简明语言学第一章总结

第一篇：简明语言学第一章总结

Chapter 1

ⅠThe things that I have learnt

① Linguistics: the scientific study of language.② The scope of linguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, applied linguistics ect.③ Some important distinctions in linguistics: prescriptive vs.descriptive, synchronic vs.diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance.④ Traditional grammar: prescriptive;tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize the importance of the written words;forced languages into a Latin-based framework.⑤ Several different definitions of language, e.g.Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.(Sapir,1921)

⑥ Generally accepted definition: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.⑦ Design features of language(design features refer to the definition properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.): arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement, cultural transmission ect.⑧ Functions of language: phatic, directive, informative, interrogative, perforrnative, expressive and evocative.⑨ Saussure: the Swiss linguist in the early 20th century.⑩ Chomsky: the American linguist in the late 1950s.ⅡThe things that I am interested in.① The scope of linguistics, such as phonetics.② The differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar.③ Design features of language.ⅢThe things that I am confused

①the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure in the early 20thChomsky in the late 1950s.How to understand the red parts(the underline parts)

②How to understand the following words

Synchronic, diachronic, langue and parole

③The functions of language.I still can’t understand each function means what exactaly.

第二篇：新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结

一、定义

1.语言学Linguistics

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General Linguistics

The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言language

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design Features

It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性

Productivity多产性

Duality双重性

Displacement移位性

Cultural transmission文化传递

⑴arbitrariness

There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it

makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity

Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶Duality

Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷Displacement

Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmission

Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system.this showed that language is culturally transmitted.not by instinct.animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力Competence

Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance

Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics

The study of language change through time.a diachronic study of

language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue

The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole

The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性Prescriptive

It aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性Descriptive

A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点

1.language is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

2.几种观点和现象的提出者：

⑴瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure F.de Saussure:Langue和parole的区别

⑵U.S.A linguist N.Chomsky美国语言学家N.Chomsky

in1950针对Saussure‘s langue&parole提出Competence和performance ⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家

Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.⑷U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美国语言学家Charles Hockett 提出了语言的识别特征design features

3.the word ‘language‘ preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。

4.in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts.5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so it's hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once.判断题

6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。

三、问答题

1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study? Phonetics----it‘s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it‘s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‘s languages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It‘s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.Semantics---It‘s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2.why do we say language is arbitrary?

Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object

is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it‘s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.A typical example to illustrate the ‗arbitrariness‘ of language is ‗a rose by any other name would smell as sweet‘.3.what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。

traditional grammar is prescriptive.it is based on‘ high‘ written language.传统语法是规定性的，研究‗高级‘书面语。

4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why

Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language.unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。

5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings? Speech enjoys for the following reasons: ⑴Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.⑵A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in

writing.⑶speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.6.how is Saussure‘s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky‘s ?

Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language.their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study

Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6.the distinction between langue and parole?

⑴langue is abstract, relatively stable ⑵parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation.1/ What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴

The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.(普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）

The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.（音系学）

The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.（形态学）

The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）

The study of meaning in language is called semantics.（语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.（语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）

The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）

The study of applications(as the recovery of speech ability)is generally known as applied linguistics.（应用语言学）But in a narrow sense，applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics,（人类语言学）neurological linguistics,（神经语言学）mathematical linguistics,（数字语言学）and computational linguistics.（计算机语言学）

3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的几对基本概念

Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写

If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar.Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is ―correct‖ or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时

The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语

Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form.Reasons are: 1.Speech precedes writing;2.There are still many languages that have only the spoken form;3.In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语

The Swiss linguist F.de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study.He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用 Proposed by American linguist N.Chomsky in the late 1950‘s.He defines competence as the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.Chapter Two Phonology

一、定义

1.宽式音标Broad transcription

The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.2.窄式音标Narrow transcription

The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.3.清音Voiceless

When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.4.浊音Voicing

Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.5.元音Vowel

The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.6.辅音Consonants

The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.7.音位Phoneme

The basic unit in phonology, it‘s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.8.音位变体Allophones

Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.9.音素phone

A phonetic unit or segment.it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it‘s a speech sound we use when speaking a language.10.最小对立对Minimal pair

When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.11.超切分特征Suprasegmental

The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features.the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.12.互补分布complementary distribution

P35

Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary

distribution.13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of language

The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。

14.爆破音stops

When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]

二、知识点

1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.2.of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.3.Phonetic 组成

⑴Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学longest established, mostly developed

⑵Auditory

phonetics 听觉语音学

⑶Acoustic

phonetics 声学语音学

4.articulatoryApparatus /Organs of Speech

Pharyngeal cavity– 咽腔

Oral...–

口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here

Nasal …– 鼻腔

5.The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound[j];the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d].7.nasal consonants: [m] / [n] / [η]

9.A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.10.Sequential rules例子

If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:

⑴the first phoneme must be /s/

⑵the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ ⑶the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w

11.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone;Rise-fall tone

三、问答题

1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound?

Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。

听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。

声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。

2.how are the English consonants classified?

By place of articulation and By manner of articulation

3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why?

语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?

Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning.4.what‘s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit.Phoneme---a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?

Minimal pair—two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.除了出现在同一位臵的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个

语音组合.Minimal set—a group of sound combinations with the above feature.一组具有上述特征的语音组合.By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?

Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.7.explain the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule.有序规则Sequential rules

Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.同化规则Assimilation rules

The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by‘ copying ‘a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.省略规则Deletion rule

It‘s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.Chapter Three Morphology

一、定义

1.词素Morpheme

The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.2.自由词素Free Morpheme

Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.3.黏着词素Bound morphemes

Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.4.词根Root

Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.5.词缀Affix

The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.6.曲折词缀inflectional affixes

The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.7.派生词缀Derivational affixes

The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.8.词干Stem

A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added.a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.9.形态学规则Morphological rules

They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word.10.前缀Prefix

Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes ‗be-‗ and ‗en(m)-‗

11.后缀Suffix

Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization.二、知识点

Inflectional morphology 1.Morphology

Derivational morphology

Free morphemes

Morphemes

Root

Bound morphemes

Inflectional affixes

Affixes

Prefix

Derivational affixes

2.some words maybe said to contain a root morpheme.Suffix

4.Compound features:

⑴orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between.⑵Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.⑶semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its component

Chapter Four

Syntax

一、定义

1.句子sentence

A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.2.语言运用Linguistic competence

The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.3.谓语Predicate

The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.4.定式子句Finite Clause

A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone.5.从属子句Embedded Clause(E C)

In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C.6.主要子句Matrix Clause

In a complexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.7.层次结构Hierarchical structure

The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.8.语法关系Grammatical relations

The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence.9.句法类型Syntactic category

A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object.10.表层结构S-structure

A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.11.深层结构D-structure

A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.12.普遍语法General grammar

A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language.13.移动α 规则Move α

A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.14.句法移位Syntactic movement

Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position.15.转换原则Transformation rules

Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.16.X标杆理论X-bar theory

A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format :X‖→（Spec）X(Compl).一种泛指的、高度抽象的图示，它把所有的词组结构规则概括为一种程式

X‖→（Spec）X(Compl)

a:

X‖

b: X‖

Spec X‘

Spec

X‘

X‘

X compl

X

complement

NP ‘the student who likes linguistics‘ consists of Det, N and S with Det being the Specifier ,N the head, S the complement.NP(…)有冠词、名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语，名词是核心词，子句是补足语。

二、知识点

1.syntax这个单词源于Greek,本义是arrangement.2.我们把syntax的学习看作 a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence.3.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge.4.判断题：the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number ,and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.5.判断题:A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood.一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动或事件。

6.句子的分类

simple sentence

Types of sentences

coordinate or compound sentence

Complex sentence

简单句---It consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.并列句合成句-It contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as ―but‖, ‖and‖.ect.复合句—It contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.复合句的特点：

⑴An embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause

⑵Most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a Subordinator, such as ‖that‖

⑶An embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.子句是一个语法单位，大部分子句要带一个被称为从属连词的引导词，如果子句作为秒年第秒年句单独存在，它可能不是一个合乎规范的句子，除非改变他的形式。

7.when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence

are produced one after another in a sequence.8.The hierarchical nature of sentence structure句子结构层次特点

sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase NP or verb phrase VP, grouped together.9.The points at which the tree braches at various levels are called Branching

nodes分叉点

10.In addition to the use of structural tree diagrams, linguists may show the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets and subscript labels.11.句法类型

Major …主要词类open ,can add new words

Lexical category

名、动、形、副词N,V,Adj,Adv

Syntactic

Minor… 次要词类close, words are fixed Categories

限定、助动、介、代、连、叹Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj,Int

Phrasal category

Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word(called a lexical category)or a phrase(called phrasal category)that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence.12.短语类型

Noun Phrase

NP

Phrasal

Verb Phrase

VP

Categories

Preposition Phrase PP

Adjective Phrase

AP

13.The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each moun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb, in many cases, grammatical relations refer virtually to ‘who‘ does ‘what ‘to ‘whom‘.14.we usually refer to the grammatical relations as subject of and direct object of.15.Combinational rules must be small in number so as not to create extra burdens on the human memory.also these rules must be powerful enough to yield all the possible sentences, and rule out the impossible ones 组合规则一定不能太多，以免给人的记忆带来过多的负担，用这些规则必须能组合出所有可能的句子，而排除不可能的句子。

16.rules an generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.It captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence.循环性体现了语言中的句子能有更多的成分，使说话者能在同一句子中重复一些句法成分。

17.移位类型

Syntactic

NP-movement=t‘s involving the movement of a noun

phrase.Movement

名词短语的移位

WH-movement=It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.陈述变疑问句

AUX-…=the movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence initial position.助动词移位到句首的移位

18.普遍语法的广义原则

General Principles of Universal Grammar: Case Condition和Adjacency Condition

格条件---a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned by V or P to the object position, or by AUX to the subject position.名词词组必须有格，宾语的格是由动词或介词决定，而主语的格由助动词决定。

相邻条件—a case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other,it explains why no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object.格分派者和格接受者要相邻。这解释了为什么任何别的词组类不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。

19.Universal Grammar is believed to contain a parameter with the valves增and减set on the Adjacency condition.with English-type languages，the Adjacency Parameter is set to the增 value, while for French-type language, the parameter is set to减value.三、问答题

1.Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences.⑴the tower on the hill collapsed in the wind ⑵Mary promised John to see the doctor.Chapter 5

Semantics

一、定义

1.命名论The naming theory

The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.2.意念论The conceptualist view

It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to;rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.语境论Conceptualism

It‘s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.4.行为主义论Behaviorism

It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the‖ situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer‖.this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.5.意义Sense

It‘s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It‘s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it‘s abstract and de-contextualized.6.所指意义Reference

It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.7.同义词Synonymy

It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.8.多义词Polysemy

It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the

same one word may have more than one meaning.9.同音(形)异义Homonymy

It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.10.同音异义Homophones

It refers to two words are identical in sound.e.g.rain/reign.11.同形异义Homographs

It refers to two words are identical in form.e.g.tear v./tear n.12.上下义关系Hyponymy

It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.13.反义词Antonymy

It‘s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.14.成分分析法Componential Analysis----分析词汇抽象意义

It‘s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.15.述谓结构分析Predication Analysis

由British Linguist G.Leech提

出

It‘s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis.Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect.通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。

16.先设前提Presupposition

It‘s a semantic relationship or logical connection.A presupposes B.17.蕴涵Entailment

Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.A: Mark married a blonde heiress.B: Mark married a blonde.二、知识点

1.Major views of meaning study:

The naming Theory-----希腊Scholar Plato

The conceptualism-----观点代表人是John Firth,但Bloomfield阐述更有说服力

The Conceptualist view----Ogden和Richards用classic semantic triangle of

significance

The Behaviorism-----英国Bloomfield提出，使用了Jack和 Jill故

事阐明

The naming theory的局限性: ⑴It‘s only applicable to Nouns only.⑵Within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that don‘t exist in the real world.sense 2.Lexical meaning

reference 3.主要的意义关系

Synonymy;Antonymy;Hyponymy;Polysemy;homonymy

4.(1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects

Synonyms

(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style

分类

(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning

(4)Semantically different synonyms 例子：

(1)British English Lift

Luggage Lorry

Petrol

Flat

windscreen torch

American English Elevator Baggage Truck

Gasoline Apartment windshield flashlight

(2)kick the bucket=pop off=die=pass away=decease

5.Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality.6.some synonyms differ in their collocation.例子: Accuse….of

charge….with

rebuke….for

sour milk

Rotten tomatoes addled eggs

rancid bacon or butter 7.a polysemic word, i.e, a word with several meaning, is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word.complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.8.According naming theory words are just names or labels for things.9.Every utterance occurs in a particular spatiotemporal situation, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance ,the speaker and the hearer, the action they are performing at the time, the various objects and event existed in the situation.10.the contextulist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield, who drew on behaviourist psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.Homophones—when two words are identical in sound

Rain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace;leak/leek

Homonymy Homographs—when two words are identical in spelling

分类

Bow v./bow n.tear v./ tear n lead v./lead n.Complete homonyms—when two words are identical in both spelling

and sound.例子Fast adj./ fast v.scale n./scale v.12.(1)Gradable antonyms分级反义词(a matter of degree)

例hot-warm-cold

Antonym(2)Complementary antonyms互补反义词a matter of degree between

分类

two extremes例子

Alive—dead;

male—female;

(3)Relational opposites关系反义词(中间可以加成分，如上、中、下)

father-son;teacher-pupil;doctor-patient;buy-sell;above-below

13.句子间的意义关系sense relation between sentences X is synonymous with Y.X entails Y.X presupposes Y.X is a contradiction.X is semantically anomalous.14.Analysis of meaning意义的分析

子 Old—middle-aged—young;

(1)Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning对词汇成分的分析

(2)Predication analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaning对句子意义的分析

(1)is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called Semantic features.一个单词的意义可以分析为称作语义特征的意义。

This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features.这一方法和把一个音位分析成更小的叫作区别性特征的方法类似。

Plus and minimums signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent, these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters.One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.加减号用来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在或缺省，这些特征用大写字母来写。

15.the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components.Two aspects of Sentence meaning: grammatical and semantic meaning.16.Selectional restrictions---

Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules.17.In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication------

Predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.it applies to all forms of a sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative.Predication consists of Arguments and Predicates.述谓是句子基本单位，是对句子的抽象化，适用于包括陈述句、祈使句和疑问句。述谓由一个或数个论元和一个谓词组成。

An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence, a predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.论元是一个的逻辑的一个参与者，谓词是关于论元的陈述，或说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系。

18.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we classify the predications into two-place predication(has two arguments),one-place predication(has one argument),and no-place predication(has no argument).19.判断题：although predicate and argument are the same kind of unit in terms of their componential make-up, they have different roles in the whole predication.the predicate can be regarded as the main element, for it includes tense, modality, ect.it may also said to govern the arguments for it determines the number of nature of the arguments.20.The analysis of meaning is a highly abstract and complicated matter.三、问答题

1.how are sense and reference related?

Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it‘s abstract and de-contextualized.Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality.2.in what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？

In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features;it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that

distinguish different sounds.3.what‘s grammaticality? what might take a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?

什么是语法性？一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的?

Grammaticality---the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence.A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e.it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e.it may not make sense at all

Chapter 6

pragmatics 一、定义

1.语境Context

The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it‘s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.2.言语行为理论Speech act theory

It‘s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.it‘s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication.it aims to answer the question ‖what do we do when using language?‖

The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.3.叙述句Constatives

Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.;4.行为句Performatives

Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.5.言内行为Locutionary Act

A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses.it‘s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.6.言外行为Illcotionary Act

An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker‘s intention it‘s the act performed in saying something.7.言后行为 Perlocutionary Act

Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.it‘s the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance.8.句子意义Sentence meaning

It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a

sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.9.话语意义Utterance meaning

It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered.10.合作原则Cooperative Principle

It‘s proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.11.会话含义Conversational implicatures

According to P.Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in th utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker‘s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP.话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。

二、知识点

1.语用学的几个重要的理论

⑴言语行为理论Speech act theory

由英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出

在此理论基础上John区分了定义了叙述句Constatives和行为句

performatives

在区分叙述句和行为句之后，他又定义了言内行为、言外行为和言后行为

例子：you have left the door wide open.Locutionary act:: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean.Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door.Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed.※在这三种行为中，语言学家对言外行为最感兴趣

cos this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker‘s intention, and in their study of language communication, linguists are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and also how his intention is recognized by the hearer.⑵会话原则CP 逻辑哲学家Paul Grice提出;

2.合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle

数量 the maxim of Quantity-----你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求

Make your contribution as informative as required;

Do not make your contribution more informative than is required

质量the maxim of Quality-----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话

Do not say what you believe to false.Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence 关系 the maxim of relation-----使你的话与话题相关be relevant 方式 the maxim of manner-----避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序

Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity;

Be brief/be orderly.3.六七十年代时，美国哲学语言学家John Searle对言外行为分成了5类

阐述性Representatives---to commit the speaker to something‘s being the

Case ,to the truth of what has been said.例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性，指令性Directives---are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do

something.例词:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening，ordering 是特有实例

承诺性Commissives---when speaking the speaker puts himself under

obligation.例词:promising, undertaking, vowing最典型

表达类Expressives---the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards

an existing state of affairs.例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating

宣告类Declarations---the successful performance of an act of this type brings

about the correspondence between what is said and reality.例句

I now declare the meeting open/I appoint you chairman of the committee/I fire you.这五类differ in their strength or force.4.Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分

Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.5.语境中听者与说话者shared knowledge is of two types:

The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world，including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.6.Sentence meaning与Utterance meaning的区别

Sentence meaning---abstract, decontextualized.Utterance meaning---concrete, contextualized it‘s based on sentence meaning, it‘s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。

7.While most utterances take the form of sentences ,i.e.most utterances are complete sentences

In terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some can‘t even be restored to complete sentences

Chapter 7

Historical linguistics

一、定义

1.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics

A term used in stead of historical linguistics to the study of language change at various points in time at various historical stage.2.元音大交替Great Vowel Shift

A series of systematic sound change in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system.3.词尾脱落Apocope

The deletion of a word-final vowel segment.4.插入音Epenthesis

The insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word.5.首字母缩略词Acronym

A word created by combining the initials of a number of words.6.混合法Blending

A process of forming a new word by combining parts of two other words.7.缩写词Abbreviation

A shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.8.略写词Clipping

A kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases.9.逆向构词法Back-formation

A process by which new words are formed by taking away he suffix of an existing word.10.语义扩大化Semantic broadening

The process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historical earlier denotation.缩小less general or inclusive

11.原始语Protolanguage

The original form of a language family which has ceased to exist.12.语系Family language

A group of historically related languages that have developed from a comon ancestral language.13.同源词Cognate

A word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to a word in another language because both languages have descended from a common source.14.语音同化Sound assimilation

The physiological effect of one sound on another.15.内部借用Internal borrowing

The application of a rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar by analogy to its earlier operation.16.派生法Derivation

It refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words.17.语义转换Semantic shift

It‘s a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former

meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning.18.语义细化Elaboration

Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.19.古英语Old English

Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxsons invaded b the British Isles from northern Europe.20.中世纪英语Middle English

in 1066

Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England under William.二、知识点

1.the historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence.2.Language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.3.Middle English had been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar.4.in old English, nearly half of the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative cases.5.one of the most obvious change in English is the systematic and regular change in the Vowel Change.6英语发展的三个历史时期及历史事件

Old English(449-1100):

Began with the invasion of the British Isles by English-speaking Anglo-

Saxons from Europe, ended with the arrival of Norman French invaders

historically known as the Norman Conquest.Middle English(1100-1500)

It‘s distinguished from the Old English period by the Norman Conquest.Shakespeare‘s plays and Milton‘s Poems 受欧洲文艺复兴运动影响最大。

Modern English(1500 up to now)

From the Modern English period as the result of the cultural influence

of the European renaissance movement.7.古英语和现代英语词的对比

Old English

Modern English Mann

man Wif

woman Cild

child Hus

house Mete

food Etan

eat

第三篇：简明大学物理总结

简明大学物理

第一章

质点运动学

1． 参考系

为了确定物体的位置而选作参考的物体称为参考系。要作定量描述，还应在参考系上建立座标系。2． 位矢与运动方程 位置矢量（位矢），是从座标原点引向质点所在的有向线段，用矢量r表示。位矢用于确定质点在空间的位置。位矢与时间t的函数关系：

ˆy(t)ˆˆrjz(t)k

r(t)x(t)i

称为运动方程。

位移矢量，是质点在时间dt内的位置改变，即位移：rr(tt)r(t)

轨道方程：质点运动轨迹的曲线方程。3． 速度与加速度

rvt平均速度定义为单位时间内的位移，即：drvdt 速度，是质点位矢对时间的变化率：平均速率定义为单位时间内的路程：速率，是质点路程对时间的变化率：

vvst

dsdt

dvadt 加速度，是质点速度对时间的变化率：4．

dvˆatˆaanndt加速度 法向加速度与切向加速度

v2an，方向沿半径指向曲率中心（圆心）法向加速度，反映速度方向的变化。

切向加速度在圆周运动中，角量定义如下： 角速度 角加速度ddt atdvdt，方向沿轨道切线，反映速度大小的变化。

ddt

v2dvatRanR2vRdtR而，5． 相对运动

对于两个相互作平动的参考系，有 ：

rpkrpk'rkk'，vpkvpk'vkk'，apkapk'akk'

第二章 质点运动定律

1． 牛顿定律 第一定律：任何物体都保持静止的或沿一直线作匀速运动的状态，直到作用在它上面的力迫使它改变这种状态为止。

第二定律：运动的变化与所加的动力成正比，并且发生在这力所

dpFpmvdt，沿的直线方向上。即

F当质量m为常量时，有 ma

在直角坐标系中有，Fxmax，Fymay，Fzmaz 对于平面曲线运动有，Ftmat，Fnman

第三定律：对于每一个作用总有一个相等的反作用与之相反，或者说，两个物体之间对各自对方的相互作用总是相等的，而且指向相FF反的方向。即 1221

2ˆFmrr 0在转动角速度为的参照系中，惯性离心力为F0ma0 2． 非惯性系与惯性力

质量为m的物体，在平动加速度为a0的参照系中受的惯性力为

注意：

1.深入理解牛顿三定律的基本内容。

2.掌握应用牛顿定律解题的基本思路，能用微积分方法求解一维变力作用下的质点动力学问题。

3.初步掌握在非惯性系中求解力学问题的方法；理解惯性力的物理意义，并能用以解决简单的力学问题。

第三章

机械能和功

1． 功的定义

质点在力F的作用下有微小的位移dr（或写为ds），则力作的功定义为和位移的标积，即

dAFdrFdrcosFdscos

对质点在力作用下的有限运动，力作的功为

Aa

在直角坐标系中，此功可写为

bFdraaa

应当注意，功的计算不仅与参考系的选择有关，一般还与物体的运动路径有关。只有保守力（重力、弹性力、万有引力）的功才只与始末位置有关，而与路径形状无关。

2.动能定理

质点动能定理：合外力对质点作的功等于质点动能的增量。AFxdxFydyFzdzbbb

质点系动能定理：系统外力的功与内力的功之和等于系统总动能的增量。

A外A内EKEK

应当注意，动能定理中的功只能在惯性系中计算。

0A1212mvmv022

3.势能

重力势能：

EP=±mgh，零势面的选择视方便而定。

1EPkx2,2弹性势能：

规定弹簧无形变时的势能为零，它总取正值。

Mm万有引力势能：取无穷远处为零势点，值

4.功能原理

A外A非保内(EKEP)(EK0EP0)

即：外力的功与非保守内力的功之和等于系统机械能的增量。

EPGr,它总取负5.机械能守恒定律

外力的功与非保守内力的功之和等于零时，系统的机械能保持不变。即 当A外A非保内0时，EKEP常量

注意：

1.熟练掌握功的定义及变力作功的计算方法。.理解保守力作功的特点及势能的概念，会计算重力势能、弹性势能和万有引力势能。

3.掌握动能定理及功能原理，并能用它们分析、解决质点在平面内运动时的力学问题。

4.掌握机械能守恒的条件及运用守恒定律分析、求解综和问题的思想和方法。

难点：

1.计算变力的功。

2.理解一对内力的功。

3.机械能守恒的条件及运用守恒定律分析、求解综和问题的思想和方法。

第四章

动量和角动量

1.动量定理

合外力的冲量等于质点（或质点系）动量的增量。其数学表达式为 ttFdtP2P1



tPitFdtP2P1,P对质点系 i

在直角坐标系中有 2121ttt21FxdtPx2Px1FydtPy2Py1t21FdtPz2Pz

1t1z

2.动量守恒定律

当一个质点系所受合外力为零时，这一质点系的总动量矢量就保

t2持不变。即 当F外0时,Pimivi常矢量

ii

在直角坐标系中的分量式为

当Fx0时,mivix常量 i当Fy0时,miviy常量

i

当Fz0时,miviz常量 i

3.角动量定理

质点的角动量：对某一固定点有

角动量定理：质点所受的合外力矩等于它的角动量对时间的变化率

dLMdt

MriFi iLrpmrv

4.角动量守恒定律

若对某一固定点而言，质点受的合外力矩为零，则质点的角动量保持不变。即



当M0时,LL0常矢量

注意：

1.掌握动量定理。学会计算变力的冲量，并能灵活应用该定理分析、解决质点在平面内运动时的力学问题。

2.掌握动量守恒定律。掌握系统动量守恒的条件以及运用该定律分析问题的思想和方法，能分析系统在平面内运动的力学问题。

3.掌握质点的角动量的物理意义，能用角动量定理计算问题。

4.掌握角动量守恒定律的条件以及运用该定律求解问题的基本方法。

难点：

1.计算变力的冲量。

2.用动量定理系统动量守恒分析、解决质点在平面内运动时的力学问题。

3.正确运用角动量定理及角动量守恒定律求解问题。

第五章 刚体力学

1.描述刚体定轴转动的物理量及运动学公式。2.刚体定轴转动定律

MI

3.刚体的转动惯量

2IrImrdm

（连续分

（离散质点）

2ii布质点）

平行轴定理

IIml

2c4.定轴转动刚体的角动量定理

定轴转动刚体的角动量

LI

刚体角动量定理

5.角动量守恒定律

刚体所受的外力对某固定轴的合外力矩为零时，则刚体对此轴的总角动量保持不变。即

当M0时,I常量

6.定轴转动刚体的机械能守恒

只有保守力的力矩作功时，刚体的转动动能与转动势能之和为常量。外iiMdLdIdtdt

式中hc是刚体的质心到零势面的距离。

注意：

1.掌握描述刚体定轴转动的角位移、角速度和角加速度等概念及联系它们的运动学公式。

2.掌握刚体定轴转动定理，并能用它求解定轴转动刚体和质点联动问题。

3.会计算力矩的功、定轴转动刚体的动能和重力势能，能在有刚体做定轴转动的问题中正确的应用机械能守恒定律。

4.会计算刚体对固定轴的角动量，并能对含有定轴转动刚体在内的系统正确应用角动量守恒定律。

难点：

1.正确运用刚体定轴转动定理求解问题。

1Imgh常量

2c2.对含有定轴转动刚体在内的系统正确应用角动量守恒定律和机械能守恒定律。

第六章

振动学基础

1． 简谐振动方程

xAcos(t)

振幅A：取决于振动的能量（初始条件）。角频率：取决于振动系统本身的性质。初相位：取决于初始时刻的选择。2． 振动相位

t+：表示振动物体在t时刻的运动状态。：初相位，即t=0时刻的相位。3． 简谐振动的运动微分方程

d2x2x02dt

弹性力或准弹性力

Kkx

角频率：A与由初始条件决定：

20kmT2m，k

2v0v01tg()Ax2x0 ，4． 简谐振动能量

EKEP111mv2m2A2sin2(t)EKkA2224，12121kxkAcos2(t)EPkA2224，EEKEP1kA22

5． 同一直线上两个同频率简谐振动的合成 合振幅： A22A1A22A1A2cos(21)

A1sin1A2sin2A1cos1A2cos

2同相：

2k，AA1A2 tg1反相：

(2k1)，AA1A2，k0,1,2,

注意：

1． 简谐振动的特点，以及简谐振动方程中各物理量——振幅A，角频率，初相位，相位（t+）的意义； 2． 简谐振动的旋转矢量表示法； 3． 由已知初始条件建立简谐振动方程，以及由已知简谐振动方程确定物体的位置、速度、加速度的方法；

4． 在同一直线上两个同频率简谐振动的合成规律。

难点：

1． 相位，初始相位的理解和求解；

2． 建立简谐振动方程, 简谐振动的合成； 3． 拍和拍频。

第七章

狭义相对论基础

知识点：

1.爱因斯坦狭义相对论的基本假设。2.洛仑兹坐标变换

xxutxxut yyyy  zzzz 1uxuxtt uttcc 1

c

3.长度收缩 ''''''''''2222uLL1c

（注意同时性条件）

4.时间膨胀

5.相对论速度变换

202v1ucv1ucvuv,v,vuvuvuv111 ccc6.狭义相对论中的质量和能量（1）

2222'x'y'zxyzxxx222mm02(m0为静质量)

2相对论质量与速度关系

v1c

pmvm0v1v2c2（2）相对论动量

（3）相对论能量

总能

E=mc2 静能

E0=m0c2

动能

EK=mc2-m0c2

能量动量关系

E2=(cP)2 +(m0c2)2

重点：

1.理解爱因斯坦狭义相对论的两条基本假设。2.正确理解和应用洛仑兹坐标变换公式。

3.理解长度收缩、时间膨胀以及同时性的相对性等概念，并能用以分析问题。

4.理解狭义相对论中的质量、动量和能量的关系，并能用以分析、计算有关的问题。

5.了解相对论速度变换。

难点：

1.理解长度收缩、时间膨胀以及同时性的相对性等概念，并能用以分析问题。

2.理解狭义相对论中的质量、动量和能量的关系，并能用以分析、计算有关的问题。

第八章

热力学平衡态

1． 理想气体状态方程

MRT在平衡态下，pnkT，K 普适气体常数

R8.31J/molRk1.381023J/KNA玻耳兹曼常数

PV2． 理想气体的压强公式

p3． 温度的统计概念

Et12nmv2nEt33 3kT2

4． 能量均分定理 每一个自由度的平均动能为1/(2KT)。一个分子的总平均动能为摩尔理想气体的内能5． 速率分布函数

f(v)dNNdv

3mEikT(i:自由度）2。

EiRT2。

22v2yvz)m22kT(vxF(vx,vy,vz)()e2kT麦克斯韦速度分布函数

m22kTv22f(v)4()ev2kT麦克斯韦速率分布函数

3m三种速率 最概然速率

平均速率

vp2kTm2RT

v8kT8RTm

3kTm3RT 方均根速率

6． 玻耳兹曼分布律

平衡态下某状态区间的粒子数e-E/kT（玻耳兹曼因子），在重力

mgh/kTnne0场中粒子（分子）按高度的分布

v2

重点：

1． 理想气体状态方程的意义，利用它解有关气体状态的问题。2． 理想气体的微观模型和统计假设，掌握对理想气体压强的推导。

3． 理想气体压强和温度的统计意义。

4． 能量均分定理的意义及其物理基础，由它推导出理想气体内能公式。

5． 速率分布函数及其麦克斯韦速率分布律的意义。会计算三种速率的统计值。

6． 麦克斯韦速度分布函数的意义，及其与速率分布函数的联系和区别。7． 玻耳兹曼分布律的意义和粒子在重力场中按高度分布的公式。

难点： 1． 理想模型的假设。

2． 速率分布函数和速度分布函数的统计意义和物理解释。3． 应用分布函数计算各种量的平均值。

第九章

热力学定律

1． 准静态过程：在过程进行中的每一时刻，系统的状态都无限接近于平衡态。

2． 体积功：准静态过程中系统对外做的功为

v

dApdV，3． 热量：系统与外界或两个物体之间由于温度不同而交换的热运动能量。

4． 热力学第一定律

1ApdVv

2Q(E2E1)A，dQdEA 5． 热容量

CdQdT

定压摩尔热容量 定容摩尔热容量

CpCVCpCVdQpdT dQVdT

迈耶公式

CpCVR 比热容比 i2i

6． 气体的绝热过程

pVc，绝热自由膨胀：内能不变，温度复原。7． 循环过程

热循环（正循环）：系统从高温热源吸热，对外做功，同时向低温热源放热。

效率

致冷循环（逆循环）：系统从低温热源吸热，接受外界做功，向高温热源放热。

致冷系数：8． 卡诺循环：系统只和两个恒温热源进行热交换的准静态循环过程。Q2Q2AQ1Q2 QA12Q1Q1 卡诺正循环效率

1T2T1 T2T1T2 卡诺逆循环致冷系数

9． 不可逆过程：各种实际宏观过程都是不可逆的，且它们的不可逆性又是相互沟通的。如功热转换、热传导、气体自由膨胀等都是不可逆过程。10． 热力学第二定律

克劳修斯表述：热量不可能自动地从低温物体传向高温物体。开尔文表述：任何循环动作的热机只从单一热源吸收热量，使之完全变成有用功，而不产生其它影响是不可能的。

微观意义：自然过程总是沿着使分子运动向更加无序的方向进行。

11． 热力学概率：与同一宏观态对应的所含有的微观状态数。自然过程沿着向增大的方向进行，平衡态相应于一定宏观条件下热力学概率最大的状态。12． 玻耳兹曼熵公式

Skln

13． 可逆过程：无摩檫的准静态过程是可逆过程。14． 克劳修斯熵公式

dQ1T(可逆过程)，dQTdS

15． 熵增加原理：对孤立系统

S0 S2S12S0：对孤立系统的各种自然过程。S0：对孤立系统的可逆过程。

这是一条统计规律。

重点：

1． 准静态过程、体积功、热量、内能等概念，功、热量和内能的微观意义，掌握其计算。

2． 热力学第一定律的意义，利用它分析和计算理想气体各过程。3． 热容量的概念，直接计算理想气体各过程的热量传递。4． 循环过程的概念及热循环、致冷循环的能量转换特征，能计算效率和致冷系数。

5． 卡诺循环的特征，卡诺正循环效率和逆循环致冷系数的计算。6． 实际宏观过程的不可逆性。

7． 热力学概率的意义及它和实际过程进行方向的关系。8． 熵的概念，热力学熵和统计熵

9． 熵增加原理是热力学第二定律的数学表达式。10． 可逆过程的概念及简单熵变问题。

难点：

1． 1． 热容量的概念，和在不同过程中热容量的计算。2． 2． 熵和熵增加原理。

第四篇：语言学流派总结

Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics

Part One: Ferdinand de Saussure:

1.Nature of the linguistic sign: linguistic unit is a sign.It is the combination of the the two(a concept and a sound-image)that makes up the whole of the linguistic sign.Signified(the matter)and signifier(the sound image)

Characteristics of the linguistic sign:

1.The bond between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary.2.The linear nature of the signifier: the signifier is auditory and therefore is unfolded

solely in time.As a result of this, the signifier represents a time span and the span is measurable in one single dimension, the dimension of time.2.Langue and parole

3.Synchronic and diachronic studies

Part Two: The Prague School:

V.Mathesius:

The main emphasis of the Prague School theory is on the analysis of language as a system of functionally related units, an emphasis which shows Saussurean influence.The emphasis has led to the distinction between the phonetic and phonological analysis of sounds and the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features.Phonological oppositions

Influential scholar Trubetzkoy

principles of phonology

For each abstract sound there is a range than a point in which speakers are allowed to make the actual realization of it different from every other Realization by themselves and also distinct from every other realization by other people.A phoneme can be defined as the sumof these differentiating functions.It has three characteristics:

1.It has discriminative power

2.It can not be analysed into smaller distinctive segments

3.It can only be determinedby distinctive features.Functional sentence perspective(FSP)

FSP is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances or texts in terms of the information they contain.(a theory that refers to a linguistic analysis of utterances in terms of the information they contain.)The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.From a functional point of view, some linguists believed that a sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse.The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer which it is their rallying point, the ground on which they meet.This is called the Theme.The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer.This is called the Rheme.It is believed that the movement from the Theme to the Rheme revealsthe movement of the mind itself.Language may use different syntactic structures, but the order of ideas remains basically the same.Based on these observations, they created the notion of FSP to

describe how information is distributed in sentences.FSP deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known information and new information in discourse.The known information refers to information that is not new to the reader or hearer, and the new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or hearer.Sally stands on the table.(1)

On the table stands Sally.(2)

Sally is the grammatical subject in both sentences, but Sally is the Theme in(1)and the Rheme in(2).We can approach a sentence at three levels and distinguish between the Grammatical Sentence Pattern(subject-berb-object), theSemantic Sentence Pattern(agent-action-goal)and the Communicative Sentence Pattern(theme-transition-rheme).This shows that there is a distinction between sentence and utterance.CD: J.Firbas developed the notion of communicative dynamism.It is based on the fact that linguistic communication is not a static but a dynamic phenomenon.CD is meant to measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence.Eg: He was angry

He carries the lowest degree of CD, angry carries the highest degree, and was will rank between them.Normally the subject carries a lower degree of CD than the verb and the object or adverbial.This is because a known or unknown agent appears to be communicatively less important than an unknown action expressed by the finite verb, an unknown goal expressed by the object or by the adverbial element.Part Three: American structuralism

Boas/ SPIE/ Bloomfield/Fries/Chomsky

1.Structural grammar: one point is that the grammatical categories should be defined in terms of distribution.The units of the analysis are defined internally in relation to each other.The other point is that the sentence is seen as a sequence of immediate constituents.IC analysis: it helps to account for the ambiguities of some structures, because IC analysis not only shows sequential relations but also hierarchical relations.2.Behaviorist psychology in structuralism(Bloomfield and B.F Skinner)

1)Behaviourist holds that human beings cannot know anything they have not experienced.2)Human learn language through “stimulus-response” manner.Black box theory: put forward by Skinner.The basic position of radical behaviourism is that since we cannot observe the internal states, we cannot know anything about them.Any statements we make about internal states or processes are necessarily meaningless.Each organism should be regarded as a Black box that cannot be opened for observation.The only meaningful statements one can make about the organism concern what goes into it(stimuli)and what comes out of it.(response)

3)A comparison between traditional and structural grammars

Traditional grammar

Structural grammar

Part FourTransformational –Generative Grammar

1)The development of Chomsky’s TG Grammar: five stages.The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science.The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory.The Extended Standard focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.The Revised Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on government and binding.The latest is the Minimalist Program, a further revision of the previous theory.The development of TG Grammar can be regarded as a process of constantly minimalising theories and controlling the generative powers.Although TG Grammar has involved putting forward, revising, and canceling of many specific rules, hypotheses, mechanisms, and theoretical models, its aims and purposes have been consistent to explore the nature, origin and uses of human knowledge on language.2)Chomsky’s innateness hypothesis: Chomsky believes that children comes into the world with specific innate endowment, not only with general tendencies or potentialities, but also with knowledge of the nature of the world, and specifically with knowledge of the nature of language.is strongly against Bloomfield’s behaviorist psychology and empiricism and adopts cognitive psychology and rationalism.Chomsky’s innateness hypothesis is baded on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately.First, children learn their native language very fast and with little effort.Second, there are other facts that are puzzling if language is not innate.Third, the child learns the total grammar of the language during a limited period of time, from limited exposure to speech.Language Acquisition Device: Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a LAD, which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.He argues the child comes into the world with specific innate endowment, not only with general tendencies or potentialities, but also with knowledge of the nature of the world, and specifically with knowledge of the nature of language.According to this view, children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal.The categories and relations exist in all human languages and all human infants are born with knowledge of them.According to him, the study of language, or the structure of language, can throw some light on the nature of the human mind.LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.3)TG Grammar: the starting point of Chomsky’s TG Grammar is his innateness hypothesis, based on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately.Chomsky’s TG Grammar has the following features.First, Chomsky defines language as a set of rules or principles.Second, Chomsky believes that the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar which captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language.This concerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistic universals.Third, Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker’s tacit knowledge.They seldom use what native speakers actually say;they rely on their own intuition.Fourth, Chomsky’s methodology is hypothesis-deductive, which operates at two levels:(a)the linguist formulates a hypothesis about language structure-a general linguistic theory;this is tested by grammars for particular languages, and(b)each such grammar is a hypothesis o the general linguistic theory.Finally Chomsky follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalist in psychology.London School:

Lay stress on the functions of language and attaching great importance to contexts of situation and the system aspect of language.It is these features that have make this school of thought known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.Malinowski’s theory of meaning: the meaning of an utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which the utterance occurs.Malinowski distinguishes three types of context of situation:1)situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity;2)narrative situations 3)situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vaccum—phatic cmmunion

Firth’s theory of meaning: meaning is use.He defines meaning as the relationship between an element at any level and its context on that level.(Malinowski distinguished three types of context of situation: situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity, narrative situation, and phatic situations

Firth defined the context of situation as including the entire cultural setting of speech and the personal history of the participants rather than as simply the context of human activity going on at the moment.)

Halliday’s systemic grammar: 1)it attaches great importance to the sociological aspects of language;2)it views language as a form of doing rather than as a form of knowing.3)it explains a number of aspects of language in terms of clines.4)It has as its central category the category of the system.In systemic grammar, the notion of system is make a central explanatory principle, the whole of language being conceived as a “system of systems.”

Halliday’s functional grammar: language is what it is because it has to serve certain functions.Social demands on language have helped to shape its structure.Three macrofunctions by Halliday:

1)The ideational function(意念功能）: to convey new information, to communicate a

content that is unknown to the hearer.It is a meaning potential.2)The interpersonal function(人际功能）

It embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations.This function is realized by mood and modality.3)The textual function（语篇功能）: it refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living message different from a random list of sentences.The relation: systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential.While functional grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction.

第五篇：英语语言学总结

1.The fact that there is no logcial or intrinsic connection between a sound and a meaning is called what design feature of language?(Arbitrariness)

2.The actual use of language knowledge is called what by Chomsky?Performance

3.Any syllable can not be exempted from a what?

vowel

4.Free morphemes have two types, what are they?

Lexical morphemes and functional morphemes

5.Which two consonants are liquids?

[l][r]

6.Which vowel is rounded and open?

[o]

7.What is formalism in linguistics?

Formalism or formal linguisitics is the study of the abstract forms of languige and the internal relations.8.What is a minimal pair?

Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.9.What is a bound morpheme?

Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.10.What is langue?

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.11.Describe the sound features:

[g]:stop, velar

[m]:bilabial, nasal

[w]:bilabial,glide

[^]:central, unrounded, semi-open

[f]:labiodental, liquid, fricative

1.The study about the meanings is which branch of linguistics? Smantics

2.Suprasemental features include four, name two.Stress and intonation

3.Sounds that are produced with no obstruction of airstream are called what?

Voiceless sounds

4.Language is used to build or maintain social contact reflects which function?

Phatic function/communion

5.Name the two affricates.6.Which vowel is close, front and long?

[i:]

7.What is phonetics?

Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds.8.What is allomorph?

An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme.9.What is competence?

10.What is a derivation morpheme?

Derivation morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.11.Describe the sound features:

[b]:bilabial, stop

[k]:velar,stop

[f]:labiodental, fricative

[∫]:palatal, fricative

[a:]unrounded, back, long, open

1.The fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication reflects what design feature of language?

Specialization

2.The particular realization of langue is what?

3.Describe the syllable structure.V CV VC CVC CCVC VCC CCCVC CVCC CVCCC

4.Words formed from the first letters of a series of words and

pronounced as single words, what are they called?

Acronym

5.Voiced palatal fricative is which sound?

6.Which vowel is unrounded and back?[a:]

7.What is language?

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.8.What is syntagmatic relation?

Syntagmatic relation refers to the horizontal relationship between linguisitc elements, which form linear squences.9.What is a morpheme?

A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.10.What is derivation?0

Dereivation is a way of word formation, which is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.11.Describe the sound features:

[i:]:long, closed, front

[t]:alveolar, stop

[v]:labiodental, fricative

[l]:liquid,fricative

[h]:liquid, frictive, glottal

1.Who distinguishes Competence and Performance?

Noam Chosmsky

2.The vertical relation between linguistic elements is called what relation?

Paradigmatic relations.3.The two levels of language--sound and meaning make which design feature of language?

Duality

4.The phenomenon that one sound is influenced by neighboring sounds is called what?

Assimilation

5.The two semi-vowels are what?

[j] [w]

6.Which vowel is long, central?

7.What is a phoneme?

Phonemes are the phonological units of language.8.What is an inflectional morpheme?

9.What is synchronic linguistics?

Synchronic linguistics is the study of language at one particular time.10.What is a compound?

Building new words by putting two words together is called compound.11.Describe the sound features:

[p]:bilabial, stop, liquid

[v]:labioldental, fricative

[l]:alveolar, liquid

[n]:nasal, alveolar

[e]:semi-opened, front, short, unrounded

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