英语语言学教案Chapter 9（精选5篇）

第一篇：英语语言学教案Chapter 9

Sanmenxia Polytechnic

A New Concise Course in Linguistics

Chapter 9 Language and culture

Objectives After this period, the students are supposed to understand the relations between language and culture.2 master the following notions: culture, Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, cultural overlap and diffusion and intercultural communication.Key points and Difficulties

The definition of culture The relationship between language and culture Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Linguistic evidence of cultural differences Cultural overlap and diffusion Intercultural communication Teaching presentation 1 Revision 1）Ask the students to answer the following questions；

（l）What is register? How does it affect our choices of linguistic forms?（2）What are the differences between diglossia and bilingualism?（3）How do social factors influence the use of language? Check homework.2 Definitions of culture

(1)Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and languages that characterize the life of the human community.(2)In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs of customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.(3)Types of culture: Material Culture: concrete, substantial and observable.Spiritual Culture: abstract, ambiguous, and hidden.What has been grown and brought up with(through beliefs, traditions, education and other institutional mechanisms);Culture changes slowly with the development of the society.3 The relationship between language and culture

(1)Language expresses cultural reality and embodies cultural identity.(2)Culture affects its people‟s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.(3)Culture is a wider system that completely includes language as a subsystem.Linguistic competence is one variety of cultural competence and speech behaviour is one variety of social behavior.The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.(4)Since the knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people‟s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in the language of the people, it is extremely difficult to separate the two.On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates and embodies cultural reality.On the other hand, 三门峡职业技术学院

新编简明英语语言学教案

0398-2183570 Sanmenxia Polytechnic

A New Concise Course in Linguistics

language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.3 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis(1)Edward Sapir(/səˈpɪər/;January 26, 1884 – February 4, 1939)was a German-born American anthropologist-linguist and a leader in American structural linguistics.His name is borrowed in what is now called the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis.He was a highly influential figure in American linguistics, influencing several generations of linguists across several schools of the discipline.(2)Benjamin Lee Whorf(April 24, 1897 in Winthrop, Massachusetts – July 26, 1941)was an Americanlinguist.Whorf is widely known for his ideas about linguistic relativity, the hypothesis that language influences thought.An important theme in many of his publications, he has been credited as one of the fathers of this approach, often referred to as the “Sapir–Whorf hypothesis”, named after him and his mentor Edward Sapir.Originally educated as a chemical engineer, he took up an interest in linguistics late in his life, studying with Sapir at Yale University.In the last ten years of his life he dedicated his spare time to linguistic studies, doing field work on Native American languages in the United States and Mexico.He managed to become one of the most influential linguists of his time, even while still working as a fire inspector for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company.He published a grammar of the Hopi language, studies of Nahuatl dialects, Maya hieroglyphic writing, and the first attempt at a reconstruction of Uto-Aztecan.He also published many articles in the most prestigious linguistic journals, many of them dealing with the ways in which he saw that different linguistic systems affected the thought systems and habitual behaviour of language users.；

(3)Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, through their studies of American Indian languages, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave.The interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.(4)The hypothesis is now interpreted mainly in two different ways: a strong version and a weak version.While the strong version believes that the language patterns determine people‟s thinking and behavior, the weak one holds that the former influence the later.(5)The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights: A.There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think B.More than in Whorf‟s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.“The purpose of Newspeak was not only to provide a medium of expression for the world-view and mental habits proper to the devotees of Ingsoc [English Socialism], but to make all other modes of thought impossible.It was intended that when Newspeak had been adopted once and for all and Oldspeak forgotten, a heretical thought--that is, a thought diverging from the principles of Ingsoc--should be literally unthinkable, at least as far as thought is dependent on words.Its vocabulary was so constructed as to give exact and often very subtle expression to every meaning that a Party member could properly wish to express, while excluding all other meanings and also the possibility of arriving at them by indirect method.This was done partly by the invention of new words and by stripping such words as remained of unorthodox meanings, and so far as possible of all secondary meanings whatever...A person growing up with Newspeak as his sole language would no more know that „equal' had once had the secondary meaning of ”politically equal,“ or that „free' had once meant ”intellectually free,“ than, for 三门峡职业技术学院

新编简明英语语言学教案

0398-2183570 Sanmenxia Polytechnic

A New Concise Course in Linguistics

instance, a person who had never heard of chess would be aware of the secondary meanings attaching to „queen' or „rook.' There would be many crimes and errors which it would be beyond his power to commit, simply because they were nameless and therefore unimaginable.” The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis theorizes that thoughts and behavior are determined(or are at least partially influenced)by language.If true in its strongest sense, the sinister possibility of a culture controlled by Newspeak or some other language is not just science fiction.Since its inception in the 1920s and 1930s, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has caused controversy and spawned research in a variety of disciplines including linguistics, psychology, philosophy, anthropology, and education.To this day it has not been completely disputed or defended, but has continued to intrigue researchers around the world.Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf brought attention to the relationship between language, thought, and culture.Neither of them formally wrote the hypothesis nor supported it with empirical evidence, but through a thorough study of their writings about linguistics, researchers have found two main ideas.First, a theory of linguistic determinism that states that the language you speak determines the way that you will interpret the world around you.Second, a weaker theory of linguistic relativism that states that language merely influences your thoughts about the real world.Edward Sapir studied the research of Wilhelm von Humboldt.About one hundred years before Sapir published his linguistic theories, Humboldt wrote in Gesammelte Werke a strong version of linguistic determinism: “Man lives in the world about him principally, indeed exclusively, as language presents it to him.” Sapir took this idea and expanded on it.Although he did not always support this firm hypothesis, his writings state that there is clearly a connection between language and thought.From “The Status of Linguistics as a Science”(1929)Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression in their society.It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection: The fact of the matter is that the „real world' is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group.No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality.The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached...Even comparatively simple acts of perception are very much more at the mercy of the social patterns called words than we might suppose...We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation.As the underlined portions show, Sapir used firm language to describe this connection between language and thought.To Sapir, the individual is unconscious to this connection and subject to it without choice.Benjamin Lee Whorf was Sapir's student.Whorf devised the weaker theory of linguistic relativity: “We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe...”(1940/1956).He also supported, at times, the stronger linguistic determinism.To Whorf, this connection between language and thought was also an obligation not a choice.From “Science and Linguistics”(1940/1956): “We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face;三门峡职业技术学院

新编简明英语语言学教案

0398-2183570 Sanmenxia Polytechnic

A New Concise Course in Linguistics

on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds–and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way–an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language.The agreement is, of course, an implicit and unstated one, but its terms are absolutely obligatory;we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organization and classification of data which the agreement decrees.” Both Sapir and Whorf agreed that it is our culture that determines our language, which in turn determines the way that we categorize our thoughts about the world and our experiences in it.For more than fifty years researchers have tried to design studies that will support or refute this hypothesis.Support for the strong version has been weak because it is virtually impossible to test one's world view without using language.Support for the weaker version has been minimal.Yet this hypothesis continues to fascinate researchers.Problems with the hypothesis begin when one tries to discern exactly what the hypothesis is stating.Penn notes that the hypothesis is stated “more and less strongly in different places in Sapir's and Whorf's writings”(1972:13).At some points, Sapir and Whorf appear to support the strong version of the hypothesis and at others they only support the weak version.Alford(1980)also notes that neither Sapir nor Whorf actually named any of their ideas about language and cognition the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.This name only appeared after their deaths.This has lead to a wide interpretation of what researchers consider to be the one and only hypothesis.Another problem with the hypothesis is that it requires a measurement of human thought.Measuring thought and one's world view is nearly impossible without the confounding influence of language, another of the variables being studied.Researchers settle for the study of behavior as a direct link to thought.If one is to believe the strong version of linguistic determinism, one also has to agree that thought is not possible without language.What about the pre-linguistic thought of babies? How can babies acquire language without thought? Also, where did language come from? In the linguistic determinist's view, language would have to be derived from a source outside the human realm because thought is impossible without language and before language there would have been no thought.Supporters of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis must acknowledge that their study of language in the “real world” is not without doubt if their language influences how they categorize what they seem to experience.Penn writes, “In short, if one believes in linguistic relativity, one finds oneself in the egocentric quandary, unable to make assertions about reality because of doubting one's own ability to correctly describe reality”(1972:33).Yet another problem with the hypothesis is that languages and linguistic concepts are highly translatable.Under linguistic determinism, a concept in one language would not be understood in a different language because the speakers and their world views are bound by different sets of rules.Languages are in fact translatable and only in select cases of poetry, humor and other creative communications are ideas “lost in the translation.” One final problem researchers have found with the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is Whorf's lack of empirical support for his linguistic insights.Whorf uses language nuances to prove vast differences between languages and then expects his reader to infer those differences in thought and behavior.Schlesinger attacks Whorf's flimsy thesis support: “...the mere existence of such linguistic diversities is 三门峡职业技术学院

新编简明英语语言学教案

0398-2183570 Sanmenxia Polytechnic

A New Concise Course in Linguistics

insufficient evidence for the parallelist claims of a correspondence between language on the one hand and cognition and culture, on the other, and for the determinist claim of the latter being determined by the former”(1991:18).Schlesinger also fails to see the connection between Whorf's linguistic evidence and any cultural or cognitive data.“Whorf occasionally supplies the translations from a foreign language into English, and leaves it to the good faith of the reader to accept the conclusion that here must have been a corresponding cognitive or cultural phenomenon”(1991:27).One infamous example Whorf used to support his theory was the number of words the Inuit people have for „snow.' He claimed that because snow is a crucial part of their everyday lives and that they have many different uses for snow that they perceive snow differently than someone who lives in a less snow-dependent environment.Pullum has since dispelled this myth in his book The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax(1991).He shows that while the Inuit use many different terms for snow, other languages transmit the same ideas using phrases instead of single words.Despite all these problems facing the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, there have been several studies performed that support at least the weaker linguistic relativity hypothesis.In 1954, Brown and Lenneberg tested for color codability, or how speakers of one language categorize the color spectrum and how it affects their recognition of those colors.Penn writes, “Lenneberg reports on a study showing how terms of colors influence the actual discrimination.English-speaking subjects were better able to re-recognize those hues which are easily named in English.This finding is clearly in support of the limiting influence of linguistic categories on cognition”(1972:16).Schlesinger explains the path taken in this study from positive correlation to support for linguistic relativity: “...if codability of color affected recognizability, and if languages differed in codability, then recognizability is a function of the individual's language”(1991:27)Lucy and Shweder's color memory test(1979)also supports the linguistic relativity hypothesis.If a language has terms for discriminating between color then actual discrimination/perception of those colors will be affected.Lucy and Shweder found that influences on color recognition memory is mediated exclusively by basic color terms–a language factor.Kay and Kempton's language study(1984)found support for linguistic relativity.They found that language is a part of cognition.In their study, English speakers' perceptions were distorted in the blue-green area while speakers from Tarahumara–who lack a blue-green distinction–showed no distortion.However, under certain conditions they found that universalism of color distinction can be recovered.Peterson and Siegal's “Sally doll” test(1995)was not intended to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis specifically, but their findings support linguistic relativity in a population who at the time had not yet been considered for testing–deaf children.Peterson and Siegal's experiment with deaf children showed a difference in the constructed reality of deaf children with deaf parents and deaf children with hearing parents, especially in the realm of non-concrete items such as feelings and thoughts.Most recently, Wassman and Dasen's Balinese language test(1998)found differences in how the Balinese people orient themselves spatially to that of Westerners.They found that the use of an absolute reference system based on geographic points on the island in the Balinese language correlates to the significant cultural importance of these points to the people.They questioned how language affects the thinking of the Balinese people and found moderate linguistic relativity results.There are, on the other hand, several studies that dispute the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.Most of these studies favor universalism over relativism in the realm of linguistic structure and function.For example, Osgood's common meaning system study found that “human beings the world over, no matter what their 三门峡职业技术学院

新编简明英语语言学教案

0398-2183570 Sanmenxia Polytechnic

A New Concise Course in Linguistics

language or culture, do share a common meaning system, do organize experience along similar symbolic dimensions”(1963:33)In his universalism studies, Greenberg came to the conclusion that “agreement in the fundamentals of human behavior among speakers of radically diverse languages far outweighs the idiosyncratic differences to be expected from a radical theory of linguistic relativity”(1963:125).Alford's interpretation of Whorf shows that Whorf never intended for perception of the color spectrum to be used to defend his principle of linguistic relativity.Alford states, “In fact, he is quite clear in stating that perception is clearly distinct from conception and cognition, or language-related thinking”(1980).Even Dr.Roger Brown, who was one of the first researchers to find empirical support for the hypothesis, now argues that there is much more evidence pointing toward cognitive universalism rather than linguistic relativity(Schlesinger 1991:26).Berlin and Kay's color study(1969)found universal focus colors and differences only in the boundaries of colors in the spectrum.They found that regardless of language or culture, eleven universal color foci emerge.Underlying apparent diversity in color vocabularies, these universal foci remain recognizable.Even in languages which do not discriminate to eleven basic colors, speakers are nonetheless able to sort color chips based on the eleven focus colors.Davies' cross-cultural color sorting test(1998)found an obvious pattern in the similarity of color sorting behavior between speakers of English which has eleven basic colors, Russian which has twelve(they distinguish two blues), and Setswana which has only five(grue=green-blue).Davies concluded that the data showed strong universalism.Culture influences the structure and functions of a group's language, which in turn influences the individual's interpretations of reality.Whorf saw language and culture as two inseparable sides of a single coin.According to Alford, “Whorf sensed something „chicken-and-egg-y' about the language-culture interaction phenomenon”(1980).Indeed, deciding which came first the language or the culture is impossible to discern.Schlesinger notes that Whorf recognized two directions of influence–from culture to language and vice versa.However, according to Schlesinger, Whorf argues that “since grammar is more resistant to change than culture, the influence from language to culture is predominant”(1991:17).Language reinforces cultural patterns through semantics, syntax and naming.Grammar and the forms of words show hierarchical importance of something to a culture.However, the common color perception tests are not strongly linked to cultural experience.Schlesinger agrees: “Whorf made far-reaching claims about the pervasive effects of language on the mental life of a people, and all that experimental psychologists managed to come up with were such modest results as the effect of the vocabulary of a language on the discriminability of color chips”(1991:30).In 1955, Dr.James Cooke Brown attempted to separate language and culture to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.He suggested the creation of a new language–one not bound to any particular culture--to distinguish the causes from the effects of language, culture, and thought.He called this artificial language LOGLAN, which is short for Logical Language.According to Riner, LOGLAN was designed as an experimental language to answer the question: “In what ways is human thought limited and directed by the language in which one thinks?”(1990).Today with the help of the Internet, many people around the world are learning LOGLAN.Riner appears positive in the continuing work with LOGLAN to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: 三门峡职业技术学院

新编简明英语语言学教案

0398-2183570 Sanmenxia Polytechnic

A New Concise Course in Linguistics

“As far as we can yet know, LOGLAN can accommodate precisely and unambiguously the native ways of saying things in any natural language.In fact, because it is logically rigorous, LOGLAN forces the speaker to make the metaphysical(cultural, worldview)premises in and of the natural language explicit in rendering the thought into(disambiguated)LOGLAN.Those assumptions, made explicit, become propositions that are open for critical review and amendment–so not only can the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis be tested, but its details can be investigated with LOGLAN”(1990).Further research and linguistic development is necessary to find out if LOGLAN will defend or dispute the theory of linguistic relativism.Other aspects of this hypothesis which warrant further research include another look at Peterson and Siegal's study involving deaf children, and Lucy's suggestion of a new theoretical account of language and thought.In Peterson and Siegal's study there are revealed two naturally occurring groups–deaf children of hearing parents and deaf children of deaf parents--which allow for a within culture test of linguistic relativity(Skoyles 1999).Their results offer direct evidence that language molds thought.Additional research in this area with specific testing of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in mind could prove successful.Also, Lucy states that all linguistic relativity proposals claim that language has some influence on thoughts about reality.He further suggests that “a theoretical account needs to articulate exactly how languages interpret experiences and how those interpretations influence thought”(1997:291).In his introduction to Whorf's body of work, John Carroll suggests a reason why so much attention and controversy surround the theory of linguistic relativism.Carroll states, “Perhaps it is the suggestion that all one's life one has been tricked, all unaware, by the structure of language into a certain way of perceiving reality, with the implication that awareness of this trickery will enable one to see the world with fresh insight”(1956:27).The world is getting smaller with the diffusion of computers and new communications technology.Interaction between members of different cultures is becoming easier and more prevalent.On a global scale, the hypothesis could be taken as a possible rationalization why foreign nations fail to communicate successfully.Awareness of linguistic relativity, however, should lead to a better understanding of cultural diversities and help to bridge intercultural communication gaps.4 Linguistic evidence of cultural differences

(1)Greetings and terms of address(2)Thanks and compliments(3)Color words(4)Privacy and taboos(5)Rounding off numbers(6)Words and cultural-specific connotations(7)Cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors 5 The significance of cultural teaching and learning

Learning a language is inseparable from learning its culture.When learning a foreign or second language, we should not only learn the mere imitation of the pronunciation, grammar, words and idioms, but also learn to see the world as native speakers do, that is to say, learn the ways in which the foreign language reflects, the ideas, customs, and behavior of that society, learn to understand their “language of the mind”, or acculturation.Cultural overlap, diffusion and intercultural communication

三门峡职业技术学院

新编简明英语语言学教案

0398-2183570 Sanmenxia Polytechnic

A New Concise Course in Linguistics

(1)Cultural overlap refers to the identical part of culture between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.For example, the superior tends to refer to himself or herself by means of kinship terms, such as

“Have daddy/mummy/teacher told you that?”

(2)Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, this phenomenon is known as cultural diffusion.One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance of loan words.The practice of observing holidays of foreign origins and accepting concepts from other cultures.The attitude towards cultural diffusion(esp.cultural imperialism owing to linguistic imperialism)Linguistic imperialism is a kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the worldwide expansion of one language.(3)Intercultural or cross-cultural communication is communication between people from different cultures(their cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.)In cross-cultural communication, we need to pay special attention to the significant differences regarding social relations and concept of universe from different perspectives such as language, food, dress, attitude towards time, work habits, social behavior and religious belief that can cause frustrations in communications and contacts.7 Homework

1)Revision exercises on page139.2）Have you ever find any instances or examples of cultural imperialism in the present China? What are they? And what are the causes or reasons behind them? 3)How do deal with language imperialism and nationalism? 8 Bibliography

1.戴炜栋、何兆熊主编：《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，2002 2.Saussure, F.de.Course in General Linguistics, Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2001.3.Hockett, C.F.A Course in Modern Linguistics, New York: Macmillan, 1958.4、胡壮麟，《语言学教程》[M]，北京大学出版社，2001年。

5、凌征华，《英语语言学》[M]，湖南人民出版社，2006年。9 Reflection

三门峡职业技术学院

新编简明英语语言学教案

0398-2183570

第二篇：-12-1-9英语演讲稿Chapter9

Chapter9.Knowledge is power.Good morning dear judges and friends！My topic today is Knowledge is power.During the days of the Indian Ocean earthquake last year, there was a 10-year-old British girl, Tilly, who was later called “beach angel.”

That day , she was having a holiday with her family on beach in Phuket, Thailand.Suddenly ,she saw the tide rush out.Her geography teacher had told her this was a prediction of a tsunami wave coming in.Tilly quickly realized that they were in terrible danger.“Oh, my god, tsunami ,tsunami is coming ?” She screamed at her parents and alerted the others to get off the beach immediately.The wave crashed a few minutes later, but no one on the beach was injured.All the survivors thanked Tilly for sharp mind and knowledge about quakes.She had saved about 100 people „s lives because of her accurate mastery and application of knowledge.I admire Tilly , reading a lot about her and tsunami.I gradually realized that knowledge is power, and knowledge is more than equivalent to force, especially when we are in danger.As a pupil, we should cherish time in classes, gain more knowledge, be a knowledgeable person, and make our outlook brighter!

参考译文：知识就是力量

在去年的印度洋海啸中,有一个十岁的英国小女孩,她的名字叫蒂莉。她后来被称为“海滩天使”。

海啸快要来临的时候，蒂莉正在和她的父母在泰国普吉岛海滩上度假。突然，她发现潮水在内陆不断地涌动。她的地理老师曾经讲过这种现象是海啸即将来临的预兆。“噢，上帝，海啸，海啸要来了！”她 尖 叫 着，并告诉她的父母，并动员海滩上的游客撤离这个危险的地方。当几百名游客刚刚跑到安全地带的时候，海啸的白色巨浪已经排山倒海般奔涌而至。但是，这个海滩上，无一人伤亡。所有幸存者都感谢蒂莉，因为她知道海啸的知识，还有着机智。她凭借着正确地掌握并运用知识，拯救了数百条人命。

我非常敬佩蒂莉，而且阅读了有关她和海啸的很多文章与资料。我渐渐地意识到知识就是力量，特别是当我们遇到危险的时候，知识具有超凡的力量。作为一名学生，我们应该珍惜课堂上的分分秒秒，学习更多的知识，做一个有知识的人，让我们的未来更美好！

第三篇：英语语言学总结

1.The fact that there is no logcial or intrinsic connection between a sound and a meaning is called what design feature of language?(Arbitrariness)

2.The actual use of language knowledge is called what by Chomsky?Performance

3.Any syllable can not be exempted from a what?

vowel

4.Free morphemes have two types, what are they?

Lexical morphemes and functional morphemes

5.Which two consonants are liquids?

[l][r]

6.Which vowel is rounded and open?

[o]

7.What is formalism in linguistics?

Formalism or formal linguisitics is the study of the abstract forms of languige and the internal relations.8.What is a minimal pair?

Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.9.What is a bound morpheme?

Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.10.What is langue?

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.11.Describe the sound features:

[g]:stop, velar

[m]:bilabial, nasal

[w]:bilabial,glide

[^]:central, unrounded, semi-open

[f]:labiodental, liquid, fricative

1.The study about the meanings is which branch of linguistics? Smantics

2.Suprasemental features include four, name two.Stress and intonation

3.Sounds that are produced with no obstruction of airstream are called what?

Voiceless sounds

4.Language is used to build or maintain social contact reflects which function?

Phatic function/communion

5.Name the two affricates.6.Which vowel is close, front and long?

[i:]

7.What is phonetics?

Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds.8.What is allomorph?

An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme.9.What is competence?

10.What is a derivation morpheme?

Derivation morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.11.Describe the sound features:

[b]:bilabial, stop

[k]:velar,stop

[f]:labiodental, fricative

[∫]:palatal, fricative

[a:]unrounded, back, long, open

1.The fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication reflects what design feature of language?

Specialization

2.The particular realization of langue is what?

3.Describe the syllable structure.V CV VC CVC CCVC VCC CCCVC CVCC CVCCC

4.Words formed from the first letters of a series of words and

pronounced as single words, what are they called?

Acronym

5.Voiced palatal fricative is which sound?

6.Which vowel is unrounded and back?[a:]

7.What is language?

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.8.What is syntagmatic relation?

Syntagmatic relation refers to the horizontal relationship between linguisitc elements, which form linear squences.9.What is a morpheme?

A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.10.What is derivation?0

Dereivation is a way of word formation, which is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.11.Describe the sound features:

[i:]:long, closed, front

[t]:alveolar, stop

[v]:labiodental, fricative

[l]:liquid,fricative

[h]:liquid, frictive, glottal

1.Who distinguishes Competence and Performance?

Noam Chosmsky

2.The vertical relation between linguistic elements is called what relation?

Paradigmatic relations.3.The two levels of language--sound and meaning make which design feature of language?

Duality

4.The phenomenon that one sound is influenced by neighboring sounds is called what?

Assimilation

5.The two semi-vowels are what?

[j] [w]

6.Which vowel is long, central?

7.What is a phoneme?

Phonemes are the phonological units of language.8.What is an inflectional morpheme?

9.What is synchronic linguistics?

Synchronic linguistics is the study of language at one particular time.10.What is a compound?

Building new words by putting two words together is called compound.11.Describe the sound features:

[p]:bilabial, stop, liquid

[v]:labioldental, fricative

[l]:alveolar, liquid

[n]:nasal, alveolar

[e]:semi-opened, front, short, unrounded

卡号10385211密码5635

第四篇：英语语言学概论--整理

1.Design feature(识别特征)refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2.Productivity(能产性)refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language.3.arbitrariness(任意性)Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning.4.symbol(符号)Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5.discreteness(离散性)Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6.displacement(不受时空限制的特性)Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users.7.duality of structure(结构二重性)The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure.8.culture transmission(文化传播)Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9.interchangeability(互换性)Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1.★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2.★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1)Productivity.2)Discreteness.3)Displacement 4)Arbitrariness.5)Cultural transmission 6)Duality of structure.7)Interchangeability.3.Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules.By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates.And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4.★(Function of language.)According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1)Instrumental function.工具功能 2)Regulatory function.调节功能

3)Representational function.表现功能 4)Interactional function.互动功能 5)Personal function.自指性功能

6)Heuristic function.启发功能 [osbQtq`kf`h] 7)Imaginative function.想象功能 II.Adult language has three functional components as following: 1)Interpersonal components.人际 2)Ideational components.概念 3)Textual components.语篇

Chapter 1 Language语言

1.general linguistics and descriptive linguistics(普通语言学与描写语言学)The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.2.synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics(共时语言学与历时语言学)Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3.theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics(理论语言学与应用语言学)The former copes with languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4.microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学)The former studies only the structure of language system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.5.langue and parole(语言与言语)The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6.competence and performance(语言能力与语言运用)The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.7.speech and writing(口头语与书面语)Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8.linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior(语言行为潜势与实际语言行为)People actually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior.And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9.syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系)The former describes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10.verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际)Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication.The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1.★How does John Lyons classify linguistics? According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following: 1)General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2)Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3)Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4)Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2.Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1)Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2)Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3)Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3.★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system? Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following: 1)Phonetics.语音学 is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2)Phonology.音位学 studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3)Morphology.形态学 studies about how a word is formed.4)Syntax.句法学 studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5)Semantics.语义学 studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6)Pragmatics.语用学

★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学

1.articulatory phonetics(发音语音学)The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2.acoustic phonetics(声学语音学)The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3.auditory phonetics(听觉语音学)The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4.consonant(辅音)Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5.vowel(元音)is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6.bilabials(双唇音)Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips.[p] [b] [m] [w] 7.affricates(塞擦音)The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates.[tX] [dY] [tr] [dr] 8.glottis(声门)Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9.rounded vowel(圆唇元音)Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening.[u:] [u] [OB] [O] 10.diphthongs(双元音)Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][Oi] [Qu][au] 11.triphthongs(三合元音)Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly and continuously to a third one.[eiQ][aiQ][OiQ] [QuQ][auQ] 12.lax vowels(松元音)According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels.All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1.★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria? The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1)The position of the soft palate.2)The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3)The place of articulation.4)The manner of articulation.2.★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria? Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1)The state of the velum 2)The position of the tongue.3)The openness of the mouth.4)The shape of the lips.5)The length of the vowels.6)The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3.★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other? Phonetics has three sub-branches as following: 1)Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2)Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3)Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4.★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively? I.The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following: 1)Voiced.2)Nasal.3)Consonantal.4)Vocalic.5)Continuant.6)Anterior.Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学 7)Coronal.8)Aspirated.II.The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following: 1)High.2)Low.3)Front.4)Back.5)Rounded.6)Tense.5 1.2.3.4.5.Chapter 4 Phonology 音位学

phonemes(音位)Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.allophones(音位变体)Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.phones(单音)The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.minimal pair(最小对立体)Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.contrastive distribution(对比分布)If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6.complementary distribution(互补分布)If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be in complementary distribution.7.free variation(自由变异)When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8.distinctive features(区别性特征)A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9.suprasegmental features(超切分特征)The distinctive(phonological)features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.10.tone languages(声调语言)Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11.intonation languages(语调语言)Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12.juncture(连音)Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1.★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology? 1)Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2)Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.2.Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/.And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3.How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set? A minimal pair should meet three conditions: 1)The two forms are different in meaning.2)The two forms are different in one sound segment.3)The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4.★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1)Contrastive distribution.Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in a change of meaning.2)Complementary distribution.The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3)Free variation.In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.5.What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English? I.1)Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.2)The distinctive(phonological)features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3)Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment.They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6.What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?

Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level

7.★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?

The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.7

1.morphemes(语素)Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs(语素变体)Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs(形素)Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2.roots(词根)Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes(词缀)Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes(自由语素)Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes(粘着语素)Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3.inflectional affixes(屈折词缀)refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes(派生词缀)refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4.empty morph(空语子)Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph(零语子)Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5.IC Analysis(直接成分分析)IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression(both a word and a sentence)into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.6.immediate constituents(直接成分)A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents(最后成分)Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7.morphological rules(形态学规则)The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.8.word-formation process(构词法)Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1.★What is IC Analysis?

IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression(both a word and a sentence)into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2.How are morphemes classified? 1)Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2)Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3.★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a)All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b)All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4.What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph? a)Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b)Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5.Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a)Functionally: i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b)In term of position: i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present.And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6.What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example: a)un-+ adj.->adj.b)Adj./n.+-ify->v.c)V.+-able-> adj.d)Adj.+-ly-> adv.Chapter 5 Morphology 形态学

Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学

1.syntagmatic relations(横组关系)refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations(纵聚合关系)refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations(等级关系)refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2.IC Analysis(直接成分分析)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers(短语标记法)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing(方括号标记法)is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3.constituency(成分关系)

dependency(依存关系)

4.surface structures(表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformational rules.deep structures(深层结构)deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures.5.phrase structure rules(短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax.They are used to break a natural language sentence down into its constituent parts.6.transformational rules(转换规则)7.structural ambiguity(结构歧义)

1.What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure? They are different from each other in four aspects: 1)Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful grouping of sentences.2)Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3)Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4)Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2.Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1)PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2)T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3.What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we start with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are they generated? To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules(PS rules)while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules(T-rules).4.What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?

Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5.What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1)Syntagmatic relations 2)Paradigmatic relations.3)Hierarchical relations.10 1.2.3.4.5.Chapter 7 Semantics 语义学

Lexical semantics(词汇语义学)is defined as the study of word meaning in language.Sense(意义)refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.Reference(所指)means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.Concept(概念)is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Denotation(外延)is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6.Connotation(内涵)refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7.Componential analysis(成分分析法)is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8.Semantic field(语义场)The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways.The areas are semantic fields.9.Hyponymy(上下义关系)refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10.Synonymy(同义关系)refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11.Antonymy(反义关系)refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12.Lexical ambiguity(词汇歧义)

13.Polysemy(多义性)refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14.Homonymy(同音(同形)异义关系)refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15.Sentence semantics(句子语义学)refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1.What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics? In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics;it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2.What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning? 1)Object, 2)concept, 3)symbol, 4)user, 5)context.3.What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?

第五篇：《语言学概论》教案.

《语言学概论》教案

选用教材:叶宝奎《语言学概论》 施用范围:汉语言文学本科 厦门大学中文系语言教研室 绪 论 【教学目的】

认识语言学概论课程的性质和语言学的研究对象、基本任务,初步了解语言学的研究方法、基本分类和主要流派,以及语言学的学科地位。

【基本概念】

语言学 语文学 共时语言学 历时语言学

历史比较语言学 结构主义语言学 转换生成语法 社会语言学

【基本理论】

一、语言学的对象和任务

二、语言学的建立(发展阶段

三、语言学在科学体系中的地位

四、语言学的类别

五、语言学的流派

六、语言学的功用 【重点难点】

一、语言学的建立过程

二、重要的语言学流派(代表人物、理论观点、主要贡献

三、主要的语言学门类和派别 【教学方法】 讲授和讨论相结合。【所用课时】 4课时 【教学内容】 第1学时

本课程的学习目的和学习方法:

一、认识课程,明确学习目的

这也是我们过去经常碰到的一个问题。理论课,不管是语言学理论还是其他学科的理论课,直接用“有什么用”来提问,确实不好回答,因为它是基础理论,不是实用性、实践性的课程;但是反过来,一门科学如果没有这种基础理论的教学和研究,或者说,基础理论研究得不好,那么这门科学就很难得到有效的发展。语言学的情况当时与此相似,认为谁都会说话,还研究什么!中国语言学和国外先进的语言学的发展水平相比,现在还比较落后,究其原因,其中最重要的就是我们的语言理论研究严重滞后。从这一点来看,语言理论研究就显得非常重要、非常有用。(文学理论教大家去欣赏文学,语言理论教大家理

解分析语言

重要性:每个人都会说话交流,甚至掌握几种语言,但不等于对语言都有理性的认识。从大的方面看,语言的一些问题值得探索研究:(1语言的产生和起源--劳动说?交际需要(现在很多民族没有语言?为什么?/儿童怎样掌握语言?

(2语言的发展:很稳定--可以看懂古书;发展性--瞬息万变(网络语言,但不影响交际

(3人类思维方式一致,为什么世界语言丰富多彩?(方言差别明显--但却能够互相翻译? 从具体语言现象看,可思考的问题更多:(1语音:发现演变规律,古今音的对应--古音的构拟;方言差别

(2词汇:探索发展规律,文言文翻译、解释--现代汉语新词新语的大量涌现?

(3语法:稳定是基础,但又有发展。“幸福着你的幸福”“永远有多远”“非常可乐、非常男女”“很受伤” 学习目的:树立科学的语言观,系统掌握基本概念、理论和知识,具备用语言理论和方法分析语言现象的能力。

因此,学习这门课,要培养对语言的敏感意识。(弄清楚身边一些特殊语言现象 语言学:研究语言的科学,主要讲授语言的性质、结构规律、演变规律以及语言与文字的关系等问题。

二、学习方法

1、态度端正,思想重视

(1语言与生活的关系密切:每天接触,十分平常→容易忽视

语言不仅与日常生活(方言分歧、还与文化生活(推广普通话、政治生活(语言政策有关

(2语言学与外语的关系

借助语言理论知识→比较学习→提高学习技巧和外语水平

有些理论、概念也要通过外语才能分析明白(汉语中没有性、数、格、态的变化 如英语中的“think”,/n/是舌尖音,/k'/是舌根音,/n/在发音部位上为了能够流畅地过渡到/k'/,而受到了k的同化,变成了舌根音/(/。

凡是普通话里后鼻音是/(/的字,日语都念长音:英雄、影响、光明 普通话是前鼻音的字,日语也念前鼻音,即拨音“ん”:精神

(3语言与国家政治的关系

语言是民族标志,社会政治的变化往往影响语言。前苏联→独立(民族语→哈萨克斯坦总统竞选

许多国家原本只有一种语言→分裂→亲属语言(语言不同,但尚存共性 美洲:法语区/英语区 欧盟诸国:工作语言不统一 例子:很多国家语言地位的规定成为政治争斗的导火线? 语言蕴藏着民族的思维方式、价值观念、文化习俗等多方面的内容(出国后的留学生发生变化,虽然不是军事、经济渗透,但潜移默化→地位重要→国家重视推广、规范本国语

(4语言和专业的关系:文学有文学理论,语言有语言理论→提高驾驭语言的能力

语言与其他学科也有联系。

机器翻译、计算语言学:义素分析法、语法生成模式--语义、语法的形式化描写

2、理解和把握各章节的基本概念和内容 教材共分为八大章+绪论(看教材

绪论、语言、语音、语义、词汇、语法、文字、语言的起源和发展、语言教学

绪论、第一章:总论语言的性质、功能、性质

其中第二节“语言是一种符号系统”是全书的核心理论。这一节重点讲了两个问题,一是语言结构的二层性,二是语言运转的组合关系和聚合关系。第一个问题讨论的是:语言中如何以几十个音位有层次地组成各级语言结构单位(语素、词、词组、句子,直至能说出无穷无尽的话语,探索语言中“以少驭多”的奥秘。第二个问题讨论的是语言中的各级结构单位如音位、语素、词等如何运转,解释人们何以能灵活地运用有限的规则造出无穷无尽的话语的奥秘。组合关系和聚合关系由于讨论的是语言结构单位的运转规律,因而成为全书的指导思想,以后各章,无论是讨论语言系统的各个侧面(语音、语法、语汇等 ,还是语言的演变,都是围绕着组合关系和聚合关系展开的,或者说,都是以组合关系和聚合关系为视角去贯串语言的结构。

第二至第五章:分论语言的各构成要素的具体特点(第六章“文字”从另一角度谈 第七章:总论语言的历史演变(产生和发展

第八章是补充部分,主要从语言应用的角度来谈语言

概括地讲,包括性质特点、结构体系、演变规律、与文字的关系。

总(本质--分(结构:组合与聚合--总(发展

其中,性质结构是课程的重点;组合关系和聚合关系是贯穿主线。

3、注意内容的系统性和联系性(整体研究

结合各个章节,不能分开孤立的学习。第一章的理论是全书总纲,要理解透彻,并运用到后面各章。如:汉语词汇的构造、组合规则、聚合规则、语言的发展变化等,都需要第一章的理论。

4、注意自学,加强实践练习

课后查阅相关资料,阅读语言理论著作,反复钻研理论概念。对比联系,强化记忆→牢固掌握课堂内容(注意结合外语

关注身边的语言现象,结合语言事实进行理论分析,善于观察,做有心人,积累有趣的语言事实资料,为抽象理论作根据,提高语言灵敏度和捕捉力。

第2学时

一、语言学的对象和任务

(一“语言学”定义(前面反复提到

语言学是研究语言的科学。研究和探讨语言的性质、结构规律和发展演变规律。

语言的性质:

1、人类最重要的交际工具;

2、人类的思维工具;

3、符号系统。

语言的结构:

1、由语音(外在形式[+载体:文字]、意义(内容统一构成。

因此,对语言的研究,大致可以分为几个部分:语音、语义、词汇、语法[+文字]。

语言的发展:怎样产生?有哪些演变规律?历史发展的情况。

(二语言学的对象--语言

“任何语言”:从对象上说,横向研究--包括书面语,口语和外语;

纵向研究--包括“活”语言(当今交际用和“死”语言(古代书面语;

从结构上说,语言学研究包括语音、词汇、语法、语义和文字等方面。

(三语言学的任务

理论上阐述语言的性质、结构和功能,通过考察语言及应用的现象,揭示语言存在和发展的规律。把本质的东西挖出,固有规律概括出来→总结、整理出系统的理论→指导人们的语言实践。

但语言学的研究主要在于语言的符号性结构上,至于语音、文字的意义,不是它研究的任务。语言学研究的就是这样的一些结构规律问题。(鸡吃食 / 食,鸡吃

当然,它还必须研究语法结构的约定俗成的规律及其组合的演变规律。

(四研究方法:语言本身构造复杂→从不同方面和角度进行研究

先分成语音、语义、词汇和语法四个部分→描写分析特点和发展,比较差异(与共同来源的语言→综合各种研究成果,归纳一般规律(总--分--总

我们的课程:以汉语研究为基础,通过汉语了解语言学的基本原理和一般规律

二、语言学的建立(形成过程

1、语言学产生原因→适应社会需要,逐步扩大范围,改进方法而产生

2、从语文学到语言学

语言与人类社会同时产生,与人类关系密切→引起人们注意→语言研究有两千多年的历史(源于中、印、希腊文明古国--语文学的三个源头

(1我国:文言文的延续(注重文字,方言分歧大→古籍阅读的需要→文字、音韵、训诂(小学

(2印度:解读经文→梵语语言的研究→前4世纪,对梵语语音的研究,形成“声明学”;对梵语语法的研究,《巴尼尼经》(梵语语法专著。《西游记》去西天取经。

(3希腊:哲学的巨大影响(语言研究与哲学研究相随古希腊学者亚里士塔尔库斯对罗马史诗进行了编辑与整理,他的学生迪奥尼修斯·特拉克斯写出了第一本被称为“语法最伟大的权威”--《希腊语法》→拉丁语分布广,使用时间长(一千多年拉丁文语法→哲学家用逻辑研究语言→奠定了语法研究的基础(现在《语言哲学》的重要性

语文学的局限性:(1研究对象狭窄,不重口语→经典古文语法的规定性,与现实脱节

古代的语言学主要以书面语为主要研究材料,不重视口头语言的研究,而今天的语言学则十分重视口语研究,如制定语言规范,确立共同语的各方面标准等,都要依据口语的研究成果。

(2研究目的单纯,读懂古籍→不重语言结构本身,缺乏科学认识

古代语言学研究语言,主要是给政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学方面的经典著作作注解,比如我国古代的语文学主要就是围绕阅读先秦经典著作的需要来研究文言的,而现代语言学的研究目的主要是分析语言的结构,以此探讨语言发展的共同规律。

(3研究地位低下,附属地位→不能形成独立的科学 所以称之为语文学而非语言学。虽然语文学存在局限,但却为语言学的建立准备了材料。社会进步→使用语言的状况发展,交往频繁→交际范围超越了国界,对语言表达的要求提高→要求语言本身方面的探索

19世纪初历史比较语言学的建立标志着真正独立的语言科学诞生。英国人威廉·琼斯提出“印欧语假设”,成为历史比较语言学的先驱。德国学者施列格尔第一个提出“比较语法”。他是历史比较语言学的草创者。历史比较语言学的奠基人是丹麦的拉斯克,德国的博普和格林,俄国的沃斯托可夫。他们运用“历史比较法”,即通过对不同语言的比较研究,揭示语言间的亲属关系以及它们的历史发展。他们共同研究使语言纳入了历史的科学的轨道,把它当作研究的独立对象。

19世纪中叶,普通语言学也建立起来了。随着计算机技术的开发,又提出了人机交流的语言问题,要求人造的计算机语言逐步接近自然语言。人类使用语言的状况复杂多样→提出从一种语言转到另一种语言的各式各样的“转码”要求→沟通口语和书面语、方言和共同语、今语和古语、本族语和外族语、自然语言和机器语言。

总之,社会需要指引→语言研究范围扩大→推进研究→加深人们的认识

第3学时

三、语言学流派

现代语言学一百多年发展,经历了三个时期:历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学、转换生成语言学

(简单了解:各学派的贡献、地位、代表人物和优点、缺点

1、历史比较语言学→标志着语言学科的正式诞生

19世纪千孤立的分散的研究→进入系统研究,走上独立发展的道路

从历史比较语言学开始,语言学的研究对象和研究目的、研究方法都有别于传统的语文学。语言学从此摆脱了经学的附庸地位,用历史的观点和历史比较法研究语言现象,注意探讨规律,走上了科学轨道。

在理论和方法上大致可以分成三个阶段: 19世纪初→初级阶段:丹麦的拉斯克、德国的格里木和博普→奠基者

19世纪中期→发展阶段:德国的施莱歇尔→按照语言的来源和亲属关系作“谱系分类”,从事有关亲属语言早期的原始母语的构拟和重建→语言亲属关系的直观性

19世纪末→新语法学派时期:德国的奥斯特霍夫和布鲁克曼,创办《形态学研究》,宣布“语音演变规律不允许任何例外”(1优点:相对于语文学时期是一个巨大进步,使语言走上了独立发展的道路,是一个里程碑。

语文学:仅限于书面语;目的是校勘古书,释经解义;忽略了语言本身结构的发展。

历史比较语言学:建立比较法,注意古今语言,当代不同语言的对比,重视“活”语言;运用进化论观点考察历史来源和亲属关系,作了谱系分类。

(2缺点:对口语的重视仍然不够,侧重古语及其发展,将语言事实作孤立的分析;忽视了语言各要素之间的联系;忽略了语言整体的系统性考察→已经不能适应语言研究的进一步发展

2、结构主义语言学

当语言研究在观点、方法上酝酿重大变革之时,瑞士的索绪尔出版了著作《普通语言学教程》,提出了一整套的新理论→奠定了结构主义的基础 提出了著名的“棋子理论”(1主张系统的研究;认为每种语言都有一套独特的关系结构

(2每种语言的个别单位都不是孤立存在的,是跟其他单位区别、对立存在的(3重视共时语言的研究和口语的研究;着重分析、描写语言的结构体系 从20世纪30年代开始,又发展出了三个主要的结构主义学派:(1布拉格学派(结构-功能学派:强调语言是一个功能体系;在国际语言学会上公开音位学观点,代表作《音位学原理》 代表人物:马泰修斯、雅科布逊

(2丹麦学派(哥本哈根学派:语言是完整的符号系统,符号是表达方式和内容的综合体 成立哥本哈根语言学会,创办《语言学学报》,论文《结构语言学》

代表人物:叶姆斯列夫、布龙达尔

(3美国的描写语言学派:结构语言学中发展最完善,最重要的一个学派

先驱是鲍阿斯和萨丕尔→强调对语言作客观的共时描写

重要人物布龙非尔德→《语言论》是该派德奠基之作→“布龙非尔德时期” 另外,还有日内瓦学派、伦敦学派、莫斯科学派等小的学派。

(1优点:强调语言是一个完整的符号系统,不能孤立地研究,要从各成分间的关系,结构的分层符号系统的整体性认识;注重对立成分的分析,影响很大。

(2缺点:后来陷入了形式主义的死胡同,过于追求形式,忽视了语句的具体内容。将形式和意义割裂开来。只能描写语言事实而不能解释原因。

3、转换生成语言学

是在批判和修正美国描写语言学理论的过程中发展起来的→是最近几十年西方语言学最有影响的一个学派。创始人乔姆斯基→1957年《句法结构》→标志着转换生成语法的诞生(“乔姆斯基革命”

这一理论是建立在理性主义的哲学基础之上的,不同于建立在经验主义基础上的结构主义语言学。

受美国描写语言学的影响,最初用结构主义方法研究语法,但发现了弊端,发现以分布和替代的原则方法对语言素材进行切分和分类,只分析语言的表面现象,不能解释语言 的内在结构，特别是不能分析语言的深层和歧义结构。（例：进口机电产品；他走了半小 时了；Flying planes can be dangerous）

乔姆斯基不满足于观察语言行为的表面现象，而要求探索人类内在的语言能力。（1）不仅描写语言行为，还要研究体现在人脑中的认知系统和普遍语法。（2）人具有语言习得机制，大脑能自动创造和理解句子→揭示这些规则（3）语法是生成和描写句子的规则系统→由句法、语音、语义三平面组成（4）采用现代数理逻辑的形式化方法，根据有限的规则演绎无限的句子

研究人的语言生成能力，即怎样用有限的成分和规则生成无限的句子。目标是提出一 个能产生所有句子的语法系统，它主要包括生成和转换两个方面。生成规则又包括一套短 语结构规则和词汇插入规则。前者用一套符号表示，如：S→NP+VP,NP→D+N, VP→V+NP(S代表句子，NP代表名词短语，VP代表动词短语，D代表限定词，N代表名词，V代表动词。词汇规则是生成合格句子的保证，即对一个句子内各成分加以限制。如上 例，“POST”前的名词一定是生物名词（一般指人）。违反这个限定，就会生成不合格的句 子。“转换”主要指句式和结构的转换。优点：这种学说适合计算机的应用，克服了结构主义语言学只重表层结构忽视深层 结构的不足。为语言研究开辟了新的路子和方向，促进了认知科学的发展；在计算机科 学、人工智能特别是人机翻译和对话方面产生了深远的影响。与形式主义相对峙的还 有系统-功能学派：英国的韩礼德（系统语法和功能语法两部分）

第4学时

四、语言学类别（分类）语言学是语言研究各个学科的总称，内部还有很多分支学科，内容十分丰富。人们研 究语言的目的、角度、方法多样→形成语言学的各个类别和派别

1、功能角度：理论语言学和应用语言学（功能标准为首要标准）理论语言学：语言学的主体，理论基础，包括具体、个别的研究和综合各种语言研究 应用语言学：广义：与其他学科交叉融合创立的新语言学科，综合多种学科的研究手 段。狭义：语言教学，指语言理论在语言教学中的运用（语言习得心理）

2、具体研究对象：普通（一般）语言学/个别（专语、具体）语言学 普通语言学：人类所有的语言，探讨其性质、结构、功能、发展，揭示其普遍规律（普通语音学、普通词汇学、普通语法学、普通语义学）--语言学研究的基础理论，（我 们的课程就属于普通语言学）指导个别语言学

个别语言学：一种或几种语言，为前者提供材料并接受其指导

（汉语语言学/英语语 言学、现汉/古汉；它也可以以几种有亲属关系的语言为研究对象，分析研究其发展规律 特点，如我国的壮语、布衣语、傣语、土语等是来源于侗傣语支的亲属语言，以这几种语 言为研究对象，叫侗傣语言学。）

普通语言学的理论是在专语语言学研究成果的基础上建立起来的，其发展水平取决于 对具体语言进行研究的成果。对具体语言的研究越多，材料越丰富，那么就越有利于普通 语言学理论的发展。目前对具体语言的研究，还主要局限在世界上一些大的语种，还有很 多语言，比如一些边远、落后民族的语言，还没有得到很好的研究，甚至可能还有不为人 知的语言。所以目前普通语言学的理论只综合反应了一部分语言的研究成果，随着语言学 家对各种语言研究的范围不断深入，不断扩大，语言学理论还将进一步得到发展。

3、研究时段：共时语言学和历时语言学

任何一种语言，都有它横向结构的一面，相对稳定的一面，又有它纵向发展的一面，历史的一面。研究分析语言，既需要看它在当代的状态，认识它的现状，也要看发展的特 点，找出演变的规律。

共时语言学：以语言发展中某个阶段为横断面，研究相对静止的状态→横向研究（现

汉、古汉）又可分为描写语言学和对比语言学两类。

历时语言学：研究语言发展的历史；在不同阶段的演变情况→纵向研究（历史语音 学）

研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是 从纵的方面研究语言的历史。涉及到一种语言的，叫做历史语言学，如历史语音学、历史 词汇学、历史语法学等；涉及到多种语言和方言的，叫做历史比较语言学。

4、研究方法：描写语言学和对比语言学

描写语言学：断代似的研究，反映语言在某个时代的客观细致的面貌（现汉语音、词 汇、语法）

其中描写语言学是我们最熟悉的，它对语言进行的是断代似的研究，对语言在某一个 时代状况作客观的深入细致的描写分析，以期反映出这种语言的基本面貌。如现代汉语、古代汉语、英语语法等都属于描写语言学。又可分语音学、词汇学、语法学、修辞学等。

对比语言学：在描写的基础上进行比较研究（包括共时历时研究：古今汉语、英汉语 法→类型比较）

5、研究对象的状态：静态语言学和动态语言学 静态语言学：静态的语言符号为对象，构成要素的分析描写 动态语言学：动态的言语交际为对象；研究其发展运动规律

6、研究角度和范围：微观语言学和宏观语言

学 微观语言学：理论语言学的各个部门→围绕语言结构本身进行研究→语音、词汇、语 法和语义研究 宏观语言学：应用语言学的各个类别→综合各门学科展开研究（更大的范围内进行研 究）分类角度不同，一门学科可以划分在不同类别中，如现汉（功能→理论语言学、对象 →专语语言学、时段→共时语言学、方法→描写语言学）应用语言学类别：广义、狭义之分（1）社会语言学：结合社会学和语言学，把语言结构和运用各方面与社会环境结合 1952年首次出现名称，1964年学科诞生，吸收运用心理学、人类学、民族学和社会 心理学理论。主要研究语言与社会的关系，关注语言与社会集团的关系； 研究语言的社会本质和社会差异（地域方言、社会方言、社会接触和混合等）（2）心理语言学：心理学与语言学结合形成，语言是个人心理的反映。

重点观察语言与个人的关系，通过语言了解人的心理认知活动；

研究人类大脑的语言机制，人类怎样运用语言；

研究儿童语言习得、语言得接受和发生过程、语法的心理实现。

比如有的语言学家提出“核心句”问题就是具有简单句、肯定句、主动句和陈述 句性质的句子，心理语言学对此进行过实验，结果发现，陈述句转换为否定句比否定句转 换为肯定的被动句（被动语态）的时间短，说明核心句是符合心理现实的。

（3）神经语言学：最近20年从心理语言学中分离出来的。

研究语言和大脑结构的关系，通过神经控制系统研究言语的产生；

中心问题是大脑如何生成语言。

人脑重量大约为1450克，黑猩猩头部重量与人类差不多，但大脑只有500克左右。人的大脑皮层具有语言中枢，黑猩猩没有语言中枢。

人类语言活动主要与大脑左半球的某些部位相联系，控制语言活动的大脑左半球主 管理性的抽象思维，右半球主管形象思维。通过对大脑的解剖可以看到，大脑左半球控制 语言的有关部位比右半球相应部位体积要大，结构更加复杂，连婴儿也不例外。有些十岁 以下的儿童，因为患脑瘤而需要切除大脑左半球皮层，但并不影响他们的语言能力，这表 明儿童的大脑心理过程可以从左半球转移到右半球。但是对于成年人，若将大脑左半球切

除，则将完全丧失语言能力。

实验表明，人在大脑中的语言机制是特有的，其它动物不具备这样的机制。人的语 言机制主要是在大脑，大脑和人类的语言的内在联系现在认识研究还很不够。语言的起源 问题，语言与思维的关系问

题至今难有突破，关键就在于我们对人脑的机制研究不足以回 答上述问题。如果真正把语言与人脑的关系研究透彻，破解其间的秘密，可以想见，语言 及语言学史都将写下崭新的一页。（4）统计语言学；数理语言学；实验语音学；计算语言学；语言病理学

统计语言学：作品、作家用词频率统计→探索语言风格，为词典编纂提供依据

确定语言中借词的比重，常用汉字，计算机存储汉字等。

由应用语言学的成果可以看出语言学在学科体系中的重要性。

五、语言学在科学体系中的地位

语言是联系人们的纽带→不同学科对语言研究产生兴趣（生物学物种变异→历史比较 法；数学、史学、文学→比较法学）

1、作为传授经验和认识客观世界的工具→与历史学、考古学、民族学等关系密切

2、作为思维工具→与哲学、逻辑学、心理学关系密切

3、作为思想的表现形式→与文学、文化学关系密切（英汉比较：称谓→年龄、血 缘）语言研究领域扩大→成果广泛运用→与自然科学也发生着密切的关系

从正式建立到现在的100多年间，语言学的理论和方法引起了自然科学的广泛重视。它与数学、信息论、计算机科学、通讯工程、系统论等学科联系紧密，产生了一些新的语 言学分支，如心理语言学、生理语言学、统计语言学、地理语言学、数理语言学、计算语 言学、人工智能、人机对话、机器翻译等学科→离不开语言理论（语言学发达的程度成为 衡量国家科技水平的重要标志）

由应用语言学的成果我们可以看到语言学在学科体系中的重要地位：它与生理学、心理学、物理学、社会学、民族学、人类学、文化学、神经学等学科都有着极为密切的关 系。过去，语言学是向别的学科学习，学习它们的观点和方法，而现在，语言学成为方法 与观点输出的学科，像文学、社会学、心理学、民族学等都充分吸收语言学的研究成果为 己所用。尤其是现在的计算机科学，完全接受了语言学的理论方法，将语言学的研究成果 最充分地加以利用，比如计算机字库、词库的建立，计算机自动处理自然语言，都需要语 言学的研究成果。计算机学科利用语言学成果，一方面使计算机作为人的大脑的延伸功能 更加扩大，效用更加提高，另一方面使语言获得了新的表现形式，即在口语（有声语言）、书面语（文字记录）之外，获得了第三种形式――人机对话（计算机语言）形式。我们 可以说，语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学（现代语言学的建立只有一百 来年），而且更是一门领先的科学，是

人文科学中的一支先锋力量。所以瑞士心理学家皮 亚杰这样评价语言学：“语言学，无论就其理论结构而言，还是就其任务之确切性而言，都是在人文科学中最先进而且对其它各种学科有重大作用的带头学科。”

六、语言学的功用

1、提高文化水平，掌握科学技术的基础：研究本族语的结构规律→指导语文教学实 践

2、指导我们学习语言、运用语言和研究语言：方言、本族语和外语

3、有利于各项语文政策的制定和推行：扫除文盲、汉字改革、推广普通话、语言规 范化

4、提高文学作品的分析和鉴赏能力

5、有利于科学技术的现代化：语言是信息载体，发挥很大作用--计算机对自然语言 的处理

6、对哲学也有重要意义：语言与思维的关系、语言的起源、语言的本质、语言习得 等

对个人来说，利用语言学的成果，可取得事半功倍的效果。（如：学习外语或方 言，找出对应规律，明确规律）?? ?? ?? ??

《语言学概论》教案 厦门大学人文学院中文系语言教研室 1