托福写作的评分解读

时间:2019-05-13 01:05:29下载本文作者:会员上传
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第一篇:托福写作的评分解读

认识托福写作

新托福(iBT)考试的写作,要求考生写两篇文章。第一篇叫做“综合写作”(Integrated writing),要求考生用三分钟时间先读一篇长度为230-300个单词的学术性文章,然后用大约两分钟时间听一段与阅读内容相关的讲座录音。再让考生写一篇150到225个单词的文章,总结讲座要点,并分析其与阅读文章的关系。综合写作要求学生做到以下三点:第一,听得懂;第二,记得住;第三,写得出。第二篇作文叫“独立写作”(independent writing),要求考生针对给出的题目,提出观点并用论据和例子来支持和论证。基本上,考生需要做的是选择题(do you agree or disagree…):给你一个观点,问你是否同意;或者给出两个观点或选择,问你支持哪一个,相当于做二选一的选择题,考生需表明态度,然后论证自己的观点。

本文将主要论述独立写作的备考策略。要分析其备考策略,就必须先了解它的评分标准。了解了标准,也就有了努力的方向和奋斗目标。《托福官方指南》提供了四条评分标准,可以大致概括为三个方面:第一,观点和论述(即有话可说);第二,逻辑与组织(即能说清楚);第三,词句和语法(即能说漂亮)。因此,我们从三个方面来看看。

备考策略一: 千言万语,提前准备(有话说)

托福独立写作要求在30分钟内写出至少300字的文章;而对于想拿到高分的考生来说,字数接近甚至超过400往往会比较有利。俗话说,“巧妇难为无米之炊”,要想撑起300多字的文章,有足够的写作内容就很重要,因此,考生需要“有话说”。从独立写作的话题来看,有些话题容易想到写作内容,便于展开,如学生该不该做兼职,小孩该不该玩电脑等,但也有些话题因为过于具体或者过于抽象而相对较难,如年轻人的计划和组织能力是否很重要,读写能力在现代社会是否比过去更重要,是否每个专业的学生都该学历史,参观博物馆是否是了解一个国家最好的办法等。所以,从备考的角度来讲,考生需要在考前熟悉独立写作的话题。目前托福独立作文的题目来源主要有三个方面:1.老托福题库中的一部分题目;2.“旧瓶装新酒”,由老题改编的题目;3.新出的题目。所以,考生应该在考前把老托福题库中的185道题目(见《托福官方指南》)和新托福写作机经(参看新航道学员论坛)里的题目多看几遍,如果时间充裕可以按照话题对题目进行分类,对每个大类的话题进行一些构思的训练,总结出一些论点和论据。

备考策略二:唯有想清楚,才能写清楚(说清楚)

托福写作虽然是以测试语言能力为目的的,但是语言信息的传递离不开信息之间内在逻辑的支撑。遗憾的是,跟英美等西方国家的学生相比,中国学生似乎不太重视逻辑,在这方面的训练也较差。没有逻辑的语言,只能是片段的、零碎的、杂乱无章的,读来让人一头雾水,不之所云。试想,如果托福作文阅卷人连自己的母语都看不懂,又怎么可能给出高分呢?常见的逻辑错误包括前后不一致、句子之间过渡不顺畅(出现跳跃断层)等。比如:

前后不一致:If a language disappeared, then the culture would disappear.For example, McDonalds and KFC are very popular among Chinese young people, leading to the gradual loss of Chinese culture.修改: The disappearance of a language may result in the gradual loss of the culture associated with it.For example, over the past centuries, many languages of Chinese ethic minorities have disappeared as a result of the popularity of the more powerful language, Mandarin.Consequently, without language barriers, the people of these ethnic minorities were able to communicate easily with the Han Chinese, from whom they learned sophisticated farming skills and other advanced modes of production.Gradually, they have abandoned their previous ways of farming and even ways of life.句子之间不连贯:The rhythm of life is fast, but people still want to eat nutritious food.修改:In modern society, many people, especially those in metropolises are often too busy with their work that they cannot afford the time to eat a decent meal.Instead, they have to eat fast food, which is considered to be less favorable because it lacks nutrition.However, people still prefer nutritious food.值得注意的是,类似上面的逻辑问题并非个案,相反,这些错误在考生的文章里屡见不鲜。因此,考生必须重视段与段之间,句与句之间的内在逻辑,动笔之前,务必先想清楚;只有想清楚了,才可能写清楚,从而能保证论述前后一致(unity)和连贯流畅(coherence)。此外,初学写作者,应认真学习段落展开论述的技巧,学习如何使用诸如因果、举例、对比等写作手段来组句成段。段落展开的基本结构是:(论点)……This is because(因果论

证)……For example(举例论证)……Conversely(强对比论证)……这是三种最基本的论证方法。可以用其中一种,也可以用两种或三种。上面的提示词,对我们的写作有引导的作用,有助于考生把段落的逻辑写清楚。

备考策略三:避免错误,设置亮点(说漂亮)

托福考试主要考察学生英语语言能力,可以说良好的语言能力是写好托福作文的核心要素,因此,考生应努力提高语言表达水平。古人云:“言之无文,行而不远。”说的就是语言要有文采。独立写作的语言,主要有两个方面的问题:第一,语法正确;第二,词句漂亮。

1〃语法正确

语法是语言的法则,只有词语堆砌,没有法则,肯定是写不出符合英文要求的文章的。很多人为了准备托福考试背了大量单词,还准备了许多所谓高级词汇和复杂句式,遇到一些仿佛可以通过这些所谓高级表达来获得托福写作的高分,但是在具体运用单词组成句子的时候却错误频出。这样的问题跟语法基础不好有很大关系,因此,对于很多人来讲,最基本的要求就是不要犯语法错误,特别是很多低级错误,切不可舍本逐末。在具备一定的语法基础上,多练习写句子的能力,因为句子是写作的基本单位。要学会写出语法正确、表意清楚、语义连贯的句子。在写句子的时候,切不可在不能保证句子正确的情况下追求所谓高级表达。英文写作并非是简单的所谓高级词汇和复杂句式的替换游戏。实际上,从OG上给出的5分作文来看,文章中的高级词汇和复杂句式并没有我们想象的那么多,但是这样的文章也照样可以得到5分。可见,高分作文并不一定需要太多的高级词汇和复杂句式,只要能表达准确,言之成理就行。从这个意义上来讲,写作中应该“不求有功,但求无过”。建议考生在平时写完作文后,注意修改,总结错误,列出清单,防止再错。

2〃词句漂亮。

考生平时要多看范文,注意分析词汇和句子的清晰度和准确性,积累好的词汇和句型。值得注意的是,托福作文考试要求多用主动语态(active voice), 多用动词(verbs)和具体的词(specific and concretewords)。因此,考生切不可受国内错误的英文写作观的影响,认为只有用被动语态、抽象名词和复杂句式才能赢得阅卷人的青睐。实际情况是:与其复杂错误,不如简单准确。可以通过下面的例子,来了解托福作文需要的语言。下面B版本是托福写作需要的句子:

多用主动语态:

A: In order to accomplish this, an approach of gradual transition will be adopted.→ B: We shall accomplish this by a gradual transition.多用动词: A: It is impossible for us to accomplish the transformation of the whole society overnight.→

B: It is impossible for us to transform the whole society overnight.多用具体词:

A: Smoking is very unhealthy.→ B: It is generally believed that smoking can contribute to a variety of health problems, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, lung cancer, and heart disease.总之,托福作文貌似很难,其实不过是纸老虎罢了。只要了解考试要求,注意按照备考策略,熟悉题目话题,注意行文逻辑,减少语言错误,设置词句亮点,多加练习,勤于修改,定能笑傲考场,走向托福写作的成功之路。

第二篇:托福写作

Agree or disagree A university should focus more on its facilities, computers or laboratory, rather than on hiring famous teachers

Nowadays, highly education has been attached more important than before.A argue that school facilities should pay more attention than professor lecture.From my perspective, although such hardware like computer centers and science lab provide some benefits to university students, university depends on quality of stuff.Admittedly, a school equipped with great facilities is more appealing the applicants.The reason is that it can make study easier.A bright library offers such a quiet condition for knowledge absorption;a computer center provides a self-govern ways to study;a science lab make student get more practice about miracles.However, this factors become less considerate when it comes to the quality of the professors.For one thing, not only do famous teachers can impart the knowledge, but instill the angle that to solve the problem.To pass on knowledge, a human is no better than a machine or a high-tech tool.The difference lies in the

special ways to get the solutions and the potential inspiration by the former.Take my favorite teacher for example, she often shows us some different way to solve the difficulties.And then she tells us the angle to work out the problem.As for me, it was not until her explanation, that I know about the easier way to work the problem.That is something that high-tech can barely achieve.For another, universities with qualified teachers tend to have higher graduate employment.It is not hard to imagine that a teacher with connections can bring more opportunity to get internship.As an old saying goes, knowledge starts with practice.It is still true now.Students who swamped in labs, would never face the brutal fact that you need a window for people to see what you’ve got.In this way, a well-connect professor can open that for you, instead of lifeless labs.In conclusion, though facilities could promote learning, but it fail to generate more practical merits to students.Recruit more qualified teacher should be paid more attention and stress.

第三篇:托福写作欣赏

托福写作范文欣赏:a new university in your community

摘要:新托福考试写作如果考生想拿高分,脑子里一定要有几篇文章,背上几篇范文,能以备不时只需。托福写作是中国考生的弱项,只有在日常生活中多读些范文,了解托福写作中的逻辑思

新托福考试写作如果考生想拿高分,脑子里一定要有几篇文章,背上几篇范文,能以备不时只需。托福写作是中国考生的弱项,只有在日常生活中多读些范文,了解托福写作中的逻辑思维,才可更好的进行锻炼。下面我们一起欣赏这篇托福写作范文。

这篇托福独立写作满分范文的主要内容是讨论了如果政府宣布计划兴建一所新的大学,而有些人认为你所在的社区是个建大学的好地方,那么请你也对比一下在你所在的社区建新大学的好处和坏处。The government has announced that it plans to build a new university.Some people think that your community would be a good place to locate the university.Compare the advantages and disadvantages of establishing a new university in your community.Use specific details in your discussion.①优点:学生上学方便;促进当地的教育发展

②优点:促进当地产业发展,提供就业岗位

③缺点:本区很多老人,将极大影响他们的生活,其他人的生活也不再安宁

④缺点:交通、环境问题转自:考试网-[Examw.Com]

My community is located in a quiet and small town with very

beautiful natural sceneries.The environment is very suitable for a new university.Everyone in my community would without doubt enjoy a sense of pride when informed that a new university will be built here.However, just as any other constructions, this action will bring many advantages as well as disadvantages to my community.The most essential and exciting advantage is that a new university will definitely enhance the education on all levels in my community.Usually, children living nearby a university would frequently visit or play in the university, and thus they can be unconsciously influenced by the academic environment.This influence might be more effective to them than any preach from their parents about the importance of studying.By building a new university, children in my community will develop a greater motivation for studying hard.Moreover, with a university located nearby, all the primary schools, middle schools will have a greater sense of competition.The teachers may encourage the students to work harder to get a university degree, since it would be very embarrassing that the students of their own community could not be admitted by the new university.Besides, a new university in my community will boom the local economy.As we all know, universities are always surrounded by a wide range of stores, restaurants and markets which provide services to the students and faculty.Thus it is very likely that the new university will

encourage the local residents to offer their services around the school.As a result, more people will be employed and the employment rate which bothers the government for years might eventually drop.However, with closer examination, the disadvantages of building a new university in my community could also be formidable.Since my community is far from the city, most of its residents are seniors.Even for the younger people living here, they prefer a quiet environment and are afraid of any major changes made to their lives.Therefore, the attention brought by a new university might be unbearable to these local people.To be specific, traffic will no doubt increase in the near future.With more cars and people on the roads, it is possible that the local environmental quality will decrease.If the air is no more clean, our community might lose its strongest attraction.Then current residents might feel quite reluctant to live here in the future.In sum, the advantages of building a new university in my community seems very promising, yet we have to consider the undesirable consequences it might bring about.The government should really be cautious and take all the possible factors into consideration before making such a decision.'

我们并不主张考生死记范文,考试时如果遇到类似题目照搬上去,这并不能考察考生的写作能力。新托福考试写作多背一些范文,可以积累一些素材,像好的短语、词、句等,灵活运用。

第四篇:托福写作

Do you agree or disagree that university should spend money on improving facilities(labs and general requirements)rather than hiring famous teachers?

Nowadays it rarely surprises us any more that there are relatively large numbers of facilities such as labs and libraries in the campus of universities.However, hordes of people are likely to go to extremes to hold that the university should not spend that much money on improving facilities on account of the lack of fund.Perhaps there is a slice of credibility in their argument, but I, without hesitation, advocate that it’s really essential for the universities to improve facilities

Granted, it is true that by saving money from the investment of facilities, the universities may concentrate more on the development of curriculum and the welfare which is provided for the teachers and professors.The statistics from the Harvard University reveal, astonishingly, that 62.7% people suggest that the universities should not be too eager to develop the general requirements.However, they ignore the fact that these facilities provided by the universities will definitely benefit the students in more ways than one.First and foremost, what never seizes to enthrall me is that the facilities will build a great atmosphere for the people(mainly college students)to study and relax.If the university constructs a great library which stores up millions of books or more, it will surely appeal to lots of studious students and those who don’t have the opportunity to attend the university.So actually this kind of facilities benefits the whole society, so do labs and other general requirements.Also, facilities like a natatorium or a gym can provide the basic facilities for students to relax.As we all know, students suffer both from studying burden and everyday lives.They need a way to relax, and these facilities just happen to provide great opportunities to relieve and extenuate their pressure.Therefore, there is no denying that by spending money on improving facilities a university will, to a great extent, enrich the students’ knowledge and broaden their horizon and give them the chance to relax at the same time.Moreover, the reputation gained from various facilities exerts a considerable fascination on me.If a university has more facilities which can provide students with more privilege, it can surely attract more top students who want the best education.Also, a famous university with variety numbers of facilities can add to the prestige of the city, the province, even the country which it belongs to.A case concerns MIT, which is one of the most celebrated universities all over the world.It has gained a high reputation for its prominent labs and stat-of-the-art equipments which provide students with the remarkable experimental qualification.Also, it makes its city, Cambridge, better known by the people as a cosmopolitan, international and civilized conurbation.Accordingly, it is apparent that the variety of the universities will make itself more eminent, therefore making significant contribution to the prosperity of the region.In conclusion, it is true that the limitation on funding facilities will economize some manpower and material resources for a university, but in order to provide both the students andthe universities with a bright future, spending money on these general equipments should never be off the table by a university.

第五篇:了解托福评分规则!你的写作再也不被扣分了

三立教育www.xiexiebang.com

了解托福评分规则!你的写作再也不被扣分了

为什么你的托福写作莫名其妙被扣分? 三立在线教育托福网温馨提示:这是因为你不了解评分规则!出现这种情况主要是因为我们没有弄清楚托福综合写作的评分标准,即其考察点。对写作评分标准了解不够自然会影响到写作的目的性以及最后的成绩。

何为目的性?

海外考试的种类很多,雅思、新托福、GRE、GMAT、SAT等,每项考试对于写作的要求都是不一样的,然而很多托福考生凭主观臆断写作要想拿高分就要词汇高深、句法复杂,实际情况却是ETS没那么在意词句的难度,而是最在意内容信息传递的清晰度和逻辑性。当考生不了解时,就会把功夫花错地方,做了过多的无用功,造成吃力不讨好,成绩遇到瓶颈,怎么也提高不了的情况。

为了更有针对性地拿分,我们接下来将对托福综合写作评分标准做一个分析。

首先我们来看托福写作的评分标准:

托福写作的评分标准

新托福写作考试由两部分组成:综合写作和独立写作。

综合写作:考生先阅读一篇短文,再听一段相关内容的讲座录音,讲座的演讲者直接讨论短文中的观点,要求考生把演讲者就短文观点发表的看法写成一篇摘要。三立教育www.xiexiebang.com

独立写作:要求考生针对某一话题发表个人的观点,并用具体的理由和事例来支持自己的观点。每篇作文都由两位评分人员根据统一的评分标准,在0~5分的范围内评分(只给整数分数),而后取平均值,最后将这个平均值转换为30分制。

综合写作评分标准

1.内容的完整性和准确性。简单地说,就是文章是否有将讲座中的关键信息点完整、准确地提取出来(通常情况下有三点),并和阅读材料中的相关内容有效地一一对应。如果讲座中的信息点有缺失,那么会有一定程度的扣分;如果只写了有关阅读材料的观点,得1分。

2.文章的组织机构,词汇和语法的正确性和准确性。高分的作文需要做到条理清晰,结构连贯,用词恰当,能够准确地表达讲座中的观点与阅读材料中的观点是如何相互联系的,只要作文中的错误不至于使内容表述出现误解,一些偶尔出现的语言错误,如单词拼写、单复数问题等,不会对作文成绩产生很大影响,当然,错误肯定是越少越好的。

独立写作评分标准

1.有效回应题目,阐明文章主题。

一般来说,独立写作完全跑题的情况很少,但是很多考生在展开讨论时所采用的论据,比较容易出现跟主题关联性不大的情况,即局部答非所问的现象,从而影响了得分。三立教育www.xiexiebang.com

2.逻辑条理清楚,论证充分展开。

这一点的关键在于文章论证的展开,是否提供了大量的细节和例子来支持观点,而非泛泛而谈地说理。比如说某位同学的英文写作能力很强,我光说很强,很厉害,写得很好都很表面,但是我如果说这位同学托福写作考了29分,那么就是很细节很有说服力的论据了。

3.内容连贯一致,衔接自然流畅。

达到内容连贯一致的文章通常全文围绕中心论点展开,而不会论据自相矛盾,也不会重复论证,有时候通过一些表示因果、先后、递进的关系连词可以起到粘合剂的作用。

4.遣词造句地道,语言驾驭娴熟。

托福考试终究是语言考试,最终还是要考查考生的语言运用能力,但是要注意的是,并不是要求考生通篇都用难词偏语长句,而是要会变化着用一些美国人常用的语句把自己的想法表达清楚,所以建议考生尽量多阅读和模仿英文原版材料,这样写出来的文章才能够原汁原味。

由托福评分标准可见,托福写作能力是语言运用的精髓与核心,对于在外国留学的中国学生,尤其是有志于进入文商科领域的学生来说,“写”是一条生命线,直接关乎课业和工作的成败。以写作形式提交的测试或者论文占据了GPA的极大比重,这事实上对于母语非英文的亚洲学生来说是利好的,如果没有以书面形三立教育www.xiexiebang.com

式呈现的作业,一般来说稍显内向的学生很难在激烈的英语课堂辩论中占据任何优势。从更深层次上来说,“写”代表了个人内心声音的倾诉,展现了理解知识的深度和思考的结晶,镌刻了一个人的思想由青涩到成熟的印记。而到了工作阶段,对于任何与文商科有关的职业,例如律师,会计师,分析师,翻译,记者等等来说,写作都是最基本与核心的质素,无论是撰写报告,公文,信函……写作的重要性常常为学生们所忽视,因此到了大学和工作之后往往要加倍偿还。

托福考生常见问题

大部分的学生在托福写作中所展现出来的英文写作问题主要集中在以下几点:

1逻辑匮乏

连贯地把一个观点言之成理地表达出来,是完成任何写作任务的第一要务,在英文写作中尤其要注意两点,第一,不要被辞藻的华美和句式的复杂绕进去了,英文应该以几个关键词为骨架,再以此为基础进行增删修饰,所以不要文过饰非,表达片段化;第二,对于低龄学员来说,尤其要注意平行论点之间是否有重叠,交叉的地方,同时,要注意事实,结果和基准之间是否处在一条直线上,是否在逻辑上具有一致性。

2论据意识不强 三立教育www.xiexiebang.com

托福写作评分标准当中对于“事实和论据”有着明确的要求,“口水话”是任何应试型写作的大忌。论据的积累事实上也应该成为写作教学的重要一环,其中理论型的论据需要教师的讲解和提炼,也需要学生“思接千载,视通万里”,不局限于单一科目,把多门学科当中的原理和事实融入进论点的阐发过程,比如心理学中的“延迟满足”效应,经济学里“马太效应”等等,都应该是写作可以信手拈来的材料,但是这一块是传统的写作教学比较忽视的;而事实论据也是大有文章可做的,最可靠的是数字,对数字的敏感度的培养应该从小开始,不能成为短板;其次是概括性的事实,大部分的低龄学员在抽象概括能力上需要严格的训练,在初期需要思维模型的打造,比如判定一种行为的利弊,可以借用“个人-社区-社会”的经典分层,或者在工作类的话题上,对不同类型的职业进行单独分析……

最后要强调的是具体事例,此处必须明确的一点是具体事例写作绝对不等同把个人经历做成流水账,而是要加以概括,把枝枝叶叶的部分砍掉,把意识流一般的叙事套进一个整饬的模具当中,这个模具就是段落的大意和行文的逻辑。

3遣词造句不地道

托福的阅卷人不知道看过多少篇以 “with the development of society”(随着社会的发展)开头的作文,这种毫无个人创建的模板化也只能保证一个更加平庸的分数。其次,玩弄大词,不用小词,不区分书面语和口语,都是由于平时不阅读,不积累,所造成的坏账和恶果。8岁时就出版个人专著《飞扬的手指》,12岁就走上TED演讲台的美国华裔神童邹奇奇(Adora Svitak)从三岁就开始博三立教育www.xiexiebang.com

览群书,去听一听她的那篇名为《成年人能从孩子身上学到什么》的演讲,我们或许可以知道,任何神童和奇迹的产生,都是“积跬步”和“积小流”的结果。

4冗余现象严重

如果我们试着把一段中文翻译成英文,再把这段译文和典范的英文进行对比,就可以发现大多数人的翻译都要比典范英文长一截。这恰恰是写作刚刚入门,又无法达到精通程度的学生最容易遇到的问题。英文写作的原则应该是“less is more”,写得精炼远远好于长篇大论,如若英文写作要从中低端迈入高端,这背后需要调动介词,比如“otherwise”这种介词,80%的学生都不会用,或者害怕用;此外,把从句以合成词的方式的呈现出来,用上data-driven这样的结构,此处不一一赘述。

综上所述,英文写作首先是一种审美教育。审美是任何有效语言学习的最佳入门途径,语文课上,不少人因为《春江花月夜》“江畔何人初见月,江月何年初照人”这样让人震撼的名句而爱上了这门学科,而英文的审美力量常常为模式化的教学所忽视。读原著,是长期构建英文写作能力的核心所在,例如我们如果有幸读一读爱德华·吉本的《罗马帝国衰亡史》,会看到,罗马帝国“囊括世上最美之疆域”,在其“古老声威与严整军容”的震慑下,敌军不敢来犯,市民“尽享富庶生活,甚而奢华挥霍”。(The Empire “comprehended the fairest part of the earth”.Rome’s enemies were kept at bay by “ancient renown and disciplined valour”.Citizens “enjoyed and abused the advantages of 三立教育www.xiexiebang.com

wealth and luxury”.)用词之准确精妙,如果不经过长期的培养和学习,是无论如何也现想不来的。

其次,英文写作也是一种思维训练。随着学力的增长,不同等级的标准化考试对于逻辑的要求也会越来越高。从托福的角度来说,可能观点行文言之成理即可,而到了SAT阶段,则把明确地提炼出作者态度,谋篇布局,并对其高明之处进行剖析的能力列入了考察范围,光靠死记硬背,显然是难以应付这一阶段考试的。而到了申请研究生的时候,GRE,GMAT和LSAT的作文考试,逻辑就成了重中之重,简单来说,在分析题干的时候,对论断的合理性和不合理性都应该有所论述,并且要分析出在何种情况下和何种程度中该观点为合理或者不合理,没有训练过的学员,一定是在考场上最手足无措的那一群人。

我们要做的就是将托福写作题目分类,并进行相应的优化。托福作文题目的难度体现最主要就是在作文题目越来越抽象,越来越不容易想到理由。其实,当面对这些题目的时候,很多人总会把自己投入一个怪圈,单纯的死扣这个问题,而不是试图将它扩展或者细化。作文最忌讳的就是就事论事,不作任何扩展。

最后,英文写作也是一种品质训练。写作能力不是天生的,一定是养成的,任何资质的孩子通过适当的培训和培养,都有可能成为一个合格的写作者。但是,知易行难,不喜欢动笔写是大多数人的通病,写作也是思路整理和思维锻炼的过程,更是考验人的毅力和定力的时刻。在适当的时候,将写作养成习惯需要借助外力,需要定期的督促和修改。注意到写作能力的重要性,亡羊补牢,为时未晚,否则咱们的孩子到了国外之后,在语言上如何和外国的同龄人抗衡呢? 三立教育www.xiexiebang.com

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特点:全网唯一的分梯度词汇课程,结合考试获得最高的效果。

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