, we ___ the bus.a.arrived/would catch b.arrived/would have caught c.had arrived/had caught d.had arrived/would have caught 7.If I ____ more time, I would have gone with him.a.had b.had had c.have had d.would have 8.He was very busy yesterday, otherwise he ____ to the meeting.a.would come b.came c.would have come d.had come 9.The Jade Emperor ordered that the Monkey King _____ right away.a.would be arrested b.must be arrested c.be arrested d.had to be arrested 10.Jane's uncle insisted ____ in this hotel any longer.a.not staying b.not to stay c.that he not stay d.staying not 11.Don't touch the sleeping tiger.If he woke up, he _____ you.a.would come to b.would come at c.would have come toward d.will come to 12.Without electricity human life _____ quite different today.a.is b.will be c.would have been d.would be 13.How I wish I ____ to repair the watch!I only made it worse.a.had tried b.hadn't tried c.have tried d.didn't try 14.He demanded that the laboratory report ___ immediately after the experiment was done.a.was written b.be written c.must be written d.would be written 15.The man insisted that he _____ there.a.should send b.would be sent c.sent d.be sent 16.If he had not gone out in the storm _____.a.he will be alive now b.he would be alive now c.he would have been alive now 17.If it ___ tomorrow, what would we do? a.rains b.were to rain c.would rain d.rain 18.It is required that you ____ at six.a.will arrive b.arrive c.arrived d.would arrive 19.If only I _____ how to operate an electronic computer as you do.a.had known b.would know c.should know d.knew 20.He spoke in a quiet, distinct voice, as though his thought _____.a.was far away b.had been far away c.were far away d.went far away.21.If it ___ rain, we ___ get wet.a.is to, should b.were to, would c.were going to, would d.was going to, should 22.If he ___ to the teacher attentively, he ___ the answer to the problem now.a.had listened, would have known b.listened, would know c.listened, would have known d.had listened, would know 23.But for the party, he ___ of hunger 30 years ago.a.would have died b.would die c.must have died d.must die 24.___ today, he would got there for holiday.a.Was he leaving b.Were he to leave c.Would he leave d.If he leaves 25.I would have come earlier, but I ___ that you were waiting for me.a.didn’t know b.hadn’t know c.would have known d.haven’t known 26.It’s high time that we ___ to school.a.would to b.went c.go d.will go 27.It seems as if it ___ rain.a.will b.is going to c.is to d.were going to 28.I’d rather you ___ right away.a.leave b.left c.will leave d.to leave 29.He is working hard for fear that he ___.a.fails b.failed c.would fail d.fail 30.It is really strange that the girl ___ so early.a.has been married b.has married c.be married d.would marry 31.Supposing I ___ this gift, what would he say? a.accept b.accepted c.should accept d.would accept 32.The teacher agreed to the suggestion that the students ___ two weeks to prepare for the exam.a.give b.should give c.be given d.would be given 33.I was busy yesterday, otherwise I ___ your birthday party.a.attended b.had attended c.would attend d.would have attended 34.He insisted that he ___ me before.a.see b.should see c.had seen d.saw 35.The two strangers talked as if they ___ friends for years.a.were b.would be c.have been d.had been 36.We ___ our lives had it not been for the policeman.a.would have lost b.should lose c.might lose d.could have lost 37.----I thought you would come back tomorrow.----I would if I ___ to attend a meeting.a.don’t have b.didn’t have c.will not have d.would not have 38.He wishes ___ mistakes.a.he doesn’t always make b.he isn’t always making c.he didn’t always make d.he wouldn’t always making 39.It ___ very nice if only it were possible.a.will be b.would be c.is d.were 40.Without your help, our team ___ the last match.a.won’t win b.will lose c.wouldn’t have won d.can’t win 41.I wish ___ I what to do.a.knew b.have known c.know d.would know 42.___, I would take an umbrella with me.a.Had I been you b.I were you c.Were I you d.I had been you 43.If I had hurried, I ___ the train.a.would catch b.could catch c.would have caught d.had caught 44.He insisted that John ___ it.a.do b.does c.did d.would do 45.It is high time we ___ off.a.are b.were c.be d.will be 46.He felt as if he ___ more time to study for the test.a.needs b.were needed c.needed d.need 47.It is important that I ___ with Mr.Willians immediately.a.speak b.spoke c.will speak d.to speak 48.James wishes he ___ the football game instead of the film.a.saw b.see c.had been seen d.had seen 49.I wish ___.a.he left b.he leaves me alone c.he be left d.he would leave me alone 50.If I had known that, I ___ so.a.wouldn’t do b.wouldn’t have done c.won’t do d.have not done 51.The doctor suggested that she ___.a.will not smoke b.not smoke c.would not smoke d.did not smoke 52.If I ___ you, I wouldn’t return the call.a.be b.am c.was d.were 53.You talk as if you ___ there.a.were really b.has really been c.had really been d.would really be 54.He suggested that the work ___ at once.a.would started b.would be started c.should started d.should be started 55.It is strange that such a thing ___ in your school.a.will happen b.happen c.should happen d.happened 56.It is imperative that you ___ on time.a.are b.will be c.be d.would be 57.I didn’t go to the party, but I do wish I ___ there.a.was b.were c.had been d.went 58.It is time we ___ up our results.a.sum b.summed c.will sum d.would sum 59.If the doctor had been available, the child ___.a.would not die b.would not have died c.could not die d.could not have died 60.Dr.Bethune worked hard as if he ___.a.never had felt tired b.had never felt tired c.never felt tired d.was tired never 61.I enjoyed the movie very much.I wish I ___ the book from which it was made.a.have read b.had read c.should have read d.am reading 62.You are late.If you ___ a few minutes earlier, you ___ him.a.came/ would meet b.had come/ would have met c.come/ will meet d.had come/ would met 63.I wish my husband ___ as well as yours.a.had dressed b.dress c.will dress d.dressed 64.Edison kept phosphorus carefully in a bottle lest it ___.a.would burn b.burned c.was burning d.should burn 65.He looked as if he ___ ill for a long time.a.was b.were c.has been d.had been 66.If the doctor had come earlier, the poor child ___.a.would not have been lied there for two hours b.would not have laid there for two hours c.would not have lied there for two hours d.would not have lain there for two hours 67.I wish that I ___ with you last night.a.went b.could go c.have gone d.could have gone 68.Let’s say you could go there again, how ___ feel? a.will you b.should you c.would you d.do you 69.Mr.Brown left for London long ago.That’s pity.I wish ___.a.I meet him.b.I’ll have met him c.I’d had met him d.I’d meet him 70.I can’t stand him.He always talks as though he ___ everything.a.knew b.knows c.has known d.had known 71.I wish I ___.a.will tell him that b.didn’t tell him that c.told him not that d.had not told him that 72.If you had told me in advance, I ___ him at the airport.a.would meet b.would had meet c.would have met d.would have meet 73.Kunar can take his car apart and put it back together again.I certainly wish he ___ me how.a.teaches b.will teach c.has taught d.would teach 74.I would have told him the answer had it been possible but I ___ so busy then.a.had been b.were c.was d.would be 75.I wish I ___ able to tell him all about it last night.a.should be b.were c.had been d.was 76.If it ___ another ten minutes, the game would have been called off.a.had rained b.would had rained c.have seen c.did see 77.He suggested that they ___ use a trick instead of fighting.a.should b.would c.do d.had 78.My father did not go to New York;the doctor suggested that he ___ there.a.not went b.won’t go c.not go d.not to go 79.I would have gone to the meeting if I ___ time.a.had had b.have had c.had d.would have had 80.John wished ___.a.he will study more b.he had studied more c.he studies d.he won’t have studied more 81.You look so tired tonight.It is time you ___.a.go to sleep b.went to sleep c.go to bed d.went to bed 82.“Why didn’t you buy a new car?” “I would have bought one if I ___ enough money.” a.had b.have had c.would have d.had had 83.I recommended that the student ___ his composition as soon as possible.a.finishing writing b.should finish the writing c.finish writing d.finished writing 84.If she could sew, ___.a.she make a dress b.she would have made a shirt c.she will make a shirt d.she would had made a coat 85.___ today, he would get there by Friday.a.Would he leave b.Was he leaving c.Were he to leave d.If he leaves 86.His doctor suggested that he ___ a short trip abroad.a.will take b.would take c.take d.took 87.The Bakers arrived last night, if they’d only let us know earlier, ___ at the station.a.we’d meet them b.we’ll meet them c.we’d have met them d.we’ve met them 88.If I __ you, I ___ more attention to English idioms and phrases.a.was/ shall pay b.am/ will pay c.would be/ would pay d.were/ would pay 89.We might have failed if you ___ us a helping hand.a.have not given b.would not give c.had not given d.did not give 90.The Law requires that everyone ___ his car checked at least once a year.a.has b.had c.have d.will have 91.I wish ___ I busy yesterday;I could have helped you with the problem.a.hadn’t been b.weren’t c.wasn’t d.have not been 92.Had I known her name, ___.a.or does she know mine? b.and where does she live? c.she would be beautiful d.I would have invited her to lunch 93.He has just arrived, but he talks as if he ___ all about that.a.know b.knows c.known d.knew 94.If I ___ the money, I would have bought a much bigger car.a.possessed b.owned c.had d.had had 95.I wish I ___ a young man again.a.am b.was c.were d.will be 96.The librarian insists that John ___ no more books from the library before he returns all the books he had borrowed.a.will take b.took c.take d.takes 97.I left very early last night, but I wish I ___ so early.a.didn’t b.hadn’t left c.haven’t left d.couldn’t leave 98.I do not have a job.I would find one but I ___ no time.a.had b.didn’t have c.had had d.have 99.I wish that you ___ such a bad headache because I’m sure that you would have enjoyed the concert.a.hadn’t b.didn’t have had c.hadn’t had d.hadn’t have 100.He insisted that we all ___ in his office at one o’clock.a.be b.to be c.would be d.shall be 101.Helen couldn’t got to France after all.That’s too bad, I’m sure she would have enjoyed it if ___.a.she’s gone b.she’ll go c.she’d gone d.she’d go 102.I must go there earlier.John has suggested that I ___ an hour before the discussion begins.a.go b.shall go c.will go d.would go 103.If her husband had not liked the dress ___.a.she would be delighted b.he would get mad c.she would have returned it d.she must have taken it back to the store 104.If I ___ you, I ___ worry.a.were/ wouldn’t b.was/ wouldn’t c.been/ would have d.be/ would 105.We ___ delighted if the report ___ true.a.were/ were b.shall be/ were c.should be/ were d.were/ would be 106.If he ___ here, he ___ you.a.had been/ would have helped b.would have been/ should have helped b.were/ had helped d.would have been/ would had helped 107.If I ___ so busy, I ___ the lecture that day.a.were not be/ should attend b.should not/ should have attend c.was not/ would attend d.had not been/ would have attended 108.If I ___ the way to New York, I ___.a.knew / would drive b.knew/ will drive c.knew/ would have drive d.had known/ would drive 109.But for the leadership of our Party, we ___.a.shouldn’t succeed b.could not have succeed c.will not succeed d.should not have succeeded 110.You ___ the train if you ___ a little earlier.a.could take/ started b.could have taken/ had started c.could take/ had started d.could have taken / started

Key to the subjunctive mood exercises: 1.a 2.d 3.c 4.d 5.c 6.d 7.b 8.c 9.c 10.c 11.b 12.d 13.b 14.b 15.d 16.c 17.b 18.b 19.d 20.b 21.b 22.d 23.a 24.b 25.a 26.b 27.b 28.b 29.d 30.c 31.b 32.c 33.d 34.c 35.d 36.a 37.b 38.c 39.b 40.c 41.a 42.c 43.c 44.a 45.b 46.c 47.a 48.d 49.d 50.b 51.b 52.d 53.c 54.d 55.c 56.c 57.c 58.b 59.b 60.b 61.b 62.b 63.d 64.d 65.d 66.d 67.d 68.c 69.c 70.a 71.d 72.c 73.d 74.c 75.c 76.a 77.a 78.c 79.a 80.b 81.d 82.d 83.c 84.b 85.c 86.c 87.c 88.d 89.c 90.c 91.a 92.d 93.d 94.d 95.c 96.c 97.b 98.d 99.c 100.a 101.c 102.a 103.c 104.a 105.c 106.a 107.d 108.a 109.d 110.b

第二篇：高考英语语法讲解——虚拟语气教案

虚拟语气

一、非真实条件句中的虚拟语气

1.和现在的事实相反

从句：一般过去时（were/done）；主句：过去将来时（would do）

E.g.：I am not free today.If I ___free today, I __ and visit some of my friends.2.和过去的事实相反

从句：过去完成时（had done）；主句：过去完成时（would have done）E.g.：If my lawyer ___ here last Saturday, he __ me from going.3.和将来的事实相反

从句：①were to + 动词原形 ②should +动词原形 ③动词过去式； 主句should/would/could/might +动词原形

E.g.：If I were to see Tom, what ___ you ___ me to tell him?

二、宾语从句中的虚拟语气

1.wish后面宾语从句中的虚拟语气，表示与事实相反的愿望。其表达形式一般是将从句的谓语动词退后一个时态。例如:

1)与现在事实相反 : wish +(that)+ did(were)

E.g.：I wish I were as healthy as you.E.g.：I wish that I had a plane.2)与过去事实相反 : wish +(that)+ had done E.g.：I wish I had been to the concert last night.E.g.：I wish you had written to him.3)与将来事实相反 : wish + would/could/might + do E.g.：I wish he would forgive me.2.在某些动词后的宾语从句中需用should+动词原形的虚拟语气形式。“should”可以省略。一个坚持insist;两个命令order, command;三条建议suggest , advise, propose;四项要求demand, request, require, ask;另外有:prefer、recommend 注意: suggest表“暗示表明”时 insist表“坚持认为”时不用虚拟语气

E.g.：He ordered that the students(should)wash the clothes every week by themselves.E.g.：The doctor suggested that she(should)have an operation at once.*His face suggested that he had been punished by the teacher.三、主语从句中的虚拟语气

1.It be+过去分词+that…+(should)+动词原形+… 过去分词：suggested, requested, ordered, proposed E.g.: It is required that nobody(should)smoke here.E.g.: It’s suggested that everybody(should)buy a dictionary 2.It be+形容词+that…+(should)+动词原形+…

形容词:important, necessary, natural, right, wrong, better,proper, funny, strange, surprising… E.g.: It is necessary that we(should)have a walk now.E.g.: It's important that we(should)take good care of the patient.3.It be+名词（a pity/a shame/ no wonder）that…+(should)+动词原形+…(表示惊异、懊悔、失望等情感)It is a regret that he(should)miss this golden chance.四、表语从句、同位语从句中的虚拟语气

在 suggestion, proposal, idea, plan, order, advice ,decision等名词后面的表语从句、同位语从句中要用虚拟语气，即（should）+动词原形。

E.g.: My suggestion is that we(should)leave at once.E.g.: I make a proposal that we(should)hold a meeting next week.五、状语从句中的虚拟语气

1、用在由as if, as though引导的状语从句中，表示和现在事实相反或对现在的怀疑，用过去时；表示过去想象中的动作或情况，用过去完成时;表示将来用would + 动词原形。E.g.: It seems as if the man were his brother.E.g.: This device operated as though it had been repaired.2.用在lest, for fear that和in case引导的状语从句中，这时谓语动词用(should)+动词原形 E.g.: She closed the windows lest she catch cold.六、其他句式

1、It’s(high/low)time 从句：

It is(high)time that从句谓语动词要用过去式或用should加动词原形，但should不可省略。E.g.: It is time that the children went to bed.E.g.: It is high time that the children should go to bed.2、一些介词短语

But for your help, we couldn’t have succeeded.Nothing could live without the sun.3、比较if only与only if only if 表示“只有”；

I wake up only if the alarm clock rings.if only 则表示“如果……就好了”。其从句中的谓语动词用过去时或过去完成时。If only I knew more.If only the alarm clock had rung.七、虚拟语气难点

1、错综虚拟与隐含虚拟

错综虚拟：If you hadn’t bought the ticket last week, how would you go now? 隐含虚拟：情境中提供虚拟语气

Suppose there were no gravity, objects would not fall to the ground when dropped.She wasn’t feeling very well.Otherwise she wouldn’t have left the meeting so early.He telephoned to inform me of your birthday, or I would have known nothing about it.（连词）I might have given you more help, but I was too busy.（连词）Given more time, we could have done it better.（分词短语）… … Such mistakes could have been avoided.（通过上下文）

2、倒装

①.Were it(=If it were)not for their help, we couldn’t have got over the difficulties.②.Had I(=If I had)known about it, I would have told you.③.Should anyone(=If anyone should)call, please take a message.DDDDB DDDB

第三篇：浅谈高中英语语法虚拟语气教学（共）

浅谈高中英语语法虚拟语气教学

江苏省高邮市第一中学英语组 居树君 【摘 要】 随着新课改的不断深入，高二英语语法中的虚拟语气成为单选题中占分比较多的题型，这就面临着如何学好虚拟语气的问题。本文阐述虚拟语气在英语教学中的重要性，简析了高中虚拟语气教与学中存在的问题，探讨针对高中生如何掌握好虚拟语气的方法，在指出传统教学误区的同时，结合自己的实践，在吸收先进的教学方法的同时，提出几种可行的教学方法，提高学生学习虚拟语气的能力，为学生学好英语打下坚实的基础。【关键词】英语 虚拟语气 教学

众所周知，虚拟语气既是高中英语教学的重点，又是一大难点，很多学生经常对它的用法感到困惑。语法教学是高中生学好英语的前提和基础，对学生来说，学好虚拟语气是进步提高英语语法学习的前提和保障，作为一个教学工作者，如何有效地进行虚拟语气教学，将直接影响到学生是否真正理解和掌握英语，能否在考试中取得好的成绩以及切实有效地运用英语。

一． 虚拟语气的定义及应用

虚拟语气是指与事实相反，不可能或想象的情况或假设。

（一）.虚拟语气在if引导的非真实条件句中的应用 动词形式/时间 从句 主句

与现在事实相反

动词过去式(be的过去式一般用were)would(could/should/might)+动词原形 与过去事实相反 be+动词过去分词

would(could/should/might)+have+过去分词 与将来事实可能相反

动词过去式;should/were to+动词原形 would(could/should/might)+动词原形

【注意】主句中的should只用于第一人称，would/could/might可用于所有人称 1.表示与现在事实相反的虚拟语气 如果我们有足够的钱，我们就去买一台电脑。2.表示与过去事实相反的虚拟语气

if i had known your telephone number yesterday, i should have telephoned you.如果我昨天知道了你的电话号码，我就会给你打电话了。3.表示与将来事实相反的虚拟语气

if it should rain, the crops would be saved.假如天下雨，庄稼可能就有收获了。【注意】（1）条件句中有were, had, should时，可把if省略，而把were, had, should放在主语前，构成到状结构。

（2）若非真实条件句为否定句，否定词not不提前。

（3）“could have+过去分词”可用于if条件句中表示不真实的情况。二．虚拟语气在名词性从句中的应用 1.虚拟语气在主语从句中的应用

在“it is necessary(important,natural,strange,etc.that„和“it is desired(suggested,decided,ordered,requested,proposed,etc.)that„”句型中，从句谓语用“（should+）动词原形

it is necessary that i should return it right now.我有必要马上把它还回去。

it is required that the students(should)learn a foreign language.学生们被要求必须学一门外语。2.虚拟语气在宾语从句中的运用

（1）wish后的宾语从句用虚拟语气。若表示与现在事实相反的愿望，从句谓语用一般过去时；若表示与过去相反的愿望，从句谓语用过去完成时；若表示将来没有把握或不太可能实现的愿望，用“would/could/might+动词原形”。i wish i had a little lab of my own.但愿我有一间属于自己的实验室。要是你昨天来听报告就好了。would rather 后的句子用虚拟语气。通常一般过去时表示与现在或将来事实相反，用过去完成时表示与过去事实相反。

i would rather he came tomorrow than today.we suggest that students should spend two or three years in an english-speaking country.我建议学生们在一个说英语的国家呆上两三年。【注意】当insist作“坚持认为”，用以陈述一种情况，suggest作“暗示，表明”解时，宾语从句通常不用虚拟语气。

mike insisted that he had never stolen anything.迈克坚持说他没有偷任何东西。

3.虚拟语气在表语从句、同位语从句中的运用。

当 advice, order, demand, proposal, suggestion, request等名词后跟表语从句或同位语从句时，其谓语一般用“（should+）动词原形”。

his suggestion is that you should drink more water.三．在练习题型中学生常犯的错误 如：（2009.天津高考）this picture is of good quality.if it _b___break down within the first year, we would repair i at our expense.a.would b.should c.could d.might大多数学生容易选成a答案，这说明他们对虚拟语气的本质还没有把握清楚。

（2006.湖北高考）__b__fired, your health care and other benefits will not be immediately cut off.a.would you be b.should you be c.could you be d.might you be 这题很多学生容易把答案选成a 原因是他们不知道是对将来的虚拟，把if 省略了，should 给提到了句首，用了部分倒装句。这也是虚拟语气中的常考题型，往往被学生所忽视。四．解读虚拟语气

虚拟语气”中的“命令性虚拟语气”和“成语性虚拟语气”,再加上“were 型”虚拟语气。[1] §3116如下图所示:subjunctive present mandative formulaic were从属分句中的任何动词就都能用虚拟语气。[1] §3116如:(1)our decision is that the school remain closed.(2)it is necessary that every member inform himself of these rules.(3)there was a suggestion that brown be dropped from the team.(4)we ask that the individual citizen watch closely any developments in this matter.jespersen[5](p161)称: 在这种由that 引导的主语、宾语、表

语、同位语四种名词分句中, “祈使句被作为直接引语完整的保存下来, „讲话人觉得这里的be 型虚拟式是未经转变的指未来的祈使语气”。quirk 等[2] §14133也指出: 所有主要句子类型皆可变为间接引语, 而在转型后的间接祈使句中, 并无时态之后移。如果我们将这些命令性虚拟语气的深层语义和形式与祈使句作一对比, 便可发现二者有着十分密切的联系。如:(5)“do it right away.”i insistently said(to john).(6)i insisted that john do it right away.(7)“have another apple ,”caral suggested(to me).(8)caral suggested that i have another apple.例(5)、(7)属于隐主语型祈使句, 其主语是交际双方中的受话者you , 谓语动词为意指未来的一般现在时第二人称的形式。[6] quirk 等[2](p828)说过: “it is intuitively clear that the meaning of a directive implies that the omitted subject is the 2nd person pronoun you.”易仲良教授[4](p45)也撰文指出: 祈使句式 的主语无论隐没不现, 还是使用外现, 使用时不管是you 或是貌似第三人称的不定代词或名词词组, 都是受话者, 其谓语动词形式是限定动词现在时的第二人称形式。例(6)、(8)quirk等称之为命令性虚拟语气。而我们的看法

却不然。两例的that 分句中, 原例(5)、(7)祈使句被作为直接引语完整的保存了下来, 其主语表面上是第三人称john 和第一人称i, 而实际上仍然是交际双方中的受话者, 原祈使句之潜在主语you , 谓语动词保留了原祈使句谓语动词的形式, 即与第二人称you 相呼应的英语动词现在时态形式,[4]而不是quirk等所说的动词原形, 也不是did、had在转型后的间接祈使句中, 限定性动词并无时态之后移, 没有通常应有的一致性, 没有现在时和过去时之分。这样, 受话人可以从中感受来自现实发话人与原始发话人的双重声音, 从而较多的保留了话语原声状态下的祈使色彩。分析表明, quirk 等的be 型虚拟语气中的一类, 即“命令性虚拟语气”并没有它自身的标记性, 其谓语动词不是什么动词原形形式, 而是与祈使句谓语动词始终使用一般现在时第二人称的形式是一致的, 语义亦无二致, 都是要受话人作出某种行为的反应。易仲良教授[4](p48)将命令性虚拟语气称做间接祈使句。21成语性虚拟语气和心理祈使成语性虚拟语气(formulaic subjunctive)或曰祈求性虚拟语气是quirk等确认的现在虚拟语气的第二大类。他们认为这类虚拟语气也由原形(v)构成。但是, 这种成语性虚拟语气仅仅用在某些需要作为整体来学的成语性结构中[1] §3116用于某些感叹句表示愿望或希冀, 常常与超越自然力有关。如:(10)so be it then!(11)heaven forbid that „(12)suffice it to say that „(13)be that as it may, „ 试与祈使句作比较, 如:(14)god save the queen!(15)smith stand by me!quirk等把例(14)命之曰成语性虚拟语气, 它与祈使句例(15)的动词形式完全一致, 所引两例在深层语义上都是祈使某一对象做某事。祈使句例(15), 如前所述, 所祈使的对象“smith”表面上看是第三人称, 但实际上为现实语言交际中的受话人you , 其谓语动词是一般现在时第二人称的形式。[4](p45)关于祈使句中不定代词或名词短语作主语不是第三人称而是第二人称的观点jespersen [5](p148)早有论述: “any imperative is virtually in the second person , even if seemingly addressed to a third person.”poutsma[7](p200)在论述祈使句谓语动词时也曾说道: “the imperative , from the nature of its meaning, is used only in the present tense.”而例(14)所祈使的对象“god”在quirk 等看来, 也是第三人称, 但从话语的形成过程看, 句中“god”系发话人向彼岸世界之呼告, 我们不难读出其心理语言为彼岸的受话人you , 其谓语动词不是quirk等所说的动词原形形式, 而是与心理语言的受话人you 相呼应的现在时态形式。句中宾语“the queen”乃此岸世界受话人的称谓, 属现实语言第二人称, 寥寥几言, 发话人的思绪往返天人之际, 经历着内部语言向外部语言的转换, 却始终保持着面对面的交际, 表达一种发自内心的、祈求上帝保佑现实受话人的强烈愿望。[8]这里所谓的成语性虚拟语气实质上是心理祈使句。[4](p51)我们的论述在大家面前便展现了一幅be 型虚拟语气、祈使语气、陈述语气实为一体的图景:语气 主语 谓语

be 型虚拟语气 you v 祈使语气 you v 陈述语气第二人称 you v

quirk等的所谓be 型虚拟语气的二大类与祈使句的形式完全一致, 语义亦无二致: “be 型虚拟语气”的主语或明或隐都是受话人, 即第二人称you;其谓语动词与祈使句总是相同的, 我们称之为一般现在时态第二人称形式。[4](p51)quirk 等[2](p155)也指出: “these(mandative subjunctive and formulaic subjunctive)are realized , like the imperative , by the base form of the verb.”可是传统语法学家却将这三为一体的形式分别划分为三种不同的语气语法范畴: 陈述语气、祈使语气、虚拟语气。这种“同一范畴内的同形异意”有悖语言学关于语法范畴的基本观点。

31were 型虚拟语气和过去时态

quirk等的were 型虚拟语气是一种假设, 它用在条件分句、让步分句和前面是祈愿动词如wish 的从属分句中。这种虚拟语气只限于用were 这一种形式, 它出现在动词be的第一人称和第三人称单数现在时中。[1] §3116这样, quirk 等将传统的含过去时态的所谓虚拟语气, 不论是行为动词的-ed 形式, 还是be 动词的was , 还是情态助动词的过去式都归为或陈述语气范畴, 或祈使语气范畴, 或情态词范畴, 并非虚拟语气。同时quirk等[1] §11132还指明: “事实上, 对表达假设条件来说, 用陈述语气和虚拟语气都可以, 而在正式的书面英语中更多采用虚拟语气的形式。”可知, 陈述句也可以表达假设意义。我们知道“时”(tense)是个语法范畴, 它是表示时间区别的动词形式。[9](p160)“过去时”, 顾名思义, 当然表示过去时间。可是在语言实际操作中, 人们却被告知“时态”与“时间”本不一一对应, 过去时也可以表示现在时间或者将来时间, 即非过去时间。[10](p64)如:(16)i saw a film last night.(17)if he lived with us now we would be much happier.(18)i wondered if you could do that for me.lyons[11](p71836)沈家煊[14](p17-24)虚化的结果是进一步提高了were 的使用频率, 却降低了was的使用。由于were 的高使用率, quirk等将过去虚拟语气中的were 看作是普通的过去时形式,[1] §11132与be 动词以外的所有动词的过去时态采用不分人称和数的单一式是一

致的, 换言之, 那分人称和数的was 便被看作了特殊的过去时形式,[4](p51)只用于比较非正式的语体中, 往往被当作陈述句。而且, 在were 型虚拟语气中, were 之所以取代was 出现在动词be的第一人称和第三人称单数现在时中, 是因为“if i were you , „.”这样类似的语句是显然违反事实的假设。因此, 笔者认为: quirk 等之所以对were 情有独钟是因为语法化了的were 所包蕴的内涵远远大于was。动词were 除了表达时间方面的距离, 还表达与真实性方面的距离和语法对称方面的距离。[15] 五.结束语 综上所述, quirk等的所谓be 型虚拟语气的二类与祈使句的主谓形式是完全一致的;所谓的were 型虚拟语气实质为陈述句过去时态表与真实性方面的距离性, 我们赞成易仲良教授关于否定虚拟语气的观点。如果我们承认虚拟语气就等于承认相同语法形式可以表示处于相互对立关系的同类语法意义, 也就等于承认同一范畴内表示某一语法意义的形式可以脱离自身的意义而成为另一对立语法意义的标志, 这显然有悖语言学关于语法范畴地基本原则。求简、求易是理性人类不懈追求的目标。既然“虚拟语气”与祈使句或陈述句的相似形式可能给人们带来识别或理解上的麻烦, 人们就有理由冷落它。因此, 我们否定“虚拟语气”从理论上是毋庸置疑的, 从语言现象的解释方面是入情入理的, 从实际运用上更有利于我们的英语教学。

第四篇：虚拟语气教案

虚拟语气Ⅱ教学案

于亚东

虚拟语气除主要用于条件句（也就是状语从句）外，还可用于主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句、定语从句等。

1.虚拟语气在主语从句中的应用

“常用在It is(was)+形容词 / 过去分词+that引导的主语从句”的句型中的主语从句要用虚拟语气。主语从句的谓语用should+动词原形(或should+have+过去分词)或只用动词原形(尤其是美国英语)。should在此是助动词，本身并无实义，这种主语从句中的should有时有感情色彩。

It's important that we（should）work out a plan.（带有“要求”的含义）

It's better that he go at once.（带有“建议”的意思）

☆ 用于本句型的形容词并不多，常见形容词有：necessary，important，best, right, impossible，preferable，desirable, imperative, advisable，essential，reserved，urgent，等。

It is necessary that he（should）be sent there at once．

It's strange that he should say so.I was glad that he should go.It is important that we should speak politely.It is a pity that she should fare so badly.It's right that you should think that way.☆ 用于本句型中的过去分词就是表示提议、要求、命令等动词的过去分词，如suggested，settled, required，requested，demanded，urged，decided, proposed，ordered，desired，advised等。

It is requested that Professor Liu（should）give us a lecture．

It is desired that we（should）get everything ready by tonight．

I’m ashamed you should have done such a thing.It has been suggested that the meeting（should）be put off．有人建议推迟会议。

It is settled that you leave us, then?

注意：这种句型中的主语从句也可用陈述语气，如：It was important that he made an explicit statement on this score last week.他上个星期对于这一方面做了明确的说明，这是很重要的。

2.虚拟语气在宾语从句中的应用

1).宾语从句在表示提议、要求、命令、意志等动词后，其谓语用should+动词原形或只用动词原形的虚拟语气，作为suggest，request，demand，urge，propose，prefer，advise，insist，require，order，command，maintain，ask，object, arrange, desire等动词的宾语。

如：

The doctor suggested that he not go there．医生建议他不要去那里。

He suggested that we should leave early.他建议我们早点动身。

The judge ordered that the prisoner should be remanded.法官命令被告还押。

2).wish的宾语的从句，表示愿望，常省去连词that。

☆ 从句的谓语动词可用过去式，表示现在的愿望（与现在事实相反），虽实现的可能性不大，但仍有实现的可能。

I wish it were true．我但愿这是真的。

☆ 从句的谓语动词还可用“could（would，might）+动词原形”用来表示将来的愿望

I wish you would stay a little longer.我希望你再待一会儿。

☆ 表示无能为力的过去愿望（与过去事实相反），可用“had +过去分词”或“could（would，might）+have+过去分词”

I wish you had called yesterday．我希望你昨天来过电话。

We wish you had come to our New Year’s party.我们真希望你来参加了我们的新年联欢会。

3).would rather, would sooner等表示愿望，其宾语从句常用虚拟过去式。

☆ 表示与现在和将来含义事实相反的虚拟语气要用动词的过去式

☆ 用过去完成式(had + 过去分词)表示过去事实相反的含义

I would rather you came tomorrow.我宁愿你明天来。

I’d sooner she left the heavy end of the work to some one else.我宁愿她把重活留给别人。

4).有些动词，如think, expect, believe,其否定式的宾语从句亦可用should+动词原形。如：

I never thought he should refuse.我万没有想到他会拒绝。

She did not expect that you should come.她没有预料你会来。

3.虚拟语气在表语从句中的应用

名词suggestion，proposal，order，advice，demand等作主语，其后的表语从句中的谓语动词一般使用虚拟语气，用should +动词原形或省略should。

My suggestion is that we(should)send a few soldiers to help them.我的建议是我们应派几个战士去增援他们。

My advice is that you(should)treat her well.我的忠告是你应该善待她。

He makes the demand that she(should)leave the place at once.他提出一个要求，要求她立刻离开这个地方。

My suggestion is that we should tell him.我的建议是我们应该告诉他。

Our only request is that this should be settled as soon as possible.我们唯一的请求就是尽快解决这个问题。

注意：虚拟语气也可以用于同位语从句。

如：

There was a suggestion that Brown should be dropped from the team.有一项建议是布朗应该离队。

4.虚拟语气在定语从句中的应用

常用在It is time(that)…句型中，定语从句常用虚拟过去式

It is time the children went to bed.孩子们早该上床睡觉了。（表示催促）

It's high time that he began to think how to deal with money.他早该开始考虑如何与钱打交道。

It is time we left.我们该走了。

It is time we went to bed.我们该去睡觉了。

5.虚拟式动词原形亦常用在独立句中，表愿望

Long live the Communist Party of China！中国共产党万岁！

God bless you!上帝保佑你。

God damn it!该死的！

The devil take you!见鬼去吧！

So be it then.就那样吧。

6.虚拟时态与谓语动词时态的关系：从句中的虚拟时态往往不受全句谓语时态的影响。

1)用于主语从句。试比较：

It is important that he should know about this.他必须知道此事。

It was important that he should know about this.他必须知道此事。

2)用于宾语从句。试比较：

I suggest that we should go tomorrow.我建议我们明天走。

I suggested that we should go the next day.我建议我们第二天走。

She said, “If I were a boy I would join the army.”她说，“我如是男孩，就参军。”

She said that if she were a boy, she would join the army.她说她如是男孩就参军。

但强调现在时刻的虚拟式在间接引语中需要遵守时态一致的原则。试比较：

“If I knew how it worked, I could tell you what to do,” he said.“假如我知道它是如何运行的话，我就会告诉你该怎么办，”他说道。

He said that if he had known how it worked he could have told me what to do.他说假如他知道它是如何运行的话，他就会告诉我该怎么办。

“If I knew the answer to all your questions I'd be a genius,” he said.“我如知道你所有问题的答案，我就是天才了。”他说道。

He said that if he knew the answer to all my questions, he’d be a genius.他说他如知道我所有问题的答案，他就是天才了。

但如果全句谓语是虚拟语气，其后从句的时态则多受其影响，现在时态应随之而变为过去时态。

如：

I would think he was wrong.我看他是错了。(须用was,试比较：I think he is wrong)

It would seem that she was right.她似乎是对的。(须用was,试比较：It seems that she is right)

专项练习：

1．His doctor suggested that he ______ a short leave of absence．

A．will take

B．would take

C．take

D．took

2．The job would require that ______ at 7 o'clock every morning．

A．he will be at the factory

B．he be at the factory

C．he was at the factory

D．he has been at the factory

3．Your advice that she ______ till next week is reasonable．

A．will wait

B．is going to wait

C．waits

D．wait

4．The housemaster was strict．He requested that we ______ television on week nights．

A．not watch

B．must not to watch

C．not be watching

D．have not watched

5．It is necessary that a worker ______ his work on time．

A．accomplishes

B．can accomplish

C．accomplish

D．has accomplished

6．It is important that he ______ his decision before Friday．

A．will make

B．makes

C．make

D．must make

7．You look so tired.It's time you ______ ．

A．go to sleep

B．went to sleep

C．go to bed

D．went to bed

8．I'd rather you ______ anything about it for the time being．

A．do

B．didn't do

C．don't

D．didn't

9．But for water，it ______ impossible to live in the desert．

A．is

B．was

C．were

D．wouldn't be

10． ______ it______ for your help，I couldn't have made any progress．

A．Had；not been

B．Should；not been

C．Did；not been

D．Not；be

11．Long ______ the Party！

A．lives

B．live

C．will live

D．should live

12．Mary insisted that Tom ______ her the ring back．

A．gives

B．give

C．given

D．have given

13．My suggestion was that the meeting ______ off till next week．

A．to put

B．be put C．should put

D．be putting 14．Mother suggested that I ______ my homework first before watching TV．

A．did

B．do

C．shall do

D．have done 15．He insisted that nothing ______ till he arrived.A．must be started

B．ought to be started

C．could be started

D．should be started

16．Tom suggests that Ann ______ the house.A．can sell

B．sells

C．sell

D．sold

17．It's better that he ______ it from you.A．'ll hear

B．hears

C．should hear

D．heard

18．It was necessary that he ______ about what had happened.A．be told

B．was told

C．should tell

D．tell

19．It's astonishing that she ______ sad at news that it has nothing to do with her.A．felt

B．should feel

C．'ll feel

D．would feel

20．It was strange that we ______ short of water in the country where it was always raining.A．are

B．be

C．should be

D．both B and C

21．It is strange that she ______ marry such an ugly man.A．would

B．should

C．shall

D．must 22．It's not right that the meeting ______ off till tomorrow.A．must be put

B．must put

C．will be put

D．be put

23．It was impossible that he ______ the train, for he had started out very early.A．could have missed

B．must have missed

C．should have missed

D．should miss

24．It's a pity that he ______ such a good chance.A．should miss B．should have missed C．has missed D．all the above 25．He tried to find some excuse for the debt, but I insisted that he ______ it off at once.A．must pay

B．ought to pay

C．paid

D．pay

26．Mr.Ford insisted that he ______ right, though the others didn't think so.A．should do

B．should have done

C．had done

D．did

27．His pale face suggested that he ______ the sad news.A．should be told

B．should have been told

C．was told

D．had been told

28．He suggested that we ______ here at once.A．should leave

B．must leave

C．left

D．ought to leave

29．My order is that everyone ______ their own work in time.A．must complete

B．completed

C．completes

D．complete

30．We've made the decision that we ______ at the school gate at 7 tomorrow morning.A．will gather

B．are about to gather

C．would gather

D．should gather

31．----I'll be waiting for you at home.----______ I were busy and couldn't come?

A．What if

B．What when

C． How if

D．How when

32．After he was praised for what he had done, he said，“I ______ even better under harder conditions.”

A．would do

B．would have done

C．did

D．had done

33．It has been raining for a day, but even though it ______ , we ______ there by tomorrow.A．hadn't rained, couldn't get

B．hadn't rained, can't get

C．didn't rain, couldn't get

D．didn't rain, can't get

34．We could not have succeeded ______ your help.A．but for

B．without

C．if it had not been for

D．all the above

35．I dare say he is not your true friend, because a true friend ______ differently when you were in trouble.A．acted

B．had acted

C．would act

D．would have acted

参考答案：

1．C 2．B 3．D

4．A 5．C

6．C 7．D 8．B

9．D 10．A

11．B 12．B

13．B 14．B

15． D insist作“要求别人做某事”解，其宾语从句用should型虚拟语气。

16． C 这种should型虚拟语气，有时可将should省略，因此，C项的sell不能有人称变化。

17．C 本句话有“要求”的意思，故选C。

18． A C、D为主动，在此不妥。

19． B 选B表示了说话人带有一种十分惊讶的感情，选A项与she的人称不相一致，是错的。参见本章语法说明。

20． D

21．B should带有感情色彩。

22．D 本句带有要求之意，故从句谓语用should型虚拟语气。D项中的should被省略。

23．C 本句带有惊讶之意，故从句须用should型虚拟语气。但由于是过去的事情所产生的惊讶，所以用should+不定式完成式。

24．D 如选A，这表达了说话人对将来的事所发出的感叹，选B则是对已经过去的事情的感叹。选C则是一个直陈语气，即说话人对此并不一定感到十分惋惜，而是对此事的陈述。

25．D insist在作“坚持要求别人做某事”时，需要用should型虚拟语气，should也可以省略。

26．C insist在作“坚持自己的观点、看法等”解时，不需要用虚拟语气，所以A、B两项用在此处不当。D项时态不准确，故也应排除。

27．D suggest作建议解时，后接了should型虚拟语气，但在本句中作“表明”解，这时不用虚拟语气，A、B两项都应排除，C项时态不当。

28．A 在本句中suggest作“建议”解，故选A。

29．D “建议”、“命令”、“要求”等动词的名词形式做主语时，其表语从句也须用should型虚拟语气，本句中的should被省略。

30．D “建议”、“命令”、“要求”等动词的名词形式做主语时，后接同位语从句时也须should型虚拟语气。

31．A What if…？常用于省略疑问句，既可以用于虚拟语气，也可用于直陈语气。本句不省略的形式为What would you do if。

32．B 本句的under引出一个非真实的条件，当然也可以是真实条件。根据上下文，应理解为与过去事实相反，故其谓语动词用would have done。

33．B even though=even if意为“即使”。它同if一样可以引出一个真实的让步从句，也可以引出一个非真实的让步从句。根据上文，even though是一个非真实的与过去事实相反的让步从句。而主句we can't get there却是一个真实的情况。

34．D

35．D 从全句的意思分析，a true friend-differently实际上是指一种假设，而when引导的从句又告诉我们，这是一个与过去事实相反的假设，故用would have acted。

第五篇：英语语法 教案

教

案

课程名称

英语语法

Lecture 1 Sentence Structure

教学重点及难点：

1.The classification of bound morpheme and the frequently applied bound morphemes;

2.The basic clause types and their transformation and expansion

教 学 基 本 内 容

1.Basic Concepts of morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and sentences;2.Ways of word-formation: affixation, derivation and composition;3.Ways of sentence analysis: one ways is to divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.The other way is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication.4.Basic clause types include SVC, SV, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, and SvoO.An affirmative clause can be transformed into a negative;a statement into a question, and a active clause into a passive.All these add varieties to the basic clause types.Lecture 1 Sentence structure Owing to the fact that sentences in authentic language differ structurally in thousands of ways, what is described here as sentence structure, sentence elements, or sentence patterns is only concerned with the simple sentence, or rather with the clause.1.1 clause elements As has been pointed out before, the clause or the simple sentence is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.That is to say, the clause or the simple sentence is not just an agglomeration of phrases;it is a group of phrases organized into a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.1)Subject and predicate A full-fledged clause can generally be divided into two parts: the subject and the predicate.The subject is the topic or theme of the sentence, which tell of what the sentence is about.The predicate says something about the subject and bear the new information which the speaker or writer wants to transmit to the listener or reader.The subject is generally realized by a noun phrase or an equivalent of noun phrase, while the construction of the predicate, which is more complicated, generally consists of a verb phrase with or without complementation.2)Two ways of sentence analysis To facilitate description of how English language works, sentences can be analyzed in two ways.One way is to divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.These elements together with the subject make the five clause elements.The other ways of sentence analysis is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication.The operator is usually the auxiliary or the first auxiliary in a complex verb phrase, while the predication comprises the main verb with its complementation(object, complement or adverbial).1.2 basic clause types and their transformation and expansion In terms of the different combinations of clause elements, English clauses can be classified into seven basic types.Innumerable authentic sentences are structured on the basis of these clause types.1)Basic clause types The seven basic clause types are SVC, SV, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, and SVoO.These seven combinations of clause elements are wholly or largely determined by the main verb in the clause.The main verb in an SVC pattern is a linking or copula verb which must be followed by a subject complement.The main verb in an SV pattern is an intransitive verb which is not to be followed by any obligatory element except for a limited number of intransitive verbs which require an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVA.The main verb in an SVO pattern us a monotranstitive which must be followed by an object, and with some monotransitives the object must again be followed by an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVOA.The main verb in an SVOC pattern is a complex transitive verb which must be followed by an object+ object complement.The main verb in an SVoO pattern is a ditransitive verb which is to e followed by two objects: indirect and direct object.2)Transformation and expansion of basic clause types The basic clause types are all affirmative statements with verbs in the active voice.An affirmative clause can be transformed into a negative;s statement into a question;and an active clause into a passive.All these add varieties to the basic clause types.The basic clause types and their variants can also be expanded into larger grammatical units through adding modifiers at various levels, and these larger units can again be expanded through coordination and subordination into compound, complex and compound-complex sentences.Lectures 2&3 Subject-verb Concord

教学重点及难点： 1.The appliance of grammatical, notional and proximity concords in some special conditions;

2.Problems of subject-verb concord.教 学 基 本 内 容

1.The concepts of three principles guiding subject-verb concord: grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity concord.2.Problems of concord with a coordinate subject: concord with ―and‖ or ―both…and‖, concord with ―or‖/ ―either…or‖, ―nor‖/ ―neither…nor‖, ―not only…but also‖;

3.Problems of concord with expressions of quality as subject: concord with expression of definite quality as subject, concord with expression of indefinite quality as subject;

4.Other problems of subject-verb concord: problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject, subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause or subject, subject-verb concord in relative clauses, cleft-sentences, and existential sentences.Lecture 2 Subject-verb Concord(I)2.1 Guiding principles

1)Grammatical concord

2)Notional concord

3)Proximity 2.2 Problems of concord with nouns ending in-s Disease and game names ending in –s

They are mostly treated as singulars.A few such names can be used either as singular or as plural.Subject names ending in –ics

Such names are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names.Geographical names ending in –s

Plural except for a few treated as singular when used as country names.4)

Other nouns ending in –s Disease and game names ending in –s

They are mostly treated as singulars.A few such names can be used either as singular or as plural.Measles, mumps, rickets, shingles, diabetes, arthritis, phlebitis, AIDS, etc.Subject names ending in –ics

Such names are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names.Acoustics, classics, electronics, informatics, linguistics, mechanics, optics, plastics, thermodynamics, etc.Geographical names ending in –s

Plural except for a few treated as singular when used as country names.Other nouns ending in –s

Calipers, compasses, flares, forceps, glasses, jeans, pants, pincers, pliers, scales, scissors, shades, shorts, suspenders, spectacles, etc.2.3 problems of concord with collective nouns as subject 1)Collective nouns usually used as plural

People, police, cattle, militia, poultry, vermin, etc.2)Collective nouns usually used as singular

Foliage, cutlery, poetry, machinery, equipment, furniture, merchandise, etc.3)Collective nouns used either as plural or as singular

Couple, crew, government, majority, opposition ,etc 4)A committee, etc + plural noun

A committee / board / panel of

Lecture 3

Subject-verb Concord(II)Teaching Contents 3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subject 3.2 Problems of concord with expressions of quantity as subject 3.3 Other problems of subject-verb concord

3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subject Coordination by “and” or “both …and”

It is usually treated as plural when it refers to two or more than two persons/things, but it is singular when referring to one person or thing.e.g.Baseball and swimming are usually summer sports.Your friend and adviser has agreed to lend me his money.After “each… and each…” or “every… and every…”, the verb is also in the singular form: e.g.Each man and each woman is asked to help.Every flower and every bush is to be cut down.The indefinite pronouns anybody/anyone, everybody/everyone, nobody/no one, and somebody/someone combine with singular verb forms, even though co-referent pronouns and determiners may be plural forms.e.g.[Everybody]‘s doing what they think they‘re supposed to do.Nobody has their fridges repaired any more, they can‘t afford it.each/every… he/she/they

e.g.At the moment each of the girls was too busy thinking about her own personal safety to care much about the luggage.But ―each/every+ singular n.… they/their‖ is right as well.e.g.Each of the students should have his/their own books.Every member brings their own lunch.In such exams as TOEFL, the pronoun referring to

―nobody/everybody/everyone/someone/somebody/anybody/anyone/no one‖ can only be he/his instead of they/their.However, as English learners it must be known that ―everyone…they‖ is used more often than ―everyone…he‖.e.g.Everyone warned you, didn‘t they?

Has anybody brought their camera? No one could have blamed themselves for that.Every one / each / each one /*every one of the students should have their/his own books.2)Coordination by “or” / “either…or”, “neither…nor”, “not only...but also” Here the problem is dealt with according to the principle of proximity.e.g.My sisters or my brother is likely to be at home.Either my father or my brothers are coming.Informally we can have the following use: e.g.Neither he nor his wife have arrived.In formal cases, especially in exams, ―neither‖ is used with singular verb.e.g.Neither of them is bright.When used with plural nouns in informal cases, ―neither‖ can also be used with plural verb.e.g.Neither of the books are/is very interesting.---I can‘t swim.----Neither can I.---He didn‘t like the play.---Nor did we.Neither is usually in formal cases, but nor is often used in spoken English.3)Subject + as well as, as much as, rather than, more than, no less than;with, along with, together with, in addition to, except + Verb(determined by the form of the subject e.g.Some of the workers, as well as the manager, were working during the holidays.No one except two students was late for the dinner.3.2 Problems of concord with expressions of quantity as subject 1)Concord with expression of definite quantity as subject

a)When regarded as a single unit, the verb is singular;when regarded as the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form.e.g.Twenty years in prison was the penalty he had to pay.b)a fraction/percentage + of-phrase+(<--)verb e.g.Thirty-five percent of the doctors were women.c)“A + B /A×B” + Verb(singular/plural);“A－B/A÷B”+ Verb(singular)e.g.Forty minus fifteen leaves twenty-five.40-15=25

d)one in/out of + Plural noun + Verb(fml.Singular;infml.plural)e.g.One in ten students has/have failed the exam.2)Concord with expression of indefinite quantity as subject.a)all of/some of/ none of /half of/most of + noun phrase of indefinite quantity +(<--)verb e.g.Most of the money was recovered by Deputy Player.Usage is fairly evenly divided between singular and plural concord with none of: e.g.None of us has been aboard except Vinck.None of us really believe it‘s ever going to happen not to us, she said at last.[Fiction] However, none alone shows a distinct preference for singular concord: e.g.[None] describes him/herself as such in the party‘s official literature.(NEWS)Plural concord is the norm in conversation, while in the written registers there is an overall preference for singular concord.None of + N.+ V 1)当none与不可数名词连用或指代不可数名词时，其谓语动词总是用单数。e.g.I wanted some more coffee, but there was none left.2)当none与复数名词连用或指代复数名词时，传统语法规定其谓语动词必须用单数。此用法得到英语教材和各类英语实体的肯定和强调。但是，实际应用中人们往往使用―概念一致‖原则，用动词的复数形式。所以，Quirk说：―用复数动词较为常见，并且，在正式用法中也为人们普遍接受。‖ e.g.None of the books has/have been placed on the shelves.None but the brave deserves the fair.唯有勇者才配得上美女。

None are so deaf as those who will not hear.不愿听从的人是最聋的人。

no one 单独使用时只用于指人。

e.g.No one should pride themselves on this result.但是，no one之后接-of短语时，既可指人也可指物。e.g.No one of you could lift it.I reach three books on this subject, no one of which was helpful.None 既可指人也可指物。

e.g.How many elephants did you see? None.No one of them really understands the problems.No one 与no-one在英语里是并存的，目前尚未统一形式。No-one 为英国英语，而no one是美国英语

b)lots of/heaps of/loads of/scads of/plenty of + noun phrase +(<--)verb e.g.Lots of stuff is going to waste.c)a portion of/a series of/a pile of/a panel of + noun phrase + verb(singular)e.g.A substantial portion of reports is missing a collection of + pl.n.+ singular verb

There is a collection of pictures at the Town Hall.a great deal / a great many

a great(good)deal之后要加介词of才能与名词连用，而a great(good)many可以直接与名词连用。另外，a great deal of跟不可数名词连用，而a great many则与可数名词连用。

e.g.The chest contained a great/good deal of money.A great deal还可作形容词或副词比较级的修饰语 e.g.That job was a great deal easier.a lot of 既可跟不可数名词也可跟可数名词，谓语动词决定于名词的单复数。e.g.There is a lot of beer in those bottles there.lots of 与amounts of , quantities of 不同，后两者是中心词而非修饰语。

e.g.Large amounts of money were spent on the bridge.Quantities of food were on the table.a variety of + n.做主语时，其谓语动词决定于名词的数，也就是说，此处起作用的是概念一致原则。

e.g.A great variety of books were recently published.a wide range of + pl.n.充当主语时，其谓语动词应用单数；a bouquet of flowers也是用单数。

e.g.A wide range of washing-machines and refrigerators is displayed in our showroom.A bouquet of flowers was presented to the vicar‘s wife.a set of + pl.n.做主语时，人们使用谓语动词的形式并不是很一致。

e.g.There is a set of rules that you must follow if you are going mountain-climbing.There are set of unscrupulous scoundrels.d)determiner + species nouns(kind/type/sort)of + noun phrase(singular countable noun/uncountable noun)+verb(singular)e.g.This kind of apples is highly priced.With countable nouns there tends to be agreement in number between the species noun and the following noun(e.g.that kind of thing v.all kinds of things).But we also find: Singular species noun + pl.noun e.g.I don‘t know what kind of dinosaurs they all are.I mean, do we want these kind of people in our team?

Pl.species noun + singular noun e.g.Thieves tended to target certain types of car he said.e)many a + noun phrase + verb(singular)

more than one + singular noun + singular verb

more pl.noun + than one + pl.verb e.g.Many a man has sacrificed his life.More than one member has protested against the proposal.More persons than one have been involved.f)In “an average of/a majority of + noun phrase(pl.)+ verb”, when noun is regarded as the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form;otherwise, it is singular.e.g.A majority of the town's younger men are moving to the city.A majority of three votes to one was recorded.3.3 Other problems of subject-verb concord 1)Problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject When the subject is a nominal clause introduced

by what, which, how, why, whether, the verb usually takes the singular form.But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and or both…and, a plural verb is used.e.g.What I saw was a car.What I saw and think are no business of yours.In SVC construction with a what-clause as subject，when the subject complement is plural, or when the what-clause is plural in meaning, the verb of the main clause can be plural.e.g.What they want are promises.2)Subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause as subject Generally speaking, the verb is singular.But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and, the verb of the main clause is singular when the subject refers to one thing, and is plural when the

subject refers to separate things.e.g.To eat well is all he asks.3)Subject-verb concord in relative clauses one of + plural noun + relative clause(verb)the(only)one of + plural noun + relative clause(singular verb)4)Subject-verb concord in cleft-sentences Here the verb is determined by the number of the focal element functioning as subject in the clause.I----am;me---third person singular number e.g.It is I who am to blame.It is me that is to blame.5)Subject-verb concord in existential sentences Generally the verb is determined by the notional subject.When the notional subject is a coordinate construction, the verb form goes with the first coordinate element of the notional subject.But in informal style, esp.in spoken language, the verb is often singular.e.g.There is a book on the desk.There is many people in the street.There is more grace and less carelessness.American and Dutch beer are much lighter than British.The short term and the long term loan are handled differently.按英语惯用法，一个单数名词受前置限定时，如果此名词表示两个或两个以上的事物，根据概念一致的原则，其谓语动词用复数；但是当此类名词受后置限制时，其谓语动词用单数。

e.g.Beer from America and Holland is much lighter than British beer.majority

许多英美出版的语法书和惯用法都指出，majority和minority不能与不可数名词连用。T.Wood 的―Current English Usage‖(p161)说： ―Majority may be used only for number with countable nouns, not for amount or quantity with mass nouns: The majority of the eggs were bad is correct;The majority of the butter was bad is not.Similarly, we cannot speak of the majority of the land/time/one‘s wealth.We must use most, or the greater part‖.但是，Practical English Usage(1980)有一例： e.g.The majority of the damage is easy to repair.建议按照T.Wood的观点来使用the majority of。

Majority虽然在语法上是个单数名词，但在概念上却具有复数的意义：most, almost all, many。因此一般与复数动词连用。e.g.The majority of children like sweets.The majority of doctors believe smoking is harmful to health.若后面没有-of短语时，the majority 作主语时。如果泛指多数（与少数相对），谓语单复数均可。Eg，The majority is /are doing its/their best。//in favor of the plan。//against him。

1．如果指整体、统一体，majority 常被看作单数。

The majority is always able to impose its will on the minority。// is for him。2.如果指多数中的各个成员, majority 被看成复数。

The majority are of different minds on the matter 3．如果指多出的数目，majority 看成单数。

Her Majority was 5 vote //His majority was a big(small)one..the rest(+of noun)+verb 遵循概念一致原则，而非语法一致原则。e.g.The rest are to wait for us.The rest needs no telling.the + adjective 做主语：

1）当表示一类人的整体时，e.g.the young, the old, the poor, the rich, the blind, the dead, 谓语动词用复数。

e.g.The wise look to the wiser for advice.2）当表示具体的人，而不是某一类人的整体，谓语动词用单数形式。e.g.The deceased is my uncle.3）表示抽象的概念或某种笼统的东西时，谓语动词用单数形式。e.g.The best is yet to come.The unknown is always something to be feared.Worth + of + pl.noun , 其谓语动词形式

取决于上下文和所表达的真正意思。当充当of宾语 的名词具有重要意义时，谓语动词用复数形式，当 所表达的价值具有重要意义时，则谓语动词用单数 形式。

e.g.Nearly a thousand pounds‘ worth of cigarettes were stolen.（此处重要的是香烟被盗）大约价值1000英镑的香烟被盗。

There is nearly a thousand pounds‘ worth of cigarettes on that shelf.（此处重要的是香烟的价值）在那个架子上的香烟价值大约为1000英镑

Lesson 4

Noun and noun phrase

教学重点及难点：

Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper noun.教 学 基 本 内 容

1.Classification of nouns: simple, compound and derivative nouns, proper and common nouns, count and noncount nouns.2.Number forms of nouns: regular and irregular plural forms of nouns;

3.Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper noun: number forms of the collective noun, number forms of the material nouns, number forms of the abstract noun, number forms of the proper noun;

4.Partitives: the definition of partitives, general partitives, partitives related to the shape of things, partitives related to volume, partitives related to the state of action, Partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks.Lecture 4 Noun and Noun Phrase

Teaching Contents 4.1 Classification of nouns and function of noun phrases 4.2 Number forms of nouns 4.3 Partitives 4.1 Classification of nouns and function of noun phrases 1)Classification of nouns a)Simple, compound and derivative nouns: by word-formation b)Common and proper nouns: by lexical meaning C)Countable noun and uncountable noun This classification is based on the grammatical features of nouns instead of whether they are countable.Regarding grammatical features, uncountable nouns cannot have numeral before them(*two information), have no plural forms(*informations)and cannot be modified by ―how many‖ but by ―how much‖

2)Functions of noun phrases Nouns can function as all the elements in a sentence except the predicative verb.e.g.They elected him chairman of the board.He returned last night.A photo is taken each time this button is pushed

The general pattern of noun phrase is

(Determiner)+(premodifier)+noun+(postmodifier)The premodifier of noun phrase can be noun as well as adj.or participle.e.g.a table leg, water supply, the life sciences When noun is used as premodifier, it can be either singular, plural, or both.(1)Singular noun as premodifier e.g.table legs = legs of a table / tables

a shoe store = a store that sells shoes

a car race = a race between cars

a kitchen sink = a sink in a kitchen When the plural noun in the postmodifier is changed into premodifier, it usually becomes singular.e.g.a cloth for dishes = a dish cloth

decay of teeth = tooth decay

a station for buses = a bus station

a pocket for trousers = a trouser pocket

a tray for ashes = an ash tray(2)Singular or plural noun as premodifier

a.There is ambiguity here.foreign language(s)department= department of foreign languages

(foreign language department = department of a foreign language)soft drinks manufacturer = manufacturer that produces several kinds of soft drink soft drink manufacturer = manufacturer that produces one kind of soft drink b.different meanings

e.g.an art degree = a degree in fine art an Arts degree = a degree in the humanities(3)Only plural noun as premodifier e.g.a customs officer, a goods train, clothes hanger, sales technique, contents bill, savings bank

It is more popular to use plural nouns as premodifiers in British English than in American English.Now it tends to increase.(4)When the head of the noun phrase is collective noun or name of an organization, the plural noun as the premodifier can have two forms, but the same meaning.e.g.Scientists(‘)Institute for Public Information But the singular noun is seldom used.e.g.Yibin Teachers/ Teachers‘/ *Teacher‘s College 4.2 Number forms of nouns

Number is a grammatical distinction which determines whether a noun or determiner is singular or plural.1)Regular and irregular plural The regular is formed by adding –s or –es to the base, while the irregular is formed by changing the internal vowel or by changing the ending of the noun.Irregular plurals also include some words of foreign origin, borrowed from Greek, Latin or French.Their plural forms are known as ―foreign plurals‖, e.g.basis—bases, criterion—criteria.Some borrowed words have two plural forms: a foreign plural and an English one.e.g.medium—media – mediums For some, their singular and plural number share the same form，A)Animal names Singular form and regular plural coexist: Antelope, elk, fish, flounder, herring, reindeer, shrimp, woodcock（羚羊，麋，鱼，比目鱼，鲱鱼，驯鹿，虾，丘鹬（别名山鹬）e.g.He caught several fish/three little fishes.They went catching shrimp/shrimps.I shot two elk/elks.b)Singular form is usually used: bison, grouse, quail, salmon, swine（野牛 , 松鸡，鹌鹑，鲑（大麻哈鱼），猪）e.g.The farmer raises many quail/quails and chickens.c)Singular form is always used: cod, deer, mackerel, trout, sheep.（鳕，鹿，鲐鱼，真鳟）e.g.This is a deer.Those are deer.B).Nationality nouns Some words ending in sound /z/ or /s/ use singular form: Chinese, Japanese, Lebanese, Portuguese, Sinhalese, Vietnamese, Swiss e.g.I am a Chinese.There are four Chinese in the training class.C)Quantitative nouns(hundred/thousand/million/billion)a)Cardinal numeral + hundred/thousand/million/billion +n.e.g.two hundred / *two hundred of years ago That‘s going to take hundreds of/*hundreds years.Cardinal numeral + million + n.Cardinal numeral + millions of + n.e.g.three millions of dollars

three million dollars When the noun is omitted, if it is not monetary unit, the singular form is more often used than the plural form;if it is, the regular plural form is used.e.g.The population rose to four million / millions.The firm had to pay three millions.b)several/many/a few + singular / plural(of)+ n.e.g.He has played the part several hundred times / several hundreds of times.some + regular plural + n.e.g.He has played the piano some hundreds of times / many, many times.(some hundred times = about a hundred times)c)dozen, score e.g.She bought three score(of)eggs.I have been there dozens of times.He has already asked me several dozens of/ many scores of times.2)Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper nouns a)Number forms of the collective noun Some are countable, while some are not.Countable nouns behave like individual nouns.An uncountable one has no plural form;if we want to count the number, we will use a kind of individual noun related semantically to the collective, e.g.poetry—poem.Some collective nouns can be used in either singular or plural sense.The following verb is determined by the singular or plural sense.b)Number forms of the material noun Generally they are [U] and have no plural form.However, some items can be used either uncountably or countably.Some material nouns can take plural endings to convey the large quantity or scope , e.g.sand/sands, snow/snows

Sometimes material nouns are [C] to express ―one type of‖ or ―various types of‖ this material.e.g.I n Britain tea is usually drunk with sugar in it.I‘d like to have a famous tea.We hardly bought wine at lunch time.We like wines and liquors.Some material nouns become [C] to express ―packet of ‖, ―cups of‖.e.g.How many beers were you wanting?

How many tins of beer were you wanting? When referring to the material itself, they are [U];otherwise, they are [C], e.g.stone, rubber

c)Number forms of the abstract noun Mostly they are [U] and cannot take such determiners as a/one or plural forms.A few are [C], e.g.victory—victories.Some are not [C], although they have plural endings, e.g.*several difficulties.The addition of a plural ending to some can change the meaning of the base, e.g.experience—experiences.Some can only use singular form with ―a‖, some only plural form, some both.e.g.He has a dislike/dread/hatred/horror/love of cats.He had a good knowledge of mathematics.Give my best regards to your parents.He refused with much regret / many regrets.I have a suspicion / suspicions that he‘s right.Some abstract nouns can have indefinite article to express ―a type of‖ or ―an example of‖.a)Some can have an indefinite article only if modifier exists.e.g.They are doing *a business / a brisk business.I attach an exaggerated importance/importance to regular exercise.b)If modifier is implied, ―a/an‖ can appear.e.g.She has had an education(= a good education).c)Some can have ―a/an‖ regardless of modifier.e.g.A knowledge/ A good knowledge of English is essential.d)Number forms of the proper noun They have no plural forms, except for such proper name as the United States, the Philippines, the Netherlands.When one takes a plural ending, it takes on some characteristics of a common noun, e.g.the Browns

4.3 Partitives

They are also called unit nouns and used to denote a part of a whole or the quantity of an undifferentiated mass.1)general partitives: piece, bit, item, article 2)partitives related to the shape of things: cake, bar, drop, ear, flight, grain, head, loaf, lump 3)partitives related to volume: bottle, bowl, pail, bucket, handful, spoonful.4)partitives related to the state of action: a fit of anger/coughing/laughter/fever 5)partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks: pair, herd, litter, swarm, bench, troupe, shoal.Lesson 5 Genitive noun

教学重点及难点：

1.The differences between ‗s genitive and of genitive;

2.The use of independent genitive and double genitive

教 学 基 本 内 容

1.Formation of genitive nouns, meanings of genitive nouns as possessive genitive, subjective genitive, objective genitive, genitive of origin, time, distance, etc, descriptive genitive;

2.Use of genitive nouns: genitive nouns are mostly used as central determiners and therefore perform the same function as ―possessive determiners‖;

3.Independent genitive and double genitive: independent genitive is used when the missing noun ahs occurred somewhere in the context, when the missing noun refers to somebody‘s house or residence, church, school, or other public buildings.The formation of double genitive and the difference between double genitive and of genitive.Lecture 5

Genitive Noun Teaching Contents 5.1 Formation, meanings and uses of genitive nouns

5.2 Independent genitive and double genitive

Case is a grammatical category and denotes the changes in the form of a noun or a pronoun showing its relationship with other words in a sentence.As modern English is basically an analytic language, English nouns have not a complicated case system like that of Latin, German, or modern Russian.The different grammatical functions of English nouns in a sentence are mostly determined by the word order, not by case form.It is in this sense that the genitive case may be viewed as a relic of the old case system.The genitive was traditionally labelled as the possessive case.Two Case systems: the unmarked common case and the marked genitive case: boy, boy‘s

The genitive case: the inflected genitive(the –s genitive)(屈折所属格）and the periphrastic genitive(the of-genitive)（迂回所属格）e.g.the children‘s toys，the toys of children 5.1 Formation, meanings and uses of genitive nouns 1)Rules of formation of the –s genitive a)adding ‘s to singular nouns and to those plural nouns that don‘t end in –s , e.g.my mother‘s arrival, women‘s clothes

b)adding an apostrophe to plural nouns ending in –s, e.g.the teachers‘ college, the workers‘ achievements

c)adding ‘s to the compound nouns or to the end of a postmodified noun phrase, e.g.my brother-in-law‘s friend, a cat and dog‘s life, [the teacher of music]‘s room

d)In coordinate nouns, the genitive ending is added to each of the coordinate elements when denoting respective possession, and only to the last coordinate element when denoting common possession, e.g.America‘s and England‘s problems(respective);

America and England‘s problems(in common)

Coordinated genitive

1.The head of the noun phrase is singular: Charles and Louise‘s / Charles‘s and Louise‘s child is really lovely.(The child is a joint offspring of Charles and Louise.)2.The head of the noun phrase is plural: Charles and Louise‘s / Charles‘s and Louise‘s children are really lovely.(The children are joint offspring of Charles and Louise.)

3.John‘s and Mary‘s children:

A.the children who are offspring of John and Mary B.John‘s child and Mary‘s child C.John‘s children and Mary‘s child D.John‘s child and Mary‘s children E.John‘s children and Mary‘s children Coordinated genitives are formal.Tom and his brother‘s children F

4.How to avoid ambiguity? a.I‘m interested in Henry and Herbert‘s book(s)/ the book(s)of Henry and Herbert.b.Henry‘s house and Mr.Jones‘s are not far from here.5.―Or‖ only connects coordinated genitive Is that a lady‘s or gentleman‘s wrist-watch? Is that a wrist-watch of a lady or gentleman? I wonder whether it is Tom‘s or Peter‘s house / the house of Tom or Peter.e)In the construction of ―noun phrase + appositive‖, the genitive ending is added to the end of the appositive, or both to the end of the noun phrase and to the appositive, e.g.Where is my classmate Nancy‘s car? Tom has gone to Basel‘s, the blacksmith‘s shop f)In personal names ending in sibilant /z/, the genitive ending can either be ‘s or an apostrophe only, but it can only be ‘s when personal names end in other sibilant sounds，e.g.Burns‘ / Burns‘s poem(sibilant /z/);

Ross‘s poem

2)Meanings of genitive nouns The genitive is chiefly used to denote possession, and therefore, is traditionally called ―possessive case‖.But genitive meanings are by no means restricted to possession, as shown in the following: a)Possessive genitive，e.g.my son‘s wife, Mrs.Johnson‘s passport

b)Subjective genitive, e.g.the student‘s application

c)Objective genitive e.g.the family‘s support d)Genitive of origin e.g.the girl‘s story

e)Descriptive(Classifying)genitive(not of-genitive)e.g.a women‘s college

(=college for women/*of women)f)Genitive of measure e.g.a four days‘ journey, two dollars‘ worth of apples

3)Uses of genitive nouns Genitive nouns are mostly used as central determiners and therefore perform the same function as ―possessive determiners‖,(traditionally called possessive pronouns), e.g.the boy‘s father= his father Mary‘s letter = her letter

a)As central determiners, genitive nouns can‘t collocate with other central determiner, nor can they be preceded by a premodifier.e.g.Mary‘s letter, * a Mary‘s letter;

Mary‘s interesting letter, * interesting Mary‘s letter

This, however, does not apply to some other genitive nouns such as the descriptive genitive and the genitive that denotes time, distance, value or measure.These genitive nouns are not used as determiners but as premodifiers in the noun phrases, e.g.a/the children‘s book, a pleasant three day‘s journey

Classifying genitive differ in a number of respects from specifying constructions.1)They respond to the question ―What kind of …?‖ rather than ―whose …?‖, which displays their similarity to adjectives and other such noun premodifiers, rather than to determiners.In fact, they cannot be replaced by possessive determiners.2)They can be preceded by determiners and modifiers of the whole noun phrase, rather than of the genitive noun alone: a new children‘s book.This again is true also for adjective and noun premodifiers of nouns.3)They form an inseparable combination with the following noun and do not usually allow an intervening adjective: *children‘s new book.4)They are frequently paraphrased by a for-phrase rather than an of construction, as in books for children.Compare again constructions with noun premodifier like baby clothes.These characteristics reflect the close bond between a classifying genitive and the following head noun.b)The choice of genitive

The –s genitive is favoured by the animate nouns in particular persons and animals with personal gender characteristics.The of-genitive is chiefly used with nouns denoting lower animals and with inanimate nouns.The main factor governing the choice of the one or the other genitive form is the animate or rather the personal quality of the noun.But there is considerable overlap in the use of the two forms.The animate nouns normally take the –s genitive, but the of-genitive is also possible in most cases.Inanimate nouns regularly take the of-genitive, but a great many occur with the –s genitive.The four classes of animate nouns normally take the –s genitive, but the of-genitive is also possible a)Personal names---George Washington‘s statue, Susan‘s pupils b)Personal nouns---the boy‘s new shirt, my sister-in-law‘s hat

c)Collective nouns---the government‘s conviction, the majority‘s choice d)Higher animals

---the horse‘s neck, the tiger‘s strips

The –s genitive is also used with certain kinds of inanimate nouns a)Geographical names---continents: Europe‘s future---countries: China‘s development

---states: Minnesota‘s immigrants

---cities/towns: Hollywood‘s studios, London‘s water supply

---universities: Harvard‘s Linguistics Department b)Locative nouns denoting regions, heavenly bodies, institutions:---the world‘s economic organization, the moon‘s interior, the school‘s history c)Temporal nouns---a week‘s holiday

d)Nouns of special interest to human activity---my life‘s aim, love‘s spirit, the novel‘s structure, the wine‘s character, television‘s future

The use of the –s genitive and of-genitive(1)We must use the –s genitive when…

a)the noun modified is followed by a post-modifier or an appositive.---The monitor‘s brother, an actor was here then.b)it is a classifying genitive.---Have you a copy of the teacher‘s book?

c)the –s genitive is used in some set expressions:---a wolf in sheep‘s clothing

People don‘t get their money‘s worth.*People don‘t get the worth of their money.We must use the of-genitive when…

a)the noun in the of-phrase is followed by some modifiers or appositives---Some sentences have been changed at the suggestion of the teachers present in the meeting.b)the definite article +-ed participle or adjective denoting a class of people in the of-phrase structure---the life of the poor c)the prepositional complementation in the of-phrase expresses the origin of the headword modified

---the joy of his return(The joy derives from his return)

d)the genitive is used to express the possessive relationship between part and whole---the middle of the night---the back of the classroom---the top of the page---the bottom of the ladder e)there are determiners before the two nouns---their knowledge of her feeling---this dog of the country

The difference between the –s genitive and the of-genitive(a)The –s genitive : regularity and continuity

the of-genitive : contingency of things---my last week‘s article(每周一次的连载文章）---my article of last week(偶尔刊登的文章）(b)The –s genitive: informal

the of-genitive: formal---the woman next door‘s husband---the foreign policy of China

(c)The –s genitive: literal sense(字面意义）

the of-genitive: extended meaning(引申意义）and symbolic meaning(象征意义）

---the tree‘s top（树梢）

---the top of the tree(出类拔萃）---the table‘s top(桌面）

---the top of the table（上座，首席）

5.2 Independent genitive and double genitive 1)Independent genitive When the genitive occurs without a following head, i.e.with the head of the noun phrase omitted, and functions independently as an element, it is called independent genitive.a)The noun occurring in the context can be retrieved---My car is faster than John‘s(car).b)Names and nouns referring to persons which denote residence:

See you at Harry‘s tomorrow.---Shall we meet at his brother‘s(house).c)Proper nouns for certain well-known buildings:

St.Paul‘s(Cathedral), Queen‘s(College)St.James‘s(Palace)The noun: church, school, public buildings---He lives near St.Paul‘s(Cathedral)in London.d)Words for shops denoted by the type of shopkeeper: the baker‘s/butcher‘s/grocer‘s/greengrocer‘s commercial firms---I buy my meat at Johnson‘s(shop).2)Double genitive An independent genitive when functioning as prepositional complementation is called post-genitive.The prepositional phrase with a post-genitive as complementation is called double genitive.---a friend of my father‘s 1)The use of the double genitive a)Partitive meaning denoting ―one of…‖---This is a book of my mother‘s.(one of …)

b.indefinite, definite, personal---a friend of the doctor‘s(*the cover of a book‘s)Attention to some points a)Noun head with ―this, these, that, those‖: it has emotional colouring : praise, disapproval, pleasure, displeasure---That child of his sister‘s is very clever.---That son of Henry‘s is a rascal.a boy of a girl 一般的of短语用来修饰或限制前面的名词的，但是，在此处：限定词+名词1+of + a/an + 名词2，of短语与前面的名词构成同位关系，而且名词2是概念的中心，of短语是对名词2进行修饰的，就像一个形容词：

an angel of a wife = an angelic wife;the fool of a policeman = the foolish policeman a boy of a girl 一个男孩气的女孩子 *一个女孩气的男孩 a palace of a house 宫殿般的房子

a great elephant of a woman 一个庞大如象的女人

此结构的特点是：名词2前必须使用不定冠词，而名词1前可用任何限定词(a, this, that, her, your)e.g.that dog of a landlord 狗地主

that great pig of a Louis XVIII 大肥猪路易十八

this / a / their palace of a house *these palaces of a house

b)Difference between double genitive and of phrase---He is a friend of my father‘s.(many, one of them)---He is a friend of my father.(in good terms)A: Who told you that? B: A friend of your father‘s.A: If he says such things, he is not a friend of my father.c)The noun head: picture, portrait, printing, photograph, bust, statue The double genitive---the picture that one keeps The of phrase---the picture of one‘s own---This is a portrait of Mr.Black‘s---This is a portrait of Mr.Black d)The noun head: criticism, opinion, judgment，---a criticism of William‘s = a criticism offered by William---a criticism of William = a criticism about William Correct the errors of the genitives if any: 1.Where‘s the dictionary of Cathy‘s?

2.I don‘t know whether this is a lady or a gentleman‘s wrist-watch.3.Her love of a child took the fancy of all of us.4.The poem of Shelly‘s he recited a hundred times was Ode to the West Wind.5.Andrew and Horatia‘s eyes met.1.that dictionary of Cathy‘s

2.a lady‘s or(a)gentleman‘s wristwatch 3.T 4.T 5.T

Lesson 6 Determiners(I)

教学重点及难点：

1.collocations between determiners: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.2.A Comparative study of some determiner usage: some, any, every ,much, etc.教 学 基 本 内 容

1.Collocations between determiners and nouns: determiners with all three classes of nouns, with singular count nouns, plural count nouns, noncount nouns, etc;

2.Collocations between three kind of determiners: the category of predeterminer ,central determiner and postdeterminer, word order of three subclasses of determiners: predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer;

3.A Comparative study of some determiner usage: many, much, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a few, a little, some, any, all, both, every, each, either, neither.Determiners, as a class of words, include: article(definite article, indefinite article, and zero article), possessive determiners, genitive nouns, demonstrative determiners, relative determiners, interrogative determiners, indefinite determiners, cardinal and ordinal numerals, fractional and multiplicative numerals, and other quantifiers 6.1.Collocations between determiners and nouns

The choice of determiners is closely related to what might be called the three classes of nouns: singular count nouns, plural cont nouns and noucount nouns.These tree classes of nouns demand appropriate determiners to collocate with.Determiners with all three classes of nouns

Determiners such as possessive determiners, genitive nouns and the definite article as well as some any, no, the other, and whom can go with all the three classes of nouns, eg: The car the cars the money His car his cars his money Some book some books some money No book no books no money Whose book whose books whose money Determiners with singular count nouns only Determiners such as a(n), one, another, each, every, either, neither, many a ,such a can only collocate with singular count nouns, eg: Each worker every student Either book neither book Another book such a book Determiners with plural count nouns only Determiners such as, two, three, etc, another, two/ three, many,(a)few, several, these, those, a(great)number of can only collocate with plural count nouns, eg: Both workers

(a)few words Several girls

these / those tourists A number of men

many students Determiners with noncount nouns only Determiners such as a(little)bit of ,a great amount of ,a great deal of ,(a)little, much, less ,least can only collocate with noncount nouns, eg: Much noise(a)little courage A bit of fun

a large amount of money Less oil

(the)least oil Determiners with singular and plural count nouns only Determiners such as the first, the second, the last, the next can go with wither singular or plurals count nouns, eg‖ The first rose/ roses The last man/ men The next meeting/ meetings Determiners with singular and noncount nouns only Determiners such as this that can collocate with either singular or noncount nouns, eg: This/ that job

this / that work determiners with plural and noncount nouns only Determiners such as a lot of , lots of , plenty of, enough, most, such, other can go with plural and noncount nouns, but not with singular nouns,eg: Enough copies

enough bread More essays

more time Most people

most work This class of determiners may also include less and least, which, as has been mentioned above, normally occur with noncount nouns, but in present day English, especially in formal style, may occasionally occur with plural nouns,eg: Less and less people can afford to go abroad for their holidays.Political programs on TV attract the least viewers.This use of less and least is regarded by some as non-standard.6.2)Collocations between determiners

As has been mentioned before, besides the collocations between determiners and nouns, there is the problem of word order between determiners if a noun 0phrase contains more than one determiner.Central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers According to their potential, determiners fall into three subclasses: central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers.Central determiners included: the article;demonstrative determiner;possessive determiners;genitive nouns;some, any, no, every, each, either, neither, enough;what(ever),which(ever),whose, etc.Note that central determiners are mutually exclusive and that no two members of the above-cited items ever occur together in a noun phrase.Predeterminers are those hat precede central determiners.Predeterminers are also mutually exclusive.They include: all, both, half, double, twice, three times, etc.one-third, two-fifths, etc;what, such(a/an).Postdeterminers refer to those that follow central or predeterminers.Postdeterminers are not mutually exclusive, that is to say, two or more such items can co=occur in a noun phrase.This subclass includes: cardinal numerals;ordinal numerals;next, another ,etc;many much,(a_ few,(a)little, fewer,(the)fewest, less(the)least, more, most;several, plenty of , a lot of lots of , a great/large/good number of, a great/good deal of , a large/ small amount of ,such.Word order of three subclasses of determiners

When a noun phrase contains all three subclasses of determiners, their normal order is ―predetermine + central determiner + post determiner(s)‖: All the four students All these last few days Both his two sisters If the noun phrase contains only two of the subclassed, they follow the same order, ie ―predeterminer + central determiner‖:

Half his income Both his parents All the tourists ―central determiner+postdeterminer‖: the author‘s last books some such alloy his last few words ―predeterminer+postdeterminer‖: all three books all other students half such people

―postdeterminer+postdeterminer‖ several hundred tourists three other girls many more copies 6.3)A comparative study of some determiner usage many, much, a lot of ,lots of, plenty of

Lesson 7 Determiners(II)--Articles

教学重点及难点：

1.Articles in use with different classes of nouns;

2.Some phrases applied with definite, indefinite and zero articles

教 学 基 本 内 容

1.Generic and specific reference: generic reference, specific reference, anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference.2.Articles in use with different classes of noun: articles in use with the proper noun, articles in use with the common noun and other use of articles;

3.Some phrases applied with definite, indefinite and zero articles: phrases with zero articles as at anchor, in force, out of hand etc, phrases with definite articles as for the time being, on the spot, in the long run, etc, and examples with indefinite articles as before person‘s names, or before the non-finite element, etc.Lecture 7 Determiners(ii)---articles In the previous lecture we touched upon the fact that articles are the most typical of determiners.Now we will concentrate on this topic.English has two articles: the definite and the indefinite article.As we know, all English common nouns have article contrast, so with plural count nouns and noncount nouns, the absence of an article signals the presence of another kind of article---the zero article.It is in this sense that we may also say that English has three articles---the definite, the indefinite, and the zero articles.7.1 generic and specific references In discussing the use of article, we must distinguish between generic and specific reference.generic reference When we say the reference is generic, we are talking about any membe4r representative of a class of people of things.All the three forms of article can be used generically to refer to members of a class as a whole.In certain contexts, the definite article followed by a singular count noun often performs a generic function.The same function can also be performed by the definite article combining with certain adjectives or adjectival participles.Generic reference can also be denoted by the indefinite article followed by a singular count noun.This is especially common in giving definitions.In so doing, we can also use plural and noncount nouns without the presence of any determiner.This may be referred to as the generic use of the zero article.specific reference Specific reference is different from generic reference in that it does not refer to a class of people or things in general but to a particular specimen of the class.Specific reference falls into two kinds: definite specific reference and indefinite specific reference.Definite specific reference implies that a person or an object can be identified uniquely in the context or according to the common knowledge shared by speaker and hearer.The definite article is most frequently used in this sense.In the case of indefinite specific reference the person or thing referred to is also a specific object, but is not definitely identified.This kind of referential meaning is most commonly expressed by the indefinite article.In certain contexts and situations the zero article can perform the same function.anaphoric, anaphoric and situational reference Definite specific reference can be anaphoric, anaphoric, or situational.The word anaphoric means ―pointing backward‖.When what is referred to occurs in a previous context and the definite article has to point backward for its meaning, this is known as ―anaphoric reference‖.The anaphoric use of the definite article is called ―anaphoric THE‖.Anaphoric reference is also a kind of definite specific reference.The word means ―pointing forward‖.When the referential meaning of the definite article is determined by what follows the articles and the head, and the article has to point forward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference.Situational reference is a kind of definite specific reference that depends not on any referent that has occurred in the context but solely on the common knowledge shred by speaker and hearer on a specific situation in which the reference is made clear.Situational reference is most commonly denoted by the definite article, but in certain situations the same function can also be performed by zero.Lesson 8 & 9 Pronouns(I, II)

教学重点及难点：

1.Pronouns concord in number, gender and case;2.The usage of personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns.教 学 基 本 内 容

1.Pronouns concord in number, gender and case.In number: pronoun concord with every-,some-, any-compounds as antecedent, with coordinate construction as antecedent, with collective nouns antecedent, and with ―plural noun/ pronoun +each‖ as antecedent.In gender, Pronoun concord with male/female noun as antecedent, with common gender noun as antecedent, and with neutral gender noun as antecedent, etc;

2.Choice of pronoun forms: choice between subjective and objective case, choice between adjective and genitive case;

3.Possessive pronoun, reflexive pronoun, and generic use of personal pronouns;

4.Pronoun reference: anaphoric, cataphoric, situational reference, personal reference, and demonstrative reference.Teaching Contents 8.1 Pronoun concord in number 8.2 Pronoun concord in gender 8.3 Pronoun concord in person

Pronouns are a varied closed-class words with nominal function.English has a developed pronoun system, comprising:

1.personal pronouns 2.possessive pronouns 3.reflexive pronouns 4.reciprocal pronouns 5.demonstrative pronouns 6.interrogative pronouns 7.relative pronouns 8.indefinite pronouns 8.1 Pronoun concord in number Personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding determiners have their singular and plural forms.The number contrast of pronouns differs from that of nouns in that pronoun number contrast is morphologically unrelated, as in I/we, he/they, as opposed to the typical regular formation of noun plurals: boy/boys.The choice of pronoun number forms is generally determined by the number of its antecedent, that is, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number.---They haven‘t yet made up their own mind.1)Pronoun concord with every-, some-, any-compounds as antecedent:

everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody，take the singular form(grammatical)---Everybody looked after himself.---Nobody wants to go there, does he? In informal style, the plural form, esp.everyone or everybody:---Everybody knows what they have to do.everything, something, anything, nothing: singular---Everything is ready, isn‘t?

2)Pronoun concord with coordinate construction as antecedent(notional concord)---I bought bread and butter at the shop, and they cost 50c.---She likes bread and butter, but this is too thick.3)Pronoun concord with collective noun as antecedent(notional concord)---The government is doing its best to boost production.---The government have discussed the matter for a long time but they have shown no sign of reaching an agreement.4)Pronoun concord with ―plural noun / pronoun + each‖ as antecedent

The choice of the number forms of the pronoun and corresponding determiner depends on the position of the appositive ―each‖: before the verb---plural form;

after the verb---singular form---We each are accountable for our own families.---We are each responsible for his own family.8.2 Pronoun concord in gender Gender is a grammatical category.It is a set of grammatical forms of nouns, determiners and adjectives that tell of the distinctions of sex.English nouns have four genders: masculine(man), feminine(woman), neutral(book)and common(student).But we do not mean any overt grammatical forms that show the distinctions of sex, but the differences of natural sex denoted by the lexical meaning of nouns.1)Pronoun concord with male / female noun as antecedent---When Paul met Mary, he asked her to go to town.2)Pronoun concord with common gender noun as antecedent Some common gender nouns, such as doctor, teacher, engineer, lawyer, parent, student…… they can either be male or female.When they are used in the singular for generic

reference, these nouns are generally referred to as HE, a kind of practice that is opposed by feminists.---If a person breaks the law, he will be punished.---The parent of a teenage child often wonders where he went wrong.---Parents of teenage children often wonder where they went wrong.(plural form)---When a customer calls, ask him to leave his phone number.---When a customer calls, be sure to ask for a phone number.(No pronoun or determiner is used.)In formal writing as in legal documents, ―he or she‖, ―his or her‖ can also be used.---The parent of a teenage child often wonders where he or she went wrong.(2)Some common gender nouns such as baby, infant, and child are intermediate between personal and non-personal.When the speaker does not know , or is not interested in the sex of the baby or infant, he may use the neutral IT:---The baby was sleeping in its cot.But if the speaker is the baby‘s mother, she is unlikely to refer to her baby as IT:---Watch out!The baby is trying to put the toy watch into his mouth.3)Pronoun concord with neutral gender noun as antecedent When the antecedent is a singular noun of neutral gender, a noun denoting an inanimate or non-personal object, the neutral pronoun or the corresponding determiner is generally used.(it / itself / its)---That book has lost its cover.I will put a new one on it.(2)Just as a baby may be designated it, so a number of nonhuman species may be designated he or she.(car, ship)---The car needs some petrol.Let‘s fill her / him up at the next garage.(3)When the antecedent is an animal noun, it is generally referred to as it in nonexpert contexts.If the anima is spoken of with emotion or is personified, it may be referred to as he or she.---The cat is a useful animal because it eats rats.---The cat leaped onto my bed and coiled herself there.This is also true of the names of celestial bodies or abstract ideas: sun, moon, earth, nature, history, war, death---The sun is shining in all his splendid beauty.---Nature, the greatest artist, makes her common flowers in the common view.(4)Names of countries may be treated either as feminine or neutral.When used as geographical units, they are treated as inanimate and therefore neutral:---China is in East Asia.It is one of the largest countries in the world.If used as political or economic units, the names of countries are often feminine, she or her is generally used:---China has a history of over 5000 years.She is proud of her culture.8.3 Pronoun concord in person By pronoun concord in person, we mean two things: Pronoun concord in person on sentential level In a sentence, the person of a pronoun is determined by the person of its antecedent.---My brother has sold his car.If the antecedent is a coordinate construction containing a first or second person pronoun, the referring pronoun should be first and second person in plural number.---My friend and I are reading the manuscript.We‘ll be through in half an hour.---You and the accountant are familiar with him.You can both see him.2)Pronoun concord in person on textual level In a text pronouns should be consistent in person from beginning to end.This is a matter of speaking or writing from what point of view, from the speaker‘s or writer‘s point of view or from that of a third party.A consistent point of view is a guarantee of clarity in writing.Teaching Contents 9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms

9.2 Reflexive pronouns

9.3 Pronoun reference 9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms

9.2 Reflexive pronouns

9.3 Pronoun reference Pronoun reference is a kind of reference realized through the use of pronouns.When a pronoun is used it must refer to somebody or something.What is referred to is called antecedent.It is the antecedent that indicates the referential meaning of the pronoun.anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference According to the relative position of the antecedent, pronoun reference can be anaphoric or cataphoric.When the antecedent occurs before the pronoun, which has to point backward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference.---John has moved to a new house.He had it built last year.If the antecedent appears after the pronoun, and the pronoun has to point forward for its meaning, that is cataphoric reference.---When she has finished her work, Mary left the office.If the antecedent does not occur anywhere in a linguistic context, and the pronoun only refers to somebody or something indicated by an extra linguistic situation in which the utterance is given, that is situational reference.---How hard he studies English.When a pronoun is used, it can only refer to one antecedent.If a pronoun has two or more possible antecedents, that will lead to ambiguity.---He introduced me to the pilot who had looked after him when he was in hospital.---He introduced me to the pilot whom he had looked after in the hospital…

2)Personal reference Personal reference is established by personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding determiners.Personal reference is generally anaphoric.It may occur within the sentence boundary or across sentences.---When Mary has finished her work, she left the office.---John has moved to a new house.He had it built last year.Personal reference can also be cataphoric, but under limited conditions.Generally speaking, cataphoric personal pronouns usually occur in subordinate constructions, and where cataphoric reference occurs, anaphoric reference canbe used instead, but not conversely.---When she had finished her work, Mary left the office.(cataphoric)---When Mary had finished her work, she left the office.(anaphoric)---Mary bought a new dress, but she didn‘t like it.---She bought a new dress, but Mary didn‘t like it.3)Demonstrative reference Demonstrative reference is established by demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative determiners.All the demonstratives can be freely used in anaphoric reference.---The man gad been drinking too much;this explain his unsteady walk.A: I like the polar bears.These are my favorites.B: Those are my favorites too.---Our daughter got a bad sun-burn yesterday.That‘s why we couldn‘t come.As for cataphoric demonstratives, they are restricted to this and these, which are commonly used to refer to a following clause or sentence or a group of sentences.---―The great difficulty is this,‖ said the psychologist, ―you can move about in all directions of space, but you can‘t move about in time.‖

―That‖ and ―these‖ are rarely used cataphorically.When occasionally so used, they often take on sarcastic meanings.---How do you like that? He stabs you in the back and then professes to be your friend.Lesson 10 Verb and verb phrase

教学重点及难点：

1.The difference between finite and non-finite verb;

2.The classifications and usage of some phrasal verbs

教 学 基 本 内 容

1.Classification of verbs.According to different standards, verbs and verb phrases may falls into six types grammatically, semantically: Main verbs and auxiliaries, transitive verbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs, dynamic verbs and stative verbs, single-word verbs and phrasal verbs, finite and non-finite verbs, regular and irregular verbs;

2.A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood: tense and aspect, active and passive voice, finite and non-finite phrases.3.The classifications and usage of some phrasal verbs: V.+ Prep, V.+ adverb particle, V.+ adverb particle + prep.The usage of phrasal verbs as pride oneself on, take pride in and be proud of, etc.Lecture 10 Verb and Verb Phrase Teaching Contents 10.1 Classification of verbs(I)10.2 Classification of verbs(II)10.3 A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood

10.1 Classification of verbs(I)1)Main verbs and auxiliaries

According to different roles played in the formation of verb phrases verbs are divided into two classes: main verbs and auxiliaries.As we know, a verb phrase may consist of a main verb only;this is called a simple verb phrase.A verb phrase may also take the form of a verb preceded by one or more auxiliaries;this is called a complex verb phrase.Main verbs are also called notional verbs functioning as the head and indicating the basic meaning of a verb phrase.Auxiliaries fall into three categories: primary auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries and semi-auxiliaries.a)Primary auxiliaries: be, do, have.Without lexical meanings of their own, these auxiliaries have only grammatical functions or grammatical meanings.Be is usually used to help the main verb to form the progressive aspect or the expressive voice.Auxiliary do is used to help the main verb to express negative meanings or to form question, and sometimes to help express the emphatic affirmative.The function of auxiliary have is to help the main verb to form the perfective or the perfective progressive aspect.b)Modal auxiliaries: can/could, may/might, will/would, shall/should, must, ought to, dare, need, used to.They express modal meanings.In a finite verb phrase, we can use only one modal auxiliary which is invariably followed by the bare infinitive or the base form.c)Semi-auxiliaries: have to, seem to.They can help the main verb to form the complex verb phrase and express the modal meaning on the one hand, and can, when preceded by other auxiliaries, function as main verbs on the other.2)Transitive verbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs Verbs are divided in accordance with whether or not they must be followed by obligatory elements functioning as complementation and what kind of elements that must follow.a)Transitive verbs must be followed by an object.Some are followed by two objects, i.e.indirect object and direct object;.some by an object and an object complement;some by an object and an obligatory adverbial b)Intransitive verbs do not require an object.c)Linking verbs are followed by a subject complement.3)Dynamic and stative verbs a)Dynamic verbs refer to actions.They can be subclassified into three categories:

durative verbs, transitional verbs and momentary verbs.b)Stative verbs refer to present or past states, i.e.to a relatively stable state of affairs.They are normally incompatible with the progressive except in certain cases where there is a transfer of meaning.They can be classified into four categories.The first includes main verbs ―be‖ and ―have‖.The second includes verbs that include, as part of their meaning, the notion of being and having, such as apply to, belong to, differ from, cost, weigh, measure.The third includes verbs that refer to a sense perception, such as hear, see, feel, taste, smell.The fourth subclass includes verbs that refer to a feeling, a state of mind or an opinion, such as assume, believe, consider, detest, wish.Stative verbs are not used in progressive aspect, otherwise, they will be changed into dynamic verbs, such as be, have.e.g.He is being foolish(=is acting foolishly).We‘re having a wonderful time(= are enjoying ourselves).The verbs resemble and cost are stative verbs when they are used to mean respectively ―be like‖ and ―be worth‖, but when used in other meanings, these two verbs just like dynamic verbs can occur in the progressive.e.g.He resembles his father.He is resembling his father(= is becoming more and more like his father)as the years go by.Perception verbs when used in a non-volitional sense are stative verb, but when used in a volitional sense are dynamic verbs.e.g.I can taste pepper in it.I‘m tasting this soup.Attitudinal verbs such as think, imagine, understand are stative verbs, but they can occasionally be used dynamically to express different meanings, e.g.Be quiet.I‘m thinking(= giving thought to a problem).There are also cases of a special polite use of the progressive with verbs like want, hope, wonder.e.g.Were you wanting to see me? 10.2 Classification of verbs(II)According to word formation and grammatical form, English verb may be divided into single-verbs and phrasal verbs, finite verbs and non-finite verb, regular verbs and irregular verbs.4)Single-word verbs and phrasal verbs

A phrasal verb is a verb that is composed of two or more words.They can be classified into three categories: a)Verb + preposition e.g.The police are looking into the case.b)Verb + adverb particle e.g.The meeting has been called off.c)Verb + adverb particle + preposition e.g.I don‘t want to come down with the flu again.Phrasal verbs are verbal idioms which are equivalent to single-word verbs, transitive or intransitive, and which are different from simple verbal combination where the meanings are easily guessed from the parts.Some constructions such as verb + noun + preposition and verb + noun are also grouped under the category of phrasal verbs e.g.She soon realized that she was being made fun of.5)Finite and non-finite verbs Finite main verbs have tow finite forms and three non-finite forms.The two are the present tense and the past tense;the three are the infinitive, the –ing participle and the –ed participle.Finite verbs are marked for tense, and non-finite verbs have no tense distinctions.Most auxiliaries have the present and past tense forms but not all the three non-finite forms except for the primary auxiliary be.The modals do not have the non-finite forms or the base.6)Regular and irregular verbs Verbs whose past tense and –ed participle forms are derived by adding –ed are regular verbs, and otherwise they are irregular verbs.10.3 A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood 1)Tense and aspect

Tense is a grammatical form associated with verbs that tells of the distinctions of time;that is, tense and time are related and different.Time is a universal concept with three divisions: past, present and future times.The notion of time is common to all mankind, when expressed linguistically, it is tense.Chinese is not an inflectional language and has its own ways to express tense.Aspect is also a kind of verb form which represents the action or the process expressed by the verb as something going on or completed at a given time.English has two aspects: the progressive and the perfective aspects.The uses of tense and aspect Tense:

present

past Aspect: progressive

perfective 1.A tense can be used independently:

1)simple present, 2)simple past 2.A tense can be combined with an aspect:

3)present progressive, 4)past progressive

5)present perfective, 6)past perfective 3.A tense can be combined with two aspects:

7)Present perfective progressive

8)Past perfective progressive

2)Active voice and passive voice

Voice is a grammatical category, showing whether the subject of a sentence acts or is acted on.English has two voices: the active and passive voices.When the subject is the agent or doer of an action, the verb takes the active voice;if the subject is the recipient of the action, the verb takes the passive voice and the sentence is called passive sentence.The passive voice is formed by the auxiliary be +-ed participle of the transitive verb.Since be can take different forms of tense and aspect, we have six passive forms: the simple present, the simple past, the present progressive, the past progressive, the present perfective and the past perfective.Of the three non-finite form, the infinitive and the –ing participle can occur in the passive, simple and perfective.―Modal auxiliary / semi-auxiliary + infinitive‖ are made passive by using a passive infinitive, which may occur in the simple or in the perfective form.When the passive is formed by get +-ed participle, it is called get-passive, distinguished from be-passive.But get isn‘t an auxiliary and cannot be used as operator in a negative statement or in a question.Get-passive usually used to denote sudden and unexpected happenings in contexts initiated by such expressions as ―in the end, eventually, at last‖.3)Indicative, imperative and subjunctive mood Mood, as a grammatical category, is a finite verb form that indicates whether an utterance expresses a fact(indicative mood), a command or request(imperative mood), or a non-fact and hypothesis(subjunctive mood)

4)Finite and non-finite verb phrases Depending on whether the first element in a verb phrase is finite or non-finite, a distinction is made between finite verb phrases and non-finite verb phrases.Lesson 11 Tense and aspect(I)教学重点及难点：

1.The difference between the present perfect and the present perfect progressive;

2.The use of simple present, the present progressive, and present perfect

教 学 基 本 内 容

1.Use of simple present.The simple present can be used to denote: timeless present, habitual present, momentary and instantaneous present, simple present referring to the future, simple present referring to the past;

2.Use of present Progressive.The present progressive has the following uses: to denote an action in progress at the moment of speaking, an action in progress at a period of time including the present, a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement and other meanings;

3.The two chief uses of the present perfective/progressive and how the present perfective/progressive distinguished in meaning from the simple past.Lecture 11 Tense and Aspect(I)In this and the next five lectures we are going to deal with features of tense, aspect, voice and mood expressed by the verb phrase.We will start with uses of the simple present, the simple past, the present progressive and the past progressive.11.1 Uses of simple present The simple present is the present tense form which is not accompanied by the category of aspect, that is , which is not marked for the progressive or the perfective aspect.The simple present can be used to denote the following meanings with greater restrictions on verbs:

Timeless present

The most common use of the simple present is found in the expression of eternal truths and proverbs, as well as in scientific, mathematical, geographical and other statements made for all time.This use of the simple present mostly applies to stative verbs, eg:

Honesty is the best policy.A rolling stone gathers no moss.London stands on the River Thames.Habitual present

A second use of the simple present, that of habitual or recurrent use, is typically associated with dynamic verbs, eg:

Percy often goes to his office by underground.Father doesn‘t smoke.Momentary and instantaneous present

The simple present can also be used to denote a momentary phenomenon that exists at the time of speaking.This phenomenon usually has some duration and therefore is mostly associated with stative verbs, eg:

What‘s the matter with you? What do you think, Jane?

A less common use.The simple present can be used to imply that the event takes place singly and once-for-all within the moment of speaking.Unlike momentary present, this kind of happening has little or no duration and therefore is confined to dynamic verbs denoting short actions.The use of the instantaneous present is rather restricted, occurring normally in certain speech situations such as radio and television commentaries of fast-moving sports, the running commentary of conjurors and demonstrators, and some formal declarations, eg:(page184)

Simple present referring to the future

The simple present can also be used to denote future time.This use is limited to future events conceived of as ―certain‖, either because they are determined in advance by calendar of timetable, or because they are part of a plan or an arrangement thought of as unalterable.This kind of future expression will be elaborated on in lecture 13.In the present lecture, we will just mention some subclauses in which the simple present is commonly used in the future sense.These subclauses include the that-clause following ―I hope‖, ―I bet‖, etc;the that-clause following such constructions as ―see to it‖, ―make sure‖, ―make certain‖;and the conditional / temporal clauses introduced by if /when, eg: I hope you have a good time.I bet it rains tomorrow.I‘ll see(to it)/ make sure/ make certain(that)you don‘t get lost.Simple present referring to the past

In addition to the meanings discussed above, the simple present can occasionally be used to denote past time.This use of the simple present is usually found with ―communication verbs‖ such as tell, say, hear, learn, and write to express the present effect of information received in the past, eg:

Alice tells me you‘re entering college next year.I hear poor old Mrs.Smith has lost her son.Simple present is also used as a device of story-telling and news reporting to add vividness to the description.This use of the simple present to refer to the past is what we call ―historic present‖, eg:

…I was just dozing off in front of the television when my wife rushes in shouting that the kitchen is on fire.11.2 Uses of simple past

The simple past is the past tense form which is not marked for the progressive or the perfective aspect.This tense form can be used to denote the following meanings:

Past event and past habit

The basic use of the simple past is to denote a simple event or state that happened or existed at a definite point or period of time in the past.This is what we call the event/state past, eg:

He left ten minutes ago.This town was once a beauty spot.The simple past can also be used to denote a habitual or recurrent action in the past, known as the habitual past, eg: In those days they sowed wheat by hand.He worked in a bank all his life.Neither the event/state pas nor the habitual past has any connection with the present moment, so what is denoted by the simple past must be something no longer existent at the moment of speaking.Compare: His father was an English teacher all his life.(―He is now dead.‖)His father has been an English teacher all his life.(―He is still alive.‖)

Attitudinal and hypothetical past

In specific contexts, the simple past can also denote the present or the future time.There are two uses.One is known as the attitudinal past, that is , the past tense is associated with the present time in independent clauses expressing a question, request or suggestion.Its effect is to make the question / request/suggestion less direct, implying a polite, somewhat tentative attitude on the part of the speaker, eg:

A: Did you want me? B: Yes, I wondered if you could give me some help.The other is what we call the hypothetical past.In this use, the simple past refers not to a fact but to a non-fact, and is typically found in that-clause following such constructions as ―It‘s time…‖, ―I wish…‖, ― I‘d rather…‖, etc., and in adverbial clauses of rejected condition, i.e.a condition which is not likely to be fulfilled, eg:

It‘s time you had a holiday.I wish you lived closer to us.I‘d rather you went now.If I had the money now, I‘d buy a car.11.3 Uses of present progressive

The present progressive(am/is/are+-ing participle)has the following uses:

To denote an action in progress at the moment of speaking

To denote what is going on at the present moment, we commonly use the present progressive, generally associated with durative dynamic verbs, eg:

A: What are you doing? B: I‘m writing a letter.The difference between the simple present and the present progressive referring to present time is that the former carries a permanent meaning and the latter a temporary meaning.Compare:

He lives in shanghai(permanent residence)He is now living in Shanghai.(temporary residence)

To denote an action in progress at a period of time including the present

The present progressive can also express an action that is gong on over a period of time including the present but not necessarily at the moment of speaking, that is, a temporary habit as distinguished from the permanent habit denoted by the simple present.Compare:

He works in a chemical factory.He is working in a chemical factory these days.Note that the present progressive when accompanied by an adverbial of frequency such as always, continually, constantly, or forever often imparts an emotional coloring, often of annoyance or disapproval.By contrast, the simple present lacks the subjective, emotional tone of the present progressive and states a fact objectively.Compare: She complains about the house.She is constantly complaining about the house.To denote a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement

The present progressive used to refer to the future, more often than not the near rather than distant future, in connection with a definite plan, arrangement of program, usually occurs in situations with obvious future reference, eg:

Mr.Cameron is leaving China in a few weeks.I‘m going to Qingdao for the summer holiday.The present progressive denoting futurity also occurs in temporal and conditional clauses, on condition that there is future reference in the main clause, eg.:

I‘ll think about it while you‘re writing the report.If you are standing at the corner, I‘ll give you a lift.To denote other meanings

Apart from the above-mentioned meanings, the present progressive may also be used to denote an action in the immediate past which is generally expressed by communication verbs such as tell, talk, say, exaggerate, etc, eg: You don‘t believe it? You know I‘m telling the truth.I don‘t know what you are talking about.The present progressive may also be used to make even politer requests than does the attitudinal past with such few verbs as hope, wonder dealt with in 11,2.2, eg:

I‘m hoping you‘ll give us some advice.I‘m wondering if I may have a word with you.As mentioned before, the present progressive is commonly associated with durative dynamic verbs.With momentary verbs, i.e.verbs denoting actions of very short duration, the use of the present progressive will be understood to express repetition or a series of momentary actions, rather than just a single action.11.4 Uses of past progressive

The use of the past progressive(was/were+-ing participle)has much in common with that of the present progressive, only the time reference being pushed back to the past, often overtly expressed by a time-when adverbial.The following are the uses of the past progressive.To denote an action in progress at a definite point or period of past time

This is the most common use of the past progressive.In this use, the past time reference is usually indicated by a temporal adverbial or implied by the context.In the past progressive, the notion of incompleteness is more clearly indicated than in the present progressive, eg:

What were you doing yesterday at seven p.m.? They were building a dam last winter.It is based on this use that the past progressive may have the effect of surrounding a particular event by a temporal frame, or serve, at the beginning of a text, as the background in past time narrative, eg:

The students were still laughing when the teacher stepped in.To denote a past habitual action

The habitual action denoted by the past progressive is most clearly characterized by its temporariness, in contrast with the past habit denoted by the simple past, eg:

George was getting up at five every day that week.As in the case of the present progressive, the past progressive can also collocate with such adverbials of frequency as always, constantly, continually, forever, to express emotional feelings, especially feelings of annoyance or disapproval on the part of the speaker, eg:

My brother was always losing his keys.To denote futurity in the past

In specific contexts, the past progressive can be used to denote a future action in the past according to a definite plan or arrangement.This use is also found in some adverbial clauses of time or condition, eg:

They were leaving a few days later.He told me to wake him up if he was sleeping.To make polite requests and express hypothetical meanings

The past progressive has a similar function to that of the simple past and of the present progressive as described in 11.2.2 and 11.3.4.Of the three forms, the past progressive is the most tentative in making polite requests.Compare: I hope you can send me some books.I hoped that you could send me some books.I am hoping you can send me some books.I was hoping you could send me some books.To express hypothetical meanings, the past progressive only occurs in certain conditional clauses and in subclauses after ―I wish‖, ―I‘d rather‖, ―it‘s time‖, etc:

I wish they were not talking so loudly.I‘d rather you were going at once.Would you stay a little longer, if you were enjoying yourself? If they were leaving tonight, I‘d like to go with them.It is time we were leaving.Contrast between past progressive and simple past

In the previous sections we have touched upon notional differences between the simple past and the past progressive.There are a few more points to note.To denote an action in completion, we use the simple past;to denote an action in progress, we use the past progressive.To state a mere past fact, we use the simple past;to lay emphasis on the duration of the action, we use the past progressive.When two actions co-occur in a sentence, the action of shorter duration is to be denoted by the simple past, while that of longer duration by the past progressive.In colloquial speech, the past progressive is sometimes used to show what one says is casual, unimportant and aimless, whereas the use of the simple past means differently.Compare: I was talking to Margaret the other day.I talked to Margaret the other day.Compare the time sequence of the two actions in the following sentences:

When we arrived, she was making some fresh coffee.When we arrived, she made some fresh coffee.In the first sentence, the action of making coffee was already in progress when we arrived, whereas in the second sentence, the action of making coffee followed our arrival in time sequence.Lesson 12 Tense and aspect(II)

教学重点及难点：

1.Differences between present/past perfective and present/past perfective progressive.2.Perfective aspect and since-clause, perfective aspect vs.have got/have got to.教 学 基 本 内 容

1.Present perfective has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use.The former refers to the present result of a past event still operative at the present moment, while the latter one denotes that an action or state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment.2.Past perfective progressive also has ―finished‖ and ―unfinished‖ use, only with time reference back-shifted to a specified past moment.3.There are a few more points that merit our attention concerning the use of the perfective aspect: perfective aspect and since-clause, perfective aspect vs.have got/have got to and perfective aspect in ―It is/will be the first time + that-clause‖.Lecture 12 Tense and Aspect(II)The perfective aspect can combine with the two tenses, forming present perfective and past perfective, which can again combine with the progressive aspect, resulting in present perfective progressive and past perfective progressive.12.1 uses of present perfective(progressive)

This section deals with the two chief uses of the present perfective(progressive)and how the present perfective(progressive)is distinguished in meaning from the simple past.Present perfective

Present perfective, a combination of the perfective aspect with the present tense(have / has+-ed participle), has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use.This ―finished‖ use refers to the present result of a past event still operative at the present moment.The ―unfinished‖ use of the present perfective denotes that an action or state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment, possibly extending into the future as well.The difference between these two uses manifests itself in the fact that in the ―unfinished‖ use, the present perfective is commonly accompanied by an adverbial expressing duration, but no such accompanying adverbial is present in the ―finished‖ use.Compare:

He‘s turned off the light.(―The light is still off now.‖)

He‘s lived here since 1960.(―The period of residence extends either to the present—the usual interpretation—or to some specified date in the past.‖)

Present perfective progressive

The use of the present perfective progressive(have/has been +-ing participle)has much in common with the ―unfinished‖ use of the present perfective.Compare:

I‘ve been writing letters for an hour(and I‘ve still got some more to do).I‘ve been sitting in the garden(and have just come indoors).There are cases, however, where these two forms are not interchangeable in that the present perfective progressive has also the meanings of continuousness, temporariness and incompleteness.Compare:

Who‘s been eating my dinner?(―Some of it is left.‖)Who‘s eaten my dinner?(―It‘s all gone.‖)

Contrast between present perfective(progressive)and simple past

As has been pointed out, the action or state denoted by the present perfective(progressive), though referring to some indefinite happening in the past, has some connection with the present.Hence, if an action or state happened in the past and has no connection with the present, it will have to be expressed by the simple past or the past progressive.Compare:

His sister has been an invalid all her life.(―she is still alive.‖)His sister was an invalid all her life.(she is now dead.)

12.2.Uses of past perfective(progressive)

Let us now turn to the uses of the past perfective(progressive).Past perfective

The past perfective also has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use, only with time reference back –shifted to a specified past moment.In the ―finished‖ use, the past perfective denotes an action or state already in completion before a specified past，and in its ―unfinished‖ use, an action or state extending over a period up to a past moment and possibly into the future in the past, e.g.:

I had written the article when he came.By six o‘clock they had worked twelve hours.Past perfective progressive

The past perfective progressive is basically similar in use to the present perfective progressive, only with time reference back-shifted to a specified past.The chief use of the past perfective progressive has also something in common with the ―unfinished‖ use of the past perfective, and, therefore, in many cases, these two forms can be used interchangeably, though in colloquial speech, the past perfective progressive is more frequently used than the past perfective.Compare:

I‘d been working for three hours when he called.I‘d worked for three hour when he called

Past perfective in sentences with when-/ before-/after-/ until-clauses

Subordinators such as when, before, after, until can sometimes be used interchangeably when they connect clauses where two actions happen one after another.The general rule is that the earlier happenings are expressed by the past perfective and the later happening by the simple past.Compare:

When I reached the station, the train had already left.I reached the station after the train had left.I didn‘t reach the station until after the train had left.The train had left before I reached the station.