MBA逻辑基础知识+题型总结

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第一篇:MBA逻辑基础知识+题型总结

MBA逻辑基础知识总结

1. 演绎推理:

a)联言推理:p并且q b)选言推理:相容、不相容

c)假言推理:充分、必要

d)多重复合命题推理:假言连锁(充分、必要)、假言易位、反三段论 e)直言命题对当关系:反对、下反对、矛盾、差等 f)直言换位推理:词项的周延、直言命题换位推理 g)三段论: 格和式、规则。h)模态命题的转换 2. 归纳推理:

a)完全归纳属于必然推理 b)不完全归纳属于或然推理

3. 类比推理:

根据两个对象在一系列属性上是相同的,而且知道其中的一个对象还具有另一种属性,由此推出另一个对象也具有这一属性的推理。4. 逻辑基本规律:

a)同一律:A是A

在同一思维过程中,反映同一对象的思想必须是确定的,必须保持自身的统一。b)矛盾律:A不是非A

在同一思维过程中,互相否定的思想不能同时都是真的;或者说,对同一对象不能有相互否定的思想。c)排中律:A或者非A

在同一思维过程中,两个相互矛盾的思想必有一真,不能都假。5. 因果关系:

a)求同法:异中求同

在被研究的现象出现的若干场合中,如果有唯一的情况是这些场合中共有的,那么这个唯一的共同情况就是被研究现象的原因(或结果)。

b)求异法:同中求异

比较被研究的现象出现的场合与被研究的现象不出现的场合,其他的情况完全相同,只有一个情况是不同的,而这唯一的不同的情况表现为,在被研究的现象出现的场合中它出现,在被研究的现象不出现的场合中,它不出现。那么,这个唯一不同的情况就是被研究现象的原因(或结果)。c)共变法:

在被研究现象发生变化的各个场合,如果其中只有一个情况是变化着的,而其他的情况都保持不变,那么这个唯一变化着的情况就是被研究现象的原因。

1. 演绎推理:

a)联言推理:

一般形式:p并且q;

真值:只有p和q都真的情况下,“p并且q”才真。否则,为假。

连接词:并且、和、既......又……、一方面……另一方面……、虽然……但是……、不但……而且……、既是……又是……、尽管……然而……等等。

负命题:“并非(p并且q)”等值于“非p或者非q” 几个重要等值关系:

并非(p并且q)”《=》“非p或者非q”;

并非(p并且q)”《=》“如果p,那么非q;

“非p或者非q”《=》“如果p,那么非q;

b)选言推理:相容、不相容 1)相容选言:

一般形式:p或者q 真值:只要p或者q有一个为真,“p或者q”就为真。

只有p和q都假,“p或者q”才为假。

连接词:或者

负命题:“并非(p或者q)”等值于“非p并且非q”

有效推理形式:否定肯定式

由于它断定了选言支中至少有一个选言支是真的,因此,否定其中一个选 言支,就可以断定其余的选言支中至少有一个是真的。其有效的推理形式为:

p或者q;

p或者q; 非p,非q,所以,q。

所以,p。

注意:相容选言,不能通过可定某一个选言支,而否定其它选言支。

2)不相容选言:

一般形式:要么p, 要么q.真值:只有p或者q一个为真的时候,“要么p, 要么q”为真; 当p和q全真或全假的时候,“要么p, 要么q”为假。

连接词:要么……,要么……。

负命题:不研究

有效推理形式:否定肯定式、肯定否定式

不相容选言命题断定两个选言支中有且只有一个选言支是真的,所以,我 们既可以肯定其中一个选言支,而否定另一个宣言支。也可以否定其中一个选 言支,从而肯定另外一个选言支。其有效的推理形式为:

要么p, 要么q;

要么p, 要么q; 非p,非q,所以,q。

所以,p。要么p,要么q;

要么p,要么q; p,q, 所以,非q。

所以,非p。

c)假言推理:充分、必要

1)充分条件:

一般形式:如果p, 那么q。

几个重要等值关系:

如果p, 那么q。《=》 所有p是q。

如果p, 那么q。《=》 只有q,才p。

如果p, 那么q。《=》 或者非p或者q。

如果p, 那么q。《=》 并非(p并且非q)。

真值:只有p真,q假的时候,“如果p, 那么q”才假。其它情况都为真。连接词:如果……那么……、如果……则……、若……则……、只要……就……、既然……那就……、既然……那么……等等。负命题:“并非(如果p,那么q)”等值于“p并且非q” 有效的推理形式:肯前、否后。如果p,那么q;

p,所以,q。

如果p,那么q; 非q,所以,非p。

2)必要条件:

一般形式:只有p,才q。

几个重要等值关系:

“只有p,才q”《=》“如果非p,那么非q”

“只有p,才q”《=》“如果q,那么p”

“除非p,否则q” 《=》 “只有p,才非q”

真值:只有p假,q真的时候,“只有p,才q”才假。其它情况都真。

连接词:不……不……、只有……才……、除非……否则……等等。

负命题:“并非(只有p,才q)”等值于“非p并且q”。

有效的推理形式:否前、肯后

只有p,才q;

非p,d)多重复合命题推理:假言连锁(充分、必要)、假言易位、反三段论 1)假言连锁(充分、必要):

如果p,那么q;

如果q,那么r; 所以,如果p,那么r。

只有p,才q; 只有q,才r; 所以,只有p,才r。

所以,非q。

只有p,才q; q,所以,p。

2)假言易位:

是指将一个充分条件假言的前件和后件否定后再互易其位置而得出的一 个新的假言命题的形式。如果p,那么q;

所以,如果非q,那么非p。3)反三段论:

如果p并且q,那么r;

非r,并且p; 所以,非q e)直言命题对当关系:反对、下反对、矛盾、差等

1)反对(全肯与全否):不可同真,可以同假。

意味着,一个真可以推出另外一个假;但一个假推不出另外一个真假;

2)下反对(特肯与特否):不可同假,可以同真。

意味着,一个假可以推出另外一个真;但一个真推不出另外一个真假; 3)矛盾(全肯与特否、全否与特肯):不可同真,不可同假;必有一真,必有一假。

意味着,一个真,可以推出另外一个假;一个假可以推出另外一个真; 4)差等(全肯与特肯、全否与特否):

全称真则特称真,特称假则全称假;特称真推不出全称真假,全称假推不 出特称的真假。

f)直言换位推理:词项的周延、直言命题换位推理 1)直言命题的周延原则:

第一,全称命题主项周延,特称命题主项不周延;

第二,否定命题的谓项周延,肯定命题谓项不周延。2)直言命题换位推理:

全肯命题:“所有S都是P”限制性换位为“有些P是S”

全否命题:“所有S都不是P”简单换位为“所有P都不是S”

特肯命题:“有的S是P”简单换位为“有的P是S”

特否命题:不能进行换位

g)三段论: 格和式、规则。

格:即中项在大、小前提中的位置不同,而构成的不同三段论格式;

式:即前提和结论由A、E、I、O命题构成的不同组合。规则:

1)一个三段论有且只能有三个词项; 2)中项在前提中至少周延一次;

3)在前提中不周延的词项,在结论中不得周延; 4)两个前提中有一个是否定的,则结论必须是否定的; 5)两个前提中有一个是特称的,则结论必须是特城的; 6)两个否定的前提,推不出结论; 7)两个特称的前提,推不出结论。

h)模态命题的转换:

第一步,变换量词:“全称”与“特称”互换; 第二步,变换模态词:“必然”与“不可能”互换,“可能”与“不必然”互换; 第三步,变换联词:“肯定联词”与“否定联词”互换。

MBA逻辑题型总结

虽然MBA逻辑试题千变万化,但万变不离其踪,经仔细研究和全面比较历届考题,发现大部分试题类型是不断重复出现的,从中可以断定MBA逻辑试题确实存在着一定的套路,这里把历届考题按题目的表现形式或解题方法划分为十八种基本套路。如果考生能熟练掌握这些套路特点,在遇到同类问题时,一定有助于尽快理清思路,找到正确答案,从而在考场上能得心应手。现把MBA

逻辑考试十八套路简介如下(详细介绍及大量例题请参阅复旦大学出版社即将出版的新版《MBA联考300分奇迹》)。

一、直接推断型

这类题型的具体形式是:以题干为前提,要求在选项中确定合乎逻辑的结论;或者,从题干出发,不可能推出什么样的结论。其实,解决这类简单推理或直接推断型考题,考生只需运用日常逻辑推理就可以找到答案,几乎没有什么技巧可言,这类题型中很多属于送分题,一般可在十秒中内解决。

二、综合推断型

此类考题表面无统一特征,只是比直接推断型要复杂些,当然所谓复杂,其实并不很复杂,只是要多绕些弯而已。这种试题通常在题干中给出若干条件,要求考生从这些条件中合乎逻辑推出某种结论。这类题型很多涉及复合判断推理,特别是对假言、联言和选言等推理的综合运用。

三、对当关系型

直言判断及对当关系是最基本的一个逻辑知识点(这里,我们把模态命题及其推理也归入其中)。这类试题的表现形式可以多种多样,但近几年在MBA逻辑考试中出现的次数有减少的趋势。解这类题型,要注意的是解题时千万不能以个人经验或专业知识为依据,关键是一定要从题干给出的内容出发,从中抽象出同属于对当关系的逻辑形式,根据对当关系来分析判断。

四、加强支持型

在MBA逻辑考试中,围绕前提和结论之间的支持或反驳关系,设计了多种形式的考题,主要有加强前提型和削弱结论型。加强支持型考题解题思路是,要注意寻找与题干一致的选项。而如果是最不能加强型,当然与题干相矛盾或不一致的选项就最不能加强了。应该说,加强支持型和削弱质疑型是密切相关的,不论加强还是削弱,题干的选项都必须首先与题干相关,紧扣题干,与题干不相干、不一致的选项都不能加强题干,也不能削弱题干。

五、削弱质疑型

削弱质疑型是MBA逻辑考试的一个重点,归结为此类题型的考题是数量是最大的。削弱题型的解题关键是首先应明确原文的推理关系,即什么是前提,什么是结论;在此基础上,寻找削弱的基本方向是针对前提、结论还是论证本身。具体对不同的情况有不同的处理,比如:类型一,直接反对原因,即直接说明原文推理的前提不正确,就达到推翻结论的目的;类型二,指出存在其他可能解释,原文以一个事实、研究、发现或一系列数据为前提推出一个解释上述事实或数据的结论,要削弱这个结论,就可以通过指出由其他可能来解释原文事实;类型三,原文认为A不是导致B的原因,要对其进行削弱,就可以指出A是B的间接原因,即指出A通过导致C而间接的导致了B。

六、传递排序型

传递排序型其实是MBA逻辑考题中比较简单的一种类型,这类题型一般在题干部分给出不同对象之间的若干个两两对比的结果,要求从中推出具体的排序。解这类题型的主要思路是要把所给条件抽象成最简单的排序形式。

七、数字陷阱型

数字陷阱型考题出现的也不少,隐藏在“精确”数字背后的陷阱有如下几种:一是平均数陷阱,在对平均数的模糊理解做文章;二是百分比陷阱,一般题干仅提供两种事物的某种比率就比较出两种事物的结果,其实其陷阱就在于该百分比所赖以计算出来的基数是不同的;三是错误比较,或者不设定供比较的对象,不设定比较的根据或基础,因此,表面上在进行比较,实际上根本就不能比较。

八、真话假话型

把这类考题根据题目的表现形式归结为真话假话型,这是一种通俗的说法,其本质是涉及了逻辑基本规律(同一律、矛盾律、排中律)。解决这类问题的突破口往往是运用对当关系等逻辑知识在所有叙述中找出有互相矛盾的判断,从而必知其一真一假。要注意的是:有时两个命题虽然不是矛盾的,但互相反对(或下反对),即不能同真(或不能同假),那就可以推出两个判断中至少有一个是假的(或者至少有一个是真的),这也同样是解题的关键。值得注意的是,因为前8次考试中,多次出现此题型,但最新考试中已不见了它的踪影。不过,考生仍应多加兼备,因为此类考题实在是容易命题。

九、假言推理型

假言命题及推理型考题,主要是考察充分条件和必要条件的区分及具体运用,这是逻辑考试中一个常考的点。具体要熟悉:(1)推理的传递性(A推出B,B推出C,则A能推出C);(2)不可逆性(重要的考点,A推出B,B真,推不出A真);(3)逆否命题(A推出B,则非B推出非A)。如果已知条件很多很乱的问题时,要迅速找到答案有一定的难度,因此,要同时考虑已知条件和选项,在理解了已知条件的基础上迅速浏览选项,从两头推理,从而尽快找到答案。

十、集合重合型

可以根据基本的集合概念和逻辑常识解决该类题型,解这种题型的重点放在集合的“部分与全体”上,同时要善于分辨可能重合的部分和绝不会重合的部分。最直观的办法是根据题干提供的条件画个小图,题目即可迎刃而解。

十一、寻找假设型

由于这种题型是题干推理中的前提不足够充分以推出结论,要求在选项中确定合适的前提,去补充的原前提或论据,从而能合乎逻辑地推出结论或有利于提高推理的证据支持度和结论的可靠性。因此,做这类题的基本思路是紧扣结论,简化推理过程,从因果关系上考虑,从前提到结论,中间一定有适当的假设,寻找断路或是因为“显然”而省略掉的论述,也就是要“搭桥”,很多时候凭语感或常识就可以找到所要问的隐含的前提。

十二、说明解释型

说明解释型考题也是一种重要的题型,其主要表现形式是,在题干中给出某种需要说明、解释的现象,再问什么样的理由、根据、原因能够最好地解释该现象,或最不能解释该现象,即与该现象的发生不相干。解这类题型有时需要一些相关的背景知识,但这些知识都属于语言常识和一般性常识,并且已经在题干或选项中给出,只是要求从中做一些选择和判断而已。

十三、语义分析型

语义分析型考题在逻辑考试中也比较常见。解这类题的基本思路:一是要阅读仔细,通过对选项和题干的内容逐一对照,从迅速发现找到答案的线索;二是,充分运用自己平时积累起来的语感,力求准确理解、分析和推断题干给出的日常语言表达的句子或内容的复杂含义和深层意义。

十四、匹配逻辑型

匹配逻辑型题型一般特点是,这类题型题干一般提供几类因素,每类因素又有几种不同情况,同时题干还给出属于不同类因素之间不同情况的判断,要求推出确定的结论。有的考生特别害怕这种匹配类型的题目,其实只要细心得法,这类题目并不难。解这类考题时,所要使用的推理形式和推理步骤较多,推理过程显得相对复杂。解题基本思路是,通过对题干给出的多种因素间的关系进行分析推理和排列组合,弄清题干中所给条件的内在关系,从一个一个条件出发,逐步推理,直至推出正确答案。具体比如可以用假设反证法,耐心点推是个笨办法,但绝对是个好办法;也可以用表格法,把已知条件划在一个表格上,再进一步推理。

十五、因果关系型

因果关系及因果倒置型在MBA逻辑考试中出现的形式有多种,比如,为了检查的某种因果关系是否为真,最可靠的实验方法是改变原因后,看结果是否不同,即进行对比实验,对比实验的关键是让实验对象的其他方面的条件相同。又比如,有时两组数据之间的数据因果并不一定有原理因果,可能两组数据都是由其它某一种数据决定的,这就是所谓表面因果与事实因果不符。

十六、逻辑错误型

逻辑错误型考题较多地出现在早期的逻辑考试中,近来有减少的趋势。因为在大纲中已规定“不考察逻辑学的专门知识”,所以,直接判断逻辑错误的考题今后应该不会再出现。今后,今后要考对逻辑错误的辨析,也只能考逻辑错误的类比,比如问你“题干中所犯逻辑错误与下列备选项中的哪一项最为类似?”也就是让考生比较题干和选项中所犯逻辑错误的相同或不同。

十七、形式比较型

形式比较型考题是主要从形式结构上比较题干和五个选项之间的相同或不同,即比较几个不同推理在结构上的相同或者不同。其解题基本思路是,着重考虑从具体的、有内容的思维过程的论述中抽象出一般形式结构,即用命题变项表示其中的单个命题,或用词项变项表示直言命题中的词项,每一个推理中相同的命题或词项用相同的变项表示,不同的命题或词项用不同的变项表示。做这类题型只考虑推理结构和形式,而不考虑其内容的对错,一种出题方式就是题干本身的推理是错误,来对你造成一定的思维困难。

十八、确定论点型

确定论点型的具体表现形式是给出一段文字或对话,要求总结它们所表达的中心内容是什么或什么内容没在题干中表达。或给出一段论述,要求推出结论(确定论点型暨继续推论型的变种:我们不可能得出的结论是)。其解题基本思路是对语言的理解,解此类题型主要是要凭语感、常识和日常的逻辑推理能力去寻找隐含的结论或内在的含义。

第二篇:2018年考研MBA逻辑复习方法总结

凯程考研,为学员服务,为学生引路!

2018年考研MBA逻辑复习方法总结

MBA逻辑是考察思维方式的一门科目,与一个人在生活和工作中积累形成的思维方式有关。一些同学常常在逻辑题上反复纠结,却导致浪费时间没有答好。凯程考研在此分享MBA考试逻辑备考提分策略,希望给大家带来提升!

1、大部分MBA逻辑题目是不直接需要逻辑理论的(尽管潜意识中仍然需要运用到那些理论)。因此,大家需要多做题目来训练自己的逻辑方面解题能力。要知道,MBA逻辑题目是从GMAT考试的逻辑题库中抽取并稍加改动而成的,因此,有些做题目比较多的同学发现经常能“碰”到原题那是完全可能的。更重要的——多做题可以开发您潜在的逻辑思维能力,让您将本身具有的逻辑能力充分发挥出来。另外——虽然有一些必要的逻辑知识会对您顺利解题有帮助,但是,做题时除非必要,请不要过多纠缠于逻辑理论或者老师经常介绍的“前件”、“后件”、S、P什么的,因为那如果不能熟练应用,反而会降低解题速度。

2、MBA逻辑题目重要的是要善于从冗长拗口的题干中,将主旨简化、剥离出来;

3、解逻辑题目时一个重要的技巧是需要“就题论题”,一定要围绕题干进行,千万不要浮想联翩,带感情色彩。

写作:写作的论证有效性分析实际上是考逻辑,只要找到题干中的逻辑漏洞,并加以批驳即可,论证有效性分析类的作文题目以驳斥或补充题干论述为主,切勿全盘接受,并且论述要围绕题干展开,就像逻辑考试中寻找能削弱题目观点的一项一样,不能脱离主题,主要是寻找推理中的谬误,而不是提出自己新的观点。论说文的立论型文章大家从小写到大,都有自己的经验,这里不予赘述。另外,作文需要经常的练习。频率可以每周安排一次,主要是培养迅速、清楚审题,快速成文的能力,MBA联考的作文,对考生的观点要求并不高,重要的是不要跑题,快速完成,另外写字的速度也很重要。因为1300字作文25道数学题、30道逻辑、要在180分钟之内完成,对速度要求是相当高的。如果能在作文上节省时间,从而将更多的时间放在一些可能需要更仔细的科目——如数学的检查上,无疑是有很大帮助的。

管理:管理主要在写作的“案例分析”中来考查,由于只要求掌握一些基本知识,一般而言,优秀的写作老师在授课过程中会将一些容易考到的管理知识点进行提及,大家只需要稍加掌握就OK了。另外,管理常识的积累对后期的复试也很有用。

总之,大家在备考MBA逻辑这门科目时要多做题,善于在逻辑题中抓住主旨,围绕主旨分析解题。

现在考研复习冲刺阶段,特为大家进行了以下逻辑题型的总结,希望大家在后冲刺练习中能够加以运用、举一反

三、掌握各种题型的解题技巧。

1、加强削弱型

这是在MBA逻辑考试中出现多的题型。加强型主要有加强前提型和削弱结论型,削弱型刚好相反。加强型考题是要寻找与题干一致的选项。削弱型考题的解答则首先应明确题干的推理关系,即什么是前提,什么是结论;在此基础上,寻找削弱的对象,可以是针对前提,也可以针对结论,还可以针对论证本身,具体情况具体处理。比如:针对前提,则直接反对原因,即直接说明原文推理的前提不正确,就达到**结论的目的;针对结论,则指出由该前提存在其他可能解释,则结论不一定成立;针对论证本身,则要指出论证上的漏洞,说明推理存在逻辑缺陷。

2、排序型

凯程考研,为学员服务,为学生引路!

这种题型也比较简单,这类题型一般在题干部分给出不同对象之间的若干个两两对比的结果,要求从中推出具体的排序。解这类题主要要把所给条件转化为简单的排序形式。比如列出几个不等式或者等式。

3、集合型

可以根据基本的集合概念和逻辑常识来解决该类题型,解这种题型的重点应该放在集合的部分与全体上,同时要善于分辨可能重合的部分和绝不会重合的部分。这类题目好借助图形解答,非常直观,也不易出错。

4、真假话型

解决这类问题的突破口是:运用对当关系等逻辑知识在所有叙述中找出有互相矛盾的判断,从而找出必然存在的一真一假或者某一项必真或者必假。要注意的是:有时两个命题虽然不是矛盾的,但互相反对(或不反对),即不能同真(或不能同假),那就可以推出两个判断中至少有一个是假的(或者真的),这也同样是解题的关键。这种题型数量不多,但总会考。

5、因果型

因果关系及因果倒置型也是常见的题型。比如,为了检查某种因果关系是否成立,采取某个特定的实验方法,改变原因后,看结果是否不同,即进行对比实验。对比实验的关键是让实验对象的其他方面的条件相同,而题目的错误也往往在于其他的某个关键影响因素并没有被考虑进来。另外,有时两组数据之间并没有直接的因果关系,仅仅是形式上有某些相似之处,比如同时增大减小等,它们可能是仅仅因为巧合,也可能是别的共同的因素导致的,而它们之间实际上没有因果关系,就是说,它们都是某种结果。

6、推断型

这类题型要求以题干为前提,在选项中确定合乎逻辑的结论;或者从题干出发,推不出什么样的结论。这类题目中简单的,只需运用日常逻辑推理就可以找到答案。而稍微复杂的题目通常在题干中给出若干表面上看没有明显的统一特征的条件,要求考生从这些条件推出某种结论。这类题型多涉及复合判断推理,特别是对假言、联言和选言等推理的综合运用。

7、前提型

这种题型题干推理中的前提不够充分以推出结论,要求在选项中确定合适的前提,去补充原前提或论据,从而能合乎逻辑地推出结论或有利于提高推理的证据支持度和结论的可靠性。做这类题要紧紧抓住结论,简化推理过程,从因果关系上考虑,从前提到结论,寻找推理中的中断处。

8、论点型

论点型的具体表现形式是给出一段文字或对话,要求总结它们所表达的中心内容是什么或什么内容没在题干中表达。或给出一段论述,要求推出结论。解此类题型有点象语文考试的阅读理解,主要是要凭语感、常识和一般的逻辑推理去寻找隐含的结论或内在的含义。

9、数字型

数字型考题也比较常见,主要是在简单精确的数字背后隐藏有陷阱。主要类型有:平均数陷阱,在对平均数的模糊理解做文章;百分比陷阱,一般题干仅提供两种事物的某种比率就比较出两种事物的结果,其实其陷阱就在于该百分比所赖以计算出来的基数是不同的;错误比较,或者不设定比较的对象,不设定比较的根据,表面上在进行比较,实际上根本就不可比。

10、形式比较型

形式比较型考题是主要从推理形式上比较题干和五个选项之间的相同或不同。对这类题目,关键是要从具体的、有内容的思维过程的论述中抽象出一般的推理形式,即用一般的逻辑推理关系来代替其中的单个命题。做这类题型只考虑推理结构和形式,而不考虑其内容的 2 页 共 2 页

凯程考研,为学员服务,为学生引路!

对错,所以题目往往会出一些题干本身是谬误的、违反常识的东西来对考生造成一定的思维干扰,所以做这类题目要注意排除内容本身的影响从而尽快找出其实质的推理结构。

页 共 3 页

第三篇:MBA常用逻辑知识点总结

一、逻辑基本规律

矛盾律:

n 所有的S是P,有些S不是P;

n 所有S不是P,有些S是P;

n A是P,A不是P;

n P并且Q,或者非P或者非Q;

n P或者Q,非P并且非Q;

n 如果P那么Q,P并且非Q;

n 只有P才Q,非P并且Q;

n 必然P,可能非P;

n 必然非P,可能P;

矛盾律注意有些问题是互相反对的命题。

同一律:

排中率:

二、直言命题和三段论:

逻辑上的有些指的是弱的有些,因此从有些S是P无法推出有些S不是P

两个概念之间有五种关系,分别是同

一、包含、包含于、交叉、全异

AEIO之间的关系可以概括为四种:

矛盾:所有S都是P=并非有些S不是P;

所有S都不是P=并非有些S是P;

有些S是P=并非所有S都不是P;

有些S不是P=并非所有S都是P;

差等:存在同质的全称命题和特称命题之间的对应关系

反对:所有S都是P和所有S都不是P的关系;不能同时为真,但可以同时为假;如果一个为真,另一个必然为假;如果一个为假,另一个真假不定;

下反对:指的是有些S是P和有些S不是P的关系,可以同时为真,不能同时为假;一个为假则另一个必为真,但是一个为真不知另一个真假;

三、复合命题和推理

1、连言命题和推理

P并且Q:

n 合成式:P,Q 所以P且Q

n 分解式:P并且Q,所以P/Q

n 否定式:并非P,所以并非P且Q

2、选言命题和推理

相容选言命题,P或者Q的模型

n 有效推理:P或者Q,非P,所以Q;P或者Q,非Q,所以P;

P,P或者Q

n 无效推理:P或者Q,P,所以非Q,P或者Q,Q,所以非P

不相容选言命题,要么P,要么Q,二者必居之一

n 有效推理:要么P,要么Q,非P,所以Q;要么P,要么Q,非Q,所以P;

要么P,要么Q,P,所以非Q;要么P,要么Q,Q,所以非P;

n 无效推理:要么P,要么Q,P,Q;要么P,要么Q,Q,P;

要么P,要么Q,非P,非Q;要么P,要么Q,非Q,非P;

3、假言命题

充分条件假言命题:如果P,那么Q,只要P,就Q

n 只有前件真,后件假的情况下才能是假

有效推理:如果P,那么Q,P那么Q;如果P,那么Q,非Q所以非P;

n 无效推理:如果P,那么Q,非P所以非Q;如果P,那么Q,Q,那么P

n 如果P那么Q等值于“或者非P或者Q”也等于“并非(P并且非Q)”

必要条件假言命题:只有P才Q;除非P否则不Q,例如考试及格才能录取

n 只有前件假,后件真的时候情况下才是假

n 有效推理:只有P才Q,非P,所以非Q;只有P才Q,Q,所以P

n 无效推理:只有P才Q,P,所以Q;只有P才Q,非Q,所以非P

n 如果P那么Q等值于“只有Q才P”;只有P才Q等值于“如果Q那么P”也等值于“如果非P那么非Q”

充要条件假言命题,P当且仅当Q

n 有效推理:P当且仅当Q,P,所以Q;P当且仅当Q,Q,所以P;

P当且仅当Q,非P,所以非Q;P当且仅当Q,非Q,所以非P;

4、负命题

负命题是否定词在一个命题前面或者后面,并不是否定命题(否在在主谓)

n 并非所有S是P的等值于“有些S不是P”

n 并非(P并且Q)= 非P或者非Q

n 并非(P或者Q)= 非P且非Q

n 并非如果P则Q = P并且非Q

n 并非只有P才Q = 非P且Q

n 并非(P当且仅当Q)= P且非Q = 非Q且P

5、模态命题和推理

n 必然P:推出 并非必然非P;可能P;等值“并非可能非P”

n 必然非P:推出“并非必然P;可能非P;”等值“并非可能P”

n 并非可能P:推出“并非必然P;”

n 并非可能非P:推出“并非必然非P”

n 可能P:等值于“并非必然P”

n 可能非P:等值于“并非必然P”

n 不可能P:等值于“必然非P”

第四篇:GMAT逻辑“ 黑体字” 题型的总结

Bold Face Practice 1.Modern navigation systems, which are found in most of today’s commercial aircraft, are made with low-power circuitry, which is more susceptible to interference than the vacuum-tube circuitry found in older planes.(Fact)During landing, navigation systems receive radio signals from the airport to guide the plane to the runway.(Principle)

Recently, one plane with low-power circuitry veered off course during landing, its dials dimming, when a passenger turned on a laptop computer.(Evidence)Clearly, modern aircraft navigation systems are being put at risk by the electronic devices that passengers carry on board, such as cassette players and laptop computers.(Conclusion)

2.A double-blind study, in which neither the patient nor the primary researcher knows whether the patient is being given the drug being tested or a placebo, is the most effective procedure for testing the efficacy of a drug.(Principle)But we will not be able to perform such a study on this new drug, since the drug will have various effects on the patients’ bodies, which will make us aware of whether the patients are getting the drug or a placebo.(Anti-Consideration)

3.The interstitial nucleus, a sub-region of the brain’s hypothalamus, is typically smaller for male cats than for female cats.(Fact)A neurobiologist performed autopsies on male cats who died from disease X, a disease affecting no more than 0.5 percent of male cats, and found that these male cats had interstitial nuclei that were as large as those generally found in female cats.(Evidence)

Thus, the size of the interstitial nucleus determines whether or not male cats can contract disease X,(Consideration that can be drawn from the first one)but, the hypothalamus is known not to be causally linked to disease Y, and disease X is a subtype of disease Y.(Fact)4.More and more computer programs that provide solutions to mathematical problems in engineering are being produced, and it is thus increasingly unnecessary for practicing engineers to have a thorough understanding of fundamental mathematical principles.(Conclusion)Consequently, in training engineers who will work in industry, less emphasis should be placed on mathematical principles, so that space in the engineering curriculum will be available for other important subjects.(Conclusion)

5.Gasoline-powered boat engines manufactured in the a North American country prior to 1990 contribute significantly to the pollution found in the world’s oceans.(Fact)

In 1990, however, the government imposed stricter pollution controls on gasoline engines manufactured for boats, and beginning in 1995, the government imposed a program of inspections for pre-1990 boat engines with increasingly rigorous pollution standards.(Fact)

As the older boat engines fail to pass inspection, boat owners are increasingly retiring their old engines in favor of newer, less-polluting boat engines.(The evidence showed in the patten of cause and effect)As a result, the amount of pollution these older boat engines emit into the world’s oceans will steadily decrease over the next ten years.(Conclusion)

6.Plants that exhibit certain leaf diseases tend to measure extremely high in the amount of zinc in their leaf and stem tissue.(Fact or Background)Botanists have discovered that phosphorus of the type typically used in a phosphorus-high fertilizer reacts with the zinc in such a way as to prevent treated plants from exhibiting the leaf diseases, and zinc is the cause and not merely an effect of the leaf diseases.(The second evidence found by the author of passage)Thus, plants can be cured from these leaf diseases by the use of a fertilizer high in phosphorus.(Conclusion)7.To be accepted as a member at the Brown Country Club, one must have a net worth of over ten million dollars and must not have any connections to the entertainment industry.Robert Chase, the publishing magnate, has a net worth of 5 billion dollars and Chase has not financed any Hollywood movies,(The part of evidence in support of this argument)so he must be accepted as a member at the Brown Country Club.(The conclusion that could not be drawn from all evidences that the argument contains)

8.The survival of the publishing industry depends upon the existence of a public who will buy the printed word in the form of newspapers, books and magazines.(Premise)Over the past several years, however, the advance of electronic media, particularly CD-ROMs, online computer services, and the Internet, has made information available to the public electronically without the need for printed materials.(Fact)

As the availability of electronic media increases and as it is more easily accessible, the public has less need for printed materials.(The author’s evidence)So the publishing industry is threatened by the advance of the computer information age.(The author’s conclusion)

9.Something must be done to ease traffic congestion.(Conclusion)In traditional small towns, people used to work and shop in the same town in which they lived(Evidence);

but now that stores and workplaces are located far away from residential areas, people cannot avoid traveling long distances each day.(Evidence)Traffic congestion is so heavy on all roads that, even on major highways where the maximum speed limit is 55 miles per hour, the actual speed averages only 35 miles per hour.(Evidence)

So new businesses should be encouraged to locate closer to where their workers would live.(Author’s method or strategy)

10.(OG-205)Consumer advocate:

it is generally true, at least in this state, that lawyers who advertise a specific service charge less for that service than lawyers who do not advertise.(Concession)It is also true that each time restrictions on the advertising of legal services have been eliminated, the number of lawyers advertising their services has increased and legal costs to consumers have declined in consequence.(Second concession / A pattern of cause and effect that the advocates argues will not hold in the case at issue)However, eliminating the state requirement that legal advertisements must specify fees for specific services would almost certainly increase rather than further reduce consumer’s legal costs.(A certain position advocate hold)Lawyers would no longer have an incentive to lower their fees when they begin advertising and if no longer required to specify fee arrangements, many lawyers who now advertise would increase their fees.(A consideration in support of that prediction)

GWD-1-Q3: A product that represents a clear technological advance over competing products can generally command a high price.Because technological advances tend to be quickly surpassed and companies want to make large profits while they still can, many companies charge the greatest price the market will bear when they have such a product.(a consideration raised to explain the appeal of a certain strategy)

appeal: 呼籲,請求

But large profits on the new product will give competitors a strong incentive to quickly match the new product’s capabilities.(a consideration raised to call into question the wisdom of adopting that strategy)Consequently, the strategy to maximize overall profit from a new product is to charge less than the greatest possible price.(Author’s method or strategy)GWD-1-Q22&8-Q31: City Official:

At City Hospital, uninsured patients tend to have shorter stays and fewer procedures performed than do insured patients, even though insured patients, on average, have slightly less serious medical problems at the time of admission to the hospital than uninsured patients have.Critics of the hospital have concluded that the uninsured patients are more receiving proper medical care.(the position that the city official’s argument opposes)

However, this conclusion is almost certainly false.(the conclusion of the city official’s argument)

Careful investigation has recently shown two things: insured patients have much longer stays in the hospital than necessary, and they tend to have more procedures performed than are medically necessary.(Evidence)

GWD-3-Q2 Hunter:

Hunters alone are blamed for the decline in Greenrock National Forest’s deer population over the past ten years.Yet clearly, black bears have also played an important role in this decline.(the main conclusion of the argument)

In the past ten years, the forest’s protected black bear population has risen sharply, and examination of black bears found dead in the forest during the deer hunting season showed that a number of them had recently fed on deer.(Evidence)

GWD-3-Q16: Economist:

Tropicorp, which constantly seeks profitable investment opportunities, has been buying and clearing sections of tropical forest for cattle ranching, although pastures newly created there become useless for grazing after just a few years.The company has not gone into rubber tapping, even though greater profits can be made from rubber tapping, which leaves the forest intact.(supports the environmentalists’ conclusion)

Thus, some environmentalists conclude that Tropicorp has not acted wholly out of economic self-interest.(states that environmentalists’ conclusion)

However, these environmentalists are probably wrong.The initial investment required for a successful rubber-tapping operation is larger than that needed for a cattle ranch.Furthermore, there is a shortage of workers employable in rubber-tapping operations, and finally, taxes are higher on profits from rubber tapping than on profits from cattle ranching.GWD-5-Q19: Historian:

In the Drindian Empire, censuses were conducted annually to determine the population of each village.Village census records for the last half of the 1600’s are remarkably complete.(provides a context for certain evidence that supports the position that the historian seeks to establish)

This very completeness makes one point stand out;in five different years, villages overwhelmingly reported significant population declines.Tellingly, each of those five years immediately followed an increase in a certain Drindian tax.This tax, which was assessed on villages, was computed by the central government using the annual census figures.Tellingly: 有效地;顯著地

Obviously, whenever the tax went up, villages had an especially powerful economic incentive to minimize the number of people they recorded;and concealing the size of a village’s population from government census takers would have been easy.Therefore, it is reasonable to think that the reported declines did not happen.(that position)

GWD-5-Q20: Scientists typically do their most creative work before the age of forty.It is commonly thought that this happens because aging by itself brings about a loss of creative capacity.(an explanation that the argument challenges)

However, studies show that a disproportionately large number of the scientists who produce highly creative work beyond the age of forty entered their field at an older age than is usual.(a finding on which that challenge is based)

Since by the age of forty the large majority of scientists have been working in their field for at least fifteen years, the studies’ finding strongly suggests that the real reason why scientists over forty rarely produce highly creative work is not that they have simply aged but rather that they generally have spent too long in a given field.天山Q25: Scientists typically do their most creative work before the age of forty.It is commonly thought that this happens because aging by itself brings about a loss of creative capacity.(an explanation that the argument challenges)However, a study has found that almost all scientists who produce highly creative work beyond the age of forty entered their fields late and less than a dozen years before their creative breakthroughs.Since creative breakthroughs by scientists under forty also generally occur within a dozen years of the scientist’s entry into the field, the study’s finding strongly suggests that the real reason why scientists over forty rarely produce highly creative work is not due to age but rather because most have spent too long in their fields.(evidence in support of a competing explanation that the argument defends.)GWD-6-Q16: Historian:

Newton developed mathematical concepts and techniques that are fundamental to modern calculus.Leibniz developed closely analogous concepts and techniques.It has traditionally been thought that these discoveries were independent.Researchers have, however, recently discovered notes of Leibniz’ that discuss one of Newton’s books on mathematics.Several scholars have argued that since the book includes a presentation of Newton’s calculus concepts and techniques, and since the notes were written before Leibniz’ own development of calculus concepts and techniques, it is virtually certain that the traditional view is false.(evidence that has been used to support a conclusion that the historian criticizes)

A more cautious conclusion than this is called for, however.Leibniz’ notes are limited to early sections of Newton’s book, sections that precede the ones in which Newton’s calculus concepts and techniques are presented.(evidence offered in support of the historian’s own position)

GWD-7-Q18&8-Q21: Although the earliest surviving Greek inscriptions written in an alphabet date from the eighth century B.C., a strong case can be made that the Greeks actually adopted alphabetic writing at least two centuries earlier.(the position that the argument seeks to establish)

Significantly, the text of these earliest surviving Greek inscriptions sometimes runs from right to left and sometimes from left to right.(Evidence in support of the position that the argument seeks to establish)Now, the Greeks learned alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians, and in the process they would surely have adopted whatever convention the Phoenicians were then using with respect to the direction of writing.(presents an assumption on which that argument relies.)Originally, Phoenician writing ran in either direction, but by the eighth century B.C.it had been consistently written from right to left for about two centuries.GWD-9-Q30: Criminologist:

Some legislators advocate mandating a sentence of life in prison for anyone who, having twice served sentences for serious crimes, is subsequently convicted 21 of a third serious crime.These legislators argue that such a policy would reduce crime dramatically, since it would take people with a proven tendency to commit crimes off the streets permanently.(a conclusion that the argument as a whole seeks to refute)

What this reasoning overlooks, however, is that people old enough to have served two prison sentences for serious crimes rarely commit more than one subsequent crime.Filling our prisons with such individuals would have exactly the opposite of the desired effect, since it would limit our ability to incarcerate younger criminals, who commit a far greater proportion of serious crimes.(the main conclusion of the argument)

GWD-10-Q17: Editorial: An arrest made by a Midville police officer is provisional until the officer has taken the suspect to the police station and the watch commander has officially approved the arrest.Such approval is denied if the commander judges that the evidence on which the provisional arrest is based is insufficient.A government efficiency expert has found that almost all provisional arrests meet standards for adequacy of evidence that watch commanders enforce.The expert therefore recommends that the watch commander’s approval should no longer be required since the officers’ time spent obtaining approval is largely wasted.(a proposal against which the editorial is directed)This recommendation should be rejected as dangerous, however, since there is no assurance that the watch commanders’ standards will continue to be observed once approval is no longer required.(a judgment reached by the editorial concerning that proposal.)GWD-12-Q33: Several of a certain bank’s top executives have recently been purchasing shares in their own bank.(describes the circumstance the explanation of which is the issue that the argument addresses)

This activity has occasioned some surprise, since it is widely believed that the bank, carrying a large number of bad loans, is on the brink of collapse.Since the executives are well placed to know their bank’s true condition, it might seem that their share purchases show that the danger of collapse is exaggerated.However, the available information about the bank’s condition is from reliable and informed sources, and corporate executives do sometimes buy shares in their own company in a calculated attempt to calm worries about their company’s condition.On balance, therefore, it is likely that the executives of the bank are following this example.(states the main conclusion of the argument.)天山Q3: Business Consultant:

Some corporations shun the use of executive titles because they fear that the use of titles indicating position in the corporation tends to inhibit communication up and down the corporate hierarchy.(consideration that has led to the adoption of a certain strategy)Since an executive who uses a title is treated with more respect by outsiders, however, use of a title can facilitate an executive’s dealings with external businesses.(a reason against adopting that strategy)The obvious compromise is for these executives to use their corporate titles externally but not internally, since even if it is widely known that the corporation’s executives use executive titles outside their organization, this knowledge does not by itself inhibit communication within the corporation.天山Q32: Ecologist:

The Scottish Highlands were once the site of extensive forests, but these forests have mostly disappeared and been replaced by peat bogs.The common view is that the Highlands’ deforestation was caused by human activity, especially agriculture.However, agriculture began in the Highlands less than 2,000 years ago.(evidence that, in light of the evidence provided in the second, serves as grounds for the ecologist’s rejection of a certain position.)Peat bogs, which consist of compressed decayed vegetable matter, build up by only about one foot per 1,000 years and, throughout the Highlands, remains of trees in peat bogs are almost all at depths great than four feet.(the evidence)Since climate changes that occurred between 7,000 and 4,000 years ago favored the development of peat bogs rather than the survival of forests, the deforestation was more likely the result of natural processes than of human activity.8月JJ真题

A prominent investor who holds a large stake in the Burton Tool company has recently claimed that the company is mismanaged, citing as evidence the company’s failure to slow production in response to a recent rise in its inventory of finished products.(the position that the argument as a whole opposes)

It is doubtful whether an investor’s sniping at management can ever be anything other than counterproductive, but in this case it is clearly not justified.(the conclusion of the argument as a whole)It is true that an increased inventory of finished products often indicates that production is outstripping demand, but in Burton’s case it indicates no such thing.Rather, the increase in inventory is entirely attributable to products that have already been assigned to orders received from customers.

第五篇:逻辑判断--真假推理题型

逻辑判断--真假推理题型

真假推理题的考查方式比较固定,因此,相对的解题技巧比较成熟,只要考生学会了相应的技巧,并且加以练习,那么国考中的真假推理题一定可以迎刃而解。真假推理题一般在题干中给出4至5个简单命题,然后告诉考生这几个命题中只有一个命题为真,或者只有一个为假,最后问四个选项中哪个选项是正确的。

碰到此类出题形式的真假推理题,首先要做的是确定这几个命题中到底是只有一个为真,还是只有一个为假,又或是两真两假的情况。再根据这个已知信息,从几个给出的命题中找出矛盾关系。所谓矛盾关系就是两者对立,只能一真一假。找到矛盾关系之后,既可确定这已知的一真或是一假必然出现在这对矛盾关系中。于是可以判断除矛盾关系外的几个命题一定为真或者一定为假。最后根据真假信息来确定答案。

以上方法是解真假推理题的一个非常常用的技巧,接下来结合几个真题实例来详细讲解这种方法的运用。

经验分享:虽然自己在这帖子里给大家发了很多感慨,但我更想跟大家说的是自己在整个公务员考试的过程中的经验的以及自己能够成功的考上的捷径。首先就是自己的阅读速度比别人的快考试过程中的优势自然不必说,平时的学习效率才是关键,其实很多人不是真的不会做,90%的人都是时间不够用,要是给足够的时间,估计很多人能够做出大部分的题。公务员考试这种选人的方式第一就是考解决问题的能力,第二就是考思维,第三考决策力(包括轻重缓急的决策)。非常多的人输就输在时间上,我是特别注重效率的。第一,复习过程中绝对的高效率,各种资料习题都要涉及多遍;第二,答题高效率,包括读题速度和答题速度都高效。我复习过程中,阅读和背诵的能力非常强,读一份一万字的资料,一般人可能要二十分钟,我只需要两分钟左右,读的次数多,记住自然快很多。包括做题也一样,读题和读材料的速度也很快,一般一份试卷,读题的时间一般人可能要花掉二十几分钟,我统计过,我最多不超过3分钟,这样就比别人多出20几分钟,这在考试中是非常不得了的。论坛有个帖子专门介绍速读的,叫做“得速读者得行测”,我就是看了这个才接触了速读,也因为速读,才获得了笔试的好成绩。其实,不只是行测,速读对申论的帮助更大,特别是那些密密麻麻的资料,看见都让人晕倒。学了速读之后,感觉有再多的书都不怕了。而且,速读对思维和材料组织的能力都大有提高,个人总结,拥有这个技能,基本上成功一半,剩下的就是靠自己学多少的问题了。平时要多训练自己一眼看多个字的习惯,慢慢的加快速度,尽可能的培养自己这样的习惯。当然,有经济条件的同学,千万不要吝啬,花点小钱在自己的未来上是最值得的,多少年来耗了大量时间和精力,现在既然势在必得,就不要在乎这一刻。建议有条件的同学到这里用这个软件训练速读,大概30个小时就能练出比较厉害的快速阅读的能力,这是给我帮助非常大的学习技巧,极力的推荐给大家.(给做了超链接,按住键盘左下角Ctrl键,然后鼠标左键点击本行文字)

【例1】桌上有四个杯子,每个杯子都写着一句话,第一个:“所有的杯子里都有啤酒”;第二个:“本杯中有可乐”;第三杯“本杯中没有咖啡”;第四个“有些杯子中没有啤酒”。

假如只有一个为真话,那么()为真。A.所有的杯子中有啤酒 B.所有的杯子中都没有可乐 C.第三个杯子中有咖啡 D.第二个杯子中有可乐

【解析】C。拿到这样一道题,先要看题目中给出的已知信息,即“只有一个为真话”。再从题干的四句话中寻找矛盾关系:第一句话:所有的杯子里都有啤酒,第四句话:有些杯子中没有啤酒。这两句是相互矛盾的关系,也就是意味着这两句话一真一假。又因为已知信息只有一个真话,真话又在这两句矛盾关系中,因此,剩下的第二句话和第三句话一定都为假。于是将二三两句话否定之后,就成了两句真话:第二个杯子中没有可乐,第三个杯子中有咖啡。最后,查看四个选项,C选项正确。

【例2】甲、乙、丙和丁是同班同学。甲说:“我班同学都是团员。”乙说:“丁不是团员。”丙说:“我班有人不是团员。” 丁说:“乙也不是团员。”

已知只有一个人说假话,则可推出以下判定肯定是真的一项为()。A.说假话的是甲,乙不是团员 B.说假话的是乙,丙不是团员 C.说假话的是丁,乙不是团员 D.说假话的是甲,丙不是团员

【解析】A。首先看到“只有一个人说假话”,再寻找矛盾关系:甲说:“我班同学都是团员。”丙说:“我班有人不是团员。”这两个是矛盾关系,于是一定是一真一假。因此,剩下的乙和定说的话一定都是真话,也就是说班里面丁不是团员,乙也不是团员。又因为甲说班上同学都是团员,所以甲说的是假话。故这道题目最终选择A选项。

以上解题技巧的关键是找出矛盾关系,只要矛盾关系确定下来,那么就可以判断剩下的命题的真假,利用剩下命题的真假关系去确定选项的真假。

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